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Toggle 18th and 19th centuries subsection </button> <ul id="toc-18th_and_19th_centuries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Survey_and_establishment,_1796–1820" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Survey_and_establishment,_1796–1820"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Survey and establishment, 1796–1820 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Survey_and_establishment,_1796–1820-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Village_to_city,_1820–1860" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Village_to_city,_1820–1860"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Village to city, 1820–1860 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Village_to_city,_1820–1860-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Civil_War,_1861–1865" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civil_War,_1861–1865"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Civil War, 1861–1865 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civil_War,_1861–1865-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Industrial_growth,_1865–1899" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industrial_growth,_1865–1899"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Industrial growth, 1865–1899 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Industrial_growth,_1865–1899-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 20th century </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-20th_century-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle 20th century subsection </button> <ul id="toc-20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Progressive_Era,_1900–1919" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Progressive_Era,_1900–1919"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 The Progressive Era, 1900–1919 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Progressive_Era,_1900–1919-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Roaring_Twenties,_1920–1929" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Roaring_Twenties,_1920–1929"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 The Roaring Twenties, 1920–1929 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Roaring_Twenties,_1920–1929-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Great_Depression,_1929–1939" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Great_Depression,_1929–1939"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 The Great Depression, 1929–1939 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Great_Depression,_1929–1939-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_II_and_postwar,_1940–1962" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" 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centuries subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Late_20th_and_early_21st_centuries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Comeback_and_stagnation,_1980–2005" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comeback_and_stagnation,_1980–2005"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Comeback and stagnation, 1980–2005 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comeback_and_stagnation,_1980–2005-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Continued_evolution,_2006–Present" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Continued_evolution,_2006–Present"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Continued evolution, 2006–Present </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Continued_evolution,_2006–Present-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chronology_of_Cleveland_inventions_and_firsts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cleveland_1877.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Cleveland_1877.jpg/220px-Cleveland_1877.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Cleveland_1877.jpg/330px-Cleveland_1877.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Cleveland_1877.jpg/440px-Cleveland_1877.jpg 2x" data-file-width="10704" data-file-height="6544" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bird%27s-eye_view_map" class="mw-redirect" title="Bird's-eye view map">Bird's-eye view map</a> of Cleveland in 1877</figcaption></figure> The city of <a href="/wiki/Cleveland" title="Cleveland">Cleveland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ohio" title="Ohio">Ohio</a>, was founded by General <a href="/wiki/Moses_Cleaveland" title="Moses Cleaveland">Moses Cleaveland</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Connecticut_Land_Company" title="Connecticut Land Company">Connecticut Land Company</a> on July 22, 1796. Its central location on the southern shore of <a href="/wiki/Lake_Erie" title="Lake Erie">Lake Erie</a> and the mouth of the <a href="/wiki/Cuyahoga_River" title="Cuyahoga River">Cuyahoga River</a> allowed it to become a major center for <a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes" title="Great Lakes">Great Lakes</a> trade in <a href="/wiki/Northeast_Ohio" title="Northeast Ohio">northern Ohio</a> in the early 19th century. An important Northern city during the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>, Cleveland grew into a major industrial <a href="/wiki/Metropolis" title="Metropolis">metropolis</a> and a gateway for <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">European</a> and <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle Eastern</a> <a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Immigration to the United States">immigrants</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African American</a> <a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">migrants</a>, seeking jobs and opportunity. For most of the 20th century, Cleveland was one of America's largest cities, but after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, it suffered from post-war <a href="/wiki/Deindustrialization" title="Deindustrialization">deindustrialization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Suburbanization" title="Suburbanization">suburbanization</a>. The city has pursued a gradual recovery since the 1980s, becoming a major national center for healthcare and the arts by the early 21st century. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prehistory">Prehistory</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Cleveland&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Prehistory">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Ohio" title="Prehistory of Ohio">Prehistory of Ohio</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Woodland_people_fort_-_Newburgh_Township_Ohio.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Woodland_people_fort_-_Newburgh_Township_Ohio.jpg/220px-Woodland_people_fort_-_Newburgh_Township_Ohio.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Woodland_people_fort_-_Newburgh_Township_Ohio.jpg/330px-Woodland_people_fort_-_Newburgh_Township_Ohio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Woodland_people_fort_-_Newburgh_Township_Ohio.jpg/440px-Woodland_people_fort_-_Newburgh_Township_Ohio.jpg 2x" data-file-width="856" data-file-height="779" /></a><figcaption>A semi-permanent encampment of the Woodland people or the <a href="/wiki/Whittlesey_culture" title="Whittlesey culture">Whittlesey culture</a>, located about the modern intersection of Broadway Avenue and Aetna Road in Cleveland. Drawn by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Whittlesey_(geologist)" title="Charles Whittlesey (geologist)">Charles Whittlesey</a>, 1867.</figcaption></figure> At the end of the <a href="/wiki/Last_Glacial_Period" title="Last Glacial Period">Last Glacial Period</a>, which ended about 15,000 years ago at the southern edge of <a href="/wiki/Lake_Erie" title="Lake Erie">Lake Erie</a>, there was a <a href="/wiki/Tundra" title="Tundra">tundra</a> landscape.<a href="#cite_note-prehistory-1">[1]</a> It took about two and a half millennia to turn this wet and cold landscape drier and warmer, so that <a href="/wiki/Caribou" class="mw-redirect" title="Caribou">caribou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moose" title="Moose">moose</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deer" title="Deer">deer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gray_wolf" class="mw-redirect" title="Gray wolf">wolves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bear" title="Bear">bears</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cougar" title="Cougar">cougars</a> were prevalent. The oldest human, <a href="/wiki/Paleo-Indians" title="Paleo-Indians">paleo-Indian</a> traces reach back as far as 10500 BC. There was an early settlement in <a href="/wiki/Medina_County,_Ohio" title="Medina County, Ohio">Medina County</a>, dated between 9200 and 8850 BC. Some tools consisted of <a href="/wiki/Flint" title="Flint">flint</a> from <a href="/wiki/Indiana" title="Indiana">Indiana</a>. Rising temperatures at about 7500 BC led to a stable phase between 7000 and 4500 BC which had similar characteristics to today's climate. Population grew, and these members of the so-called <a href="/wiki/Early_Archaic_(North_America)" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Archaic (North America)">Early Archaic Culture</a> lived in large families along the rivers and the shores of the lakes. During the warm seasons they met for hunting and gathering. The technology of tools improved but flint was still an important resource in that regard. Important archaeological sites are old Lake Abraham bog as well as sites on Big Creek, Cahoon, Mill and Tinker's Creek. There was a larger settlement where Hilliard Boulevard crosses the <a href="/wiki/Rocky_River_(Ohio)" title="Rocky River (Ohio)">Rocky River</a>. Population density further increased during the Middle Archaic period (4500-2000 BC). Ground and polished stone tools and ornaments, and a variety of specialized chipped-stone notched points and knives, scrapers and drills were found on sites at <a href="/wiki/Cuyahoga_River" title="Cuyahoga River">Cuyahoga</a>, Rocky River, Chippewa Creek, <a href="/wiki/Tinkers_Creek_(Cuyahoga_River_tributary)" title="Tinkers Creek (Cuyahoga River tributary)">Tinker's</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Griswold_Creek" title="Griswold Creek">Griswold Creek</a>. The Late Archaic period (2000 to 500 BC) coincided with a much warmer climate than today. For the first time evidence for regionally specific territories occurs, as well as limited gardening of squash, which later became very important. A long-distance trade of raw materials and finished artifacts with coastal areas, objects which were used in ceremonies and burials. The largest graveyard known is at the junction of the East and West branches of the Rocky River. Differences in status are revealed by the objects which accompanied the dead, like zoo- and anthropomorphic objects or <a href="/wiki/Atlatl" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlatl">atlatls</a>. The following Early <a href="/wiki/Woodland_period" title="Woodland period">Woodland</a> (500 BC – AD 100) and Middle Woodland (AD 100 – 700) is a period of increased ceremonial exchange and sophisticated rituals. Crude but elaborately decorated pottery appears. Squash becomes more important, maize occurs for ritual procedures. The first Mounds were erected, buildings for which Ohio is world-famous. The mound at Eagle St. Cemetery belongs to the <a href="/wiki/Adena_culture" title="Adena culture">Adena culture</a>. Further mounds were found in the east of Tinker's Creek. Horticulture becomes even more important, the same with maize. The huge mounds concentrate much more in <a href="/wiki/Appalachian_Ohio" title="Appalachian Ohio">southern Ohio</a>, but they were also found in northern <a href="/wiki/Summit_County,_Ohio" title="Summit County, Ohio">Summit County</a>. Some <a href="/wiki/Hopewell_tradition" title="Hopewell tradition">Hopewellian</a> projectile points, flint-blade knives, and ceramics were found in the area of Cleveland itself. One mound, south of Brecksville, contained a cache of trade goods within a 6-sided stone crypt. A smaller mound between <a href="/wiki/Willowick,_Ohio" title="Willowick, Ohio">Willowick</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastlake,_Ohio" title="Eastlake, Ohio">Eastlake</a> contained several ceremonial spear points of chert from Illinois - altogether signs of a wide range of trade. At Cleveland's W. 54th St. Division waterworks there was probably a mound and a <a href="/wiki/Hopewell_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Hopewell culture">Hopewellian</a> spear tip was found there.<a href="#cite_note-prehistory-1">[1]</a> After AD 400 <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a> dominated. Mounds were built no more, but the number of different groups increased, with winter villages at the <a href="/wiki/Cuyahoga_River" title="Cuyahoga River">Cuyahoga</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rocky_River_(Ohio)" title="Rocky River (Ohio)">Rocky</a> and Lower <a href="/wiki/Chagrin_River" title="Chagrin River">Chagrin Rivers</a>. Small, circular houses contained one or two fire hearths and storage pits. Tools and ornaments made of antler and bone were found. During the spring, people lived camps along the lakeshore ridges, along ponds and bogs, or headwaters of creeks, where they collected plants and fished. Between AD 1000 and 1200 oval houses with single-post constructions dominated the summer villages, the emphasis on burial ceremony declined, but became more personal and consisted of ornaments, or personal tools. From 1200 to 1600 Meso-American influence mediated by the <a href="/wiki/Mississippian_culture" title="Mississippian culture">Mississippian culture</a> could be traced, in Cleveland in new ceramic and house styles, new crops (<a href="/wiki/Common_beans" class="mw-redirect" title="Common beans">common beans</a>), and the presence of materials traded from southern centers. This influence was even stronger within the Fr. Ancient group, probably ancestors of later <a href="/wiki/Shawnee" title="Shawnee">Shawnees</a>. At this time, there was an obvious difference in archaeological findings from the areas of <a href="/wiki/Black_River_(Ohio)" title="Black River (Ohio)">Black River</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sandusky_River" title="Sandusky River">Sandusky River</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lake_Erie_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Lake Erie Islands">Lake Erie Islands</a> westwards on the one hand and <a href="/wiki/Greater_Cleveland" title="Greater Cleveland">Greater Cleveland</a> eastwards on the other. Between 1300 and 1500 agriculture became predominant, especially <a href="/wiki/Beans" class="mw-redirect" title="Beans">beans</a> and new varieties of maize. Larger villages were inhabited in summer and fall. Small camps diminished and the villages became larger as well as the houses, which became rectangular. Some of the villages became real fortresses. During the later <a href="/wiki/Whittlesey_culture" title="Whittlesey culture">Whittlesey Tradition</a> burial grounds were placed outside the villages, but still close to them. These villages were in use all year round. The final Whittlesey Tradition, beginning at about 1500, shows long-houses, fortified villages, and sweat lodges can be traced. But the villages in and around Cleveland reported by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Whittlesey_(geologist)" title="Charles Whittlesey (geologist)">Charles Whittlesey</a>, are gone. It was likely a warlike time, as the villages were even more strongly fortified than before. Cases of traumatic injury, nutritional deficiency, and disease were also found. It is obvious that the population declined until about 1640. One reason is probably the <a href="/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age">little ice-age</a> beginning at about 1500. The other reason is probably permanent warfare. It seems that the region of Cleveland was uninhabited between 1640 and 1740.<a href="#cite_note-prehistory-1">[1]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="18th_and_19th_centuries">18th and 19th centuries</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Cleveland&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: 18th and 19th centuries">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Survey_and_establishment,_1796–1820">Survey and establishment, 1796–1820</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Cleveland&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Survey and establishment, 1796–1820">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gen._Moses_Cleaveland_by_James_G._C._Hamilton_-_DSC07989.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Gen._Moses_Cleaveland_by_James_G._C._Hamilton_-_DSC07989.JPG/170px-Gen._Moses_Cleaveland_by_James_G._C._Hamilton_-_DSC07989.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Gen._Moses_Cleaveland_by_James_G._C._Hamilton_-_DSC07989.JPG/255px-Gen._Moses_Cleaveland_by_James_G._C._Hamilton_-_DSC07989.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Gen._Moses_Cleaveland_by_James_G._C._Hamilton_-_DSC07989.JPG/340px-Gen._Moses_Cleaveland_by_James_G._C._Hamilton_-_DSC07989.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3240" data-file-height="4320" /></a><figcaption>Moses Cleaveland statue on <a href="/wiki/Public_Square,_Cleveland" title="Public Square, Cleveland">Public Square</a></figcaption></figure> As one of thirty-six founders of the <a href="/wiki/Connecticut_Land_Company" title="Connecticut Land Company">Connecticut Land Company</a>, General <a href="/wiki/Moses_Cleaveland" title="Moses Cleaveland">Moses Cleaveland</a> was selected as one of its seven directors and was subsequently sent out as the company's agent to map and survey the company's holdings. On July 22, 1796, Cleaveland and his surveyors arrived at the mouth of the <a href="/wiki/Cuyahoga_River" title="Cuyahoga River">Cuyahoga River</a>. Cleaveland quickly saw the land, which had previously belonged to <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a>, as an ideal location for the "capital city" of the <a href="/wiki/Connecticut_Western_Reserve" title="Connecticut Western Reserve">Connecticut Western Reserve</a>. Cleaveland and his surveyors quickly began making plans for the new city. He paced out a nine-and-a-half-acre <a href="/wiki/Public_Square,_Cleveland" title="Public Square, Cleveland">Public Square</a>, similar to those in <a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a>. His surveyors decided upon the name, Cleaveland, after their leader. In October, Cleaveland returned to Connecticut where he pursued his ambition in political, military, and law affairs, never once returning to Ohio.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> The town's name was often shortened to "Cleveland," even by Cleaveland's original surveyors. A common myth emerged that the spelling was altered by The Cleveland Advertiser in order to fit the name on the newspaper's <a href="/wiki/Nameplate_(publishing)" title="Nameplate (publishing)">masthead</a>.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Schoolteachers Job Phelps Stiles (born c. 1769 in <a href="/wiki/Granville,_Massachusetts" title="Granville, Massachusetts">Granville, Massachusetts</a>) and his wife Talitha Cumi Elderkin (born 1779 in <a href="/wiki/Hartford,_Connecticut" title="Hartford, Connecticut">Hartford, Connecticut</a>) were two of only three original settlers who stayed there over the first winter of 1796–1797 when, attended by <a href="/wiki/Seneca_people" title="Seneca people">Seneca</a> Native American women, Talitha Cumi gave birth to Charles Phelps Stiles, the first white child born in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Reserve" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Reserve">Western Reserve</a>. They lived at first on Lot 53, the present corner of <a href="/wiki/Superior_Avenue" title="Superior Avenue">Superior Avenue</a> and West 3rd Street adjacent to the future <a href="/wiki/Terminal_Tower" title="Terminal Tower">Terminal Tower</a>, but later moved southeast to higher ground in <a href="/wiki/Broadway%E2%80%93Slavic_Village" title="Broadway–Slavic Village">Newburgh, Ohio</a> to escape malarial conditions in the lower <a href="/wiki/Cuyahoga_Valley,_Cleveland" title="Cuyahoga Valley, Cleveland">Cuyahoga Valley</a>.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> The first permanent European settler in Cleaveland was <a href="/wiki/Lorenzo_Carter_(settler)" title="Lorenzo Carter (settler)">Lorenzo Carter</a>, who built a large log cabin on the banks of the Cuyahoga River.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> Though not initially apparent — the settlement was adjacent to swampy lowlands and the harsh winters did not encourage settlement — Cleaveland's location ultimately proved providential. It was for that reason that Cleaveland was selected as the seat of <a href="/wiki/Cuyahoga_County,_Ohio" title="Cuyahoga County, Ohio">Cuyahoga County</a> in 1809, despite protests from nearby rival Newburgh.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Cleaveland's location also made it an important supply post for the U.S. during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Erie" title="Battle of Lake Erie">Battle of Lake Erie</a> in the <a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a>.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Locals adopted Commodore <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Hazard_Perry" title="Oliver Hazard Perry">Oliver Hazard Perry</a> as a civic hero and erected a <a href="/wiki/Perry_Monument_(Cleveland)" title="Perry Monument (Cleveland)">monument in his honor</a> decades later.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> Largely through the efforts of the settlement's first lawyer <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Kelley" title="Alfred Kelley">Alfred Kelley</a>,<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> the village of Cleaveland was incorporated on December 23, 1814.<a href="#cite_note-timeline-14">[14]</a> In the municipal first elections on June 5, 1815, Kelley was unanimously elected the first president of the village.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> He held that position for only a few months, resigning on March 19, 1816.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Village_to_city,_1820–1860">Village to city, 1820–1860</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Cleveland&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Village to city, 1820–1860">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Western_Reserve_Including_the_Fire_Lands_1826.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Western_Reserve_Including_the_Fire_Lands_1826.jpg/200px-Western_Reserve_Including_the_Fire_Lands_1826.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Western_Reserve_Including_the_Fire_Lands_1826.jpg/300px-Western_Reserve_Including_the_Fire_Lands_1826.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Western_Reserve_Including_the_Fire_Lands_1826.jpg/400px-Western_Reserve_Including_the_Fire_Lands_1826.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6112" data-file-height="4656" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Map of the Connecticut Western Reserve in 1826</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Cleveland-old-photo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Cleveland-old-photo.jpg/200px-Cleveland-old-photo.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Cleveland-old-photo.jpg/300px-Cleveland-old-photo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Cleveland-old-photo.jpg/400px-Cleveland-old-photo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="282" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">The earliest known photograph of Cleveland's Public Square, 1857</div></div></div></div></div> Cleveland began to grow rapidly after the completion of the <a href="/wiki/Ohio_and_Erie_Canal" title="Ohio and Erie Canal">Ohio and Erie Canal</a> in 1832, turning the village into a key link between the <a href="/wiki/Ohio_River" title="Ohio River">Ohio River</a> and the Great Lakes, particularly once the city <a href="/wiki/Rail_transport" title="Rail transport">railroad</a> links were added. In 1822, a young, charismatic <a href="/wiki/New_Hampshire" title="New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a> lawyer, <a href="/wiki/John_W._Willey" title="John W. Willey">John W. Willey</a>, arrived in Cleveland and quickly established himself in the growing village. He became a popular figure in local politics and wrote the Municipal Charter as well as several of the original laws and ordinances. Willey oversaw Cleveland's official incorporation as a city in 1836 and was elected the town's first official <a href="/wiki/Mayor_of_Cleveland" title="Mayor of Cleveland">mayor</a> for two terms.<a href="#cite_note-willey-17">[17]</a> With <a href="/wiki/James_Clark_(investor)" class="mw-redirect" title="James Clark (investor)">James Clark</a> and others, Willey bought a section of the <a href="/wiki/The_Flats" title="The Flats">Flats</a> with plans to develop it into Cleveland Centre, a mixed residential and commercial district. Willey then purchased a piece of land from the southeast section of <a href="/wiki/Ohio_City,_Cleveland" title="Ohio City, Cleveland">Ohio City</a> across from Columbus Street in Cleveland. Willey named the new territory Willeyville and subsequently built a bridge connecting the two parts, calling it Columbus Street Bridge. The bridge siphoned off commercial traffic to Cleveland before it could reach Ohio City's mercantile district.<a href="#cite_note-willey-17">[17]</a> These actions aggravated citizens of Ohio City, and brought to the surface a fierce rivalry between the small town and Cleveland.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> Ohio City citizens rallied for "Two Bridges or None!".<a href="#cite_note-bridge-19">[19]</a> In October 1836, they violently sought to stop the use of Cleveland's new bridge by bombing the western end of it. However, the explosion caused little damage. A group of 1,000 Ohio City volunteers began digging deep ditches at both ends of the bridge, making it impossible for horses and wagons to reach the structure. Some citizens were still unsatisfied with this and took to using guns, crowbars, axes, and other weapons to finish off the bridge. They were then met by Willey and a group of armed Cleveland militiamen. A battle ensued on the bridge, with two men seriously wounded before the county sheriff arrived to stop the conflict and make arrests. The confrontation could have escalated into all out war between Cleveland and Ohio City, but was avoided by a court injunction.<a href="#cite_note-bridge-19">[19]</a> The two cities eventually made amends, and Ohio City was <a href="/wiki/Municipal_annexation_in_the_United_States" title="Municipal annexation in the United States">annexed</a> by Cleveland in 1854.<a href="#cite_note-bridge-19">[19]</a> The Columbus bridge became an important asset for Cleveland, permitting produce to enter the city from the surrounding hinterlands and allowing it to build its mercantile base. This was greatly increased with the coming of the Ohio and Erie Canal which realized the city's potential as a major Great Lakes port. Later, the growing town flourished as a halfway point for <a href="/wiki/Iron_ore" title="Iron ore">iron ore</a> coming from <a href="/wiki/Minnesota" title="Minnesota">Minnesota</a> across the Great Lakes and for <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a> and other raw materials coming by rail from the south. It was in this period that Cleveland saw its first significant influx of immigrants, particularly from <a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(1801%E2%80%931923)" title="History of Ireland (1801–1923)">Ireland</a> and the <a href="/wiki/German_Confederation" title="German Confederation">German states</a>.<a href="#cite_note-immigrants-20">[20]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Civil_War,_1861–1865">Civil War, 1861–1865</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Cleveland&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Civil War, 1861–1865">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Cleveland in the American Civil War">Cleveland in the American Civil War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Civilwar-cleveland.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Civilwar-cleveland.jpg/220px-Civilwar-cleveland.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Civilwar-cleveland.jpg/330px-Civilwar-cleveland.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Civilwar-cleveland.jpg/440px-Civilwar-cleveland.jpg 2x" data-file-width="611" data-file-height="476" /></a><figcaption>Cleveland veterans of the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a> at Public Square, 1865</figcaption></figure> Strongly influenced by its New England roots, Cleveland was home to a vocal group of <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">abolitionists</a> who viewed <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">slavery</a> as a moral evil.<a href="#cite_note-abolitionism-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Code-named "Station Hope", the city was a major stop on the <a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a> for escaped <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African American</a> slaves en route to <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> However, not all Clevelanders opposed slavery outright and views on the slaveholding <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">South</a> varied based on political affiliation.<a href="#cite_note-civilwar-24">[24]</a> Nevertheless, as <a href="/wiki/Bertram_Wyatt-Brown" title="Bertram Wyatt-Brown">Bertram Wyatt-Brown</a> noted, the city's "record of sympathy and help for the black man's plight in America matched, if not exceeded, that of any other metropolitan center in North America, with the exception, perhaps, of <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a> and <a href="/wiki/Toronto" title="Toronto">Toronto</a>."<a href="#cite_note-abolitionism-21">[21]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/1860_United_States_presidential_election" title="1860 United States presidential election">1860 presidential election</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> won 58% of the vote in 9 of Cleveland's 11 wards.<a href="#cite_note-civilwar-24">[24]</a> In February 1861, the president-elect visited Cleveland on his way from <a href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</a> to his <a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="First inauguration of Abraham Lincoln">inauguration</a> in <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington</a> and was greeted by a massive reception.<a href="#cite_note-lincoln-25">[25]</a> However, as the <a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Origins of the American Civil War">war loomed closer</a>, the partisan rhetoric of Cleveland newspapers became more and more heated. The pro-<a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a> Cleveland Herald and Gazette celebrated Lincoln's victory "as one of right over wrong, of Unionists over secession-minded southern Democrats," while another Republican paper, <a href="/wiki/The_Cleveland_Leader" title="The Cleveland Leader">The Cleveland Leader</a> dismissed threats of Southern secession. By contrast, the pro-<a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Plain_Dealer" title="The Plain Dealer">Plain Dealer</a> argued that Lincoln's election would mean the imminent secession of the South. When the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a> finally erupted in April 1861, Cleveland Republicans and <a href="/wiki/War_Democrat" title="War Democrat">War Democrats</a> decided to temporarily put aside their differences and unite as the Union party in support of the war effort against the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederacy</a>. However, this uneasy coalition in support of the <a href="/wiki/Union_(American_Civil_War)" title="Union (American Civil War)">Union</a> did not go untested.<a href="#cite_note-civilwar-24">[24]</a> The Civil War years brought an economic boom to Cleveland. The city was making the transition from a small town into an industrial giant. Local industries manufactured railroad iron, gun carriages, gun carriage axles, and gun powder. In 1863, "22% of all ships built for use on the Great Lakes were built in Cleveland," a figure that jumped to 44% by 1865.<a href="#cite_note-civilwar-24">[24]</a> By 1865, Cleveland's banks "held $2.25 million in capital and $3.7 million in deposits."<a href="#cite_note-civilwar-24">[24]</a> When the war ended, the city welcomed home its returning troops by treating them to a meal and welcoming ceremony at Public Square.<a href="#cite_note-civilwar-24">[24]</a> Decades later, in July 1894, those Clevelanders serving the <a href="/wiki/Union_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Union Army">Union Army</a> would be honored with the opening of the <a href="/wiki/Soldiers%27_and_Sailors%27_Monument_(Cleveland)" title="Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument (Cleveland)">Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument</a>.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> After <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Assassination of Abraham Lincoln">Lincoln's assassination in 1865</a>, his casket passed through Cleveland as thousands of onlookers observed the procession.<a href="#cite_note-lincoln-25">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Industrial_growth,_1865–1899">Industrial growth, 1865–1899</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Cleveland&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Industrial growth, 1865–1899">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prospect_Avenue_1875_CP06657_-_DPLA_-_40ce68a13ca3ad4d75a1461b1ed2f345.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Prospect_Avenue_1875_CP06657_-_DPLA_-_40ce68a13ca3ad4d75a1461b1ed2f345.jpg/170px-Prospect_Avenue_1875_CP06657_-_DPLA_-_40ce68a13ca3ad4d75a1461b1ed2f345.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Prospect_Avenue_1875_CP06657_-_DPLA_-_40ce68a13ca3ad4d75a1461b1ed2f345.jpg/255px-Prospect_Avenue_1875_CP06657_-_DPLA_-_40ce68a13ca3ad4d75a1461b1ed2f345.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Prospect_Avenue_1875_CP06657_-_DPLA_-_40ce68a13ca3ad4d75a1461b1ed2f345.jpg/340px-Prospect_Avenue_1875_CP06657_-_DPLA_-_40ce68a13ca3ad4d75a1461b1ed2f345.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2952" data-file-height="3524" /></a><figcaption>Prospect Avenue, 1875</figcaption></figure> The Civil War vaulted Cleveland into the first rank of American <a href="/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">manufacturing</a> cities and fueled unprecedented growth. It became home to numerous major <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a> production firms and, in 1883, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Mather" title="Samuel Mather">Samuel Mather</a> co-founded <a href="/wiki/Pickands_Mather_and_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Pickands Mather and Company">Pickands Mather and Company</a> in the city, specializing in shipping and iron mining.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> Cleveland also became one of the five main <a href="/wiki/Oil_refinery" title="Oil refinery">oil refining</a> centers in the U.S. In 1870, <a href="/wiki/Standard_Oil" title="Standard Oil">Standard Oil</a> began as a partnership based in Cleveland, between <a href="/wiki/John_D._Rockefeller" title="John D. Rockefeller">John D. Rockefeller</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Rockefeller" class="mw-redirect" title="William Rockefeller">William Rockefeller</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_M._Flagler" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry M. Flagler">Henry M. Flagler</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Andrews_(chemist)" title="Samuel Andrews (chemist)">Samuel Andrews</a>.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> Many mansions were built along the city's more prominent streets, such as the <a href="/wiki/Southworth_House_(Cleveland,_Ohio)" title="Southworth House (Cleveland, Ohio)">Southworth House</a> along Prospect Avenue, and those on Millionaire's Row, on <a href="/wiki/Euclid_Avenue_(Cleveland)" title="Euclid Avenue (Cleveland)">Euclid Avenue</a>.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> Along with the <a href="/wiki/Economic_expansion" title="Economic expansion">economic boom</a>, Cleveland's immigrant population continued to grow. By 1870, the city's population had shot up to 92,829, more than doubling its 1860 population of 43,417, with a foreign-born population of 42%.<a href="#cite_note-foreign-pop-32">[32]</a> In addition to the <a href="/wiki/Irish_Americans" title="Irish Americans">Irish</a> and the <a href="/wiki/German_Americans" title="German Americans">Germans</a>, mass numbers of new immigrants, particularly from <a href="/wiki/Southern_Europe" title="Southern Europe">Southern</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a>, came to the city, attracted by the prospect of jobs and the promise of a better future in America.<a href="#cite_note-immigrants-20">[20]</a> By 1890, the year when the <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Arcade" title="Cleveland Arcade">Cleveland Arcade</a> was opened to the public, Cleveland had become the nation's 10th largest city, with a population of 261,353.<a href="#cite_note-largest-US-cities-33">[33]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a> urban growth fostered the need for efficient police and fire protection, decent housing, public education, sanitation and health services, transportation, and better roads and streets. Industrial growth was also accompanied by significant <a href="/wiki/Strike_action" title="Strike action">strikes</a> and labor unrest, as workers demanded better working conditions. In 1881–86, 70-80% of strikes were successful in improving labor conditions in Cleveland.<a href="#cite_note-labor-34">[34]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Streetcar_strikes_in_the_United_States" title="Streetcar strikes in the United States">Cleveland Streetcar Strike of 1899</a> was one of the more violent instances of labor unrest in the city during this period.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> Politically, the Republicans became the dominant political party in postbellum Cleveland. The main architect of this development was industrialist <a href="/wiki/Mark_Hanna" title="Mark Hanna">Mark Hanna</a>, who entered politics when he was elected to the <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Metropolitan_School_District" title="Cleveland Metropolitan School District">Cleveland Board of Education</a> around 1869 and became a <a href="/wiki/Political_boss" title="Political boss">political boss</a>.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Hanna was eventually challenged by Republican <a href="/wiki/Robert_E._McKisson" title="Robert E. McKisson">Robert E. McKisson</a>, who became mayor in 1895 and launched the construction of a new city water and sewer system. Vehemently anti-Hanna, McKisson created a powerful <a href="/wiki/Political_machine" title="Political machine">political machine</a> to vie for control of the local Republican party.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> He padded the payroll with his political cronies, expanded the activities of government, and called for city ownership of all utilities. After serving two terms, he was soundly defeated by an alliance of Democrats and Hanna Republicans.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="20th_century">20th century</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Cleveland&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: 20th century">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Progressive_Era,_1900–1919">The Progressive Era, 1900–1919</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Cleveland&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: The Progressive Era, 1900–1919">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti" /><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:229px;max-width:229px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:227px;max-width:227px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Tomljohnson.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Tomljohnson.jpg/225px-Tomljohnson.jpg" decoding="async" width="225" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Tomljohnson.jpg/338px-Tomljohnson.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Tomljohnson.jpg/450px-Tomljohnson.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="281" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Cleveland mayor <a href="/wiki/Tom_L._Johnson" title="Tom L. Johnson">Tom L. Johnson</a> addressing an outdoor meeting, 1908</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:227px;max-width:227px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Woman_suffrage_headquarters_in_Upper_Euclid_Avenue,_Cleveland.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Woman_suffrage_headquarters_in_Upper_Euclid_Avenue%2C_Cleveland.jpg/225px-Woman_suffrage_headquarters_in_Upper_Euclid_Avenue%2C_Cleveland.jpg" decoding="async" width="225" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Woman_suffrage_headquarters_in_Upper_Euclid_Avenue%2C_Cleveland.jpg/338px-Woman_suffrage_headquarters_in_Upper_Euclid_Avenue%2C_Cleveland.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Woman_suffrage_headquarters_in_Upper_Euclid_Avenue%2C_Cleveland.jpg/450px-Woman_suffrage_headquarters_in_Upper_Euclid_Avenue%2C_Cleveland.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5704" data-file-height="4032" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Belle_Sherwin" title="Belle Sherwin">Belle Sherwin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Florence_Ellinwood_Allen" class="mw-redirect" title="Florence Ellinwood Allen">Florence E. Allen</a> at <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">Woman suffrage headquarters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Euclid_Avenue_(Cleveland)" title="Euclid Avenue (Cleveland)">Upper Euclid Avenue</a>, Cleveland, 1912</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:227px;max-width:227px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Cleveland_Annexation_Map_4-Color_Final.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Cleveland_Annexation_Map_4-Color_Final.png/225px-Cleveland_Annexation_Map_4-Color_Final.png" decoding="async" width="225" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Cleveland_Annexation_Map_4-Color_Final.png/338px-Cleveland_Annexation_Map_4-Color_Final.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Cleveland_Annexation_Map_4-Color_Final.png/450px-Cleveland_Annexation_Map_4-Color_Final.png 2x" data-file-width="2708" data-file-height="2188" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Map of Territorial Changes to the City of Cleveland</div></div></div></div></div> Early in the 20th century, Cleveland was a city on the rise and was known as the "Sixth City" due to its position as the sixth largest U.S. city at the time.<a href="#cite_note-NYT_1919-39">[39]</a> Its businesses included automotive companies such as <a href="/wiki/Peerless_Motor_Company" title="Peerless Motor Company">Peerless</a>, People's, <a href="/wiki/Jordan_Motor_Car_Company" title="Jordan Motor Car Company">Jordan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chandler_Motor_Car" title="Chandler Motor Car">Chandler</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Winton_Motor_Carriage_Company" title="Winton Motor Carriage Company">Winton</a>, maker of the first car driven across the U.S. Other manufacturers in Cleveland produced <a href="/wiki/Steam_car" title="Steam car">steam-powered</a> cars, which included those by <a href="/wiki/White_Motor_Company" title="White Motor Company">White</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gaeth" title="Gaeth">Gaeth</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Electric_car" title="Electric car">electric cars</a> produced by <a href="/wiki/Baker_Motor_Vehicle" title="Baker Motor Vehicle">Baker</a>.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> The city's population also continued to grow. Alongside new immigrants, African American migrants from the rural South arrived in Cleveland (among other Northeastern and Midwestern cities) as part of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a> for jobs, constitutional rights, and relief from <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">racial discrimination</a>.<a href="#cite_note-african-americans-41">[41]</a> However, it was clear that the city's government needed major reform. After a succession of Hanna Republicans and McKisson's corrupt political machine, Cleveland voted for change, putting progressive Democrat <a href="/wiki/Tom_L._Johnson" title="Tom L. Johnson">Tom L. Johnson</a> into the mayor's office in 1901.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Johnson led reforms for "<a href="/wiki/Devolution" title="Devolution">home rule</a>, three-cent fare, and <a href="/wiki/Georgism" title="Georgism">just taxation</a>". He initiated the <a href="/wiki/Group_Plan" class="mw-redirect" title="Group Plan">Group Plan</a> of 1903 as well as the <a href="/wiki/The_Mall_(Cleveland)" title="The Mall (Cleveland)">Mall</a>, the earliest and most complete civic-center plan for a major city outside of <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> Together with cabinet members <a href="/wiki/Newton_Baker" class="mw-redirect" title="Newton Baker">Newton D. Baker</a> and Harris R. Cooley, Johnson also worked to professionalize city hall.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> Johnson's progressive associate Newton Baker was elected mayor in 1911. An advocate of municipal home rule, Baker helped write the Ohio constitutional amendment of 1912 granting municipalities the right of self-governance.<a href="#cite_note-baker-45">[45]</a> He played a prominent role in Cleveland's first home rule charter, which passed in 1913. In 1913 he went to Washington as <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a>'s <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_War" title="United States Secretary of War">Secretary of War</a>. He subsequently returned to practicing law in Cleveland and became the founder of the <a href="/wiki/Law_firm" title="Law firm">law firm</a> Baker, Hostetler & Sidlo (today <a href="/wiki/BakerHostetler" title="BakerHostetler">BakerHostetler</a>).<a href="#cite_note-baker-45">[45]</a> The spirit of the <a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</a> had a lasting impact on Cleveland. The era of the <a href="/wiki/City_Beautiful_movement" title="City Beautiful movement">City Beautiful movement</a> in Cleveland architecture, the period saw wealthy patrons support the establishment of the city's major cultural institutions. The most prominent among them were the <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Museum_of_Art" title="Cleveland Museum of Art">Cleveland Museum of Art</a> (CMA), which opened in 1916, and the <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Orchestra" title="Cleveland Orchestra">Cleveland Orchestra</a>, established in 1918.<a href="#cite_note-CMA-history-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> From its formation, the CMA offered admission free to the public "for the benefit of all the people forever."<a href="#cite_note-CMA-history-46">[46]</a> Baker was succeeded as mayor by <a href="/wiki/Harry_L._Davis" title="Harry L. Davis">Harry L. Davis</a>. Davis established the Mayor's Advisory War Committee, formed in 1917 to assist with aiding the American effort in <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>.<a href="#cite_note-davis-48">[48]</a> After the war ended in 1918, the nation became gripped by the <a href="/wiki/First_Red_Scare" title="First Red Scare">First Red Scare</a> in the aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">Bolshevik Revolution</a> in <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>. The local branch of the Cleveland <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Party_of_America" title="Socialist Party of America">Socialists</a>, led by <a href="/wiki/C._E._Ruthenberg" title="C. E. Ruthenberg">Charles Ruthenberg</a>, together with the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Workers_of_the_World" title="Industrial Workers of the World">Industrial Workers of the World</a> (IWW), demanded better working conditions for the largely immigrant and migrant workers. Tensions eventually exploded in the violent <a href="/wiki/May_Day_riots_of_1919" title="May Day riots of 1919">Cleveland May Day Riots of 1919</a>, in which socialist and IWW demonstrators clashed with anti-socialists.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> The home of Mayor Davis was also <a href="/wiki/1919_United_States_anarchist_bombings" title="1919 United States anarchist bombings">bombed</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Italy" title="Anarchism in Italy">Italian anarchist</a> <a href="/wiki/Galleanists" class="mw-redirect" title="Galleanists">followers</a> of <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Galleani" title="Luigi Galleani">Luigi Galleani</a>. In response, Davis campaigned for the expulsion of all "<a href="/wiki/Bolsheviks" title="Bolsheviks">Bolsheviks</a>" from America.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> Faced with the issue of the riots and his own ambitions to become governor of Ohio, Davis resigned in May 1920. He would later serve as a mayor again in 1933.<a href="#cite_note-davis-48">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Roaring_Twenties,_1920–1929">The Roaring Twenties, 1920–1929</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Cleveland&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: The Roaring Twenties, 1920–1929">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti" /><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:209px;max-width:209px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:207px;max-width:207px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Downtown_Cleveland,_Ohio._Euclid_Ave-_Euclid_Arcade_-_DPLA_-_4d44c9aeef28c44966267b48a67b8544.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Downtown_Cleveland%2C_Ohio._Euclid_Ave-_Euclid_Arcade_-_DPLA_-_4d44c9aeef28c44966267b48a67b8544.jpg/205px-Downtown_Cleveland%2C_Ohio._Euclid_Ave-_Euclid_Arcade_-_DPLA_-_4d44c9aeef28c44966267b48a67b8544.jpg" decoding="async" width="205" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Downtown_Cleveland%2C_Ohio._Euclid_Ave-_Euclid_Arcade_-_DPLA_-_4d44c9aeef28c44966267b48a67b8544.jpg/308px-Downtown_Cleveland%2C_Ohio._Euclid_Ave-_Euclid_Arcade_-_DPLA_-_4d44c9aeef28c44966267b48a67b8544.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Downtown_Cleveland%2C_Ohio._Euclid_Ave-_Euclid_Arcade_-_DPLA_-_4d44c9aeef28c44966267b48a67b8544.jpg/410px-Downtown_Cleveland%2C_Ohio._Euclid_Ave-_Euclid_Arcade_-_DPLA_-_4d44c9aeef28c44966267b48a67b8544.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2815" data-file-height="2235" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Euclid Avenue in 1920</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:207px;max-width:207px"><div class="thumbimage"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Aerial_footage_of_Cleveland%2C_Ohio_%281924%29_from_the_Hagley_Library.webm/205px--Aerial_footage_of_Cleveland%2C_Ohio_%281924%29_from_the_Hagley_Library.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="205" height="154" data-durationhint="65" data-mwtitle="Aerial_footage_of_Cleveland,_Ohio_(1924)_from_the_Hagley_Library.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Aerial_footage_of_Cleveland%2C_Ohio_%281924%29_from_the_Hagley_Library.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-width="960" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/3a/Aerial_footage_of_Cleveland%2C_Ohio_%281924%29_from_the_Hagley_Library.webm/Aerial_footage_of_Cleveland%2C_Ohio_%281924%29_from_the_Hagley_Library.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/3a/Aerial_footage_of_Cleveland%2C_Ohio_%281924%29_from_the_Hagley_Library.webm/Aerial_footage_of_Cleveland%2C_Ohio_%281924%29_from_the_Hagley_Library.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="960" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/3a/Aerial_footage_of_Cleveland%2C_Ohio_%281924%29_from_the_Hagley_Library.webm/Aerial_footage_of_Cleveland%2C_Ohio_%281924%29_from_the_Hagley_Library.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="192" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/3a/Aerial_footage_of_Cleveland%2C_Ohio_%281924%29_from_the_Hagley_Library.webm/Aerial_footage_of_Cleveland%2C_Ohio_%281924%29_from_the_Hagley_Library.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/3a/Aerial_footage_of_Cleveland%2C_Ohio_%281924%29_from_the_Hagley_Library.webm/Aerial_footage_of_Cleveland%2C_Ohio_%281924%29_from_the_Hagley_Library.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/3a/Aerial_footage_of_Cleveland%2C_Ohio_%281924%29_from_the_Hagley_Library.webm/Aerial_footage_of_Cleveland%2C_Ohio_%281924%29_from_the_Hagley_Library.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /></video></div><div class="thumbcaption">Aerial footage of Cleveland in 1924</div></div></div></div></div> The <a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a> was a prosperous decade for Cleveland. By 1920, the year in which the <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Indians" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleveland Indians">Cleveland Indians</a> won their <a href="/wiki/1920_World_Series" title="1920 World Series">first World Series championship</a>, Cleveland had grown into a densely-populated metropolis of 796,841 with a foreign-born population of 30%, making it the fifth largest city in the nation.<a href="#cite_note-largest-US-cities-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-foreign-pop-32">[32]</a> Despite the national immigration restrictions of the 1920s, the city's population continued to grow. In 1923 the <a href="/wiki/Speed_nut" title="Speed nut">speed nut</a> was invented by Cleveland industrialist and inventor Albert Tinnerman. In order to solve the problem of the porcelain on the family company's stoves cracking when panels were screwed tightly together, Albert invented the <a href="/wiki/Speed_nut" title="Speed nut">speed nut</a>. This revolutionized assembly lines in the automobile and airline industries. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Terminal-tower-construction.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Terminal-tower-construction.jpg/200px-Terminal-tower-construction.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fb/Terminal-tower-construction.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="282" data-file-height="352" /></a><figcaption>Cleveland's iconic <a href="/wiki/Terminal_Tower" title="Terminal Tower">Terminal Tower</a> under construction in 1927</figcaption></figure> The decade also saw the establishment of Cleveland's <a href="/wiki/Playhouse_Square" title="Playhouse Square">Playhouse Square</a> and the rise of the risqué Short Vincent entertainment district.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-short-vincent-enc-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-short-vincent-hst-54">[54]</a> The Bal-Masque balls of the <a href="/wiki/Avant-garde" title="Avant-garde">avant-garde</a> <a href="/wiki/Kokoon_Arts_Club" title="Kokoon Arts Club">Kokoon Arts Club</a> scandalized the city.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> The northward migration of musicians from <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans" title="New Orleans">New Orleans</a> brought <a href="/wiki/Jazz" title="Jazz">jazz</a> to Cleveland; new jazz talent also rose from <a href="/wiki/Central_High_School_(Cleveland,_Ohio)" title="Central High School (Cleveland, Ohio)">Cleveland Central High School</a>.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> The era of the <a href="/wiki/Flapper" title="Flapper">flapper</a> marked the beginning of the golden age in <a href="/wiki/Downtown_Cleveland" title="Downtown Cleveland">Downtown Cleveland</a> retail, centered on major department stores <a href="/wiki/Higbee%27s" title="Higbee's">Higbee's</a>, Bailey's, the <a href="/wiki/May_Company_Ohio" title="May Company Ohio">May Company</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Taylor_%26_Son" title="William Taylor & Son">Taylor's</a>, <a href="/wiki/Halle_Brothers_Co." title="Halle Brothers Co.">Halle's</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sterling-Lindner_Co." title="Sterling-Lindner Co.">Sterling Lindner Davis</a>, which collectively represented one of the largest and most <a href="/wiki/Fashion" title="Fashion">fashionable</a> shopping districts in the country, often compared to New York's <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Avenue" title="Fifth Avenue">Fifth Avenue</a>.<a href="#cite_note-CLEshopping-60">[60]</a> In 1929, the city hosted the first of many <a href="/wiki/National_Air_Races" title="National Air Races">National Air Races</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Amelia_Earhart" title="Amelia Earhart">Amelia Earhart</a> flew to the city from <a href="/wiki/Santa_Monica,_California" title="Santa Monica, California">Santa Monica, California</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_Air_Derby" title="Women's Air Derby">Women's Air Derby</a> (nicknamed the "Powder Puff Derby" by <a href="/wiki/Will_Rogers" title="Will Rogers">Will Rogers</a>).<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> In politics, the city began a brief experiment with a <a href="/wiki/Council%E2%80%93manager_government" title="Council–manager government">council–manager government</a> system in 1924.<a href="#cite_note-politics-62">[62]</a> <a href="/wiki/William_R._Hopkins" title="William R. Hopkins">William R. Hopkins</a>, who became the first <a href="/wiki/City_manager" title="City manager">city manager</a>, oversaw the development of parks, the Cleveland Municipal Airport (later renamed <a href="/wiki/Hopkins_International_Airport" class="mw-redirect" title="Hopkins International Airport">Hopkins International Airport</a>), and improved welfare services.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> In 1923, the building of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve_Bank_of_Cleveland" title="Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland">Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland</a> on East 6th Street and Superior Avenue was opened, and in 1925, the main building of the <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Public_Library" title="Cleveland Public Library">Cleveland Public Library</a> on Superior was opened under the supervision of head librarian <a href="/wiki/Linda_Eastman" title="Linda Eastman">Linda Eastman</a>, the first woman ever to lead a major library system in the world.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> Both buildings were designed by the Cleveland architectural firm <a href="/wiki/Walker_and_Weeks" title="Walker and Weeks">Walker and Weeks</a>.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> In 1926, the <a href="/wiki/Van_Sweringen_brothers" title="Van Sweringen brothers">Van Sweringen brothers</a>, who had previously worked to improve Cleveland's trolley and rapid program, began construction of the <a href="/wiki/Terminal_Tower" title="Terminal Tower">Terminal Tower</a> <a href="/wiki/Skyscraper" title="Skyscraper">skyscraper</a> in 1926 and, by the time it was dedicated in 1930, Cleveland had a population of over 900,000.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-largest-US-cities-33">[33]</a> Until 1967, the tower was the tallest building in the world outside of New York.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> Before <a href="/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States" title="Prohibition in the United States">Prohibition</a>, Cleveland had been a major center of the <a href="/wiki/Temperance_movement_in_the_United_States" title="Temperance movement in the United States">temperance movement</a>, with the <a href="/wiki/Woman%27s_Christian_Temperance_Union" title="Woman's Christian Temperance Union">Woman's Christian Temperance Union</a> having been founded there.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Eighteenth Amendment</a> prohibiting the sale and manufacturing of alcohol first took effect in Cleveland on May 27, 1919. However, it was not well-enforced in the city. Cleveland alcohol stocks declined when the <a href="/wiki/Prohibition_Bureau" class="mw-redirect" title="Prohibition Bureau">Prohibition Bureau</a> sent an administrator and federal agents as the amendment and the <a href="/wiki/Volstead_Act" title="Volstead Act">Volstead Act</a> became law in January 1920.<a href="#cite_note-prohibition-70">[70]</a> With <a href="/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States" title="Prohibition in the United States">prohibition</a>, Cleveland, like other major American cities saw the rise of <a href="/wiki/Organized_crime" title="Organized crime">organized crime</a>.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> <a href="/wiki/University_Circle#Little_Italy" title="University Circle">Little Italy</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Mayfield_Road_Mob" class="mw-redirect" title="Mayfield Road Mob">Mayfield Road Mob</a> was notorious for smuggling <a href="/wiki/Bootleg_alcohol" class="mw-redirect" title="Bootleg alcohol">bootleg alcohol</a> out of <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> to Cleveland.<a href="#cite_note-prohibition-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> The mob's members included <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lonardo" title="Joseph Lonardo">Joe Lonardo</a>, Nathan Weisenburg, the seven Porello brothers (four of whom were killed), Moses Donley, Paul Hackett, and J.J. Schleimer. These names and Milano, Furgus, and O'Boyle held the same connotation as <a href="/wiki/Al_Capone" title="Al Capone">Al Capone</a> in <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a>. <a href="/wiki/Speakeasy" title="Speakeasy">Speakeasies</a> began appearing all over the city. An anti-Prohibition group found 2,545 such locations throughout Cleveland.<a href="#cite_note-prohibition-70">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Great_Depression,_1929–1939">The Great Depression, 1929–1939</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Cleveland&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: The Great Depression, 1929–1939">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti" /><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:209px;max-width:209px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:207px;max-width:207px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Cleveland_in_the_Great_Depression.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/93/Cleveland_in_the_Great_Depression.jpg/205px-Cleveland_in_the_Great_Depression.jpg" decoding="async" width="205" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/93/Cleveland_in_the_Great_Depression.jpg/308px-Cleveland_in_the_Great_Depression.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/93/Cleveland_in_the_Great_Depression.jpg 2x" data-file-width="402" data-file-height="247" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Unemployed Clevelanders served fresh rolls and coffee by Mrs. Albert Schmidt (right), 1930</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:207px;max-width:207px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Unemployed_people_gathering_outside_City_Hall.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Unemployed_people_gathering_outside_City_Hall.jpg/205px-Unemployed_people_gathering_outside_City_Hall.jpg" decoding="async" width="205" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Unemployed_people_gathering_outside_City_Hall.jpg/308px-Unemployed_people_gathering_outside_City_Hall.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Unemployed_people_gathering_outside_City_Hall.jpg/410px-Unemployed_people_gathering_outside_City_Hall.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2239" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Unemployed Clevelanders seeking jobs at <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_City_Hall" title="Cleveland City Hall">Cleveland City Hall</a>, 1930</div></div></div></div></div> On October 24, 1929, the <a href="/wiki/Wall_Street_Crash_of_1929" class="mw-redirect" title="Wall Street Crash of 1929">stock market crashed</a>, plunging the entire nation into the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_the_United_States" title="Great Depression in the United States">Great Depression</a>. The crash hit Cleveland hard, with industrialist <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_S._Eaton" title="Cyrus S. Eaton">Cyrus Eaton</a> once stating that the city was "hurt more by the Depression than any other city in the United States."<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> By 1933, approximately fifty percent of Cleveland's industrial workers were left unemployed by the Depression.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> Anti-Prohibition sentiment continued to grow. Tired of <a href="/wiki/Gang_violence" class="mw-redirect" title="Gang violence">gang wars</a> in Cleveland and Chicago, Fred G. Clark founded an anti-gang, anti-Prohibition group known as the Crusaders. Cleveland became their national headquarters, and by 1932 the Crusaders claimed one million members. Formed in Chicago, the <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_Organization_for_National_Prohibition_Reform" class="mw-redirect" title="Women's Organization for National Prohibition Reform">Women's Organization for National Prohibition Reform</a> was another group that rose to prominence during this period. When <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> became president, Prohibition appeared to be near an end. Together, the Crusaders, the <a href="/wiki/Association_Against_the_Prohibition_Amendment" title="Association Against the Prohibition Amendment">Association Against the Prohibition Amendment</a>, and the Women's Organization for National Prohibition Reform formed the Ohio Repeal Council, and Prohibition was finally repealed in Cleveland on December 23, 1933.<a href="#cite_note-prohibition-70">[70]</a> Politically, the city abolished the city manager system under <a href="/wiki/Daniel_E._Morgan" title="Daniel E. Morgan">Daniel E. Morgan</a> and returned to the <a href="/wiki/Strong-mayor" class="mw-redirect" title="Strong-mayor">mayor–council (strong mayor)</a> system. After a brief stint in office by Democratic Mayor <a href="/wiki/Ray_T._Miller" title="Ray T. Miller">Ray T. Miller</a>, who would later serve as the powerful chairman of the Cuyahoga County Democratic Party, Harry L. Davis, who had previously served as mayor, returned.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> However, Davis exhibited increasing incompetence in office and the city became a haven for criminal activity. The police department was corrupt, prostitution and illegal gambling were rampant, and organized crime was still abundant.<a href="#cite_note-cle-concise-76">[76]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/1935_Cleveland_mayoral_election" title="1935 Cleveland mayoral election">next election</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harold_Hitz_Burton" class="mw-redirect" title="Harold Hitz Burton">Harold H. Burton</a> became the city's new mayor. Burton, a lawyer from New England and future <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> <a href="/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States">Associate Justice</a>, sought to get Cleveland back on its feet. He accomplished this with the help of his newly appointed Safety Director, <a href="/wiki/Eliot_Ness" title="Eliot Ness">Eliot Ness</a>, who previously served as Chief Investigator of the Prohibition Bureau for Chicago and Ohio, and played an important role in putting Al Capone behind bars. Ness made a name for himself in Cleveland by first and foremost cleaning up the city's police department.<a href="#cite_note-cle-concise-76">[76]</a> As the head of the city's Safety Directorate, Ness introduced a new police district system in Cleveland, fired corrupt and incompetent officers from the force, and replaced them with talented rookies and unrecognized veterans.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> During Ness's tenure as Safety Director, crime dropped significantly in the city. He also improved traffic safety and orchestrated raids on such notorious gambling spots as the Harvard Club.<a href="#cite_note-ness-78">[78]</a> A center of <a href="/wiki/Labor_unions_in_the_United_States" title="Labor unions in the United States">union activity</a>, the city saw significant labor struggles in this period, including strikes by workers against <a href="/wiki/Fisher_Body" title="Fisher Body">Fisher Body</a> in 1936 and against <a href="/wiki/Republic_Steel" title="Republic Steel">Republic Steel</a> in 1937.<a href="#cite_note-labor-34">[34]</a> The city was also aided by major federal works projects sponsored by President Roosevelt's <a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> In commemoration of the centennial of Cleveland's incorporation as a city, the <a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes_Exposition" title="Great Lakes Exposition">Great Lakes Exposition</a> debuted in June 1936 at the city's <a href="/wiki/North_Coast_Harbor" title="North Coast Harbor">North Coast Harbor</a>, along the Lake Erie shore north of downtown.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> Conceived by Cleveland's business leaders as a way to revitalize the city during the Depression, it drew four million visitors in its first season, and seven million by the end of its second and final season in September 1937.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_II_and_postwar,_1940–1962">World War II and postwar, 1940–1962</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Cleveland&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: World War II and postwar, 1940–1962">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cleveland_at_Christmas_-_improved.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Cleveland_at_Christmas_-_improved.jpg/220px-Cleveland_at_Christmas_-_improved.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Cleveland_at_Christmas_-_improved.jpg/330px-Cleveland_at_Christmas_-_improved.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Cleveland_at_Christmas_-_improved.jpg/440px-Cleveland_at_Christmas_-_improved.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1203" data-file-height="1240" /></a><figcaption>Christmas shoppers on Euclid Ave. and Ontario St. in the 1950s</figcaption></figure> On December 7, 1941, <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Imperial Japan</a> <a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">attacked Pearl Harbor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Japanese_declaration_of_war_on_the_United_States_and_the_British_Empire" title="Japanese declaration of war on the United States and the British Empire">declared war</a> on the United States. One of the victims of the attack was a Cleveland native, Rear Admiral <a href="/wiki/Isaac_C._Kidd" title="Isaac C. Kidd">Isaac C. Kidd</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WWII-82">[82]</a> The attack signaled America's entry into <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. A major hub of the "<a href="/wiki/Arsenal_of_Democracy" title="Arsenal of Democracy">Arsenal of Democracy</a>", Cleveland under Democratic Mayor <a href="/wiki/Frank_Lausche" title="Frank Lausche">Frank Lausche</a> contributed massively to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United States home front during World War II">U.S. war effort</a> as the fifth largest manufacturing center in the nation.<a href="#cite_note-WWII-82">[82]</a> Cleveland's first mayor of <a href="/wiki/Eastern_European" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern European">Eastern European</a> descent, Lausche also oversaw the establishment of the Cleveland Transit System, the predecessor to the <a href="/wiki/Greater_Cleveland_Regional_Transit_Authority" title="Greater Cleveland Regional Transit Authority">Greater Cleveland Regional Transit Authority</a>.<a href="#cite_note-RTA-history-83">[83]</a> After the war, Cleveland initially experienced an economic boom, and businesses declared the city to be the "best location in the nation."<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> In 1949, the city was named an <a href="/wiki/All-America_City_Award" title="All-America City Award">All-America City</a> for the first time and, in 1950, its population reached 914,808.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-largest-US-cities-33">[33]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Sports_in_the_United_States" title="Sports in the United States">sports</a>, the Indians won the <a href="/wiki/1948_World_Series" title="1948 World Series">1948 World Series</a>, the hockey team, the <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Barons_(1937%E2%80%9373)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleveland Barons (1937–73)">Barons</a>, became champions of the <a href="/wiki/American_Hockey_League" title="American Hockey League">American Hockey League</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Browns" title="Cleveland Browns">Browns</a> dominated <a href="/wiki/Professional_gridiron_football" title="Professional gridiron football">professional football</a> in the 1950s. As a result, along with track and boxing champions produced, Cleveland was declared the "City of Champions" in sports at this time.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> The 1950s also saw the rising popularity of a new music genre that local <a href="/wiki/WKNR" title="WKNR">WJW (AM)</a> disc jockey <a href="/wiki/Alan_Freed" title="Alan Freed">Alan Freed</a> dubbed "<a href="/wiki/Rock_and_roll" title="Rock and roll">rock and roll</a>."<a href="#cite_note-freed-88">[88]</a> After Lausche left office to become the <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_Ohio" class="mw-redirect" title="Governor of Ohio">Governor of Ohio</a>, Democrat <a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._Burke" title="Thomas A. Burke">Thomas A. Burke</a> won a first term as mayor in <a href="/wiki/1945_Cleveland_mayoral_election" title="1945 Cleveland mayoral election">1945</a>.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> He was re-elected by voters in the <a href="/wiki/1947_Cleveland_mayoral_election" title="1947 Cleveland mayoral election">1947 mayoral election</a> against Republican challenger Eliot Ness, who left Cleveland during the war to become director of the Division of Social Protection of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Security_Agency" title="Federal Security Agency">Federal Security Agency</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ness-78">[78]</a> Burke's greatest achievement as mayor was his large capital-improvement program that included the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Burke_Lakefront_Airport" title="Cleveland Burke Lakefront Airport">Cleveland Burke Lakefront Airport</a>,<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> but he also successfully managed race relations in the city.<a href="#cite_note-wviz-91">[91]</a> In 1954, Burke was succeeded by Democrat <a href="/wiki/Anthony_J._Celebrezze" title="Anthony J. Celebrezze">Anthony J. Celebrezze</a>, Cleveland's first <a href="/wiki/Italian_Americans" title="Italian Americans">Italian American</a> mayor. Celebrezze oversaw the completion of Cleveland's Rapid Transit and expansion of the freeway system.<a href="#cite_note-celebrezze-92">[92]</a> He also launched the <a href="/wiki/Erieview_Tower" title="Erieview Tower">Erieview Urban Renewal Plan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> Celebrezze was so popular with Cleveland voters that he served an unprecedented five terms before becoming the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Health,_Education,_and_Welfare" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare">United States Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare</a> under Presidents <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a>.<a href="#cite_note-celebrezze-92">[92]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Turbulent_era,_1962–1979">Turbulent era, 1962–1979</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Cleveland&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Turbulent era, 1962–1979">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carlstokes_(1).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Carlstokes_%281%29.jpg/200px-Carlstokes_%281%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Carlstokes_%281%29.jpg/300px-Carlstokes_%281%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/Carlstokes_%281%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="381" data-file-height="508" /></a><figcaption>Cleveland Mayor <a href="/wiki/Carl_B._Stokes" class="mw-redirect" title="Carl B. Stokes">Carl B. Stokes</a>, the first <a href="/wiki/African_American" class="mw-redirect" title="African American">African American</a> mayor of a major U.S. city</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Ralph_S._Locher" title="Ralph S. Locher">Ralph S. Locher</a> became Celebrezze's successor in 1962. Although Locher made some strides, such as expanding Hopkins Airport, his tenure was strained by new challenges facing the city.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> By the 1960s, Cleveland's economy began to slow down, and residents increasingly sought new housing in the suburbs, reflecting the national trends of <a href="/wiki/Suburbanization" title="Suburbanization">suburbanization</a> following federally subsidized highways.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> <a href="/wiki/Industrial_restructuring" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial restructuring">Industrial restructuring</a>, particularly in the <a href="/wiki/Rail_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="Rail transportation in the United States">railroad</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iron_and_steel_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Iron and steel industry in the United States">steel industries</a>, resulted in the loss of numerous jobs in Cleveland and the region, and the city suffered economically. <a href="/wiki/Housing_discrimination_in_the_United_States" title="Housing discrimination in the United States">Housing discrimination</a> and <a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">redlining</a> against African Americans led to racial tension in Cleveland and numerous other Northern U.S. cities.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-wviz-91">[91]</a> In Cleveland, this tension exploded in the <a href="/wiki/Hough_Riots" class="mw-redirect" title="Hough Riots">Hough Riots</a> of July 1966. Locher was becoming less and less popular and lost the 1967 mayoral primary to charismatic Democrat <a href="/wiki/Carl_B._Stokes" class="mw-redirect" title="Carl B. Stokes">Carl B. Stokes</a>. Stokes went on to face Republican <a href="/wiki/Seth_Taft" title="Seth Taft">Seth Taft</a> and won the <a href="/wiki/1967_Cleveland_mayoral_election" title="1967 Cleveland mayoral election">1967 general mayoral election</a>, becoming the first <a href="/wiki/African_American" class="mw-redirect" title="African American">African American</a> mayor of a major U.S. city, attracting national attention.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> As mayor, Stokes began initiating reforms to boost the city's economy and aid its poverty-stricken areas. He first succeeded in convincing the <a href="/wiki/Department_of_Housing_and_Urban_Development" class="mw-redirect" title="Department of Housing and Urban Development">Department of Housing and Urban Development</a> to release urban renewal funds for Cleveland that had been frozen under Locher's tenure. He also persuaded <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_City_Council" title="Cleveland City Council">City Council</a> to pass the Equal Employment Opportunity Ordinance and to increase the city's <a href="/wiki/Income_tax_in_the_United_States" title="Income tax in the United States">income tax</a> from .5% to 1%.<a href="#cite_note-stokes-98">[98]</a> It was also Stokes who led the effort to restore Cleveland's Cuyahoga River in the aftermath of the river fire of June 1969 that brought national attention to the issue of <a href="/wiki/Pollution#Urban_pollution" title="Pollution">industrial pollution</a> in Cleveland.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> The river fire was to be the last in the city's history, and it became a catalyst in the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Environmental_movement_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental movement in the United States">American environmental movement</a>. Since that time, through efforts begun by the Stokes administration and the <a href="/wiki/Ohio_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="Ohio Environmental Protection Agency">Ohio Environmental Protection Agency</a> (OEPA), the river has been extensively cleaned-up.<a href="#cite_note-cuyahoga-100">[100]</a> In 1968, Stokes launched <a href="/wiki/Cleveland:_Now!" title="Cleveland: Now!">Cleveland: Now!</a>, a program aimed at rehabilitating the city's poorer neighborhoods. This program was initially highly successful. However, after the <a href="/wiki/Glenville_Shootout" class="mw-redirect" title="Glenville Shootout">1968 Glenville Shootout</a>, it was discovered that Fred "Ahmed" Evans and his black militant group, who had initiated the chaos, indirectly received money from Cleveland: Now!, putting the mayor in a difficult position.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> Although Stokes secured <a href="/wiki/1969_Cleveland_mayoral_election" title="1969 Cleveland mayoral election">re-election in 1969</a>, the fallout from the incident as well as continued conflicts with City Council led him to decline from seeking a third term in 1971.<a href="#cite_note-stokes-98">[98]</a> Stokes was succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Ralph_J._Perk" class="mw-redirect" title="Ralph J. Perk">Ralph J. Perk</a>, an ethnic <a href="/wiki/Czech_Americans" title="Czech Americans">Czech American</a> and the first Republican to serve as mayor of Cleveland since the 1940s.<a href="#cite_note-perk-102">[102]</a> Perk benefited from good connections with President <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a>, allowing Cleveland to obtain federal funds to aid neighborhoods and to help crack down on city crime in the era of Irish American mobster <a href="/wiki/Danny_Greene" title="Danny Greene">Danny Greene</a>.<a href="#cite_note-perk-102">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> It was Perk who proposed merging Cleveland's public transit system with those of neighboring suburbs, thus forming the Greater Cleveland Regional Transit Authority.<a href="#cite_note-perk-PD-104">[104]</a> He also greatly expanded Cleveland's international ties by initiating several <a href="/wiki/Sister_city" title="Sister city">sister city</a> partnerships.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> However, Perk was also known for his <a href="/wiki/Political_gaffe" title="Political gaffe">political gaffes</a>, such as an incident in which his hair caught on fire, and another when his wife, Lucille, famously refused a dinner invitation from <a href="/wiki/Pat_Nixon" title="Pat Nixon">Pat Nixon</a> for her "bowling night."<a href="#cite_note-perk-PD-104">[104]</a> Additionally, the city continued to experience population loss from <a href="/wiki/Deindustrialization" title="Deindustrialization">deindustrialization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Desegregation_busing" title="Desegregation busing">forced-busing</a> of <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Metropolitan_School_District" title="Cleveland Metropolitan School District">Cleveland Public Schools</a> ordered by <a href="/wiki/United_States_district_court" title="United States district court">United States District Judge</a> <a href="/wiki/Frank_J._Battisti" title="Frank J. Battisti">Frank J. Battisti</a>.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> Between 1970 and 1973, the city lost 9.6 percent of its population, and by 1980 it had lost its position as one of the top 10 largest cities in the U.S.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dennis_Kucinich_105th_Congress_1997_(1).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Dennis_Kucinich_105th_Congress_1997_%281%29.jpg/170px-Dennis_Kucinich_105th_Congress_1997_%281%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Dennis_Kucinich_105th_Congress_1997_%281%29.jpg/255px-Dennis_Kucinich_105th_Congress_1997_%281%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Dennis_Kucinich_105th_Congress_1997_%281%29.jpg/340px-Dennis_Kucinich_105th_Congress_1997_%281%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="389" data-file-height="517" /></a><figcaption>Cleveland Mayor and future Ohio Congressman <a href="/wiki/Dennis_Kucinich" title="Dennis Kucinich">Dennis Kucinich</a></figcaption></figure> In 1977, Perk lost the nonpartisan mayoral primary. <a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">Populist</a> Democrat <a href="/wiki/Dennis_Kucinich" title="Dennis Kucinich">Dennis J. Kucinich</a> went on to win both the primary and the <a href="/wiki/1977_Cleveland_mayoral_election" title="1977 Cleveland mayoral election">general election</a>. Kucinich was 31 when he assumed office, becoming the youngest mayor of a major U.S. city.<a href="#cite_note-dennis-108">[108]</a> Kucinich's <a href="/wiki/Mayoralty_of_Dennis_Kucinich" title="Mayoralty of Dennis Kucinich">tenure as mayor</a> began with one of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Blizzard_of_1978" title="Great Blizzard of 1978">worst blizzards in Cleveland history</a> on January 26, 1978, with winds up to 100 miles an hour. In March, he suspended his newly appointed police chief, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Hongisto" title="Richard Hongisto">Richard D. Hongisto</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Mayoralty_of_Dennis_Kucinich#Hongisto_feud" title="Mayoralty of Dennis Kucinich">feud</a> that later erupted into a heated conflict between the two, ending with Hongisto being fired on live <a href="/wiki/Local_programming" title="Local programming">local television</a>.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> This move, combined with conflicts with City Council President <a href="/wiki/George_L._Forbes" title="George L. Forbes">George L. Forbes</a>, prompted a successful recall drive against Kucinich with petitions of some 50,000 signatures, leading to the first <a href="/wiki/1978_Cleveland_Recall_Election" class="mw-redirect" title="1978 Cleveland Recall Election">recall election</a> in the city's history. Kucinich was nearly ousted from his position, but narrowly won with 236 votes.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> Part of Kucinich's promise to voters was to cancel the sale of the publicly owned electric company, <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Public_Power" title="Cleveland Public Power">Cleveland Municipal Light</a> (Muny Light), to the <a href="/wiki/FirstEnergy" title="FirstEnergy">Cleveland Electric Illuminating Company</a> (CEI), a private electric company. The sale was initiated by Perk, but Kucinich cancelled it when he entered office. In response, CEI went to a U.S. federal court to demand $14 million in damages from Muny for purchasing electricity and to secure an order to attach city equipment. Kucinich attempted to pay the bill by cutting city spending. However, the Cleveland Trust Company and five other Cleveland banks told the mayor that they would agree to renew the city's credit on $14 million of loans taken out by the prior administration only if he would sell Muny.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> As it happened, Kucinich did not sell and at midnight on December 15, 1978, Cleveland became the first major American city since the Great Depression to <a href="/wiki/Default_(finance)" title="Default (finance)">default</a> on its financial obligations. By this time, voters had grown tired of the turbulent Kucinich years.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> In Cleveland's <a href="/wiki/1979_Cleveland_mayoral_election" title="1979 Cleveland mayoral election">1979 mayoral election</a>, the mayor was defeated by Republican <a href="/wiki/George_Voinovich" title="George Voinovich">George V. Voinovich</a>.<a href="#cite_note-voinovich-113">[113]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Late_20th_and_early_21st_centuries">Late 20th and early 21st centuries</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Cleveland&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Late 20th and early 21st centuries">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Comeback_and_stagnation,_1980–2005">Comeback and stagnation, 1980–2005</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Cleveland&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Comeback and stagnation, 1980–2005">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:George_Voinovich,_official_photo_portrait,_2006.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/George_Voinovich%2C_official_photo_portrait%2C_2006.jpg/200px-George_Voinovich%2C_official_photo_portrait%2C_2006.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/George_Voinovich%2C_official_photo_portrait%2C_2006.jpg/300px-George_Voinovich%2C_official_photo_portrait%2C_2006.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/George_Voinovich%2C_official_photo_portrait%2C_2006.jpg/400px-George_Voinovich%2C_official_photo_portrait%2C_2006.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="2027" /></a><figcaption>Cleveland Mayor and Ohio Governor and Senator <a href="/wiki/George_Voinovich" title="George Voinovich">George Voinovich</a></figcaption></figure> By the beginning of the 1980s, several factors, including changes in international <a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">free trade</a> policies, inflation, and the <a href="/wiki/Savings_and_loan_crisis" title="Savings and loan crisis">Savings and Loans Crisis</a>, contributed to <a href="/wiki/Early_1980s_recession" title="Early 1980s recession">the recession</a> that severely affected cities like Cleveland.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> While unemployment during the period peaked in 1983, Cleveland's rate of 13.8% was higher than the national average due to the closure of several steel production centers.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> It was in these conditions, in addition to Cleveland's default, that the city began a gradual economic recovery under Mayor Voinovich. While maintaining the city's stance on Muny Light, Voinovich also oversaw the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Key_Tower" title="Key Tower">Key Tower</a> and <a href="/wiki/200_Public_Square" title="200 Public Square">200 Public Square</a> skyscrapers, as well as the development of the <a href="/wiki/Gateway_Sports_and_Entertainment_Complex" title="Gateway Sports and Entertainment Complex">Gateway Sports and Entertainment Complex</a>—consisting of <a href="/wiki/Progressive_Field" title="Progressive Field">Progressive Field</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rocket_Arena" title="Rocket Arena">Rocket Arena</a>—and the North Coast Harbor, including the <a href="/wiki/Rock_and_Roll_Hall_of_Fame" title="Rock and Roll Hall of Fame">Rock and Roll Hall of Fame</a>, <a href="/wiki/Huntington_Bank_Field" title="Huntington Bank Field">Huntington Bank Field</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes_Science_Center" title="Great Lakes Science Center">Great Lakes Science Center</a>.<a href="#cite_note-voinovich-113">[113]</a> By 1987, Cleveland was not only out of default but was named an All-America City for a second, third, and fourth time.<a href="#cite_note-timeline-14">[14]</a> After his mayoralty, Voinovich then made a successful run for the governorship of Ohio.<a href="#cite_note-voinovich-113">[113]</a> Voinovich's successor was Democrat <a href="/wiki/Michael_R._White_(politician)" title="Michael R. White (politician)">Michael R. White</a>, who continued his predecessor's development plans in the downtown area near the <a href="/wiki/Gateway_Sports_and_Entertainment_Complex" title="Gateway Sports and Entertainment Complex">Gateway complex</a>—consisting of <a href="/wiki/Progressive_Field" title="Progressive Field">Jacobs Field</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gund_Arena" class="mw-redirect" title="Gund Arena">Gund Arena</a>—and near the <a href="/wiki/Rock_and_Roll_Hall_of_Fame" title="Rock and Roll Hall of Fame">Rock and Roll Hall of Fame</a> and <a href="/wiki/FirstEnergy_Stadium" class="mw-redirect" title="FirstEnergy Stadium">Cleveland Browns Stadium</a>.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> After serving three times, he declined from running for a fourth term in 2001 and retired to an <a href="/wiki/Alpaca" title="Alpaca">alpaca</a> farm near <a href="/wiki/Newcomerstown,_Ohio" title="Newcomerstown, Ohio">Newcomerstown, Ohio</a>. Four years later, a federal investigation revealed that, despite the strides that White made in office, he may have accepted bribes from one of his associates, Nate Gray, in exchange for construction and parking contracts. However, no charges were made against the former mayor.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flats_-_1_(13966708395).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Flats_-_1_%2813966708395%29.jpg/250px-Flats_-_1_%2813966708395%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Flats_-_1_%2813966708395%29.jpg/375px-Flats_-_1_%2813966708395%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Flats_-_1_%2813966708395%29.jpg/500px-Flats_-_1_%2813966708395%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1150" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Downtown_Cleveland" title="Downtown Cleveland">Downtown Cleveland</a> from the Superior Viaduct at night</figcaption></figure> In 2002, White was succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Jane_L._Campbell" title="Jane L. Campbell">Jane L. Campbell</a>, the city's first female mayor. Under the Campbell administration, the economic and civic recovery begun under former Mayor Voinovich appeared to stagnate. The national decline of the steel and auto industries continued to hurt the region's economy, the city's public school system languished in the state's "academic emergency" rating, and tight budgets forced layoffs of city employees and cuts in public services.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> Still, several <a href="/wiki/Neighborhoods_in_Cleveland" title="Neighborhoods in Cleveland">city neighborhoods</a> attracted investment for revitalization, including Downtown, <a href="/wiki/Tremont,_Cleveland" title="Tremont, Cleveland">Tremont</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ohio_City,_Cleveland" title="Ohio City, Cleveland">Ohio City</a>, <a href="/wiki/Detroit-Shoreway" class="mw-redirect" title="Detroit-Shoreway">Detroit-Shoreway</a>, and parts of <a href="/wiki/Hough,_Cleveland" title="Hough, Cleveland">Hough</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/2005_Cleveland_mayoral_election" title="2005 Cleveland mayoral election">2005 mayoral election</a>, Campbell lost to City Council president, <a href="/wiki/Frank_G._Jackson" title="Frank G. Jackson">Frank G. Jackson</a>. Jackson received 55% of the vote while Campbell secured 45% and assumed office as the city's 57th mayor on January 1, 2006.<a href="#cite_note-jackson-121">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Continued_evolution,_2006–Present">Continued evolution, 2006–Present</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Cleveland&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Continued evolution, 2006–Present">edit</a>]</div> At the beginning of Jackson's mayoralty, the city faced continued challenges, including efforts to retain the city's <a href="/wiki/Domicile_(law)" title="Domicile (law)">residency laws</a>, the impact of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_the_United_States" title="Great Recession in the United States">Great Recession</a> on city neighborhoods, and a federal corruption investigation into Cuyahoga County officials.<a href="#cite_note-jackson-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> However, by the turn of the 21st century, Cleveland succeeded in developing a more diversified economy and gained a national reputation as a center for healthcare and the arts. Additionally, it has become a national leader in <a href="/wiki/Environmental_protection" title="Environmental protection">environmental protection</a>, with its successful cleanup of the Cuyahoga River.<a href="#cite_note-NYT-cuyahoga-123">[123]</a> The city's downtown and several neighborhoods have experienced significant population growth since 2010.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> In 2018, the population of Cleveland began to flatten after decades of decline.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> This trend has been accompanied by major victories in sports, most prominently the victory of the <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Cavaliers" title="Cleveland Cavaliers">Cleveland Cavaliers</a> in the <a href="/wiki/2016_NBA_Finals" title="2016 NBA Finals">2016 NBA Finals</a>, the first major professional sports championship won by a Cleveland team since <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_sports_curse" title="Cleveland sports curse">1964</a>.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> Nevertheless, challenges still remain for the city, with economic development of neighborhoods, improvement of city schools, and continued efforts to tackle poverty and urban blight being top municipal priorities.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> In June 2020, Cleveland City Council became the second <a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_the_United_States" title="Local government in the United States">local government</a> in the US to issue a declaration stating that <a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States" title="Racism in the United States">racism</a> constitutes a <a href="/wiki/Public_health_emergency_(United_States)" title="Public health emergency (United States)">public health emergency</a>.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> A new mayor, <a href="/wiki/Justin_Bibb" title="Justin Bibb">Justin Bibb</a>, was <a href="/wiki/2021_Cleveland_mayoral_election" title="2021 Cleveland mayoral election">elected in 2021</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BibbWinner-130">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chronology_of_Cleveland_inventions_and_firsts">Chronology of Cleveland inventions and firsts</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Cleveland&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Chronology of Cleveland inventions and firsts">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>1863 – Free home delivery of mail - Joseph W. Briggs</li> <li>1879 – <a href="/wiki/Electric_street_lights" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric street lights">Electric lighting of public streets</a> - <a href="/wiki/Charles_F._Brush" title="Charles F. Brush">Charles F. Brush</a></li> <li>1880 – Standardized formula paints - <a href="/wiki/Sherwin-Williams_Co." class="mw-redirect" title="Sherwin-Williams Co.">Sherwin-Williams Co.</a></li> <li>1890 – <a href="/wiki/Indoor_shopping_center" class="mw-redirect" title="Indoor shopping center">Indoor shopping center</a> (The Arcade)</li> <li>1896 – <a href="/wiki/X-ray_machine" title="X-ray machine">X-ray machine</a> and whole-body scanner – <a href="/wiki/Dayton_C._Miller" class="mw-redirect" title="Dayton C. Miller">Dayton C. Miller</a> (Case School of Applied Science); X-Ray photograph in the U.S. - Dudley Wick (his hand)</li> <li>1898 – Automobile sale in the U.S. - <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Winton" title="Alexander Winton">Alexander Winton</a></li> <li>1899 – Wound-rubber core <a href="/wiki/Golf_ball" title="Golf ball">golf ball</a> - Haskell Coburn</li> <li>1900 – Automobile club</li> <li>1901 – <a href="/wiki/Steering_wheel" title="Steering wheel">Automobile steering wheel</a> - Alexander Winton</li> <li>1905 – Blood transfusion - Dr. <a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Crile" title="George Washington Crile">George W. Crile, Sr.</a></li> <li>1910 – Automobile shock absorbers - C. H. Foster</li> <li>1914 – <a href="/wiki/Traffic_light" title="Traffic light">Electric traffic signal</a> - Euclid Ave. & East 105th St.</li> <li>1915 – <a href="/wiki/Submachine_gun" title="Submachine gun">Submachine gun</a></li> <li>1916 – <a href="/wiki/Gas_mask" title="Gas mask">Gas mask</a> successfully demonstrated at Cleveland Waterworks explosion - <a href="/wiki/Garrett_A._Morgan" class="mw-redirect" title="Garrett A. Morgan">Garrett A. Morgan</a></li> <li>1920 – Unassisted <a href="/wiki/Triple_play" title="Triple play">triple play</a> in a World Series Baseball Game</li> <li>1921 – <a href="/wiki/Windscreen_wiper" title="Windscreen wiper">Automobile windshield wiper</a> - Frederick G. and William M. Folberth</li> <li>1927 – Municipal airport (Cleveland Hopkins International) and air traffic control tower</li> <li>1928 – Frosted light bulbs - <a href="/wiki/Marvin_Pipkin" title="Marvin Pipkin">Marvin Pipkin</a></li> <li>1929 – <a href="/wiki/Autopilot" title="Autopilot">Airplane automatic pilot</a> (tested)</li> <li>1936 – Health museum</li> <li>1951 – <a href="/wiki/Rock_and_roll" title="Rock and roll">Rock and Roll Music</a> (public recognition and coinage of the term) - <a href="/wiki/Alan_Freed" title="Alan Freed">Alan Freed</a></li> <li>1952 – Successful Siamese twin separation</li> <li>1967 – Elected the first African American mayor of a major U.S. city - Carl B. Stokes; <a href="/wiki/Coronary_artery_bypass_surgery" title="Coronary artery bypass surgery">Coronary artery bypass</a> - <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Favaloro" title="René Favaloro">Dr. René Favaloro</a> - Cleveland Clinic</li> <li>1968 – Rapid transit rail service from airport to downtown</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Cleveland&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/31px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/47px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/62px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Ohio.svg/32px-Flag_of_Ohio.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Ohio.svg/48px-Flag_of_Ohio.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Ohio.svg/64px-Flag_of_Ohio.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="520" data-file-height="320" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ohio" title="Portal:Ohio">Ohio portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_urban_history" title="American urban history">American urban history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Cleveland" title="Timeline of Cleveland">Timeline of Cleveland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Cleveland_Clinic" title="History of Cleveland Clinic">History of Cleveland Clinic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Cleveland_Browns" title="History of the Cleveland Browns">History of the Cleveland Browns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Cleveland_Cavaliers" title="History of the Cleveland Cavaliers">History of the Cleveland Cavaliers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Cleveland_Guardians" title="History of the Cleveland Guardians">History of the Cleveland Guardians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ohio" title="History of Ohio">History of Ohio</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Cleveland&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-prehistory-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-prehistory_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-prehistory_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-prehistory_1-2">c</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBrose" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Brose, David S. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://case.edu/ech/articles/p/prehistoric-inhabitants">"Prehistoric Inhabitants"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Encyclopedia_of_Cleveland_History" title="The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History">The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History</a>. <a href="/wiki/Case_Western_Reserve_University" title="Case Western Reserve University">Case Western Reserve University</a>. Retrieved May 30, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Prehistoric+Inhabitants&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Cleveland+History&rft.pub=Case+Western+Reserve+University&rft.aulast=Brose&rft.aufirst=David+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcase.edu%2Fech%2Farticles%2Fp%2Fprehistoric-inhabitants&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://case.edu/ech/articles/c/cleaveland-moses">"Cleaveland, Moses"</a>. The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History. Case Western Reserve University. January 20, 2019. Retrieved August 21, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cleaveland%2C+Moses&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Cleveland+History&rft.pub=Case+Western+Reserve+University&rft.date=2019-01-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcase.edu%2Fech%2Farticles%2Fc%2Fcleaveland-moses&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBurton2019" class="citation magazine cs1">Burton, Abby (November 25, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://clevelandmagazine.com/in-the-cle/articles/cle-myths-the-a-in-cleaveland">"CLE Myths: The "A" In Cleaveland"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Magazine" title="Cleveland Magazine">Cleveland Magazine</a>. Retrieved May 20, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cleveland+Magazine&rft.atitle=CLE+Myths%3A+The+%22A%22+In+Cleaveland&rft.date=2019-11-25&rft.aulast=Burton&rft.aufirst=Abby&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fclevelandmagazine.com%2Fin-the-cle%2Farticles%2Fcle-myths-the-a-in-cleaveland&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBourne1896" class="citation magazine cs1">Bourne, Henry E. (1896). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-Og7AQAAMAAJ&q=%22Cleveland%20Advertiser%22%201831%20spelling&pg=PA744">"The Story of Cleveland"</a>. New England Magazine. Vol. 14, no. 6. p. 744. <q>It was agreeable to the wishes of many of our oldest and most intelligent citizens, who are of the opinion that the 'a' is superfluous.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+England+Magazine&rft.atitle=The+Story+of+Cleveland&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=744&rft.date=1896&rft.aulast=Bourne&rft.aufirst=Henry+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-Og7AQAAMAAJ%26q%3D%2522Cleveland%2520Advertiser%2522%25201831%2520spelling%26pg%3DPA744&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWickham1899" class="citation journal cs1">Wickham, Gertrude Van Rensselaer (1899). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eg3VAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA490">"The Pioneer Mothers of Cleveland"</a>. Annals of the Early Settlers Association of Cuyahoga County. 4 (1). Cleveland: J.B. Savage: 490. Retrieved January 4, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+the+Early+Settlers+Association+of+Cuyahoga+County&rft.atitle=The+Pioneer+Mothers+of+Cleveland&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=490&rft.date=1899&rft.aulast=Wickham&rft.aufirst=Gertrude+Van+Rensselaer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Deg3VAAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA490&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWickham1914" class="citation book cs1">Wickham, Gertrude Van Rensselaer (1914). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=R9kyAQAAMAAJ&q=%22talitha%20cumi%22%20%22stiles%22%20cleveland&pg=PA7">The Pioneer Families of Cleveland 1796–1840</a>. Cleveland: Evangelical Publishing. pp. 7–8. Retrieved January 4, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Pioneer+Families+of+Cleveland+1796%E2%80%931840&rft.place=Cleveland&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E7-%3C%2Fspan%3E8&rft.pub=Evangelical+Publishing&rft.date=1914&rft.aulast=Wickham&rft.aufirst=Gertrude+Van+Rensselaer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DR9kyAQAAMAAJ%26q%3D%2522talitha%2520cumi%2522%2520%2522stiles%2522%2520cleveland%26pg%3DPA7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGuild1892" class="citation book cs1">Guild, Mary A. Stiles Paul (1892). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BvEUAAAAYAAJ&q=%22cleveland%22%20%22talitha%20cumi%22&pg=PA217">The Stiles Family in America</a>. Albany: J. Munsell's Sons. p. 217. Retrieved January 4, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Stiles+Family+in+America&rft.place=Albany&rft.pages=217&rft.pub=J.+Munsell%27s+Sons&rft.date=1892&rft.aulast=Guild&rft.aufirst=Mary+A.+Stiles+Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBvEUAAAAYAAJ%26q%3D%2522cleveland%2522%2520%2522talitha%2520cumi%2522%26pg%3DPA217&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://case.edu/ech/articles/s/stiles-job-phelps">"Stiles, Job Phelps"</a>. The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History. Case Western Reserve University. January 20, 2019. Retrieved May 30, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Stiles%2C+Job+Phelps&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Cleveland+History&rft.pub=Case+Western+Reserve+University&rft.date=2019-01-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcase.edu%2Fech%2Farticles%2Fs%2Fstiles-job-phelps&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://case.edu/ech/articles/c/carter-lorenzo">"Carter, Lorenzo"</a>. The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History. Case Western Reserve University. January 20, 2019. 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Chicago: Lewis Publishing Co. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofclevela01elro/page/98/">98</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Cleveland+and+Its+Environs%3A+The+Heart+of+New+Connecticut.+Volume+I&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=98&rft.pub=Lewis+Publishing+Co.&rft.date=1918&rft.aulast=Avery&rft.aufirst=Elroy+McKendree&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAvery1918" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Elroy_M._Avery" title="Elroy M. Avery">Avery, Elroy McKendree</a> (1918). A History of Cleveland and Its Environs: The Heart of New Connecticut. Volume II. Chicago: Lewis Publishing Co. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofclevela02elro/page/11/">11</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Cleveland+and+Its+Environs%3A+The+Heart+of+New+Connecticut.+Volume+II&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Lewis+Publishing+Co.&rft.date=1918&rft.aulast=Avery&rft.aufirst=Elroy+McKendree&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-willey-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-willey_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-willey_17-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://case.edu/ech/articles/w/willey-john-wheelock">"Willey, John Wheelock"</a>. The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History. Case Western Reserve University. January 20, 2019. Retrieved May 29, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Willey%2C+John+Wheelock&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Cleveland+History&rft.pub=Case+Western+Reserve+University&rft.date=2019-01-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcase.edu%2Fech%2Farticles%2Fw%2Fwilley-john-wheelock&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRotman" class="citation web cs1">Rotman, Michael. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://clevelandhistorical.org/items/show/74">"Columbus Street Bridge"</a>. Cleveland Historical. <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_State_University" title="Cleveland State University">Cleveland State University</a>. Retrieved May 29, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cleveland+Historical&rft.atitle=Columbus+Street+Bridge&rft.aulast=Rotman&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fclevelandhistorical.org%2Fitems%2Fshow%2F74&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-bridge-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bridge_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bridge_19-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bridge_19-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://case.edu/ech/articles/c/columbus-street-bridge">"Columbus Street Bridge"</a>. The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History. Case Western Reserve University. 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Norton & Co. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-06695-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-06695-1">978-0-393-06695-1</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/902661500">902661500</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-prohibition-70">^ <a href="#cite_ref-prohibition_70-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-prohibition_70-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-prohibition_70-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-prohibition_70-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVan_TasselGrabowski1987" class="citation book cs1">Van Tassel, David D.; Grabowski, John J. (1987). "Prohibition Amendment". The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History. Bloomington and Indianapolis: <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University_Press" title="Indiana University Press">Indiana University Press</a>. pp. 800–801. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-31303-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-31303-4"><bdi>978-0-253-31303-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Prohibition+Amendment&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Cleveland+History&rft.place=Bloomington+and+Indianapolis&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E800-%3C%2Fspan%3E801&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-253-31303-4&rft.aulast=Van+Tassel&rft.aufirst=David+D.&rft.au=Grabowski%2C+John+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Hank_Messick" title="Hank Messick">Messick, Hank</a> (1967) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://the-eye.eu/public/concen.org/Miscellanea_Judaica_%2309/MESSICK%28Hank%29-The_Silent_Syndicate_%281967%29.pdf">The Silent Syndicate</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210828162853/https://the-eye.eu/public/concen.org/Miscellanea_Judaica_%2309/MESSICK(Hank)-The_Silent_Syndicate_(1967).pdf">Archived</a> 2021-08-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. New York: Macmillan Company. </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKelly1933" class="citation news cs1">Kelly, Ralph (December 28, 1933). "Murder in Cleveland: The Prohibition Toll. Chapter 3—Rise of the Rum Kings; the 'Bloody Corner". <a href="/wiki/The_Plain_Dealer" title="The Plain Dealer">The Plain Dealer</a>. pp. 1, 5.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Murder+in+Cleveland%3A+The+Prohibition+Toll.+Chapter+3%E2%80%94Rise+of+the+Rum+Kings%3B+the+%27Bloody+Corner&rft.pages=1%2C+5&rft.date=1933-12-28&rft.aulast=Kelly&rft.aufirst=Ralph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMillerWheeler1997" class="citation book cs1">Miller, Carol Poh; Wheeler, Robert A. (1997). Cleveland: A Concise History, 1796–1996 (2nd ed.). 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Retrieved May 30, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ness%2C+Eliot&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Cleveland+History&rft.pub=Case+Western+Reserve+University&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcase.edu%2Fech%2Farticles%2Fn%2Fness-eliot&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> Miller and Wheeler, pp. 136–139. </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPorter,_Philip1976" class="citation book cs1">Porter, Philip (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130724073322/http://www.clevelandmemory.org/SpecColl/porter/Chapt06.html">"Chapter 6"</a>. Cleveland: Confused City on a Seesaw. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University Press. pp. 106–107. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8142-0264-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8142-0264-7"><bdi>978-0-8142-0264-7</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.clevelandmemory.org/SpecColl/porter/Chapt06.html">the original</a> on July 24, 2013. Retrieved July 22, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+6&rft.btitle=Cleveland%3A+Confused+City+on+a+Seesaw&rft.place=Columbus%2C+Ohio&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E106-%3C%2Fspan%3E107&rft.pub=Ohio+State+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-8142-0264-7&rft.au=Porter%2C+Philip&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.clevelandmemory.org%2FSpecColl%2Fporter%2FChapt06.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://case.edu/ech/articles/g/great-lakes-exposition">"Great Lakes Exposition"</a>. The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History. Case Western Reserve University. March 21, 2019. Retrieved July 15, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Great+Lakes+Exposition&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Cleveland+History&rft.pub=Case+Western+Reserve+University&rft.date=2019-03-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcase.edu%2Fech%2Farticles%2Fg%2Fgreat-lakes-exposition&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-WWII-82">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WWII_82-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WWII_82-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://case.edu/ech/articles/w/world-war-ii">"World War II"</a>. The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History. Case Western Reserve University. May 22, 2018. 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Retrieved July 22, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Greater+Cleveland+Regional+Transit+Authority&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Cleveland+History&rft.pub=Case+Western+Reserve+University&rft.date=2018-05-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcase.edu%2Fech%2Farticles%2Fg%2Fgreater-cleveland-regional-transit-authority&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPorter1976" class="citation book cs1">Porter, Philip W. (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080720145758/http://clevelandmemory.org/SpecColl/porter/Chapt09.html#p180">"Chapter Nine: Erieview, the Big Mistake: 1953–1962"</a>. Cleveland: Confused City on a Seesaw. Columbus, Ohio: <a href="/wiki/Ohio_State_University_Press" title="Ohio State University Press">Ohio State University Press</a>. p. 180. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8142-0264-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8142-0264-7"><bdi>978-0-8142-0264-7</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://clevelandmemory.org/SpecColl/porter/Chapt09.html#p180">the original</a> on July 20, 2008. Retrieved July 22, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+Nine%3A+Erieview%2C+the+Big+Mistake%3A+1953%E2%80%931962&rft.btitle=Cleveland%3A+Confused+City+on+a+Seesaw&rft.place=Columbus%2C+Ohio&rft.pages=180&rft.pub=Ohio+State+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-8142-0264-7&rft.aulast=Porter&rft.aufirst=Philip+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fclevelandmemory.org%2FSpecColl%2Fporter%2FChapt09.html%23p180&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> Transcription at The Cleveland Memory Project website. </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://case.edu/ech/articles/c/cleveland-electric-illuminating-co">"Cleveland Electric Illuminating Co."</a>. The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History. Case Western Reserve University. April 4, 2019. Retrieved July 22, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cleveland+Electric+Illuminating+Co.&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Cleveland+History&rft.pub=Case+Western+Reserve+University&rft.date=2019-04-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcase.edu%2Fech%2Farticles%2Fc%2Fcleveland-electric-illuminating-co&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncl.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=130&Itemid=186">"AAC Winners by State and City"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Civic_League" title="National Civic League">National Civic League</a>. Retrieved December 11, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=AAC+Winners+by+State+and+City&rft.pub=National+Civic+League&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncl.org%2Findex.php%3Foption%3Dcom_content%26view%3Darticle%26id%3D130%26Itemid%3D186&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSchneider1991" class="citation news cs1">Schneider, Russell (November 3, 1991). "Those Championship Seasons: Cleveland's Rich Sports History". <a href="/wiki/The_Plain_Dealer" title="The Plain Dealer">The Plain Dealer</a>. p. 206. <q>Once upon a time, Cleveland was known as the 'City of Champions.'</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Those+Championship+Seasons%3A+Cleveland%27s+Rich+Sports+History&rft.pages=206&rft.date=1991-11-03&rft.aulast=Schneider&rft.aufirst=Russell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-freed-88"><a href="#cite_ref-freed_88-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://case.edu/ech/articles/f/freed-alan">"Freed, Alan"</a>. The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History. Case Western Reserve University. Retrieved June 22, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Freed%2C+Alan&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Cleveland+History&rft.pub=Case+Western+Reserve+University&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcase.edu%2Fech%2Farticles%2Ff%2Ffreed-alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://case.edu/ech/articles/b/burke-thomas-aloysius">"Burke, Thomas A. (Aloysius)"</a>. The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History. Case Western Reserve University. 31 January 2019. Retrieved May 30, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Burke%2C+Thomas+A.+%28Aloysius%29&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Cleveland+History&rft.pub=Case+Western+Reserve+University&rft.date=2019-01-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcase.edu%2Fech%2Farticles%2Fb%2Fburke-thomas-aloysius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://case.edu/ech/articles/b/burke-lakefront-airport">"Burke Lakefront Airport"</a>. The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History. Case Western Reserve University. 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Retrieved July 3, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Divided+by+Design%3A+Tracking+Neighborhood+Racial+Segregation+in+Cleveland&rft.pub=WVIZ&rft.date=2017-11-14&rft.aulast=Eddings&rft.aufirst=Amy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ideastream.org%2Fnews%2Fdivided-by-design-tracking-neighborhood-racial-segregation-in-cleveland&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-celebrezze-92">^ <a href="#cite_ref-celebrezze_92-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-celebrezze_92-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://case.edu/ech/articles/m/mayoral-administration-anthony-j-celebrezze">"Mayoral Administration of Anthony J. Celebrezze"</a>. The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History. Case Western Reserve University. 11 May 2018. Retrieved May 30, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mayoral+Administration+of+Anthony+J.+Celebrezze&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Cleveland+History&rft.pub=Case+Western+Reserve+University&rft.date=2018-05-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcase.edu%2Fech%2Farticles%2Fm%2Fmayoral-administration-anthony-j-celebrezze&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://case.edu/ech/articles/e/erieview">"Erieview"</a>. The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History. Case Western Reserve University. Retrieved May 30, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Erieview&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Cleveland+History&rft.pub=Case+Western+Reserve+University&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcase.edu%2Fech%2Farticles%2Fe%2Ferieview&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://case.edu/ech/articles/m/mayoral-administration-ralph-s-locher">"Mayoral Administration of Ralph S. Locher"</a>. The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History. Case Western Reserve University. 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Norton & Company). p. 14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-63149-285-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-63149-285-3"><bdi>978-1-63149-285-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Color+of+Law%3A+A+Forgotten+History+of+How+Our+Government+Segregated+America&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=Liveright+%28W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company%29&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-63149-285-3&rft.aulast=Rothstein&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStokes1973" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Carl_Stokes" title="Carl Stokes">Stokes, Carl B.</a> (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/promisesofpowerp00stok/page/42">Promises of Power: A Political Autobiography</a>. New York: Simon and Schuster. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/promisesofpowerp00stok/page/42">42</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-671-21602-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-671-21602-3"><bdi>978-0-671-21602-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Promises+of+Power%3A+A+Political+Autobiography&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0-671-21602-3&rft.aulast=Stokes&rft.aufirst=Carl+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpromisesofpowerp00stok%2Fpage%2F42&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-stokes-98">^ <a href="#cite_ref-stokes_98-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stokes_98-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://case.edu/ech/articles/m/mayoral-administration-carl-b-stokes">"Mayoral Administration of Carl B. 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Retrieved May 30, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+historic+look+at+former+Cleveland+Mayor+Ralph+J.+Perk%2C+the+%27hottest+mayor+in+the+country%27&rft.pub=The+Plain+Dealer&rft.date=2017-11-02&rft.aulast=Cooley&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cleveland.com%2Fentertainment%2F2017%2F11%2Fa_historic_look_at_clevelands.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://case.edu/ech/articles/cleveland-sister-city-partnerships">"Cleveland Sister City Partnerships"</a>. The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History. Case Western Reserve University. 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Defeating Defeatism— and Jimmy Carter"</a>, Morning in America: How Ronald Reagan Invented the 1980's, Politics and Society in Modern America, Princeton University Press, p. 30, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9781400849307.24">10.1515/9781400849307.24</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-4930-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-4930-7"><bdi>978-1-4008-4930-7</bdi></a>, retrieved 2021-11-24</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Morning+in+America%3A+How+Ronald+Reagan+Invented+the+1980%27s&rft.atitle=1980+Cleveland%3A+%22There+You+Go+Again%21%22+Defeating+Defeatism%E2%80%94+and+Jimmy+Carter&rft.pages=30&rft.date=2013-12-31&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9781400849307.24&rft.isbn=978-1-4008-4930-7&rft.aulast=Gil&rft.aufirst=Troy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fdocument%2Fdoi%2F10.1515%2F9781400849307.24%2Fhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-dennis-108"><a href="#cite_ref-dennis_108-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://case.edu/ech/articles/m/mayoral-administration-dennis-j-kucinich">"Mayoral Administration of Dennis J. 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The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History. Case Western Reserve University. 11 May 2018. 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Retrieved May 30, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mayoral+Administration+of+Jane+L.+Campbell&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Cleveland+History&rft.pub=Case+Western+Reserve+University&rft.date=2018-05-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcase.edu%2Fech%2Farticles%2Fm%2Fmayoral-administration-jane-l-campbell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-jackson-121">^ <a href="#cite_ref-jackson_121-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-jackson_121-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://case.edu/ech/articles/m/mayoral-administration-frank-g-jackson">"Mayoral Administration of Frank G. Jackson"</a>. The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History. Case Western Reserve University. 11 May 2018. Retrieved May 30, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mayoral+Administration+of+Frank+G.+Jackson&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Cleveland+History&rft.pub=Case+Western+Reserve+University&rft.date=2018-05-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcase.edu%2Fech%2Farticles%2Fm%2Fmayoral-administration-frank-g-jackson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJackson2012" class="citation web cs1">Jackson, Felesia M. (August 20, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cleveland.com/countyincrisis/2010/09/schemes_title_to_come.html">"Cuyahoga County's corruption investigation: A comprehensive guide"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Plain_Dealer" title="The Plain Dealer">The Plain Dealer</a>. Retrieved May 30, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cuyahoga+County%27s+corruption+investigation%3A+A+comprehensive+guide&rft.pub=The+Plain+Dealer&rft.date=2012-08-20&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=Felesia+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cleveland.com%2Fcountyincrisis%2F2010%2F09%2Fschemes_title_to_come.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NYT-cuyahoga-123"><a href="#cite_ref-NYT-cuyahoga_123-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMaag2009" class="citation web cs1">Maag, Christopher (June 20, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/21/us/21river.html">"From the Ashes of '69, Cleveland's Cuyahoga River Is Reborn"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. Retrieved July 25, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=From+the+Ashes+of+%2769%2C+Cleveland%27s+Cuyahoga+River+Is+Reborn&rft.date=2009-06-20&rft.aulast=Maag&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2009%2F06%2F21%2Fus%2F21river.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://planning.clevelandohio.gov/census2020/index.html">"Census 2020 in Cleveland"</a>. Cleveland City Planning Commission. Retrieved July 11, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Census+2020+in+Cleveland&rft.pub=Cleveland+City+Planning+Commission&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplanning.clevelandohio.gov%2Fcensus2020%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFExner2019" class="citation web cs1">Exner, Rich (May 23, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://expo.cleveland.com/news/g66l-2019/05/d1695a54c89135/clevelands-population-flattens-near-385000-after-decades-of-big-losses-new-census-estimates-say.html">"Cleveland's population flattens near 385,000 after decades of big losses, new census estimates say"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Plain_Dealer" title="The Plain Dealer">The Plain Dealer</a>. Retrieved July 15, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cleveland%27s+population+flattens+near+385%2C000+after+decades+of+big+losses%2C+new+census+estimates+say&rft.pub=The+Plain+Dealer&rft.date=2019-05-23&rft.aulast=Exner&rft.aufirst=Rich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fexpo.cleveland.com%2Fnews%2Fg66l-2019%2F05%2Fd1695a54c89135%2Fclevelands-population-flattens-near-385000-after-decades-of-big-losses-new-census-estimates-say.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMcCauley2016" class="citation news cs1">McCauley, Janie (June 19, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170814231002/http://www.nba.com/games/20160619/CLEGSW/gameinfo.html?ls=iref:nbahpt11a">"James and Cavaliers win thrilling NBA Finals Game 7, 93–89"</a>. National Basketball Association. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nba.com/games/20160619/CLEGSW/gameinfo.html?ls=iref:nbahpt11a">the original</a> on August 14, 2017. Retrieved June 20, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=James+and+Cavaliers+win+thrilling+NBA+Finals+Game+7%2C+93%E2%80%9389&rft.date=2016-06-19&rft.aulast=McCauley&rft.aufirst=Janie&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nba.com%2Fgames%2F20160619%2FCLEGSW%2Fgameinfo.html%3Fls%3Diref%3Anbahpt11a&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJackson" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Frank_G._Jackson" title="Frank G. Jackson">Jackson, Frank G.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cleveland-oh.gov/sites/default/files/forms_publications/HighlightsStateCity%20Address.pdf">"2016 State of the City Address"</a> (PDF). City of Cleveland. Retrieved August 9, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=2016+State+of+the+City+Address&rft.pub=City+of+Cleveland&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=Frank+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cleveland-oh.gov%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fforms_publications%2FHighlightsStateCity%2520Address.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDirr" class="citation web cs1">Dirr, Alison. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jsonline.com/story/news/local/milwaukee/2019/05/20/abele-signs-resolution-declaring-racism-public-health-crisis/3741809002/">"Milwaukee County executive signs resolution declaring racism a public health crisis"</a>. Milwaukee Journal Sentinel. Retrieved 2020-06-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Milwaukee+Journal+Sentinel&rft.atitle=Milwaukee+County+executive+signs+resolution+declaring+racism+a+public+health+crisis&rft.aulast=Dirr&rft.aufirst=Alison&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jsonline.com%2Fstory%2Fnews%2Flocal%2Fmilwaukee%2F2019%2F05%2F20%2Fabele-signs-resolution-declaring-racism-public-health-crisis%2F3741809002%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGoist2020" class="citation web cs1">Goist, Robin (2020-06-28). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cleveland.com/news/2020/06/what-happens-after-a-city-or-county-declares-racism-a-public-health-crisis-a-wisconsin-county-offers-a-clue.html">"What happens after declaring racism a public health crisis? A Wisconsin county offers a clue"</a>. Cleveland.com. Retrieved 2020-06-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cleveland.com&rft.atitle=What+happens+after+declaring+racism+a+public+health+crisis%3F+A+Wisconsin+county+offers+a+clue&rft.date=2020-06-28&rft.aulast=Goist&rft.aufirst=Robin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cleveland.com%2Fnews%2F2020%2F06%2Fwhat-happens-after-a-city-or-county-declares-racism-a-public-health-crisis-a-wisconsin-county-offers-a-clue.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-BibbWinner-130"><a href="#cite_ref-BibbWinner_130-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCastele2021" class="citation news cs1">Castele, Nick (November 2, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ideastream.org/news/justin-bibb-will-be-clevelands-next-mayor">"Justin Bibb will be Cleveland's next mayor"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ideastream" title="Ideastream">Ideastream</a>. Retrieved November 2, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Justin+Bibb+will+be+Cleveland%27s+next+mayor&rft.date=2021-11-02&rft.aulast=Castele&rft.aufirst=Nick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ideastream.org%2Fnews%2Fjustin-bibb-will-be-clevelands-next-mayor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Cleveland&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Cleveland" title="Bibliography of Cleveland">Bibliography of Cleveland</a></div> <ul><li>* Van Tassel, David, and John Grabowski, eds. Encyclopedia of Cleveland History (1996), Massive with comprehensive coverage of all topics. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofcl0000unse">online copy of hardcover</a> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://case.edu/ech/">online copy of its text</a></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAlbrechtBanks2015" class="citation book cs1">Albrecht, Brian; Banks, James (2015). Cleveland in World War II. Charleston: The History Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-62619-882-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-62619-882-1"><bdi>978-1-62619-882-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cleveland+in+World+War+II&rft.place=Charleston&rft.pub=The+History+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-62619-882-1&rft.aulast=Albrecht&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft.au=Banks%2C+James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Barton, Josef J. Peasants and Strangers: Italians, Rumanians, and Slovaks in an American City, 1890-1950 (1975). about Cleveland. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/peasantsstranger0000bart">online</a></li> <li>Bender, Kim K. "Cleveland, a leader among cities: The municipal home rule movement of the Progressive Era, 1900-1915" (PhD dissertation, University of Oklahoma; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1996. 9623672).</li> <li>Bionaz, Robert Emery. "Streetcar city: Popular politics and the shaping of urban progressivism in Cleveland, 1880–1910" (PhD dissertation, University of Iowa; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2002. 3050774).</li> <li>Borchert, James, and Susan Borchert. "Downtown, Uptown, Out of Town: Diverging Patterns of Upper-Class Residential Landscapes in Buffalo, Pittsburgh, and Cleveland, 1885-1935." Social Science History 26#2 (2002): 311–346.</li> <li>Briggs, Robert L. "The Progressive Era In Cleveland, Ohio: Tom L. Johnson's Administration, 1901-1909" (PhD dissertation, University of Chicago; Proquest Dissertations Publishing, 1962. T-09573).</li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCampbellMiggins1988" class="citation book cs1">Campbell, Thomas F.; Miggins, Edward M. (1988). The Birth of Modern Cleveland, 1865-1930. Cleveland: Western Reserve Historical Society. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-911704-36-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-911704-36-5"><bdi>978-0-911704-36-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Birth+of+Modern+Cleveland%2C+1865-1930&rft.place=Cleveland&rft.pub=Western+Reserve+Historical+Society&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-911704-36-5&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Thomas+F.&rft.au=Miggins%2C+Edward+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCondon1976" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_E._Condon" title="George E. Condon">Condon, George E.</a> (1976). Yesterday's Cleveland. Miami: E.A. Seemann. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-912458-73-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-912458-73-9"><bdi>0-912458-73-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Yesterday%27s+Cleveland&rft.place=Miami&rft.pub=E.A.+Seemann&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=0-912458-73-9&rft.aulast=Condon&rft.aufirst=George+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCondon1979" class="citation book cs1">Condon, George E. (1979). Cleveland: Prodigy of the Western Reserve. Tulsa: Continental Heritage Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-932986-06-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-932986-06-1"><bdi>978-0-932986-06-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cleveland%3A+Prodigy+of+the+Western+Reserve&rft.place=Tulsa&rft.pub=Continental+Heritage+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-932986-06-1&rft.aulast=Condon&rft.aufirst=George+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"></li> <li>DeMatteo, Arthur Edward. "Urban reform, politics, and the working class: Detroit, Toledo, and Cleveland, 1890-1922" (PhD dissertation, University of Akron; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1999. 9940602).</li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGrabowskiGrabowski2000" class="citation book cs1">Grabowski, John J.; Grabowski, Diane Ewart (2000). Cleveland: A History in Motion. Carlsbad, CA: Heritage Media. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-886483-38-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-886483-38-8"><bdi>1-886483-38-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cleveland%3A+A+History+in+Motion&rft.place=Carlsbad%2C+CA&rft.pub=Heritage+Media&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=1-886483-38-8&rft.aulast=Grabowski&rft.aufirst=John+J.&rft.au=Grabowski%2C+Diane+Ewart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGregor2010" class="citation book cs1">Gregor, Sharon E. (2010). Rockefeller's Cleveland. Charleston: Arcadia Publishing.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rockefeller%27s+Cleveland&rft.place=Charleston&rft.pub=Arcadia+Publishing&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Gregor&rft.aufirst=Sharon+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <ul><li>Hoffman, Mark C. "City republic, civil religion, and the single tax: The progressive-era founding of public administration in Cleveland, 1901-1915" (PhD dissertation, Cleveland State University; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1998. 9928627).</li> <li>Hoffman, Naphtali. "The Process of Economic Development in Cleveland, 1825-1920" (PhD dissertation, Case Western Reserve University; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1981. 8109590).</li> <li>Holli, Melvin G., and Jones, Peter d'A., eds. Biographical Dictionary of American Mayors, 1820-1980 (Greenwood Press, 1981) short scholarly biographies each of the city's mayors 1820 to 1980. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/biographicaldict0000unse_r8s1">online</a>; see index at p. 408 for list.</li></ul> <ul><li>Hothem, Seth, et al. "From Flames to Fish: Resurrection of the Cuyahoga." Proceedings of the Water Environment Federation 2009.16 (2009): 1655–1672.</li> <li>Jenkins, William D. "Before Downtown Cleveland, Ohio, and Urban Renewal, 1949-1958." Journal of Urban History 27.4 (2001): 471–496.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJohannesen1979" class="citation book cs1">Johannesen, Eric (1979). Cleveland Architecture, 1876-1976. Cleveland: Western Reserve Historical. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-911704-21-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-911704-21-1"><bdi>978-0-911704-21-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cleveland+Architecture%2C+1876-1976&rft.place=Cleveland&rft.pub=Western+Reserve+Historical&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-911704-21-1&rft.aulast=Johannesen&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKeatingKrumholzPerry1995" class="citation book cs1">Keating, W. Dennis; Krumholz, Norman; Perry, David C. (1995). Cleveland: A Metropolitan Reader. Kent, OH: Kent State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87338-492-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87338-492-6"><bdi>978-0-87338-492-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cleveland%3A+A+Metropolitan+Reader&rft.place=Kent%2C+OH&rft.pub=Kent+State+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-87338-492-6&rft.aulast=Keating&rft.aufirst=W.+Dennis&rft.au=Krumholz%2C+Norman&rft.au=Perry%2C+David+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Keating, Dennis, Norman Krumholz, and Ann Marie Wieland. "Cleveland's Lakefront: Its Development and Planning." Journal of Planning History 4#2 (2005): 129–154.</li> <li>Kukral, Michael A. "Czech Settlements in 19th Century Cleveland, Ohio." East European Quarterly 38.4 (2004): 473.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKusmer1978" class="citation book cs1">Kusmer, Kenneth L. (1978). A Ghetto Takes Shape: Black Cleveland, 1870-1930. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-00690-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-252-00690-6"><bdi>978-0-252-00690-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Ghetto+Takes+Shape%3A+Black+Cleveland%2C+1870-1930&rft.place=Urbana+and+Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-252-00690-6&rft.aulast=Kusmer&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Lamoreaux, Naomi R., <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Levenstein" title="Margaret Levenstein">Margaret Levenstein</a>, and Kenneth L. Sokoloff. "Financing invention during the second industrial revolution: Cleveland, Ohio, 1870-1920." (No. w10923. National Bureau of Economic Research, 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.colorado.edu/ibs/EB/alston/econ8534/SectionXI/Lamoreaux,_Levenstein_and_Sokoloff,_Financing_Invention_during_the_Second_Industrial_Revolution,_Cleveland,_Ohio,_1870-1920.pdf">online</a></li></ul> <ul><li>Lee, Darry Kyong Ho. "From a puritan city to a cosmopolitan city: Cleveland Protestants in the changing social order, 1898-1940" (PhD dissertation, Case Western Reserve University; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1994. 9501996).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMichney2017" class="citation book cs1">Michney, Todd M. (2017). Surrogate Suburbs: Black Upward Mobility and Neighborhood Change in Cleveland, 1900–1980. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4696-3194-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4696-3194-3"><bdi>978-1-4696-3194-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Surrogate+Suburbs%3A+Black+Upward+Mobility+and+Neighborhood+Change+in+Cleveland%2C+1900%E2%80%931980&rft.place=Chapel+Hill&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-4696-3194-3&rft.aulast=Michney&rft.aufirst=Todd+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Miggins, Edward M. " 'No Crystal Stair' The Cleveland Public Schools and the Struggle for Equality, 1900–1930." Journal of Urban History 40.4 (2014): 671-698.</li> <li>Miggins, Edward M. "The Search for the One Best System: Cleveland Public Schools And Educational Reform, 1836-1920." in Van Tasse, ed. Cleveland: A tradition of reform (1986): 135-155.</li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMillerWheeler1997" class="citation book cs1">Miller, Carol Poh; Wheeler, Robert A. (1997). Cleveland: A Concise History, 1796–1996 (2nd ed.). Bloomington: Indiana University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-21147-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-21147-7"><bdi>978-0-253-21147-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cleveland%3A+A+Concise+History%2C+1796%E2%80%931996&rft.place=Bloomington&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-253-21147-7&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Carol+Poh&rft.au=Wheeler%2C+Robert+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <ul><li>Moore, Leonard Nathaniel. "The limits of black power: Carl B. Stokes and Cleveland's African-American community, 1945-1971" (PhD dissertation, The Ohio State University; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1998. 9834036).</li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMorton2002" class="citation book cs1">Morton, Marian J. (2002). Cleveland Heights: The Making of An Urban Suburb. Charleston: Arcadia Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7385-2384-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-7385-2384-4"><bdi>0-7385-2384-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cleveland+Heights%3A+The+Making+of+An+Urban+Suburb&rft.place=Charleston&rft.pub=Arcadia+Publishing&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-7385-2384-4&rft.aulast=Morton&rft.aufirst=Marian+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Phillips, Julieanne Appleson. " 'Unity in diversity'? The Federation of Women's Clubs and the middle class in Cleveland, Ohio, 1902-1962" (PhD dissertation, Case Western Reserve University; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1996. 9720443).</li> <li>Poluse, Martin Frank. "Archbishop Joseph Schrembs and the twentieth century Catholic Church in Cleveland, 1921-1945" (PhD dissertation, Kent State University; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1991. 92146740.</li> <li>Rainey, David M. "A Seemingly Insurmountable Problem: Carl Stokes and the Failure of Cleveland Now!" )PhD disssertation, U of Massachusetts Boston; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2018. 13419673).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRose1990" class="citation book cs1">Rose, William Ganson (1990). Cleveland: The Making of a City (2nd ed.). Kent, OH: Kent State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87338-428-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87338-428-5"><bdi>978-0-87338-428-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cleveland%3A+The+Making+of+a+City&rft.place=Kent%2C+OH&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Kent+State+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-87338-428-5&rft.aulast=Rose&rft.aufirst=William+Ganson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Suman, Michael Wesley. "The radical urban politics of the Progressive Era: An analysis of the political transformation in Cleveland, Ohio, 1875-1909" (PhD dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1992. 9301960).</li></ul> <ul><li>Tuennerman-Kaplan, Laura. Helping others, helping ourselves: Power, giving, and community identity in Cleveland, Ohio, 1880-1930 (Kent State University Press, 2001).</li> <li>Van Tassel, David, and John Grabowski, eds. Cleveland: A Tradition of Reforms (1986) tten essays by experts</li> <li>Veronesi, Gene P. Italian-Americans & Their Communities of Cleveland (1977) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.clevelandmemory.org/italians/index.html">Complete text online</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Older_sources">Older sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Cleveland&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Older sources">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAvery1918" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Elroy_M._Avery" title="Elroy M. Avery">Avery, Elroy McKendree</a> (1918). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=avery%20%22history%20of%20cleveland%22%20AND%20mediatype%3Atexts">A History of Cleveland and Its Environs: the Heart of New Connecticut. 3 volumes</a>. Chicago, IL: The Lewis Publishing Company. Retrieved 2013-06-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Cleveland+and+Its+Environs%3A+the+Heart+of+New+Connecticut.+3+volumes&rft.place=Chicago%2C+IL&rft.pub=The+Lewis+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1918&rft.aulast=Avery&rft.aufirst=Elroy+McKendree&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fsearch.php%3Fquery%3Davery%2520%2522history%2520of%2520cleveland%2522%2520AND%2520mediatype%253Atexts&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Auburn, William H., and Miriam R. Auburn. 1933. This Cleveland of Ours. Cleveland: S.J. Clarke Publishing Co.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cleveland01unse">Cleveland</a>. Vol. 1 (Special limited ed.). Chicago: The Lewis Publishing Company. 1918. Retrieved 2013-06-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cleveland&rft.place=Chicago&rft.edition=Special+limited&rft.pub=The+Lewis+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1918&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcleveland01unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cleveland02unse">Cleveland</a>. Vol. 2 (Special limited ed.). Chicago: The Lewis Publishing Company. 1918. Retrieved 2013-06-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cleveland&rft.place=Chicago&rft.edition=Special+limited&rft.pub=The+Lewis+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1918&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcleveland02unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKennedy1896" class="citation book cs1">Kennedy, James Harrison (1896). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofcityof00kenn">A history of the city of Cleveland : its settlement, rise, and progress, 1796-1896, illustrated with maps, portraits, and views</a>. Cleveland, Ohio: The Imperial Press. Retrieved 2013-06-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+the+city+of+Cleveland+%3A+its+settlement%2C+rise%2C+and+progress%2C+1796-1896%2C+illustrated+with+maps%2C+portraits%2C+and+views&rft.place=Cleveland%2C+Ohio&rft.pub=The+Imperial+Press&rft.date=1896&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=James+Harrison&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofcityof00kenn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Orth, Samuel Peter. A History of Cleveland, Ohio: Biographical. Vol. 2 (SJ Clarke Publishing Company, 1910). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=xt4yAQAAMAAJ">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFUrann1896" class="citation book cs1">Urann, Clara A. (1896). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/centennialhistor00uran">Centennial history of Cleveland</a>. Cleveland, Ohio: Press of J.B. Savage. Retrieved 2013-06-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Centennial+history+of+Cleveland&rft.place=Cleveland%2C+Ohio&rft.pub=Press+of+J.B.+Savage&rft.date=1896&rft.aulast=Urann&rft.aufirst=Clara+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcentennialhistor00uran&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWallen1920" class="citation book cs1">Wallen, James (1920). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/clevelandsgolden00walluoft">Cleveland's golden story, a chronicle of hearts that hoped, minds that planned and hands that toiled, to make a city "great and glorious"</a>. William Taylor Son & Co. Retrieved 2013-06-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cleveland%27s+golden+story%2C+a+chronicle+of+hearts+that+hoped%2C+minds+that+planned+and+hands+that+toiled%2C+to+make+a+city+%22great+and+glorious%22&rft.pub=William+Taylor+Son+%26+Co&rft.date=1920&rft.aulast=Wallen&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fclevelandsgolden00walluoft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWhittlesey1867" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Whittlesey_(geologist)" title="Charles Whittlesey (geologist)">Whittlesey, Charles</a> (1867). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/earlyhistorycle01whitgoog">Early History of Cleveland, Ohio: Including Original Papers and Other Matter Relating to the Adjacent Country, with Biographical Notices of the Pioneers and Surveyors</a>. Cleveland, Ohio: Fairbanks, Benedict & Co. Retrieved 2013-06-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+History+of+Cleveland%2C+Ohio%3A+Including+Original+Papers+and+Other+Matter+Relating+to+the+Adjacent+Country%2C+with+Biographical+Notices+of+the+Pioneers+and+Surveyors&rft.place=Cleveland%2C+Ohio&rft.pub=Fairbanks%2C+Benedict+%26+Co.&rft.date=1867&rft.aulast=Whittlesey&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fearlyhistorycle01whitgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Cleveland" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Cleveland&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=&#124;link=_City_of_Cleveland326" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cleveland" title="Template:Cleveland"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cleveland" title="Template talk:Cleveland"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cleveland" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cleveland"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=&#124;link=_City_of_Cleveland326" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Flag_of_Cleveland%2C_Ohio.svg/23px-Flag_of_Cleveland%2C_Ohio.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Flag_of_Cleveland%2C_Ohio.svg/35px-Flag_of_Cleveland%2C_Ohio.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Flag_of_Cleveland%2C_Ohio.svg/45px-Flag_of_Cleveland%2C_Ohio.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Cleveland" title="Cleveland">City of Cleveland</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent; text-align:left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Cleveland" title="Timeline of Cleveland">Timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Cleveland" title="Demographics of Cleveland">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Greater_Cleveland" title="Economy of Greater Cleveland">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mass_media_in_Cleveland" title="List of mass media in Cleveland">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Cleveland" title="Flag of Cleveland">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicknames_of_Cleveland" title="Nicknames of Cleveland">Nicknames</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_from_Cleveland" title="List of people from Cleveland">Notable people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_public_art_in_Cleveland" title="List of public art in Cleveland">Public art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Cleveland" title="List of tallest buildings in Cleveland">Skyscrapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuyahoga_County,_Ohio" title="Cuyahoga County, Ohio">Cuyahoga County</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Cleveland" title="Greater Cleveland">MSA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Ohio" title="Northeast Ohio">CSA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Cleveland" title="Bibliography of Cleveland">Bibliography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent; text-align:left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Local</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent; text-align:left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mayor_of_Cleveland" title="Mayor of Cleveland">Mayor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_City_Council" title="Cleveland City Council">City Council</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_City_Hall" title="Cleveland City Hall">City Hall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Metropolitan_School_District" title="Cleveland Metropolitan School District">Cleveland Metro School District</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaker_Heights_City_School_District" title="Shaker Heights City School District">Shaker Heights City School District</a> (part)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">State</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent; text-align:left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frank_J._Lausche_State_Office_Building" title="Frank J. Lausche State Office Building">Lausche State Office Building</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Federal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent; text-align:left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_J._Celebrezze_Federal_Building" title="Anthony J. Celebrezze Federal Building">Celebrezze Federal Building</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coast_Guard_District_9" title="Coast Guard District 9">Coast Guard District 9</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve_Bank_of_Cleveland" title="Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland">Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenn_Research_Center" title="Glenn Research Center">NASA Glenn Research Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_M._Metzenbaum_United_States_Courthouse" title="Howard M. Metzenbaum United States Courthouse">Metzenbaum U.S. Courthouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_B._Stokes_United_States_Courthouse" title="Carl B. Stokes United States Courthouse">Stokes U.S. Courthouse</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Public safety</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent; text-align:left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_EMS" title="Cleveland EMS">EMS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Division_of_Fire" title="Cleveland Division of Fire">Fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Division_of_Police" title="Cleveland Division of Police">Police</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Transportation_in_Cleveland" title="Transportation in Cleveland">Transportation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent; text-align:left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Land</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent; text-align:left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Cleveland_Regional_Transit_Authority" title="Greater Cleveland Regional Transit Authority">RTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Memorial_Shoreway" title="Cleveland Memorial Shoreway">Shoreway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detroit%E2%80%93Superior_Bridge" title="Detroit–Superior Bridge">Detroit–Superior Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hope_Memorial_Bridge" title="Hope Memorial Bridge">Hope Memorial Bridge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Air</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent; text-align:left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Burke_Lakefront_Airport" title="Cleveland Burke Lakefront Airport">Burke Lakefront Airport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Hopkins_International_Airport" title="Cleveland Hopkins International Airport">Hopkins International Airport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Water</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent; text-align:left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Goodtime_III" title="Goodtime III">Goodtime III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_of_Cleveland" title="Port of Cleveland">Port of Cleveland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Healthcare</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent; text-align:left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Clinic" title="Cleveland Clinic">Cleveland Clinic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_Education_Campus" title="Health Education Campus">Health Education Campus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_Hospitals_Cleveland_Medical_Center" title="University Hospitals Cleveland Medical Center">University Hospitals Cleveland Medical Center</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rainbow_Babies_%26_Children%27s_Hospital" title="Rainbow Babies & Children's Hospital">Rainbow Babies & Children's Hospital</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MetroHealth" class="mw-redirect" title="MetroHealth">MetroHealth System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Vincent_Charity_Medical_Center" title="St. Vincent Charity Medical Center">St. Vincent Charity Medical Center</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Culture_of_Cleveland" title="Category:Culture of Cleveland">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent; text-align:left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Cleveland" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Cleveland">Historic places</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent; text-align:left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/City_Club_of_Cleveland" title="City Club of Cleveland">City Club of Cleveland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Arcade" title="Cleveland Arcade">Cleveland Arcade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Public_Library" title="Cleveland Public Library">Cleveland Public Library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Trust_Company_Building" title="Cleveland Trust Company Building">Cleveland Trust Company Building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunham_Tavern" title="Dunham Tavern">Dunham Tavern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erie_Street_Cemetery" title="Erie Street Cemetery">Erie Street Cemetery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euclid_Avenue_(Cleveland)" title="Euclid Avenue (Cleveland)">Euclid Avenue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grays_Armory" title="Grays Armory">Grays Armory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_View_Cemetery" title="Lake View Cemetery">Lake View Cemetery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_A._Garfield_Memorial" title="James A. Garfield Memorial">James A. Garfield Memorial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perry_Monument_(Cleveland)" title="Perry Monument (Cleveland)">Perry Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Square,_Cleveland" title="Public Square, Cleveland">Public Square</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soldiers%27_and_Sailors%27_Monument_(Cleveland)" title="Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument (Cleveland)">Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terminal_Tower" title="Terminal Tower">Terminal Tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Side_Market" title="West Side Market">West Side Market</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_in_Cleveland" title="List of museums in Cleveland">Museums</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent; text-align:left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A_Christmas_Story_House" title="A Christmas Story House">A Christmas Story House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Reserve_Historical_Society" title="Western Reserve Historical Society">Cleveland History Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Museum_of_Art" title="Cleveland Museum of Art">Cleveland Museum of Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Museum_of_Natural_History" title="Cleveland Museum of Natural History">Cleveland Museum of Natural History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_Museum_of_Cleveland" title="Children's Museum of Cleveland">Children's Museum of Cleveland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Hungarian_Museum" title="Cleveland Hungarian Museum">Cleveland Hungarian Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cozad%E2%80%93Bates_House" title="Cozad–Bates House">Cozad–Bates House Interpretive Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dittrick_Museum_of_Medical_History" title="Dittrick Museum of Medical History">Dittrick Museum of Medical History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes_Science_Center" title="Great Lakes Science Center">Great Lakes Science Center</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SS_William_G._Mather_(1925)" title="SS William G. Mather (1925)">Steamship William G. Mather Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes_Science_Center#NASA_Glenn_Visitor_Center" title="Great Lakes Science Center">NASA Glenn Visitors Center</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Women%27s_Air_%26_Space_Museum" title="International Women's Air & Space Museum">International Women's Air & Space Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_American_Museum_of_Cleveland" title="Italian American Museum of Cleveland">Italian American Museum of Cleveland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve_Bank_of_Cleveland#Learning_Center_and_Money_Museum" title="Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland">Learning Center and Money Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Contemporary_Art_Cleveland" title="Museum of Contemporary Art Cleveland">Museum of Contemporary Art Cleveland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_and_Roll_Hall_of_Fame" title="Rock and Roll Hall of Fame">Rock and Roll Hall of Fame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Museum-Archives" title="Ukrainian Museum-Archives">Ukrainian Museum-Archives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Cod" title="USS Cod">USS Cod</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Parks and nature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent; text-align:left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Botanical_Garden" title="Cleveland Botanical Garden">Cleveland Botanical Garden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Metroparks" title="Cleveland Metroparks">Cleveland Metroparks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Metroparks_Zoo" title="Cleveland Metroparks Zoo">Cleveland Metroparks Zoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuyahoga_River" title="Cuyahoga River">Cuyahoga River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Park,_Cleveland" title="Gordon Park, Cleveland">Gordon Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Cleveland_Aquarium" title="Greater Cleveland Aquarium">Greater Cleveland Aquarium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Erie" title="Lake Erie">Lake Erie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Foundation_Centennial_Lake_Link_Trail" title="Cleveland Foundation Centennial Lake Link Trail">Lake Link Trail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Mall_(Cleveland)" title="The Mall (Cleveland)">The Mall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rockefeller_Park" title="Rockefeller Park">Rockefeller Park</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Cultural_Gardens" title="Cleveland Cultural Gardens">Cleveland Cultural Gardens</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wade_Park,_Cleveland" title="Wade Park, Cleveland">Wade Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Park,_Cleveland" title="Willard Park, Cleveland">Willard Park</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Performing arts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent; text-align:left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Ballet_(founded_2014)" title="Cleveland Ballet (founded 2014)">Cleveland Ballet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Cinematheque" title="Cleveland Cinematheque">Cleveland Cinematheque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Orchestra" title="Cleveland Orchestra">Cleveland Orchestra</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Severance_Hall" title="Severance Hall">Severance Hall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Playhouse" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleveland Playhouse">Cleveland Playhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Public_Theatre" title="Cleveland Public Theatre">Cleveland Public Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes_Theater" title="Great Lakes Theater">Great Lakes Theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karamu_House" title="Karamu House">Karamu House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maltz_Performing_Arts_Center" title="Maltz Performing Arts Center">Maltz Performing Arts Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near_West_Theatre" title="Near West Theatre">Near West Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Playhouse_Square" title="Playhouse Square">Playhouse Square</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talespinner_Children%27s_Theatre" title="Talespinner Children's Theatre">Talespinner Children's Theatre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Sports, concert, and convention venues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent; text-align:left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agora_Theatre_and_Ballroom" title="Agora Theatre and Ballroom">Agora Theatre and Ballroom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Masonic_Temple" title="Cleveland Masonic Temple">Cleveland Masonic Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huntington_Bank_Field" title="Huntington Bank Field">Huntington Bank Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huntington_Convention_Center_of_Cleveland" title="Huntington Convention Center of Cleveland">Huntington Convention Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I-X_Center" title="I-X Center">I-X Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobs_Pavilion" title="Jacobs Pavilion">Jacobs Pavilion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Field" title="Progressive Field">Progressive Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Auditorium" title="Public Auditorium">Public Auditorium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocket_Arena" title="Rocket Arena">Rocket Arena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolstein_Center" title="Wolstein Center">Wolstein Center</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Traditions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent; text-align:left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Feast_of_the_Assumption_Festival" title="Cleveland Feast of the Assumption Festival">Feast of the Assumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Amigus-dyngus#Cleveland,_Ohio" title="Śmigus-dyngus">Dyngus Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_International_Film_Festival" title="Cleveland International Film Festival">International Film Festival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Kurentovanje" title="Cleveland Kurentovanje">Kurentovanje</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Patrick%27s_Day_in_the_United_States#Cleveland,_Ohio" title="Saint Patrick's Day in the United States">Saint Patrick's Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweetest_Day" title="Sweetest Day">Sweetest Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Thyagaraja_Festival" title="Cleveland Thyagaraja Festival">Thyagaraja Festival</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Neighborhoods_in_Cleveland" title="Neighborhoods in Cleveland">Neighborhoods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent; text-align:left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Broadway%E2%80%93Slavic_Village" title="Broadway–Slavic Village">Broadway–Slavic Village</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brooklyn_Centre" title="Brooklyn Centre">Brooklyn Centre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buckeye%E2%80%93Shaker" title="Buckeye–Shaker">Buckeye–Shaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buckeye%E2%80%93Woodhill" title="Buckeye–Woodhill">Buckeye–Woodhill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central,_Cleveland" title="Central, Cleveland">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clark%E2%80%93Fulton" title="Clark–Fulton">Clark–Fulton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collinwood" title="Collinwood">Collinwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cudell,_Cleveland" title="Cudell, Cleveland">Cudell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuyahoga_Valley,_Cleveland" title="Cuyahoga Valley, Cleveland">Cuyahoga Valley</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Flats" title="The Flats">The Flats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whiskey_Island_(Cleveland)" title="Whiskey Island (Cleveland)">Whiskey Island</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detroit%E2%80%93Shoreway" title="Detroit–Shoreway">Detroit–Shoreway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downtown_Cleveland" title="Downtown Cleveland">Downtown</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Campus_District" title="Campus District">Campus District</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civic_Center_(Cleveland)" title="Civic Center (Cleveland)">Civic Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_4th_Street_(Cleveland)" title="East 4th Street (Cleveland)">East 4th Street</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gateway_Sports_and_Entertainment_Complex" title="Gateway Sports and Entertainment Complex">Gateway District</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nine-Twelve_District" title="Nine-Twelve District">Nine-Twelve District</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Coast_Harbor" title="North Coast Harbor">North Coast Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downtown_Cleveland#Short_Vincent" title="Downtown Cleveland">Short Vincent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downtown_Cleveland#Superior_Arts_District" title="Downtown Cleveland">Superior Arts District</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warehouse_District,_Cleveland" title="Warehouse District, Cleveland">Warehouse District</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgewater,_Cleveland" title="Edgewater, Cleveland">Edgewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euclid%E2%80%93Green" title="Euclid–Green">Euclid–Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fairfax,_Cleveland" title="Fairfax, Cleveland">Fairfax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenville,_Cleveland" title="Glenville, Cleveland">Glenville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goodrich%E2%80%93Kirtland_Park" title="Goodrich–Kirtland Park">Goodrich–Kirtland Park</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asiatown,_Cleveland" title="Asiatown, Cleveland">Asiatown</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hough,_Cleveland" title="Hough, Cleveland">Hough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinsman,_Cleveland" title="Kinsman, Cleveland">Kinsman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee%E2%80%93Miles" title="Lee–Miles">Lee–Miles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Pleasant,_Cleveland" title="Mount Pleasant, Cleveland">Mount Pleasant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohio_City,_Cleveland" title="Ohio City, Cleveland">Ohio City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Brooklyn" title="Old Brooklyn">Old Brooklyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Clair%E2%80%93Superior" title="St. Clair–Superior">St. Clair–Superior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stockyards,_Cleveland" title="Stockyards, Cleveland">Stockyards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tremont,_Cleveland" title="Tremont, Cleveland">Tremont</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tremont,_Cleveland#Duck_Island" title="Tremont, Cleveland">Duck Island</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union%E2%80%93Miles_Park" title="Union–Miles Park">Union–Miles Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_Circle" title="University Circle">University Circle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/University_Circle#Little_Italy" title="University Circle">Little Italy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Boulevard" title="West Boulevard">West Boulevard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Park,_Cleveland" title="West Park, Cleveland">West Park</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bellaire%E2%80%93Puritas,_Cleveland" title="Bellaire–Puritas, Cleveland">Bellaire–Puritas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hopkins,_Cleveland" title="Hopkins, Cleveland">Hopkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jefferson,_Cleveland" title="Jefferson, Cleveland">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamm%27s_Corners" title="Kamm's Corners">Kamm's Corners</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Sports_in_Cleveland" title="Sports in Cleveland">Sports</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent; text-align:left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Major League</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent; text-align:left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>NFL: <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Browns" title="Cleveland Browns">Cleveland Browns</a></li> <li>NBA: <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Cavaliers" title="Cleveland Cavaliers">Cleveland Cavaliers</a></li> <li>MLB: <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Guardians" title="Cleveland Guardians">Cleveland Guardians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Minor League</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent; text-align:left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>G League: <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Charge" title="Cleveland Charge">Cleveland Charge</a></li> <li>MLIS: <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Crunch" title="Cleveland Crunch">Cleveland Crunch</a></li> <li>AHL: <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Monsters" title="Cleveland Monsters">Cleveland Monsters</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">College</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent; text-align:left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>NCAA D1 (Horizon League): <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_State_Vikings" title="Cleveland State Vikings">Cleveland State Vikings</a></li> <li>NCAA D3 (UAA): <a href="/wiki/Case_Western_Reserve_Spartans" title="Case Western Reserve Spartans">Case Western Reserve Spartans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Cleveland&oldid=1277764135">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Cleveland&oldid=1277764135</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Cleveland" title="Category:History of Cleveland">History of Cleveland</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Histories_of_cities_in_Ohio" title="Category:Histories of cities in Ohio">Histories of cities in Ohio</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_errors:_periodical_ignored" title="Category:CS1 errors: periodical ignored">CS1 errors: periodical ignored</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_is_on_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link is on Wikidata">Commons category link is on Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 26 February 2025, at 15:54 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; 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