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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Material properties</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Material_properties-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Material properties subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Material_properties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Origins_and_production" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins_and_production"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Origins and production</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origins_and_production-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Properties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Properties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Properties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Properties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Heat_treatment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heat_treatment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Heat treatment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Heat_treatment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Production" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Production"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Production</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Production-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ancient" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Ancient</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wootz_and_Damascus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wootz_and_Damascus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Wootz and Damascus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wootz_and_Damascus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Modern</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Processes_starting_from_bar_iron" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Processes_starting_from_bar_iron"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.1</span> <span>Processes starting from bar iron</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Processes_starting_from_bar_iron-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Processes_starting_from_pig_iron" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Processes_starting_from_pig_iron"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.2</span> <span>Processes starting from pig iron</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Processes_starting_from_pig_iron-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Industry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Industry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Industry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recycling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recycling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Recycling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recycling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Contemporary</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Contemporary-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Contemporary subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Contemporary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Carbon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carbon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Carbon</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carbon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alloy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alloy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Alloy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alloy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Standards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Standards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Standards</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Standards-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Uses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Uses</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Uses-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Uses subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Uses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Historical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Historical</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Long" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Long"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Long</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Long-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Flat_carbon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flat_carbon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Flat carbon</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flat_carbon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Weathering_(COR-TEN)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Weathering_(COR-TEN)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>Weathering (COR-TEN)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Weathering_(COR-TEN)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stainless" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stainless"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.5</span> <span>Stainless</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stainless-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Low-background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Low-background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.6</span> <span>Low-background</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Low-background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Steel</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 145 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-145" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">145 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staal" title="Staal – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Staal" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stahl" title="Stahl – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Stahl" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4" title="इस्पात – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="इस्पात" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B0" title="فولاذ – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فولاذ" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acero" title="Acero – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Acero" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cilechi" title="Cilechi – Aromanian" lang="rup" hreflang="rup" data-title="Cilechi" data-language-autonym="Armãneashti" data-language-local-name="Aromanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Armãneashti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%96%E0%A6%BE" title="তীখা – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="তীখা" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aceru" title="Aceru – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Aceru" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuarepotijy" title="Kuarepotijy – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Kuarepotijy" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polad" title="Polad – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Polad" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AF" title="پولاد – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="پولاد" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4" title="ইস্পাত – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ইস্পাত" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waja" title="Waja – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Waja" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Banjar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C7%B9g-thih" title="Kǹg-thih – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kǹg-thih" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%A0%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81" title="Ҡорос – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Ҡорос" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Сталь – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Сталь" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Сталь – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Сталь" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Стомана – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Стомана" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Celik" title="Čelik – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Čelik" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dir" title="Dir – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Dir" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4" title="Ган булад – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Ган булад" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acer" title="Acer – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Acer" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%83%D1%80%C3%A7%C4%83" title="Хурçă – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Хурçă" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocel" title="Ocel – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ocel" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chisa" title="Chisa – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Chisa" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dur" title="Dur – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Dur" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C3%A5l" title="Stål – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Stål" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stahl" title="Stahl – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Stahl" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stal" title="Stal – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Stal" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="Lower Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dolnoserbski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teras" title="Teras – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Teras" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A7%CE%AC%CE%BB%CF%85%CE%B2%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Χάλυβας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Χάλυβας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acero" title="Acero – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Acero" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Ctalo" title="Ŝtalo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ŝtalo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altzairu" title="Altzairu – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Altzairu" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AF" title="فولاد – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فولاد" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steel" title="Steel – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Steel" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acier" title="Acier – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Acier" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stiel" title="Stiel – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Stiel" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%C3%A7%C3%A2r" title="Açâr – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Açâr" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cruach_(miotal)" title="Cruach (miotal) – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Cruach (miotal)" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C3%A0ilinn" title="Stàilinn – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Stàilinn" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aceiro" title="Aceiro – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Aceiro" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B0%95%EC%B2%A0" title="강철 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="강철" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karfe" title="Karfe – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Karfe" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8A%D5%B8%D5%B2%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF" title="Պողպատ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Պողպատ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4" title="इस्पात – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="इस्पात" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wocl" title="Wocl – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Wocl" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hornjoserbsce</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Celik" title="Čelik – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Čelik" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stalo" title="Stalo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Stalo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baja" title="Baja – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Baja" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aciero" title="Aciero – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Aciero" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%86%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Æндон – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Æндон" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C3%A1l" title="Stál – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Stál" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acciaio" title="Acciaio – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Acciaio" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%9C%D7%93%D7%94" title="פלדה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פלדה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waja" title="Waja – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Waja" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiyee" title="Asiyee – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Asiyee" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%89%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%81" title="ಉಕ್ಕು – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಉಕ್ಕು" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%93%E1%83%98" title="ფოლადი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ფოლადი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Болат – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Болат" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuma_cha_pua" title="Chuma cha pua – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Chuma cha pua" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asye" title="Asye – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Asye" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asy%C3%A9" title="Asyé – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Asyé" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%82" title="Болот – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Болот" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lbe mw-list-item"><a href="https://lbe.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Чаннан – Lak" lang="lbe" hreflang="lbe" data-title="Чаннан" data-language-autonym="Лакку" data-language-local-name="Lak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Лакку</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalybs" title="Chalybs – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Chalybs" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C4%93rauds" title="Tērauds – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Tērauds" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stol" title="Stol – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Stol" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plienas" title="Plienas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Plienas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staol" title="Staol – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Staol" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aser" title="Aser – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Aser" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/gasta" title="gasta – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="gasta" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>La .lojban.</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azzal" title="Azzal – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Azzal" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ac%C3%A9l" title="Acél – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Acél" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Челик – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Челик" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ts%E1%BB%B3" title="Tsỳ – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Tsỳ" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%89%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D" title="ഉരുക്ക് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഉരുക്ക്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="पोलाद – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="पोलाद" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%97%E1%83%98" title="ბულათი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ბულათი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keluli" title="Keluli – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Keluli" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baja" title="Baja – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Baja" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%C3%A7o" title="Aço – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Aço" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Ган – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Ган" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9E%E1%80%B6%E1%80%99%E1%80%8F%E1%80%AD" title="သံမဏိ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="သံမဏိ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staal_(legering)" title="Staal (legering) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Staal (legering)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoal" title="Stoal – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Stoal" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2" title="स्टिल – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="स्टिल" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B2" title="स्टील – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="स्टील" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%8B%BC" title="鋼 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="鋼" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acciare" title="Acciare – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Acciare" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Napulitano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stial" title="Stial – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Stial" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C3%A5l" title="Stål – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Stål" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C3%A5l" title="Stål – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Stål" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aci%C3%A8r" title="Acièr – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Acièr" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%87%E0%AC%B8%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%AA%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A4" title="ଇସ୍ପାତ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଇସ୍ପାତ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Po%CA%BBlat" title="Poʻlat – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Poʻlat" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A4" title="ਇਸਪਾਤ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਇਸਪਾਤ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AF" title="فولاد – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="فولاد" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stiil" title="Stiil – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Stiil" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assel" title="Assel – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Assel" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staal" title="Staal – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Staal" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stal" title="Stal – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Stal" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%C3%A7o" title="Aço – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Aço" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/O%C8%9Bel" title="Oțel – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Oțel" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiru" title="Asiru – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Asiru" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Сталь – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Сталь" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AB%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Ыстаал – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Ыстаал" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steel" title="Steel – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Steel" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87eliku" title="Çeliku – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Çeliku" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azzaru" title="Azzaru – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Azzaru" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%9A" title="වානේ – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="වානේ" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steel" title="Steel – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Steel" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%BD%D9%8A%D9%84" title="اسٽيل – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="اسٽيل" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oce%C4%BE" title="Oceľ – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Oceľ" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeklo" title="Jeklo – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Jeklo" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%86%DA%B5%D8%A7" title="پۆڵا – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="پۆڵا" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Челик – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Челик" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Celik" title="Čelik – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Čelik" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ter%C3%A4s" title="Teräs – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Teräs" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C3%A5l" title="Stål – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Stål" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asero" title="Asero – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Asero" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%8E%E0%AE%83%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81" title="எஃகு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="எஃகு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anfed" title="Anfed – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Anfed" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%87" title="Корыч – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Корыч" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%89%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%81" title="ఉక్కు – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ఉక్కు" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B2" title="เหล็กกล้า – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เหล็กกล้า" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8E%A0%E1%8F%A5%E1%8E%B8_%E1%8F%94%E1%8E%B7%E1%8E%A9%E1%8F%8D%E1%8E%A9" title="ᎠᏥᎸ ᏔᎷᎩᏍᎩ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᎠᏥᎸ ᏔᎷᎩᏍᎩ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᏣᎳᎩ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87elik" title="Çelik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Çelik" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv mw-list-item"><a href="https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D2%A3" title="Каң – Tuvinian" lang="tyv" hreflang="tyv" data-title="Каң" data-language-autonym="Тыва дыл" data-language-local-name="Tuvinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тыва дыл</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Сталь – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Сталь" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AF" title="فولاد – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="فولاد" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="پولات – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="پولات" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asal" title="Asal – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Asal" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teraz" title="Teraz – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Teraz" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9p" title="Thép – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Thép" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ter%C3%A4s" title="Teräs – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Teräs" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoal" title="Stoal – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Stoal" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>West-Vlams</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asero" title="Asero – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Asero" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%92%A2" title="钢 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="钢" data-language-autonym="吴语" 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Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a good article. Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Alloy of iron and carbon</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Steel_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Steel (disambiguation)">Steel (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Steel worker" redirects here. 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Steels</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82.jpg/150px-%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82.jpg/225px-%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82.jpg/300px-%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3861" data-file-height="2574" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Phase_(matter)" title="Phase (matter)">Phases</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allotropes_of_iron" title="Allotropes of iron">Ferrite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austenite" title="Austenite">Austenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cementite" title="Cementite">Cementite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martensite" title="Martensite">Martensite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphite" title="Graphite">Graphite</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Microstructure" title="Microstructure">Microstructures</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_steel#Heat_treatment" title="Carbon steel">Spheroidite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pearlite" title="Pearlite">Pearlite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bainite" title="Bainite">Bainite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ledeburite" title="Ledeburite">Ledeburite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tempering_(metallurgy)#Physical_processes" title="Tempering (metallurgy)">Tempered martensite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Widmanst%C3%A4tten_pattern" title="Widmanstätten pattern">Widmanstätten structures</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Classes</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crucible_steel" title="Crucible steel">Crucible steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_steel" title="Carbon steel">Carbon steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spring_steel" title="Spring steel">Spring steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alloy_steel" title="Alloy steel">Alloy steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maraging_steel" title="Maraging steel">Maraging steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stainless_steel" title="Stainless steel">Stainless steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-speed_steel" title="High-speed steel">High-speed steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weathering_steel" title="Weathering steel">Weathering steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tool_steel" title="Tool steel">Tool steel</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Other iron-based materials</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">Cast iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gray_iron" title="Gray iron">Gray iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cast_iron#White_cast_iron" title="Cast iron">White iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ductile_iron" title="Ductile iron">Ductile iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malleable_iron" title="Malleable iron">Malleable iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">Wrought iron</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Steel</b> is an <a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">alloy</a> of <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> with improved <a href="/wiki/Strength_of_materials" title="Strength of materials">strength</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fracture_toughness" title="Fracture toughness">fracture resistance</a> compared to other forms of iron. Because of its high <a href="/wiki/Ultimate_tensile_strength" title="Ultimate tensile strength">tensile strength</a> and low cost, steel is one of the most commonly manufactured materials in the world. Steel is used in buildings, as concrete reinforcing rods, in bridges, infrastructure, tools, ships, trains, cars, bicycles, machines, electrical appliances, furniture, and weapons. </p><p>Iron is always the main element in steel, but many other elements may be present or added. <a href="/wiki/Stainless_steel" title="Stainless steel">Stainless steels</a>, which are resistant to <a href="/wiki/Corrosion" title="Corrosion">corrosion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oxidation" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidation">oxidation</a>, typically need an additional 11% <a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">chromium</a>. </p><p>Iron is the base metal of steel. Depending on the temperature, it can take two crystalline forms (allotropic forms): <a href="/wiki/Cubic_crystal_system" title="Cubic crystal system">body-centred cubic and face-centred cubic</a>. The interaction of the <a href="/wiki/Allotropes_of_iron" title="Allotropes of iron">allotropes of iron</a> with the alloying elements, primarily carbon, gives steel and <a href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">cast iron</a> their range of unique properties. In pure iron, the <a href="/wiki/Crystal_structure" title="Crystal structure">crystal structure</a> has relatively little resistance to the iron atoms slipping past one another, and so pure iron is quite <a href="/wiki/Ductility" title="Ductility">ductile</a>, or soft and easily formed. In steel, small amounts of carbon, other elements, and inclusions within the iron act as hardening agents that prevent the movement of <a href="/wiki/Dislocation" title="Dislocation">dislocations</a>. </p><p>The carbon in typical steel alloys may contribute up to 2.14% of its weight. Varying the amount of carbon and many other alloying elements, as well as controlling their chemical and physical makeup in the final steel (either as solute elements, or as precipitated phases), impedes the movement of the dislocations that make pure iron ductile, and thus controls and enhances its qualities. These qualities include the <a href="/wiki/Hardness" title="Hardness">hardness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quenching" title="Quenching">quenching behaviour</a>, need for <a href="/wiki/Annealing_(materials_science)" title="Annealing (materials science)">annealing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tempering_(metallurgy)" title="Tempering (metallurgy)">tempering behaviour</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yield_(engineering)" title="Yield (engineering)">yield strength</a>, and tensile strength of the resulting steel. The increase in steel's strength compared to pure iron is possible only by reducing iron's ductility. </p><p>Steel was produced in <a href="/wiki/Bloomery" title="Bloomery">bloomery</a> furnaces for thousands of years, but its large-scale, industrial use began only after more efficient production methods were devised in the 17th century, with the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnace</a> and production of <a href="/wiki/Crucible_steel" title="Crucible steel">crucible steel</a>. This was followed by the <a href="/wiki/Bessemer_process" title="Bessemer process">Bessemer process</a> in <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a> in the mid-19th century, and then by the <a href="/wiki/Open-hearth_furnace" title="Open-hearth furnace">open-hearth furnace</a>. With the invention of the Bessemer process, a new era of <a href="/wiki/Mass_production" title="Mass production">mass-produced</a> steel began. <a href="/wiki/Mild_steel" class="mw-redirect" title="Mild steel">Mild steel</a> replaced <a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">wrought iron</a>. <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">The German states</a> were the major steel producers in Europe in the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> American steel production was centred in <a href="/wiki/Pittsburgh" title="Pittsburgh">Pittsburgh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bethlehem,_Pennsylvania" title="Bethlehem, Pennsylvania">Bethlehem, Pennsylvania</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cleveland" title="Cleveland">Cleveland</a> until the late 20th century. Currently, <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_steel_production" title="List of countries by steel production">world steel production</a> is centered in China, which produced 54% of the world's steel in 2023. </p><p>Further refinements in the process, such as <a href="/wiki/Basic_oxygen_steelmaking" title="Basic oxygen steelmaking">basic oxygen steelmaking</a> (BOS), largely replaced earlier methods by further lowering the cost of production and increasing the quality of the final product. Today more than 1.6 billion tons of steel is produced annually. Modern steel is generally identified by various grades defined by assorted <a href="/wiki/Standards_organization" title="Standards organization">standards organizations</a>. The modern steel industry is one of the largest manufacturing industries in the world, but also one of the most energy and <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse gas emission</a> intense industries, contributing 8% of global emissions.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, steel is also very reusable: it is one of the world's most-recycled materials, with a <a href="/wiki/Ferrous_metal_recycling" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferrous metal recycling">recycling rate of over 60% globally</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-encarta-recycling_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-encarta-recycling-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions_and_related_materials">Definitions and related materials</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Steel&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definitions and related materials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Steel_grades" title="Steel grades">Steel grades</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Steel_wire_rope.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Steel_wire_rope.JPG/170px-Steel_wire_rope.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Steel_wire_rope.JPG/255px-Steel_wire_rope.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Steel_wire_rope.JPG/340px-Steel_wire_rope.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1366" data-file-height="1708" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Wire_rope" title="Wire rope">steel cable</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Coal_mining" title="Coal mining">colliery</a> <a href="/wiki/Headframe" title="Headframe">winding tower</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The noun <i>steel</i> originates from the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a> adjective *<span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">stahliją</i></span> or *<span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">stakhlijan</i></span> 'made of steel', which is related to *<span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">stahlaz</i></span> or *<span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">stahliją</i></span> 'standing firm'.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The carbon content of steel is between 0.02% and 2.14% by weight for plain carbon steel (<a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>-<a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> <a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">alloys</a>). Too little carbon content leaves (pure) iron quite soft, ductile, and weak. Carbon contents higher than those of steel make a brittle alloy commonly called <a href="/wiki/Pig_iron" title="Pig iron">pig iron</a>. <a href="/wiki/Alloy_steel" title="Alloy steel">Alloy steel</a> is steel to which other alloying elements have been intentionally added to modify the characteristics of steel. Common alloying elements include: <a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">manganese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">chromium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Molybdenum" title="Molybdenum">molybdenum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron">boron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Titanium" title="Titanium">titanium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vanadium" title="Vanadium">vanadium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tungsten" title="Tungsten">tungsten</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">cobalt</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Niobium" title="Niobium">niobium</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-EM2_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EM2-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additional elements, most frequently considered undesirable, are also important in steel: <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sulphur" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulphur">sulphur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a>, and traces of <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>. </p><p>Plain carbon-iron alloys with a higher than 2.1% carbon content are known as <a href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">cast iron</a>. With modern <a href="/wiki/Steelmaking" title="Steelmaking">steelmaking</a> techniques such as powder metal forming, it is possible to make very high-carbon (and other alloy material) steels, but such are not common. Cast iron is not malleable even when hot, but it can be formed by <a href="/wiki/Casting" title="Casting">casting</a> as it has a lower <a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">melting point</a> than steel and good <a href="/wiki/Castability" title="Castability">castability</a> properties.<sup id="cite_ref-EM2_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EM2-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Certain compositions of cast iron, while retaining the economies of melting and casting, can be heat treated after casting to make <a href="/wiki/Malleable_iron" title="Malleable iron">malleable iron</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ductile_iron" title="Ductile iron">ductile iron</a> objects. Steel is distinguishable from <a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">wrought iron</a> (now largely obsolete), which may contain a small amount of carbon but large amounts of <a href="/wiki/Slag" title="Slag">slag</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Material_properties">Material properties</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Steel&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Material properties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins_and_production">Origins and production</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Steel&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Origins and production"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FeC-phase-diagram--multilingual.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/FeC-phase-diagram--multilingual.svg/390px-FeC-phase-diagram--multilingual.svg.png" decoding="async" width="390" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/FeC-phase-diagram--multilingual.svg/585px-FeC-phase-diagram--multilingual.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/FeC-phase-diagram--multilingual.svg/780px-FeC-phase-diagram--multilingual.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="888" data-file-height="615" /></a><figcaption>An iron-carbon <a href="/wiki/Phase_diagram" title="Phase diagram">phase diagram</a> showing the conditions necessary to form different phases</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blacksmithing_at_the_2015_Fort_Ross_Festival_-_Fort_Ross_State_Historic_Park_-_Jenner,_California_-_Sarah_Stierch.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Blacksmithing_at_the_2015_Fort_Ross_Festival_-_Fort_Ross_State_Historic_Park_-_Jenner%2C_California_-_Sarah_Stierch.jpg/220px-Blacksmithing_at_the_2015_Fort_Ross_Festival_-_Fort_Ross_State_Historic_Park_-_Jenner%2C_California_-_Sarah_Stierch.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Blacksmithing_at_the_2015_Fort_Ross_Festival_-_Fort_Ross_State_Historic_Park_-_Jenner%2C_California_-_Sarah_Stierch.jpg/330px-Blacksmithing_at_the_2015_Fort_Ross_Festival_-_Fort_Ross_State_Historic_Park_-_Jenner%2C_California_-_Sarah_Stierch.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Blacksmithing_at_the_2015_Fort_Ross_Festival_-_Fort_Ross_State_Historic_Park_-_Jenner%2C_California_-_Sarah_Stierch.jpg/440px-Blacksmithing_at_the_2015_Fort_Ross_Festival_-_Fort_Ross_State_Historic_Park_-_Jenner%2C_California_-_Sarah_Stierch.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3943" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Incandescence" class="mw-redirect" title="Incandescence">incandescent</a> steel workpiece in a <a href="/wiki/Blacksmith" title="Blacksmith">blacksmith</a>'s art</figcaption></figure> <p>Iron is commonly found in the Earth's <a href="/wiki/Crust_(geology)" title="Crust (geology)">crust</a> in the form of an <a href="/wiki/Ore" title="Ore">ore</a>, usually an iron oxide, such as <a href="/wiki/Magnetite" title="Magnetite">magnetite</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hematite" title="Hematite">hematite</a>. Iron is extracted from <a href="/wiki/Iron_ore" title="Iron ore">iron ore</a> by removing the oxygen through its combination with a preferred chemical partner such as carbon which is then lost to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. This process, known as <a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">smelting</a>, was first applied to metals with lower <a href="/wiki/Melting" title="Melting">melting</a> points, such as <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a>, which melts at about 250 °C (482 °F), and <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>, which melts at about 1,100 °C (2,010 °F), and the combination, bronze, which has a melting point lower than 1,083 °C (1,981 °F). In comparison, cast iron melts at about 1,375 °C (2,507 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-Smelting_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smelting-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Small quantities of iron were smelted in ancient times, in the solid-state, by heating the ore in a <a href="/wiki/Charcoal" title="Charcoal">charcoal</a> fire and then <a href="/wiki/Welding" title="Welding">welding</a> the clumps together with a hammer and in the process squeezing out the impurities. With care, the carbon content could be controlled by moving it around in the fire. Unlike copper and tin, liquid or solid iron dissolves carbon quite readily.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>All of these temperatures could be reached with ancient methods used since the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a>. Since the oxidation rate of iron increases rapidly beyond 800 °C (1,470 °F), it is important that smelting take place in a low-oxygen environment. Smelting, using carbon to reduce iron oxides, results in an alloy (<a href="/wiki/Pig_iron" title="Pig iron">pig iron</a>) that retains too much carbon to be called steel.<sup id="cite_ref-Smelting_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smelting-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The excess carbon and other impurities are removed in a subsequent step.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Other materials are often added to the iron/carbon mixture to produce steel with the desired properties. <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">Nickel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">manganese</a> in steel add to its tensile strength and make the <a href="/wiki/Austenite" title="Austenite">austenite</a> form of the iron-carbon solution more stable, <a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">chromium</a> increases hardness and melting temperature, and <a href="/wiki/Vanadium" title="Vanadium">vanadium</a> also increases hardness while making it less prone to <a href="/wiki/Metal_fatigue" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal fatigue">metal fatigue</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-materialsengineer_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-materialsengineer-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To inhibit corrosion, at least 11% chromium can be added to steel so that a hard <a href="/wiki/Passivation_(chemistry)" title="Passivation (chemistry)">oxide</a> forms on the metal surface; this is known as <a href="/wiki/Stainless_steel" title="Stainless steel">stainless steel</a>. Tungsten slows the formation of <a href="/wiki/Cementite" title="Cementite">cementite</a>, keeping carbon in the iron matrix and allowing <a href="/wiki/Martensite" title="Martensite">martensite</a> to preferentially form at slower quench rates, resulting in <a href="/wiki/High-speed_steel" title="High-speed steel">high-speed steel</a>. The addition of <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sulphur" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulphur">sulphur</a> decrease grain size, thereby making the steel easier to <a href="/wiki/Lathe" title="Lathe">turn</a>, but also more brittle and prone to corrosion. Such alloys are nevertheless frequently used for components such as nuts, bolts, and washers in applications where toughness and corrosion resistance are not paramount. For the most part, however, <a href="/wiki/Block_(periodic_table)" title="Block (periodic table)">p-block</a> elements such as sulphur, <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a>, and lead are considered contaminants that make steel more brittle and are therefore removed from steel during the melting processing.<sup id="cite_ref-materialsengineer_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-materialsengineer-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Properties">Properties</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Steel&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Properties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Steel_Fe-C_phase_diagram-en.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Steel_Fe-C_phase_diagram-en.png/330px-Steel_Fe-C_phase_diagram-en.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="389" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Steel_Fe-C_phase_diagram-en.png/495px-Steel_Fe-C_phase_diagram-en.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Steel_Fe-C_phase_diagram-en.png/660px-Steel_Fe-C_phase_diagram-en.png 2x" data-file-width="1995" data-file-height="2350" /></a><figcaption>Fe-C phase diagram for carbon steels, showing the A<sub>0</sub>, A<sub>1</sub>, A<sub>2</sub> and A<sub>3</sub> critical temperatures for heat treatments</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">density</a> of steel varies based on the alloying constituents but usually ranges between 7,750 and 8,050 kg/m<sup>3</sup> (484 and 503 lb/cu ft), or 7.75 and 8.05 g/cm<sup>3</sup> (4.48 and 4.65 oz/cu in).<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Even in a narrow range of concentrations of mixtures of carbon and iron that make steel, several different metallurgical structures, with very different properties can form. Understanding such properties is essential to making quality steel. At <a href="/wiki/Room_temperature" title="Room temperature">room temperature</a>, the most stable form of pure iron is the <a href="/wiki/Body-centred_cubic" class="mw-redirect" title="Body-centred cubic">body-centred cubic</a> (BCC) structure called alpha iron or α-iron. It is a fairly soft metal that can dissolve only a small concentration of carbon, no more than 0.005% at 0 °C (32 °F) and 0.021 wt% at 723 °C (1,333 °F). The inclusion of carbon in alpha iron is called <a href="/wiki/Allotropes_of_iron" title="Allotropes of iron">ferrite</a>. At 910 °C, pure iron transforms into a <a href="/wiki/Face-centred_cubic" class="mw-redirect" title="Face-centred cubic">face-centred cubic</a> (FCC) structure, called gamma iron or γ-iron. The inclusion of carbon in gamma iron is called austenite. The more open FCC structure of austenite can dissolve considerably more carbon, as much as 2.1%,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (38 times that of ferrite) carbon at 1,148 °C (2,098 °F), which reflects the upper carbon content of steel, beyond which is cast iron.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When carbon moves out of solution with iron, it forms a very hard, but brittle material called cementite (Fe<sub>3</sub>C).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>When steels with exactly 0.8% carbon (known as a eutectoid steel), are cooled, the <a href="/wiki/Austenitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Austenitic">austenitic</a> phase (FCC) of the mixture attempts to revert to the ferrite phase (BCC). The carbon no longer fits within the FCC austenite structure, resulting in an excess of carbon. One way for carbon to leave the austenite is for it to <a href="/wiki/Precipitate" class="mw-redirect" title="Precipitate">precipitate</a> out of solution as <a href="/wiki/Cementite" title="Cementite">cementite</a>, leaving behind a surrounding phase of BCC iron called ferrite with a small percentage of carbon in solution. The two, cementite and ferrite, precipitate simultaneously producing a layered structure called <a href="/wiki/Pearlite" title="Pearlite">pearlite</a>, named for its resemblance to <a href="/wiki/Mother_of_pearl" class="mw-redirect" title="Mother of pearl">mother of pearl</a>. In a hypereutectoid composition (greater than 0.8% carbon), the carbon will first precipitate out as large inclusions of cementite at the austenite <a href="/wiki/Grain_boundaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Grain boundaries">grain boundaries</a> until the percentage of carbon in the <a href="/wiki/Grain_(metal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Grain (metal)">grains</a> has decreased to the eutectoid composition (0.8% carbon), at which point the pearlite structure forms. For steels that have less than 0.8% carbon (hypoeutectoid), ferrite will first form within the grains until the remaining composition rises to 0.8% of carbon, at which point the pearlite structure will form. No large inclusions of cementite will form at the boundaries in hypoeutectoid steel.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The above assumes that the cooling process is very slow, allowing enough time for the carbon to migrate.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>As the rate of cooling is increased the carbon will have less time to migrate to form carbide at the grain boundaries but will have increasingly large amounts of pearlite of a finer and finer structure within the grains; hence the carbide is more widely dispersed and acts to prevent slip of defects within those grains, resulting in hardening of the steel. At the very high cooling rates produced by quenching, the carbon has no time to migrate but is locked within the face-centred austenite and forms <a href="/wiki/Martensite" title="Martensite">martensite</a>. Martensite is a highly strained and stressed, supersaturated form of carbon and iron and is exceedingly hard but brittle. Depending on the carbon content, the martensitic phase takes different forms. Below 0.2% carbon, it takes on a ferrite BCC crystal form, but at higher carbon content it takes a <a href="/wiki/Body-centred_tetragonal" class="mw-redirect" title="Body-centred tetragonal">body-centred tetragonal</a> (BCT) structure. There is no thermal <a href="/wiki/Activation_energy" title="Activation energy">activation energy</a> for the transformation from austenite to martensite.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (April 2016)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> There is no compositional change so the atoms generally retain their same neighbours.<sup id="cite_ref-smith&hashemi_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-smith&hashemi-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Martensite has a lower density (it expands during the cooling) than does austenite, so that the transformation between them results in a change of volume. In this case, expansion occurs. Internal stresses from this expansion generally take the form of <a href="/wiki/Physical_compression" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical compression">compression</a> on the crystals of martensite and <a href="/wiki/Tension_(mechanics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tension (mechanics)">tension</a> on the remaining ferrite, with a fair amount of <a href="/wiki/Shear_stress" title="Shear stress">shear</a> on both constituents. If quenching is done improperly, the internal stresses can cause a part to shatter as it cools. At the very least, they cause internal <a href="/wiki/Work_hardening" title="Work hardening">work hardening</a> and other microscopic imperfections. It is common for quench cracks to form when steel is water quenched, although they may not always be visible.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Heat_treatment">Heat treatment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Steel&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Heat treatment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Heat_treating" title="Heat treating">Heat treating</a></div> <p>There are many types of <a href="/wiki/Heat_treatment" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat treatment">heat treating</a> processes available to steel. The most common are <a href="/wiki/Annealing_(metallurgy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Annealing (metallurgy)">annealing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quenching" title="Quenching">quenching</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tempering_(metallurgy)" title="Tempering (metallurgy)">tempering</a>. </p><p>Annealing is the process of heating the steel to a sufficiently high temperature to relieve local internal stresses. It does not create a general softening of the product but only locally relieves strains and stresses locked up within the material. Annealing goes through three phases: <a href="/wiki/Recovery_(metallurgy)" title="Recovery (metallurgy)">recovery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Recrystallization_(metallurgy)" title="Recrystallization (metallurgy)">recrystallization</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Grain_growth" title="Grain growth">grain growth</a>. The temperature required to anneal a particular steel depends on the type of annealing to be achieved and the alloying constituents.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Quenching involves heating the steel to create the austenite phase then quenching it in water or <a href="/wiki/Oil" title="Oil">oil</a>. This rapid cooling results in a hard but brittle martensitic structure.<sup id="cite_ref-smith&hashemi_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-smith&hashemi-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The steel is then tempered, which is just a specialized type of annealing, to reduce brittleness. In this application the annealing (tempering) process transforms some of the martensite into cementite, or <a href="/wiki/Spheroidite" class="mw-redirect" title="Spheroidite">spheroidite</a> and hence it reduces the internal stresses and defects. The result is a more ductile and fracture-resistant steel.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Production">Production</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Steel&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Production"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Steelmaking" title="Steelmaking">Steelmaking</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_steel_production" title="List of countries by steel production">List of countries by steel production</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LightningVolt_Iron_Ore_Pellets.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/LightningVolt_Iron_Ore_Pellets.jpg/220px-LightningVolt_Iron_Ore_Pellets.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/LightningVolt_Iron_Ore_Pellets.jpg/330px-LightningVolt_Iron_Ore_Pellets.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/LightningVolt_Iron_Ore_Pellets.jpg/440px-LightningVolt_Iron_Ore_Pellets.jpg 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="354" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Iron_ore" title="Iron ore">Iron ore</a> pellets used in the production of steel</figcaption></figure> <p>When iron is <a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">smelted</a> from its ore, it contains more carbon than is desirable. To become steel, it must be reprocessed to reduce the carbon to the correct amount, at which point other elements can be added. In the past, steel facilities would <a href="/wiki/Casting_(metalworking)" class="mw-redirect" title="Casting (metalworking)">cast</a> the raw steel product into <a href="/wiki/Ingot" title="Ingot">ingots</a> which would be stored until use in further refinement processes that resulted in the finished product. In modern facilities, the initial product is close to the final composition and is <a href="/wiki/Continuous_casting" title="Continuous casting">continuously cast</a> into long slabs, cut and shaped into bars and extrusions and heat treated to produce a final product. Today, approximately 96% of steel is continuously cast, while only 4% is produced as ingots.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ingots are then heated in a soaking pit and <a href="/wiki/Hot_rolling" class="mw-redirect" title="Hot rolling">hot rolled</a> into slabs, <a href="/wiki/Billet_(semi-finished_product)#Billet" class="mw-redirect" title="Billet (semi-finished product)">billets</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Billet_(semi-finished_product)#Bloom" class="mw-redirect" title="Billet (semi-finished product)">blooms</a>. Slabs are hot or <a href="/wiki/Cold_rolling" class="mw-redirect" title="Cold rolling">cold rolled</a> into <a href="/wiki/Sheet_metal" title="Sheet metal">sheet metal</a> or plates. Billets are hot or cold rolled into bars, rods, and wire. Blooms are hot or cold rolled into <a href="/wiki/Structural_steel" title="Structural steel">structural steel</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/I-beam" title="I-beam">I-beams</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rail_tracks" class="mw-redirect" title="Rail tracks">rails</a>. In modern steel mills these processes often occur in one <a href="/wiki/Assembly_line" title="Assembly line">assembly line</a>, with ore coming in and finished steel products coming out.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sometimes after a steel's final rolling, it is heat treated for strength; however, this is relatively rare.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Steel&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_ferrous_metallurgy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of ferrous metallurgy">History of ferrous metallurgy</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_steel_industry_(1850%E2%80%931970)" title="History of the steel industry (1850–1970)">History of the steel industry (1850–1970)</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient">Ancient</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Steel&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Ancient"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bas_fourneau.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Bas_fourneau.png/170px-Bas_fourneau.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="290" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Bas_fourneau.png/255px-Bas_fourneau.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Bas_fourneau.png/340px-Bas_fourneau.png 2x" data-file-width="678" data-file-height="1156" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bloomery" title="Bloomery">Bloomery</a> smelting during the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> in the 5th to 15th centuries</figcaption></figure> <p>Steel was known in antiquity and was produced in <a href="/wiki/Bloomery" title="Bloomery">bloomeries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crucible" title="Crucible">crucibles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson199420_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson199420-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-materials.iisc.ernet.in_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-materials.iisc.ernet.in-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The earliest known production of steel is seen in pieces of ironware excavated from an <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_site" title="Archaeological site">archaeological site</a> in <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kaman-Kaleh%C3%B6y%C3%BCk" title="Kaman-Kalehöyük">Kaman-Kalehöyük</a>) which are nearly 4,000 years old, dating from 1800 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Wootz_steel" title="Wootz steel">Wootz steel</a> was developed in <a href="/wiki/Southern_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern India">Southern India</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> in the 1st millennium BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-materials.iisc.ernet.in_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-materials.iisc.ernet.in-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Metal production sites in <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> employed wind furnaces driven by the monsoon winds, capable of producing high-carbon steel. Large-scale wootz steel production in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient India">India</a> using crucibles occurred by the sixth century BC, the pioneering precursor to modern steel production and metallurgy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson199420_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson199420-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-materials.iisc.ernet.in_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-materials.iisc.ernet.in-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>High-carbon steel was produced in <a href="/wiki/British_Iron_Age" title="British Iron Age">Britain</a> at <a href="/wiki/Broxmouth" title="Broxmouth">Broxmouth Hillfort</a> from 490–375 BC,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and ultrahigh-carbon steel was produced in the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> from the 2nd-4th centuries AD.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Roman author <a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a> identifies steel weapons such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Falcata" title="Falcata">falcata</a></i> in the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Noric_steel" title="Noric steel">Noric steel</a> was used by the <a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military of ancient Rome">Roman military</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/History_of_China#Ancient_China" title="History of China">Chinese</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States period</a> (403–221 BC) had <a href="/wiki/Quench" class="mw-redirect" title="Quench">quench-hardened</a> steel,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while Chinese of the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> (202 BC—AD 220) created steel by melting together wrought iron with cast iron, thus producing a carbon-intermediate steel by the 1st century AD.<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_3_563g_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_3_563g-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gernet_69_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gernet_69-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is evidence that <a href="/wiki/Carbon_steel" title="Carbon steel">carbon steel</a> was made in Western <a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a> by the ancestors of the <a href="/wiki/Haya_people" title="Haya people">Haya people</a> as early as 2,000 years ago by a complex process of "pre-heating" allowing temperatures inside a furnace to reach 1300 to 1400 °C.<sup id="cite_ref-SchmidtCS_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SchmidtCS-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wootz_and_Damascus">Wootz and Damascus</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Steel&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Wootz and Damascus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Wootz_steel" title="Wootz steel">Wootz steel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Damascus_steel" title="Damascus steel">Damascus steel</a></div> <p>Evidence of the earliest production of high carbon steel in <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a> is found in <a href="/wiki/Kodumanal" title="Kodumanal">Kodumanal</a> in <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Golconda" title="Golconda">Golconda</a> area in <a href="/wiki/Andhra_Pradesh" title="Andhra Pradesh">Andhra Pradesh</a> and <a href="/wiki/Karnataka" title="Karnataka">Karnataka</a>, regions of <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, as well as in <a href="/wiki/Samanalawewa" class="mw-redirect" title="Samanalawewa">Samanalawewa</a> and Dehigaha Alakanda, regions of <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This came to be known as <a href="/wiki/Wootz_steel" title="Wootz steel">wootz steel</a>, produced in South India by about the sixth century BC and exported globally.<sup id="cite_ref-SR_IISc_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SR_IISc-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ann_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ann-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The steel technology existed prior to 326 BC in the region as they are mentioned in literature of <a href="/wiki/Sangam_literature" title="Sangam literature">Sangam Tamil</a>, Arabic, and Latin as the finest steel in the world exported to the Roman, Egyptian, Chinese and Arab worlds at that time – what they called <i>Seric Iron</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Tissamaharama_Tamil_Brahmi_inscription" class="mw-redirect" title="Tissamaharama Tamil Brahmi inscription">200 BC Tamil trade guild in Tissamaharama</a>, in the South East of Sri Lanka, brought with them some of the oldest iron and steel artifacts and production processes to the island from the <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical period</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mahathevan_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mahathevan-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ragupathy_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ragupathy-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Chinese and locals in <a href="/wiki/Anuradhapura" title="Anuradhapura">Anuradhapura</a>, Sri Lanka had also adopted the production methods of creating wootz steel from the <a href="/wiki/Chera_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Chera Dynasty">Chera Dynasty</a> Tamils of South India by the 5th century AD.<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_1_282_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_1_282-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ancient_and_Mediaeval_India._Vol.2_by_Charlotte_Speir_Manning_p.365_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ancient_and_Mediaeval_India._Vol.2_by_Charlotte_Speir_Manning_p.365-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Sri Lanka, this early steel-making method employed a unique wind furnace, driven by the monsoon winds, capable of producing high-carbon steel.<sup id="cite_ref-Juleff1_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Juleff1-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Herbert_Henery_Coghlan_1977_pp_99-100_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herbert_Henery_Coghlan_1977_pp_99-100-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the technology was acquired from the <a href="/wiki/Tamilians" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamilians">Tamilians</a> from South India,<sup id="cite_ref-Ancient_and_Medieval_India._Vol.2_by_Charlotte_Speir_Manning_p.365_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ancient_and_Medieval_India._Vol.2_by_Charlotte_Speir_Manning_p.365-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the origin of steel technology in India can be conservatively estimated at 400–500 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-SR_IISc_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SR_IISc-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Herbert_Henery_Coghlan_1977_pp_99-100_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herbert_Henery_Coghlan_1977_pp_99-100-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The manufacture of <a href="/wiki/Wootz_steel" title="Wootz steel">wootz steel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Damascus_steel" title="Damascus steel">Damascus steel</a>, famous for its durability and ability to hold an edge, may have been taken by the Arabs from Persia, who took it from India. <span class="citation-needed-content" style="padding-left:0.1em; padding-right:0.1em; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); border:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle, #c8ccd1);">It was originally created from several different materials including various <a href="/wiki/Trace_element" title="Trace element">trace elements</a>, apparently ultimately from the writings of <a href="/wiki/Zosimos_of_Panopolis" title="Zosimos of Panopolis">Zosimos of Panopolis</a>.</span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In 327 BC, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> was rewarded by the defeated King <a href="/wiki/Porus_the_Elder" class="mw-redirect" title="Porus the Elder">Porus</a>, not with gold or silver but with 30 pounds of steel.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A recent study has speculated that <a href="/wiki/Carbon_nanotubes" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon nanotubes">carbon nanotubes</a> were included in its structure, which might explain some of its legendary qualities, though, given the technology of that time, such qualities were produced by chance rather than by design.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Natural wind was used where the soil containing iron was heated by the use of wood. The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Sinhalese" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Sinhalese">ancient Sinhalese</a> managed to extract a ton of steel for every 2 tons of soil,<sup id="cite_ref-Juleff1_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Juleff1-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a remarkable feat at the time. One such furnace was found in Samanalawewa and archaeologists were able to produce steel as the ancients did.<sup id="cite_ref-Juleff1_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Juleff1-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Crucible_steel" title="Crucible steel">Crucible steel</a>, formed by slowly heating and cooling pure iron and carbon (typically in the form of charcoal) in a crucible, was produced in <a href="/wiki/Merv" title="Merv">Merv</a> by the 9th to 10th century AD.<sup id="cite_ref-ann_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ann-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 11th century, there is evidence of the production of steel in <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song China</a> using two techniques: a "berganesque" method that produced inferior, inhomogeneous steel, and a precursor to the modern <a href="/wiki/Bessemer_process" title="Bessemer process">Bessemer process</a> that used partial <a href="/wiki/Decarburization" title="Decarburization">decarburization</a> via repeated forging under a <a href="/wiki/Cold_blast" title="Cold blast">cold blast</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern">Modern</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Steel&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Modern"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bessemer_Converter_Sheffield.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Bessemer_Converter_Sheffield.jpg/170px-Bessemer_Converter_Sheffield.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Bessemer_Converter_Sheffield.jpg/255px-Bessemer_Converter_Sheffield.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Bessemer_Converter_Sheffield.jpg 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="456" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Bessemer_process" title="Bessemer process">Bessemer converter</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sheffield" title="Sheffield">Sheffield</a>, England</figcaption></figure> <p>Since the 17th century, the first step in European steel production has been the smelting of iron ore into <a href="/wiki/Pig_iron" title="Pig iron">pig iron</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnace</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Tylecote_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tylecote-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (April 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Originally employing charcoal, modern methods use <a href="/wiki/Coke_(fuel)" title="Coke (fuel)">coke</a>, which has proven more economical.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (April 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (April 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (April 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Processes_starting_from_bar_iron">Processes starting from bar iron</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Steel&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Processes starting from bar iron"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Blister_steel" class="mw-redirect" title="Blister steel">Blister steel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crucible_steel" title="Crucible steel">Crucible steel</a></div> <p>In these processes, <a href="/wiki/Pig_iron" title="Pig iron">pig iron</a> made from raw iron ore was refined (fined) in a <a href="/wiki/Finery_forge" title="Finery forge">finery forge</a> to produce <a href="/wiki/Bar_iron" class="mw-redirect" title="Bar iron">bar iron</a>, which was then used in steel-making.<sup id="cite_ref-Tylecote_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tylecote-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The production of steel by the <a href="/wiki/Cementation_process" title="Cementation process">cementation process</a> was described in a treatise published in Prague in 1574 and was in use in <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg" title="Nuremberg">Nuremberg</a> from 1601. A similar process for <a href="/wiki/Case_hardening" class="mw-redirect" title="Case hardening">case hardening</a> armour and files was described in a book published in <a href="/wiki/Naples" title="Naples">Naples</a> in 1589. The process was introduced to England in about 1614 and used to produce such steel by Sir <a href="/wiki/Basil_Brooke_(metallurgist)" title="Basil Brooke (metallurgist)">Basil Brooke</a> at <a href="/wiki/Coalbrookdale" title="Coalbrookdale">Coalbrookdale</a> during the 1610s.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarraclough1984a48–52_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarraclough1984a48–52-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The raw material for this process were bars of iron. During the 17th century, it was realized that the best steel came from <a href="/wiki/Oregrounds_iron" title="Oregrounds iron">oregrounds iron</a> of a region north of <a href="/wiki/Stockholm" title="Stockholm">Stockholm</a>, Sweden. This was still the usual raw material source in the 19th century, almost as long as the process was used.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-britannicaironandsteel_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britannicaironandsteel-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Crucible steel is steel that has been melted in a <a href="/wiki/Crucible" title="Crucible">crucible</a> rather than having been <a href="/wiki/Forging" title="Forging">forged</a>, with the result that it is more homogeneous. Most previous furnaces could not reach high enough temperatures to melt the steel. The early modern crucible steel industry resulted from the invention of <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Huntsman" title="Benjamin Huntsman">Benjamin Huntsman</a> in the 1740s. Blister steel (made as above) was melted in a crucible or in a furnace, and cast (usually) into ingots.<sup id="cite_ref-britannicaironandsteel_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britannicaironandsteel-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarraclough1984b_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarraclough1984b-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (April 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Processes_starting_from_pig_iron">Processes starting from pig iron</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Steel&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Processes starting from pig iron"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Siemens_Martin_Ofen_Brandenburg.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Siemens_Martin_Ofen_Brandenburg.jpg/220px-Siemens_Martin_Ofen_Brandenburg.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Siemens_Martin_Ofen_Brandenburg.jpg/330px-Siemens_Martin_Ofen_Brandenburg.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Siemens_Martin_Ofen_Brandenburg.jpg/440px-Siemens_Martin_Ofen_Brandenburg.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4048" data-file-height="3040" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Open_hearth_furnace" class="mw-redirect" title="Open hearth furnace">open hearth furnace</a> in the Museum of Industry in <a href="/wiki/Brandenburg" title="Brandenburg">Brandenburg</a>, Germany</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Allegheny_Ludlum_steel_furnace.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Allegheny_Ludlum_steel_furnace.jpg/220px-Allegheny_Ludlum_steel_furnace.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Allegheny_Ludlum_steel_furnace.jpg/330px-Allegheny_Ludlum_steel_furnace.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Allegheny_Ludlum_steel_furnace.jpg/440px-Allegheny_Ludlum_steel_furnace.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3209" data-file-height="2486" /></a><figcaption>White-hot steel pouring out of an electric arc furnace in <a href="/wiki/Brackenridge,_Pennsylvania" title="Brackenridge, Pennsylvania">Brackenridge, Pennsylvania</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The modern era in <a href="/wiki/Steelmaking" title="Steelmaking">steelmaking</a> began with the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Henry_Bessemer" title="Henry Bessemer">Henry Bessemer</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Bessemer_process" title="Bessemer process">process</a> in 1855, the raw material for which was pig iron.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His method let him produce steel in large quantities cheaply, thus <a href="/wiki/Mild_steel" class="mw-redirect" title="Mild steel">mild steel</a> came to be used for most purposes for which wrought iron was formerly used.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Gilchrist-Thomas process (or <i>basic Bessemer process</i>) was an improvement to the Bessemer process, made by lining the converter with a <a href="/wiki/Basic_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Basic (chemistry)">basic</a> material to remove phosphorus. </p><p>Another 19th-century steelmaking process was the <a href="/wiki/Siemens-Martin_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Siemens-Martin process">Siemens-Martin process</a>, which complemented the Bessemer process.<sup id="cite_ref-britannicaironandsteel_58-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britannicaironandsteel-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It consisted of co-melting bar iron (or steel scrap) with pig iron. </p><p>These methods of steel production were rendered obsolete by the Linz-Donawitz process of <a href="/wiki/Basic_oxygen_steelmaking" title="Basic oxygen steelmaking">basic oxygen steelmaking</a> (BOS), developed in 1952,<sup id="cite_ref-zs_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zs-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and other oxygen steel making methods. Basic oxygen steelmaking is superior to previous steelmaking methods because the oxygen pumped into the furnace limited impurities, primarily nitrogen, that previously had entered from the air used,<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and because, with respect to the open hearth process, the same quantity of steel from a BOS process is manufactured in one-twelfth the time.<sup id="cite_ref-zs_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zs-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Today, <a href="/wiki/Electric_arc_furnace" title="Electric arc furnace">electric arc furnaces</a> (EAF) are a common method of reprocessing <a href="/wiki/Scrap" title="Scrap">scrap metal</a> to create new steel. They can also be used for converting pig iron to steel, but they use a lot of electrical energy (about 440 kWh per metric ton), and are thus generally only economical when there is a plentiful supply of cheap electricity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFruehanWakelin199848–52_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFruehanWakelin199848–52-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Industry">Industry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Steel&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Industry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_steel_industry_(1850%E2%80%931970)" title="History of the steel industry (1850–1970)">History of the steel industry (1850–1970)</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_steel_industry_(1970%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the steel industry (1970–present)">History of the steel industry (1970–present)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Global_steel_industry_trends" class="mw-redirect" title="Global steel industry trends">Global steel industry trends</a>, <a href="/wiki/Steel_production_by_country" class="mw-redirect" title="Steel production by country">Steel production by country</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_steel_producers" title="List of steel producers">List of steel producers</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Steel_production_by_country_map.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Steel_production_by_country_map.PNG/330px-Steel_production_by_country_map.PNG" decoding="async" width="330" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Steel_production_by_country_map.PNG/495px-Steel_production_by_country_map.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Steel_production_by_country_map.PNG/660px-Steel_production_by_country_map.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1445" data-file-height="633" /></a><figcaption>Steel production (in million tons) by country as of 2007</figcaption></figure> <p>The steel industry is often considered an indicator of economic progress, because of the critical role played by steel in infrastructural and overall <a href="/wiki/Economic_development" title="Economic development">economic development</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1980, there were more than 500,000 U.S. steelworkers. By 2000, the number of steelworkers had fallen to 224,000.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Boom_and_bust" class="mw-redirect" title="Boom and bust">economic boom</a> in China and India caused a massive increase in the demand for steel. Between 2000 and 2005, world steel demand increased by 6%. Since 2000, several Indian<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Chinese<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> steel firms have expanded to meet demand, such as <a href="/wiki/Tata_Steel" title="Tata Steel">Tata Steel</a> (which bought <a href="/wiki/Corus_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="Corus Group">Corus Group</a> in 2007), <a href="/wiki/Baosteel_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="Baosteel Group">Baosteel Group</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shagang_Group" title="Shagang Group">Shagang Group</a>. As of 2017<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steel&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, though, <a href="/wiki/ArcelorMittal" title="ArcelorMittal">ArcelorMittal</a> is the world's <a href="/wiki/List_of_steel_producers" title="List of steel producers">largest steel producer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2005, the <a href="/wiki/British_Geological_Survey" title="British Geological Survey">British Geological Survey</a> stated <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> was the top steel producer with about one-third of the world share; <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> were second, third, and fourth, respectively, according to the survey.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The large production capacity of steel results also in a significant amount of carbon dioxide emissions inherent related to the main production route. </p><p>At the end of 2008, the steel industry faced a sharp downturn that led to many cut-backs.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2021, it was estimated that around 7% of the global greenhouse gas emissions resulted from the steel industry.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reduction of these emissions are expected to come from a shift in the main production route using cokes, more recycling of steel and the application of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">carbon capture and storage</a> technology. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Recycling">Recycling</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Steel&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Recycling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ferrous_metal_recycling" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferrous metal recycling">Ferrous metal recycling</a></div> <p>Steel is one of the world's most-recycled materials, with a <a href="/wiki/Ferrous_metal_recycling" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferrous metal recycling">recycling rate</a> of over 60% globally;<sup id="cite_ref-encarta-recycling_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-encarta-recycling-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the United States alone, over 82,000,000 metric tons (81,000,000 long tons; 90,000,000 short tons) were recycled in the year 2008, for an overall recycling rate of 83%.<sup id="cite_ref-fenton-2008_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fenton-2008-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As more steel is produced than is scrapped, the amount of recycled raw materials is about 40% of the total of steel produced - in 2016, 1,628,000,000 tonnes (1.602<span style="margin:0 .15em 0 .25em">×</span>10<sup>9</sup> long tons; 1.795<span style="margin:0 .15em 0 .25em">×</span>10<sup>9</sup> short tons) of crude steel was produced globally, with 630,000,000 tonnes (620,000,000 long tons; 690,000,000 short tons) recycled.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contemporary">Contemporary</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Steel&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Contemporary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Steel_grades" title="Steel grades">Steel grades</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bethlehem_Steel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Bethlehem_Steel.jpg/220px-Bethlehem_Steel.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Bethlehem_Steel.jpg/330px-Bethlehem_Steel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Bethlehem_Steel.jpg/440px-Bethlehem_Steel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1004" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bethlehem_Steel" title="Bethlehem Steel">Bethlehem Steel</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bethlehem,_Pennsylvania" title="Bethlehem, Pennsylvania">Bethlehem, Pennsylvania</a> was one of the world's largest manufacturers of steel before its closure in 2003.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Carbon">Carbon</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Steel&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Carbon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Carbon_steel" title="Carbon steel">Carbon steel</a></div> <p>Modern steels are made with varying combinations of alloy metals to fulfil many purposes.<sup id="cite_ref-materialsengineer_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-materialsengineer-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Carbon_steel" title="Carbon steel">Carbon steel</a>, composed simply of iron and carbon, accounts for 90% of steel production.<sup id="cite_ref-EM2_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EM2-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Low_alloy_steel" class="mw-redirect" title="Low alloy steel">Low alloy steel</a> is alloyed with other elements, usually <a href="/wiki/Molybdenum" title="Molybdenum">molybdenum</a>, manganese, chromium, or nickel, in amounts of up to 10% by weight to improve the hardenability of thick sections.<sup id="cite_ref-EM2_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EM2-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/HSLA_steel" class="mw-redirect" title="HSLA steel">High strength low alloy steel</a> has small additions (usually < 2% by weight) of other elements, typically 1.5% manganese, to provide additional strength for a modest price increase.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Recent <a href="/wiki/Corporate_average_fuel_economy" title="Corporate average fuel economy">corporate average fuel economy</a> (CAFE) regulations have given rise to a new variety of steel known as Advanced High Strength Steel (AHSS). This material is both strong and ductile so that vehicle structures can maintain their current safety levels while using less material. There are several commercially available grades of AHSS, such as <a href="/wiki/Dual-phase_steel" title="Dual-phase steel">dual-phase steel</a>, which is heat treated to contain both a ferritic and martensitic microstructure to produce a formable, high strength steel.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Transformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP) steel involves special alloying and heat treatments to stabilize amounts of <a href="/wiki/Austenite" title="Austenite">austenite</a> at room temperature in normally austenite-free low-alloy ferritic steels. By applying strain, the austenite undergoes a <a href="/wiki/Phase_transition" title="Phase transition">phase transition</a> to martensite without the addition of heat.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Twinning Induced Plasticity (TWIP) steel uses a specific type of strain to increase the effectiveness of work hardening on the alloy.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Carbon Steels are often <a href="/wiki/Hot-dip_galvanizing" class="mw-redirect" title="Hot-dip galvanizing">galvanized</a>, through hot-dip or electroplating in <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a> for protection against rust.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alloy">Alloy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Steel&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Alloy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">Alloy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alcator_C-Mod_superstructure_forging_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Alcator_C-Mod_superstructure_forging_1.jpg/170px-Alcator_C-Mod_superstructure_forging_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Alcator_C-Mod_superstructure_forging_1.jpg/255px-Alcator_C-Mod_superstructure_forging_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Alcator_C-Mod_superstructure_forging_1.jpg/340px-Alcator_C-Mod_superstructure_forging_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4186" data-file-height="5675" /></a><figcaption>Forging a structural member out of steel</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rust-AH-2022.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Rust-AH-2022.jpg/220px-Rust-AH-2022.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Rust-AH-2022.jpg/330px-Rust-AH-2022.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Rust-AH-2022.jpg/440px-Rust-AH-2022.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6720" data-file-height="4480" /></a><figcaption>Cor-Ten rust coating</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Stainless_steel" title="Stainless steel">Stainless steel</a> contains a minimum of 11% chromium, often combined with nickel, to resist <a href="/wiki/Corrosion" title="Corrosion">corrosion</a>. Some stainless steels, such as the <a href="/wiki/Allotropes_of_iron" title="Allotropes of iron">ferritic</a> stainless steels are <a href="/wiki/Magnetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic">magnetic</a>, while others, such as the <a href="/wiki/Austenite" title="Austenite">austenitic</a>, are nonmagnetic.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Corrosion-resistant steels are abbreviated as CRES. </p><p>Alloy steels are plain-carbon steels in which small amounts of alloying elements like chromium and vanadium have been added. Some more modern steels include <a href="/wiki/Tool_steel" title="Tool steel">tool steels</a>, which are alloyed with large amounts of tungsten and <a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">cobalt</a> or other elements to maximize <a href="/wiki/Solution_hardening" class="mw-redirect" title="Solution hardening">solution hardening</a>. This also allows the use of <a href="/wiki/Precipitation_hardening" title="Precipitation hardening">precipitation hardening</a> and improves the alloy's temperature resistance.<sup id="cite_ref-EM2_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EM2-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tool steel is generally used in axes, drills, and other devices that need a sharp, long-lasting cutting edge. Other special-purpose alloys include <a href="/wiki/Weathering_steel" title="Weathering steel">weathering steels</a> such as Cor-ten, which weather by acquiring a stable, rusted surface, and so can be used un-painted.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Maraging_steel" title="Maraging steel">Maraging steel</a> is alloyed with nickel and other elements, but unlike most steel contains little carbon (0.01%). This creates a very strong but still <a href="/wiki/Malleability" class="mw-redirect" title="Malleability">malleable</a> steel.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Eglin_steel" title="Eglin steel">Eglin steel</a> uses a combination of over a dozen different elements in varying amounts to create a relatively low-cost steel for use in <a href="/wiki/Bunker_buster" title="Bunker buster">bunker buster</a> weapons. <a href="/wiki/Mangalloy" title="Mangalloy">Hadfield steel</a>, named after <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hadfield" title="Robert Hadfield">Robert Hadfield</a>, or manganese steel, contains 12–14% manganese which, when abraded, strain-hardens to form a very hard skin which resists wearing. Uses of this particular alloy include <a href="/wiki/Continuous_track" title="Continuous track">tank tracks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bulldozer#Blade" title="Bulldozer">bulldozer blade</a> edges, and cutting blades on the <a href="/wiki/Jaws_of_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Jaws of life">jaws of life</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Standards">Standards</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Steel&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Standards"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most of the more commonly used steel alloys are categorized into various grades by standards organizations. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Automotive_Engineers" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Automotive Engineers">Society of Automotive Engineers</a> has a series of <a href="/wiki/SAE_steel_grades" title="SAE steel grades">grades</a> defining many types of steel.<sup id="cite_ref-bringas_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bringas-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/ASTM_International" title="ASTM International">American Society for Testing and Materials</a> has a separate set of standards, which define alloys such as <a href="/wiki/A36_steel" title="A36 steel">A36 steel</a>, the most commonly used structural steel in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Japanese_Industrial_Standards" title="Japanese Industrial Standards">JIS</a> also defines a series of steel grades that are being used extensively in Japan as well as in developing countries. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Uses">Uses</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Steel&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Uses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Steel-wool.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Steel-wool.jpg/220px-Steel-wool.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Steel-wool.jpg/330px-Steel-wool.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Steel-wool.jpg/440px-Steel-wool.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1847" data-file-height="1461" /></a><figcaption>A roll of steel wool</figcaption></figure> <p>Iron and steel are used widely in the construction of roads, railways, other infrastructure, appliances, and buildings. Most large modern structures, such as <a href="/wiki/Stadium#The_modern_stadium" title="Stadium">stadiums</a> and skyscrapers, bridges, and airports, are supported by a steel skeleton. Even those with a concrete structure employ steel for reinforcing. It sees widespread use in <a href="/wiki/Major_appliances" class="mw-redirect" title="Major appliances">major appliances</a> and <a href="/wiki/Automobile" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile">cars</a>. Despite the growth in usage of <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a>, steel is still the main material for car bodies. Steel is used in a variety of other construction materials, such as bolts, <a href="/wiki/Nail_(engineering)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nail (engineering)">nails</a> and <a href="/wiki/Screw" title="Screw">screws</a>, and other household products and cooking utensils.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other common applications include <a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">shipbuilding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pipeline_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Pipeline transport">pipelines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mining</a>, <a href="/wiki/Offshore_construction" title="Offshore construction">offshore construction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aerospace" title="Aerospace">aerospace</a>, <a href="/wiki/White_goods" class="mw-redirect" title="White goods">white goods</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Washing_machine" title="Washing machine">washing machines</a>), <a href="/wiki/Heavy_equipment" title="Heavy equipment">heavy equipment</a> such as bulldozers, office furniture, <a href="/wiki/Steel_wool" title="Steel wool">steel wool</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tool" title="Tool">tool</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Armour" title="Armour">armour</a> in the form of personal vests or <a href="/wiki/Vehicle_armour" title="Vehicle armour">vehicle armour</a> (better known as <a href="/wiki/Rolled_homogeneous_armour" title="Rolled homogeneous armour">rolled homogeneous armour</a> in this role). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical">Historical</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Steel&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Historical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carbon_steel_knife.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Carbon_steel_knife.jpg/220px-Carbon_steel_knife.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Carbon_steel_knife.jpg/330px-Carbon_steel_knife.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Carbon_steel_knife.jpg/440px-Carbon_steel_knife.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1755" data-file-height="1119" /></a><figcaption>A carbon steel knife</figcaption></figure> <p>Before the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Bessemer_process" title="Bessemer process">Bessemer process</a> and other modern production techniques, steel was expensive and was only used where no cheaper alternative existed, particularly for the cutting edge of <a href="/wiki/Knives" class="mw-redirect" title="Knives">knives</a>, <a href="/wiki/Razors" class="mw-redirect" title="Razors">razors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sword" title="Sword">swords</a>, and other items where a hard, sharp edge was needed. It was also used for <a href="/wiki/Spring_(device)" title="Spring (device)">springs</a>, including those used in <a href="/wiki/Clock" title="Clock">clocks and watches</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-britannicaironandsteel_58-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britannicaironandsteel-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the advent of faster and cheaper production methods, steel has become easier to obtain and much cheaper. It has replaced wrought iron for a multitude of purposes. However, the availability of plastics in the latter part of the 20th century allowed these materials to replace steel in some applications due to their lower fabrication cost and weight.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Carbon-fiber_reinforced_polymer" title="Carbon-fiber reinforced polymer">Carbon fibre</a> is replacing steel in some cost-insensitive applications such as sports equipment and high-end automobiles. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Long">Long</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Steel&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Long"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_viaduct_La_Polvorilla,_Salta_Argentina.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/The_viaduct_La_Polvorilla%2C_Salta_Argentina.jpg/220px-The_viaduct_La_Polvorilla%2C_Salta_Argentina.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/The_viaduct_La_Polvorilla%2C_Salta_Argentina.jpg/330px-The_viaduct_La_Polvorilla%2C_Salta_Argentina.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/The_viaduct_La_Polvorilla%2C_Salta_Argentina.jpg/440px-The_viaduct_La_Polvorilla%2C_Salta_Argentina.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="1832" /></a><figcaption>A steel bridge</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Steel_tower.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Steel_tower.jpg/220px-Steel_tower.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Steel_tower.jpg/330px-Steel_tower.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Steel_tower.jpg/440px-Steel_tower.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>A steel pylon suspending <a href="/wiki/Overhead_power_line" title="Overhead power line">overhead power lines</a></figcaption></figure> <ul><li>As reinforcing bars and mesh in <a href="/wiki/Reinforced_concrete" title="Reinforced concrete">reinforced concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Railroad_tracks" class="mw-redirect" title="Railroad tracks">Railroad tracks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_steel" title="Structural steel">Structural steel</a> in modern buildings and bridges</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wire" title="Wire">Wires</a></li> <li>Input to reforging applications</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Flat_carbon">Flat carbon</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Steel&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Flat carbon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Major_appliance" title="Major appliance">Major appliances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_core" title="Magnetic core">Magnetic cores</a></li> <li>The inside and outside body of automobiles, trains, and ships.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Weathering_(COR-TEN)"><span id="Weathering_.28COR-TEN.29"></span>Weathering (COR-TEN)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Steel&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Weathering (COR-TEN)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Weathering_steel" title="Weathering steel">Weathering steel</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intermodal_container" title="Intermodal container">Intermodal containers</a></li> <li>Outdoor sculptures</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highliner" title="Highliner">Highliner</a> <a href="/wiki/Train_car" class="mw-redirect" title="Train car">train cars</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stainless">Stainless</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Steel&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Stainless"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Stainless_steel" title="Stainless steel">Stainless steel</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sauce_boat.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Sauce_boat.jpg/220px-Sauce_boat.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Sauce_boat.jpg/330px-Sauce_boat.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Sauce_boat.jpg/440px-Sauce_boat.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3192" data-file-height="2036" /></a><figcaption>A stainless steel <a href="/wiki/Sauce_boat" title="Sauce boat">gravy boat</a></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cutlery" title="Cutlery">Cutlery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruler" title="Ruler">Rulers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surgical_instrument" title="Surgical instrument">Surgical instruments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watch" title="Watch">Watches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun" title="Gun">Guns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passenger_car_(rail)" class="mw-redirect" title="Passenger car (rail)">Rail passenger vehicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tablet_computer" title="Tablet computer">Tablets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_container" title="Waste container">Trash Cans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_piercing_jewellery" title="Body piercing jewellery">Body piercing jewellery</a></li> <li>Inexpensive <a href="/wiki/Ring_(jewellery)" title="Ring (jewellery)">rings</a></li> <li>Components of <a href="/wiki/Spacecraft" title="Spacecraft">spacecraft</a> and <a href="/wiki/Space_station" title="Space station">space stations</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Low-background">Low-background</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Steel&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Low-background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Low-background_steel" title="Low-background steel">Low-background steel</a></div> <p>Steel manufactured after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> became <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">contaminated</a> with <a href="/wiki/Radionuclide" title="Radionuclide">radionuclides</a> by <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_testing" title="Nuclear weapons testing">nuclear weapons testing</a>. Low-background steel, steel manufactured prior to 1945, is used for certain radiation-sensitive applications such as <a href="/wiki/Geiger_counter" title="Geiger counter">Geiger counters</a> and <a href="/wiki/Radiation_shielding" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation shielding">radiation shielding</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Steel&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg/28px-Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg/42px-Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg/56px-Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Chemistry" title="Portal:Chemistry">Chemistry portal</a></span></li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col div-col-small" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bulat_steel" title="Bulat steel">Bulat steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_reduction" title="Direct reduction">Direct reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_steel" title="Carbon steel">Carbon steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damascus_steel" title="Damascus steel">Damascus steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galvanizing" class="mw-redirect" title="Galvanizing">Galvanizing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_steel_industry_(1970%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the steel industry (1970–present)">History of the steel industry (1970–present)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_in_folklore" title="Iron in folklore">Iron in folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_blade_materials" title="List of blade materials">List of blade materials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machinability" title="Machinability">Machinability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noric_steel" title="Noric steel">Noric steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelletizing" title="Pelletizing">Pelletizing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rolling_(metalworking)" title="Rolling (metalworking)">Rolling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rolling_mill" class="mw-redirect" title="Rolling mill">Rolling mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rust_Belt" title="Rust Belt">Rust Belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silicon_steel" class="mw-redirect" title="Silicon steel">Silicon steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_abrasive" title="Steel abrasive">Steel abrasive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_mill" title="Steel mill">Steel mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamahagane" title="Tamahagane">Tamahagane</a>, used in Japanese swords</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tinning" title="Tinning">Tinplate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toledo_steel" title="Toledo steel">Toledo steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wootz_steel" title="Wootz steel">Wootz steel</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Steel&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAllen1979" class="citation journal cs1">Allen, Robert C. (December 1979). "International Competition in Iron and Steel, 1850–1913". <i>The Journal of Economic History</i>. <b>39</b> (4). <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>: 911–937. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0022050700098673">10.1017/S0022050700098673</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2120336">2120336</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Economic+History&rft.atitle=International+Competition+in+Iron+and+Steel%2C+1850%E2%80%931913&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=911-937&rft.date=1979-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0022050700098673&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2120336%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=Robert+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASteel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/metals-and-mining/our-insights/decarbonization-challenge-for-steel">"Decarbonization in steel | McKinsey"</a>. <i>McKinsey.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=McKinsey.com&rft.atitle=Decarbonization+in+steel+%7C+McKinsey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mckinsey.com%2Findustries%2Fmetals-and-mining%2Four-insights%2Fdecarbonization-challenge-for-steel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASteel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-encarta-recycling-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-encarta-recycling_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-encarta-recycling_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHartman2009" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Hartman, Roy A. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080414215636/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761556346/Recycling.html">"Recycling"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encarta" title="Encarta">Encarta</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761556346/Recycling.html">the original</a> on 14 April 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Recycling&rft.btitle=Encarta&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Hartman&rft.aufirst=Roy+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fencarta.msn.com%2Fencyclopedia_761556346%2FRecycling.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASteel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarper" class="citation web cs1">Harper, Douglas. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.etymonline.com/?term=steel">"steel"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Online_Etymology_Dictionary" title="Online Etymology Dictionary">Online Etymology Dictionary</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft.atitle=steel&rft.aulast=Harper&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2F%3Fterm%3Dsteel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASteel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EM2-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EM2_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EM2_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EM2_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EM2_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EM2_5-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAshby,_Michael_F.Jones,_David_R.H.1992" class="citation book cs1">Ashby, Michael F. & Jones, David R.H. (1992) [1986]. <i>Engineering Materials 2</i> (with corrections ed.). Oxford: Pergamon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-08-032532-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-08-032532-7"><bdi>0-08-032532-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Engineering+Materials+2&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=with+corrections&rft.pub=Pergamon+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-08-032532-7&rft.au=Ashby%2C+Michael+F.&rft.au=Jones%2C+David+R.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASteel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smelting-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Smelting_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Smelting_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/smelting">"Smelting"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i> (online ed.). 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Smelting&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.edition=online&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftechnology%2Fsmelting&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASteel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-materialsengineer-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-materialsengineer_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-materialsengineer_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-materialsengineer_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070221070822/http://www.materialsengineer.com/E-Alloying-Steels.htm">"Alloying of Steels"</a>. Metallurgical Consultants. 28 June 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://materialsengineer.com/E-Alloying-Steels.htm">the original</a> on 21 February 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 February</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Alloying+of+Steels&rft.pub=Metallurgical+Consultants&rft.date=2006-06-28&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmaterialsengineer.com%2FE-Alloying-Steels.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASteel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElert" class="citation web cs1">Elert, Glenn. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2004/KarenSutherland.shtml">"Density of Steel"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 April</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Density+of+Steel&rft.aulast=Elert&rft.aufirst=Glenn&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhypertextbook.com%2Ffacts%2F2004%2FKarenSutherland.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASteel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sources differ on this value so it has been rounded to 2.1%, however the exact value is rather academic because plain-carbon steel is very rarely made with this level of carbon. See: <ul><li><a href="#CITEREFSmithHashemi2006">Smith & Hashemi 2006</a>, p. 363—2.08%.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFDegarmoBlackKohser2003">Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003</a>, p. 75—2.11%.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFAshbyJones1992">Ashby & Jones 1992</a>—2.14%.</li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmithHashemi2006">Smith & Hashemi 2006</a>, p. 363.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmithHashemi2006">Smith & Hashemi 2006</a>, pp. 365–372.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-smith&hashemi-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-smith&hashemi_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-smith&hashemi_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmithHashemi2006">Smith & Hashemi 2006</a>, pp. 373–378.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090217103241/http://steel.keytometals.com/default.aspx?ID=CheckArticle&NM=12">"Quench hardening of steel"</a>. <i>keytometals.com</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://steel.keytometals.com/default.aspx?ID=CheckArticle&NM=12">the original</a> on 17 February 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 July</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=keytometals.com&rft.atitle=Quench+hardening+of+steel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsteel.keytometals.com%2Fdefault.aspx%3FID%3DCheckArticle%26NM%3D12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASteel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmithHashemi2006">Smith & Hashemi 2006</a>, p. 249.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmithHashemi2006">Smith & Hashemi 2006</a>, p. 388.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmithHashemi2006">Smith & Hashemi 2006</a>, p. 361</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmithHashemi2006">Smith & Hashemi 2006</a>, pp. 361–362.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBugayevKonovalovBychkovTretyakov2001">Bugayev et al. 2001</a>, p. 225</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson199420-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson199420_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson199420_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavidson1994">Davidson (1994)</a>, p. 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-materials.iisc.ernet.in-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-materials.iisc.ernet.in_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-materials.iisc.ernet.in_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-materials.iisc.ernet.in_20-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSrinivasan,_S.Ranganathan,_S.1994" class="citation news cs1">Srinivasan, S.; Ranganathan, S. 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Chennai. 26 March 2009. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/holnus/001200903261611.htm">the original</a> on 29 March 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 August</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=SchoolScience.co.uk&rft.atitle=High+strength+low+alloy+steels&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fresources.schoolscience.co.uk%2FCorus%2F16plus%2Fsteelch3pg1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASteel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110525170931/http://www.intota.com/experts.asp?strSearchType=all&strQuery=dual%2Dphase+steel">"Dual-phase steel"</a>. Intota Expert Knowledge Services. 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Ashby">Ashby, Michael F.</a>; Jones, David Rayner Hunkin (1992). <i>An introduction to microstructures, processing and design</i>. Butterworth-Heinemann.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+introduction+to+microstructures%2C+processing+and+design&rft.pub=Butterworth-Heinemann&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Ashby&rft.aufirst=Michael+F.&rft.au=Jones%2C+David+Rayner+Hunkin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASteel" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarraclough1984a" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Barraclough, K. C. (1984). <i>Steel before Bessemer</i>. Vol. I, Blister Steel: The Birth of an Industry. London: Metals Society.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Steel+before+Bessemer&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Metals+Society&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Barraclough&rft.aufirst=K.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASteel" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarraclough1984b" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Barraclough, K. C. (1984). <i>Steel Before Bessemer</i>. Vol. II, Crucible Steel: The Growth of Technology. 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Minerva Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89499-109-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89499-109-7"><bdi>978-0-89499-109-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Iron+and+Steel+Production&rft.pub=Minerva+Group&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-89499-109-7&rft.aulast=Bugayev&rft.aufirst=K.&rft.au=Konovalov%2C+Y.&rft.au=Bychkov%2C+Y.&rft.au=Tretyakov%2C+E.&rft.au=Savin%2C+Ivan+V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMJdIVtmwuUsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASteel" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavidson1994" class="citation book cs1">Davidson, H. R. Ellis (1994). <i>The Sword in Anglo-Saxon England: Its Archaeology and Literature</i>. Woodbridge, Suffolk: Boydell Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85115-355-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-85115-355-0"><bdi>0-85115-355-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sword+in+Anglo-Saxon+England%3A+Its+Archaeology+and+Literature&rft.place=Woodbridge%2C+Suffolk&rft.pub=Boydell+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-85115-355-0&rft.aulast=Davidson&rft.aufirst=H.+R.+Ellis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASteel" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDegarmoBlackKohser2003" class="citation book cs1">Degarmo, E. Paul; Black, J. T.; Kohser, Ronald A. (2003). <i>Materials and Processes in Manufacturing</i> (9th ed.). Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-65653-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-65653-4"><bdi>0-471-65653-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Materials+and+Processes+in+Manufacturing&rft.edition=9th&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-471-65653-4&rft.aulast=Degarmo&rft.aufirst=E.+Paul&rft.au=Black%2C+J.+T.&rft.au=Kohser%2C+Ronald+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASteel" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFruehanWakelin1998" class="citation book cs1">Fruehan, R. J.; Wakelin, David H. (1998). <i>The Making, Shaping, and Treating of Steel</i> (11th ed.). Pittsburgh: AISE Steel Foundation. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-930767-03-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-930767-03-9"><bdi>0-930767-03-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making%2C+Shaping%2C+and+Treating+of+Steel&rft.place=Pittsburgh&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=AISE+Steel+Foundation&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-930767-03-9&rft.aulast=Fruehan&rft.aufirst=R.+J.&rft.au=Wakelin%2C+David+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASteel" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmithHashemi2006" class="citation book cs1">Smith, William F.; Hashemi, Javad (2006). <i>Foundations of Materials Science and Engineering</i> (4th ed.). McGraw-Hill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-295358-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-07-295358-6"><bdi>0-07-295358-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foundations+of+Materials+Science+and+Engineering&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-07-295358-6&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=William+F.&rft.au=Hashemi%2C+Javad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASteel" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Steel&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReutter2005" class="citation book cs1">Reutter, Mark (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bdkUfDoY24QC"><i>Making Steel: Sparrows Point and the Rise and Ruin of American Industrial Might</i></a>. University of Illinois Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-07233-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-252-07233-8"><bdi>978-0-252-07233-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Making+Steel%3A+Sparrows+Point+and+the+Rise+and+Ruin+of+American+Industrial+Might&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-252-07233-8&rft.aulast=Reutter&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbdkUfDoY24QC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASteel" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurn1961" class="citation book cs1">Burn, Duncan (1961). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120726170156/http://questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=3914930"><i>The Economic History of Steelmaking, 1867–1939: A Study in Competition</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=3914930">the original</a> on 26 July 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Economic+History+of+Steelmaking%2C+1867%E2%80%931939%3A+A+Study+in+Competition&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1961&rft.aulast=Burn&rft.aufirst=Duncan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fquestia.com%2FPM.qst%3Fa%3Do%26d%3D3914930&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASteel" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHasegawa1996" class="citation book cs1">Hasegawa, Harukiyu (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120418193928/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108742046"><i>The Steel Industry in Japan: A Comparison with Britain</i></a>. Routledge. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108742046">the original</a> on 18 April 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Steel+Industry+in+Japan%3A+A+Comparison+with+Britain&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Hasegawa&rft.aufirst=Harukiyu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fquestia.com%2FPM.qst%3Fa%3Do%26d%3D108742046&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASteel" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarrTaplin1962" class="citation book cs1">Carr, J. C.; Taplin, W. (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120729081240/http://questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=808791"><i>History of the British Steel Industry</i></a>. Harvard University Press. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=808791">the original</a> on 29 July 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+British+Steel+Industry&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1962&rft.aulast=Carr&rft.aufirst=J.+C.&rft.au=Taplin%2C+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fquestia.com%2FPM.qst%3Fa%3Do%26d%3D808791&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASteel" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScamehorn1992" class="citation book cs1">Scamehorn, H. Lee (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120726043744/http://questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=94821694"><i>Mill & Mine: The CF&I in the Twentieth Century</i></a>. University of Nebraska Press. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=94821694">the original</a> on 26 July 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mill+%26+Mine%3A+The+CF%26I+in+the+Twentieth+Century&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Scamehorn&rft.aufirst=H.+Lee&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fquestia.com%2FPM.qst%3Fa%3Do%26d%3D94821694&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASteel" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVerein_Deutscher_Eisenhüttenleute1992" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Verein Deutscher Eisenhüttenleute, ed. (1992). <i>Steel: A Handbook for Materials Research and Engineering</i>. Vol. 1: Fundamentals. Berlin, Heidelberg / Düsseldorf: Springer-Verlag / Verlag Stahleisen. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-540-52968-3" title="Special:BookSources/3-540-52968-3"><bdi>3-540-52968-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Steel%3A+A+Handbook+for+Materials+Research+and+Engineering&rft.place=Berlin%2C+Heidelberg+%2F+D%C3%BCsseldorf&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag+%2F+Verlag+Stahleisen&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=3-540-52968-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASteel" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVerein_Deutscher_Eisenhüttenleute1993" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Verein Deutscher Eisenhüttenleute, ed. (1993). <i>Steel: A Handbook for Materials Research and Engineering</i>. Vol. 2: Applications. Berlin, Heidelberg / Düsseldorf: Springer-Verlag / Verlag Stahleisen. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-540-54075-X" title="Special:BookSources/3-540-54075-X"><bdi>3-540-54075-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Steel%3A+A+Handbook+for+Materials+Research+and+Engineering&rft.place=Berlin%2C+Heidelberg+%2F+D%C3%BCsseldorf&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag+%2F+Verlag+Stahleisen&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=3-540-54075-X&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASteel" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVerhoeven2007" class="citation book cs1">Verhoeven, John D. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=brpx-LtdCLYC&pg=PA26"><i>Metallurgy for the Non-Metallurgist</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/American_Society_for_Metals" class="mw-redirect" title="American Society for Metals">ASM International</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781615030569" title="Special:BookSources/9781615030569"><bdi>9781615030569</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Metallurgy+for+the+Non-Metallurgist&rft.pub=ASM+International&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9781615030569&rft.aulast=Verhoeven&rft.aufirst=John+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dbrpx-LtdCLYC%26pg%3DPA26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASteel" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWarren2001" class="citation book cs1">Warren, Kenneth (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100501214026/http://eh.net/bookreviews/library/0558"><i>Big Steel: The First Century of the United States Steel Corporation, 1901–2001</i></a>. University of Pittsburgh Press. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eh.net/bookreviews/library/0558">the original</a> on 1 May 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Big+Steel%3A+The+First+Century+of+the+United+States+Steel+Corporation%2C+1901%E2%80%932001&rft.pub=University+of+Pittsburgh+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Warren&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feh.net%2Fbookreviews%2Flibrary%2F0558&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASteel" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Steel&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/steel" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:steel">steel</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://worldsteel.org/">Official website</a> of the <a href="/wiki/World_Steel_Association" title="World Steel Association">World Steel Association</a> (WorldSteel.org) <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://steeluniversity.org/">SteelUniversity.org</a> – online steel education resources, an initiative of World Steel Association</li></ul></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.matdat.com/">MATDAT Database of Properties of Unalloyed, Low-Alloy and High-Alloy Steels</a> – obtained from published results of materials testing</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Iron_and_steel_production" title="Template:Iron and steel production"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Iron_and_steel_production" title="Template talk:Iron and steel production"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Iron_and_steel_production" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Iron and steel production"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Iron_and_steel_production" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">Iron</a> and <a class="mw-selflink selflink">steel</a> production</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ferrous_metallurgy" title="Ferrous metallurgy">History of ferrous metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_steel_producers" title="List of steel producers">List of steel producers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Iron production<br />(<a href="/wiki/Ironworks" title="Ironworks">Ironworks</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">Smelting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bloomery" title="Bloomery">Bloomery</a> (produces <a href="/wiki/Direct_reduced_iron" title="Direct reduced iron">sponge iron</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">Blast furnace</a> (produces <a href="/wiki/Pig_iron" title="Pig iron">pig iron</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_blast" title="Cold blast">Cold blast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot_blast" title="Hot blast">Hot blast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthracite_iron" title="Anthracite iron">Anthracite iron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_reduced_iron" title="Direct reduced iron">Direct reduced iron</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Secondary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">Wrought iron</a> (via <a href="/wiki/Finery_forge" title="Finery forge">Finery forge</a> or <a href="/wiki/Reverberatory_furnace" title="Reverberatory furnace">Reverberatory</a> <a href="/wiki/Puddling_(metallurgy)" title="Puddling (metallurgy)">Puddling</a> <a href="/wiki/Industrial_furnace" title="Industrial furnace">Furnace</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">Cast iron</a> (via <a href="/wiki/Cupola_furnace" title="Cupola furnace">Cupola furnace</a> or <a href="/wiki/Induction_furnace" title="Induction furnace">Induction furnace</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg/120px-Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg/180px-Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg/240px-Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg 2x" data-file-width="779" data-file-height="778" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Steelmaking" title="Steelmaking">Steelmaking</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Steel_mill" title="Steel mill">Steel mill</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primary (Pre-1850)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pattern_welding" title="Pattern welding">Pattern welding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucible_steel" title="Crucible steel">Crucible steel</a> (<a href="/wiki/Damascus_steel" title="Damascus steel">Damascus steel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wootz_steel" title="Wootz steel">Wootz steel</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatara_(furnace)" title="Tatara (furnace)">Tatara furnace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cementation_process" title="Cementation process">Cementation process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primary (Post-1850)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bessemer_process" title="Bessemer process">Bessemer process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_hearth_furnace" class="mw-redirect" title="Open hearth furnace">Open hearth furnace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_arc_furnace" title="Electric arc furnace">Electric arc furnace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_oxygen_steelmaking" title="Basic oxygen steelmaking">Basic oxygen process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Secondary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electro-slag_remelting" title="Electro-slag remelting">Electro-slag remelting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_arc_remelting" title="Vacuum arc remelting">Vacuum arc remelting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argon_oxygen_decarburization" title="Argon oxygen decarburization">Argon oxygen decarburization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Heat_treating" title="Heat treating">Heat treatment</a> methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Annealing_(metallurgy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Annealing (metallurgy)">Annealing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Low_hydrogen_annealing" title="Low hydrogen annealing">Low hydrogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annealing_by_short_circuit" title="Annealing by short circuit">Short circuit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hardening_(metallurgy)" title="Hardening (metallurgy)">Hardening</a> / <br /><a href="/wiki/Case-hardening" title="Case-hardening">Case-hardening</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ausforming" title="Ausforming">Ausforming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boriding" title="Boriding">Boriding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonitriding" title="Carbonitriding">Carbonitriding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carburizing" title="Carburizing">Carburizing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_hardening" title="Cryogenic hardening">Cryogenic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferritic_nitrocarburizing" title="Ferritic nitrocarburizing">Ferritic nitrocarburizing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Induction_hardening" title="Induction hardening">Induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitriding" title="Nitriding">Nitriding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precipitation_hardening" title="Precipitation hardening">Precipitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quench_polish_quench" title="Quench polish quench">Quench polish quench</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tempering_(metallurgy)" title="Tempering (metallurgy)">Tempering</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austempering" title="Austempering">Austempering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martempering" title="Martempering">Martempering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_treatment" title="Cryogenic treatment">Cryogenic treatment</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_deburring" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryogenic deburring">Deburring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_deflashing" title="Cryogenic deflashing">Deflashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_hardening" title="Cryogenic hardening">Hardening</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_heat_treatment" title="Differential heat treatment">Differential heat treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decarburization" title="Decarburization">Decarburization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forming_gas" title="Forming gas">Forming gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post_weld_heat_treatment" title="Post weld heat treatment">Post weld heat treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quenching" title="Quenching">Quenching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superplastic_forming" title="Superplastic forming">Superplastic forming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_steel_production" title="List of countries by steel production">Production by country</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_Bangladesh" title="Steel industry in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_China" title="Steel industry in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_and_steel_industry_in_India" title="Iron and steel industry in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_Italy" title="Steel industry in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_Luxembourg" title="Steel industry in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_Nigeria" title="Steel industry in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_and_steel_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Iron and steel industry in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Recycling" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Recycling" title="Template:Recycling"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Recycling" title="Template talk:Recycling"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Recycling" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Recycling"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Recycling" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Recycling" title="Recycling">Recycling</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Recycling_by_material" title="Recycling by material">Materials</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aluminium_recycling" title="Aluminium recycling">Aluminium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asphalt_concrete#Recycling" title="Asphalt concrete">Asphalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concrete_recycling" title="Concrete recycling">Concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copper#Recycling" title="Copper">Copper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cotton_recycling" title="Cotton recycling">Cotton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_recycling" title="Energy recycling">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_recycling" title="Glass recycling">Glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gypsum_recycling" title="Gypsum recycling">Gypsum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paper_recycling" title="Paper recycling">Paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_recycling" title="Plastic recycling">Plastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refrigerant_reclamation" title="Refrigerant reclamation">Refrigerant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scrap" title="Scrap">Scrap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timber_recycling" title="Timber recycling">Timber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_grease" title="Yellow grease">Cooking oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reclaimed_water" title="Reclaimed water">Water</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Recycling_symbol.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Recycling_symbol.svg/75px-Recycling_symbol.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="73" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Recycling_symbol.svg/113px-Recycling_symbol.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Recycling_symbol.svg/150px-Recycling_symbol.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="469" data-file-height="454" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Recycling_by_product" title="Recycling by product">Products</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appliance_recycling" title="Appliance recycling">Appliances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_oil_recycling" title="Automotive oil recycling">Automotive oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battery_recycling" title="Battery recycling">Batteries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bottle_recycling" title="Bottle recycling">Bottles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/PET_bottle_recycling" title="PET bottle recycling">PET bottles</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_recycling" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer recycling">Computers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_recycling" title="Drug recycling">Drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluorescent_lamp_recycling" title="Fluorescent lamp recycling">Fluorescent lamps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reclaimed_lumber" title="Reclaimed lumber">Lumber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_phone_recycling" title="Mobile phone recycling">Mobile phones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paint_recycling" title="Paint recycling">Paint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ship_disposal" title="Ship disposal">Ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textile_recycling" title="Textile recycling">Textiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tire_recycling" title="Tire recycling">Tires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vehicle_recycling" title="Vehicle recycling">Vehicles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Apparatus</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Recycling_bin" title="Recycling bin">Bins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_bag" title="Blue bag">Blue bags</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_box_recycling_system" title="Blue box recycling system">Blue boxes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recycling_codes" title="Recycling codes">Codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerbside_collection" title="Kerbside collection">Collection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materials_recovery_facility" title="Materials recovery facility">Materials recovery facility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_sorting" title="Waste sorting">Waste sorting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Countries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Recycling_rates_by_country" title="Recycling rates by country">Rate by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recycling_in_Australia" title="Recycling in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recycling_in_Brazil" title="Recycling in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recycling_in_Canada" title="Recycling in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recycling_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Recycling in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recycling_in_Israel" title="Recycling in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recycling_in_Japan" title="Recycling in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recycling_in_Malaysia" title="Recycling in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recycling_in_Mongolia" title="Recycling in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recycling_in_the_Netherlands" title="Recycling in the Netherlands">The Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management_in_Switzerland#Recycling" title="Waste management in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recycling_in_Taiwan" title="Recycling in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recycling_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Recycling in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Recycling_in_Northern_Ireland" title="Recycling in Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recycling_in_the_United_States" title="Recycling in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circular_economy" title="Circular economy">Circular economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dematerialization_(products)" title="Dematerialization (products)">Dematerialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downcycling" title="Downcycling">Downcycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durable_good" title="Durable good">Durable good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-industrial_park" title="Eco-industrial park">Eco-industrial park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_design" title="Ecological design">Ecological design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_producer_responsibility" title="Extended producer responsibility">Extended producer responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_economy" title="Green economy">Green economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_metabolism" title="Industrial metabolism">Industrial metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interchangeable_parts" title="Interchangeable parts">Interchangeable parts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_recycling" title="Land recycling">Land recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Material_flow_analysis" title="Material flow analysis">Material flow analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precycling" title="Precycling">Precycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Product_stewardship" title="Product stewardship">Product stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycle" title="Nutrient cycle">Recycling (ecological)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refill_(campaign)" title="Refill (campaign)">Refill (campaign)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repairability" title="Repairability">Repairability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_recovery" title="Resource recovery">Resource recovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reusable_packaging" title="Reusable packaging">Reusable packaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reuse_of_bottles" title="Reuse of bottles">Reuse of bottles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reuse_of_human_excreta" title="Reuse of human excreta">Reuse of human excreta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repurposing" title="Repurposing">Repurposing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reuse" title="Reuse">Reuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_repair" title="Right to repair">Right to repair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recycling_symbol" title="Recycling symbol">Symbol</a> (<a href="/wiki/Green_Dot_(symbol)" title="Green Dot (symbol)">Green Dot</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upcycling" title="Upcycling">Upcycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dumpster_diving" title="Dumpster diving">Urban lumberjacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_hierarchy" title="Waste hierarchy">Waste hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_minimisation" title="Waste minimisation">Waste minimisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_picker" title="Waste picker">Waste picking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wishcycling" title="Wishcycling">Wishcycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero_waste" title="Zero waste">Zero waste</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bottle_cutting" title="Bottle cutting">Bottle cutting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cogeneration" title="Cogeneration">Cogeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compost" title="Compost">Composting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Container-deposit_legislation" title="Container-deposit legislation">Container-deposit legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dumpster_diving" title="Dumpster diving">Dumpster diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_consumerism" title="Ethical consumerism">Ethical consumerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freeganism" title="Freeganism">Freeganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pallet_crafts" title="Pallet crafts">Pallet crafts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_vending_machine" title="Reverse vending machine">Reverse vending machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_living" title="Simple living">Simple living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste" title="Waste">Waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste-to-energy" title="Waste-to-energy">Waste-to-energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_collection" title="Waste collection">Waste collection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management_law" title="Waste management law">Waste management law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management" title="Waste management">Waste management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_heat_recycling" title="Water heat recycling">Water heat recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_recycling_shower" title="Water recycling shower">Water recycling shower</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Environment" title="Portal:Environment">Environment portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Recycling" title="Category:Recycling">Category</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Recycling_by_country" title="Category:Recycling by country">by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Recycling_by_material" title="Category:Recycling by material">by material</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Recycling_by_product" title="Category:Recycling by product">by product</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Recycling_organizations" title="Category:Recycling organizations">organizations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_recycling_articles" class="mw-redirect" title="Index of recycling articles">Index</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Recycling" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Recycling">Commons</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11427#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11427#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11427#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Stahl"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4056834-9">Germany</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Steel"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85127749">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Acier"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119418662">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Acier"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119418662">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00562757">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="ocel"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph123645&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Acero"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX524490">Spain</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007534187405171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10644079">NARA</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steel&oldid=1257885161">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steel&oldid=1257885161</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div 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16 Template:Delink"," 5.67% 95.894 1 Template:Steels"," 5.49% 92.944 20 Template:Cite_web"," 5.40% 91.453 5 Template:Page_needed"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.105","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":19710402,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAkanuma2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAllen1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAshby,_Michael_F.Jones,_David_R.H.1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAshbyJones1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAverySchmidt1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarraclough1984a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarraclough1984b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBringas2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBugayevKonovalovBychkovTretyakov2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurn1961\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarrTaplin1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChilds1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChopra2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavidson1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDegarmoBlackKohser2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDurant1942\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElert\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFenton2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFeuerbach2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFruehanWakelin1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGodfrey2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHartman2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHartwell1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHasegawa1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHyde1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJuleff1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKing2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMahathevan2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFManning\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMirkoSaliceti\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeedham1986\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFOchshorn2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRagupathy2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRaistrick1953\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReutter2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRossi2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSanderson2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScamehorn1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchmidt1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchmidt2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchmidtAvery1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchmidtAvery1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSherman2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmithHashemi2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSrinivasan,_S.Ranganathan,_S.1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSrinivasan1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSrinivasanRanganathan2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSwank1892\"] = 1,\n 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