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<span>Uses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Uses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Varieties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Varieties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Varieties</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Varieties-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Varieties subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Varieties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Variable_neutral-density_filter" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Variable_neutral-density_filter"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Variable neutral-density filter</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Variable_neutral-density_filter-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Extreme_ND_filters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Extreme_ND_filters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Extreme ND filters</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Extreme_ND_filters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ratings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ratings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Ratings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ratings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" 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Available in 16 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-16" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">16 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filtre_de_densitat_neutra" title="Filtre de densitat neutra – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Filtre de densitat neutra" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0ed%C3%BD_filtr" title="Šedý filtr – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Šedý filtr" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutraldichtefilter" title="Neutraldichtefilter – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Neutraldichtefilter" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filtro_de_densidad_neutra" title="Filtro de densidad neutra – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Filtro de densidad neutra" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B1_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%87_%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B1" title="فیلتر کاهنده نور – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فیلتر کاهنده نور" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filtre_%C3%A0_densit%C3%A9_neutre" title="Filtre à densité neutre – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Filtre à densité neutre" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/ND_%ED%95%84%ED%84%B0" title="ND 필터 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="ND 필터" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filtro_a_densit%C3%A0_neutra" title="Filtro a densità neutra – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Filtro a densità neutra" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A1%D7%A0%D7%9F_ND" title="מסנן ND – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מסנן ND" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grijsfilter" title="Grijsfilter – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Grijsfilter" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filtr_szary" title="Filtr szary – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Filtr szary" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filtro_de_densidade_neutra" title="Filtro de densidade neutra – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Filtro de densidade neutra" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutr%C3%A1lny_filter" title="Neutrálny filter – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Neutrálny filter" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" 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.ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Neutral-density_filter" title="Special:EditPage/Neutral-density filter">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Neutral-density+filter%22">"Neutral-density filter"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Neutral-density+filter%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Neutral-density+filter%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Neutral-density+filter%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Neutral-density+filter%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Neutral-density+filter%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2015</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Neutral_density_filter_demonstration.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Neutral_density_filter_demonstration.jpg/220px-Neutral_density_filter_demonstration.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Neutral_density_filter_demonstration.jpg/330px-Neutral_density_filter_demonstration.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Neutral_density_filter_demonstration.jpg/440px-Neutral_density_filter_demonstration.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3504" data-file-height="2336" /></a><figcaption>A demonstration of the effect of a neutral density filter. Note that the photograph was exposed for the view through the filter, and thus the remainder of the scene is overexposed. If the exposure had instead been set for the unfiltered background, it would appear properly exposed while the view through the filter would be dark.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Filtros_ND_Haida_Pro_II_MC,_2017-02-05,_DD_FS.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Filtros_ND_Haida_Pro_II_MC%2C_2017-02-05%2C_DD_FS.jpg/220px-Filtros_ND_Haida_Pro_II_MC%2C_2017-02-05%2C_DD_FS.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Filtros_ND_Haida_Pro_II_MC%2C_2017-02-05%2C_DD_FS.jpg/330px-Filtros_ND_Haida_Pro_II_MC%2C_2017-02-05%2C_DD_FS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Filtros_ND_Haida_Pro_II_MC%2C_2017-02-05%2C_DD_FS.jpg/440px-Filtros_ND_Haida_Pro_II_MC%2C_2017-02-05%2C_DD_FS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8688" data-file-height="3891" /></a><figcaption>A set of ND filters</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Photography" title="Photography">photography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">optics</a>, a <b>neutral-density filter</b>, or <b>ND filter</b>, is a <a href="/wiki/Photographic_filter" title="Photographic filter">filter</a> that reduces or modifies the intensity of all <a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelengths</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Color" title="Color">colors</a>, of light equally, giving no changes in <a href="/wiki/Hue" title="Hue">hue</a> of color rendition. It can be a colorless (clear) or grey filter, and is denoted by <a href="/wiki/Wratten_number" title="Wratten number">Wratten number</a> 96. The purpose of a standard photographic neutral-density filter is to reduce the amount of light entering the lens. Doing so allows the photographer to select combinations of <a href="/wiki/Aperture" title="Aperture">aperture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Exposure_time" class="mw-redirect" title="Exposure time">exposure time</a> and <a href="/wiki/Film_speed" title="Film speed">sensor sensitivity</a> that would otherwise produce overexposed pictures. This is done to achieve effects such as a shallower <a href="/wiki/Depth_of_field" title="Depth of field">depth of field</a> or <a href="/wiki/Motion_blur" title="Motion blur">motion blur</a> of a subject in a wider range of situations and <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">atmospheric</a> conditions. </p><p>For example, one might wish to photograph a waterfall at a slow <a href="/wiki/Shutter_speed" title="Shutter speed">shutter speed</a> to create a deliberate <a href="/wiki/Motion_blur" title="Motion blur">motion-blur</a> effect. The photographer might determine that to obtain the desired effect, a shutter speed of ten seconds was needed. On a very bright day, there might be so much light that even at minimal <a href="/wiki/Film_speed" title="Film speed">film speed</a> and a minimal aperture, the ten-second shutter speed would let in too much light, and the photo would be overexposed. In this situation, applying an appropriate neutral-density filter is the equivalent of stopping down one or more additional <a href="/wiki/F-stop" class="mw-redirect" title="F-stop">stops</a>, allowing the slower shutter speed and the desired motion-blur effect. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mechanism">Mechanism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutral-density_filter&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Mechanism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For an ND filter with <a href="/wiki/Optical_density" class="mw-redirect" title="Optical density">optical density</a> <i>d</i>, the fraction of the optical power transmitted through the filter can be calculated as </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\text{Fractional transmittance}}\equiv {\frac {I}{I_{0}}}=10^{-d},}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>Fractional transmittance</mtext> </mrow> <mo>≡</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>I</mi> <msub> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mi>d</mi> </mrow> </msup> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\text{Fractional transmittance}}\equiv {\frac {I}{I_{0}}}=10^{-d},}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e0b04a74e04db5dd98ea4cecea0adf981244fda8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:39.573ex; height:5.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\text{Fractional transmittance}}\equiv {\frac {I}{I_{0}}}=10^{-d},}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where <i>I</i> is the intensity after the filter, and <i>I</i><sub>0</sub> is the incident intensity.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Uses">Uses</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutral-density_filter&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Uses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Neutral-density_filter" title="Special:EditPage/Neutral-density filter">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2016</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1000x_ND-Filter.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/1000x_ND-Filter.jpg/220px-1000x_ND-Filter.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/1000x_ND-Filter.jpg/330px-1000x_ND-Filter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/1000x_ND-Filter.jpg/440px-1000x_ND-Filter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="3334" /></a><figcaption>Comparison of two pictures showing the result of using an ND filter at a landscape. The first one uses only a polarizer, and the second one a polarizer and a 1000× ND filter (ND3.0), which allowed the second shot to have a much longer exposure, smoothing any motion.</figcaption></figure> <p>The use of an ND filter allows the photographer to use a larger aperture that is at or below the <a href="/wiki/Diffraction-limited_system" title="Diffraction-limited system">diffraction limit</a>, which varies depending on the size of the sensory medium (film or digital) and for many cameras is between <i>f</i>/8 and <i>f</i>/11, with smaller sensory medium sizes needing larger-sized apertures, and larger ones able to use smaller apertures. ND filters can also be used to reduce the depth of field of an image (by allowing the use of a larger aperture) where otherwise not possible due to a maximal shutter speed limit. </p><p>Instead of reducing the aperture to limit light, the photographer can add a ND filter to limit light, and can then set the shutter speed according to the particular motion desired (blur of water movement, for example) and the aperture set as needed (small aperture for maximal sharpness or large aperture for narrow depth of field (subject in focus and background out of focus)). Using a digital camera, the photographer can see the image right away and choose the best ND filter to use for the scene being captured by first knowing the best aperture to use for maximal sharpness desired. The shutter speed would be selected by finding the desired blur from subject movement. The camera would be set up for these in manual mode, and then the overall exposure adjusted darker by adjusting either aperture or shutter speed, noting the number of stops needed to bring the exposure to that which is desired. That offset would then be the amount of stops needed in the ND filter to use for that scene. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Strickland_Falls_Shadows_Lifted.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Strickland_Falls_Shadows_Lifted.jpg/220px-Strickland_Falls_Shadows_Lifted.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Strickland_Falls_Shadows_Lifted.jpg/330px-Strickland_Falls_Shadows_Lifted.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Strickland_Falls_Shadows_Lifted.jpg/440px-Strickland_Falls_Shadows_Lifted.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1922" data-file-height="1269" /></a><figcaption>Neutral-density filters are often used to achieve motion-blur effects with slow shutter speeds.</figcaption></figure> <p>Examples of this use include: </p> <ul><li>Blurring water motion (e.g. waterfalls, rivers, oceans).</li> <li>Reducing depth of field in very bright light (e.g. daylight).</li> <li>When using a flash on a camera with a focal-plane shutter, exposure time is limited to the maximal speed (often 1/250th of a second, at best), at which the entire film or sensor is exposed to light at one instant. Without an ND filter, this can result in the need to use <i>f</i>/8 or higher.</li> <li>Using a wider aperture to stay below the <a href="/wiki/Diffraction-limited_system" title="Diffraction-limited system">diffraction limit</a>.</li> <li>Reduce the visibility of moving objects.</li> <li>Add motion blur to subjects.</li> <li>Extended <a href="/wiki/Long-exposure_photography" title="Long-exposure photography">time exposures</a></li></ul> <p>Neutral-density filters are used to control exposure with <a href="/wiki/Catadioptric_system#Photographic_catadioptric_lenses" title="Catadioptric system">photographic catadioptric lenses</a>, since the use of a traditional <a href="/wiki/Diaphragm_(optics)" title="Diaphragm (optics)">iris diaphragm</a> increases the ratio of the central obstruction found in those systems, leading to poor performance. </p><p>ND filters find applications in several high-precision <a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">laser</a> experiments because the <a href="/wiki/Power_(physics)" title="Power (physics)">power</a> of a laser cannot be adjusted without changing other properties of the laser <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">light</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Collimation" class="mw-redirect" title="Collimation">collimation</a> of the beam). Moreover, most lasers have a minimal power setting at which they can be operated. To achieve the desired light attenuation, one or more neutral-density filters can be placed in the path of the beam. </p><p>Large telescopes can cause the Moon and planets to become too bright and lose contrast. A neutral-density filter can increase the contrast and cut down the brightness, making these objects easier to view. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Varieties">Varieties</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutral-density_filter&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Varieties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Neutral-density_filter" title="Special:EditPage/Neutral-density filter">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2016</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Graduated_neutral-density_filter" title="Graduated neutral-density filter">graduated ND filter</a> is similar, except that the intensity varies across the surface of the filter. This is useful when one region of the image is bright and the rest is not, as in a picture of a sunset. </p><p>The transition area, or edge, is available in different variations (soft, hard, attenuator). The most common is a soft edge and provides a smooth transition from the ND side and the clear side. Hard-edge filters have a sharp transition from ND to clear, and the attenuator edge changes gradually over most of the filter, so the transition is less noticeable. </p><p>Another type of ND filter configuration is the <i>ND-filter wheel</i>. It consists of two perforated glass disks that have progressively denser coating applied around the perforation on the face of each disk. When the two disks are counter-rotated in front of each other, they gradually and evenly go from 100% transmission to 0% transmission. These are used on catadioptric telescopes mentioned above and in any system that is required to work at 100% of its aperture (usually because the system is required to work at its maximal <a href="/wiki/Optical_telescope#Angular_resolution" title="Optical telescope">angular resolution</a>). </p><p>In practice, ND filters are not perfect, as they do not reduce the intensity of all wavelengths equally. This can sometimes create color casts in recorded images, particularly with inexpensive filters. More significantly, most ND filters are only specified over the <a href="/wiki/Visible_spectrum" title="Visible spectrum">visible</a> region of the spectrum and do not proportionally block all wavelengths of <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> or <a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</a> radiation. This can be dangerous if using ND filters to view sources (such as the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a> or <a href="/wiki/Blackbody_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackbody radiation">white-hot</a> metal or glass), which emit intense invisible radiation, since the eye may be damaged even though the source does not look bright when viewed through the filter. Special filters must be used if such sources are to be safely viewed. </p><p>An inexpensive, homemade alternative to professional ND filters can be made from a piece of welder's glass. Depending on the rating of the welder's glass, this can have the effect of a 10-stop filter. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Variable_neutral-density_filter">Variable neutral-density filter</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutral-density_filter&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Variable neutral-density filter"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One main disadvantage of <a href="/wiki/Neutral_density" title="Neutral density">neutral-density</a> (ND) filters is that different shooting situations often require a variety of filters, which can become quite expensive. For example, using screw-on filters requires a separate set for each lens diameter, though inexpensive step-up rings can minimize this requirement. </p><p>To address this issue, some manufacturers have developed <b>variable ND filters</b>. These filters consist of two <a href="/wiki/Polarizing_filter_(photography)" title="Polarizing filter (photography)">polarizing filters</a>, with at least one being rotatable. The rear filter blocks light in one plane, while the front filter can be adjusted. As the front filter rotates, it cuts down the amount of light reaching the camera sensor, allowing for nearly infinite control over light levels. </p><p>The advantage of this approach is reduced bulk and expenses, but one drawback is a loss of image quality caused by both using two elements together and by combining two polarizing filters. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Extreme_ND_filters">Extreme ND filters</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutral-density_filter&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Extreme ND filters"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>To create ethereal looking landscapes and seascapes with extremely blurred water or other motion, the use of multiple stacked ND filters might be required. This has, as in the case of variable NDs, the effect of reducing image quality. To counter this, some manufacturers have produced high-quality extreme ND filters. Typically these are rated at a 10-stop reduction, allowing very slow shutter speeds even in relatively bright conditions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ratings">Ratings</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutral-density_filter&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Ratings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In photography, ND filters are quantified by their optical density or equivalently their <a href="/wiki/F-number" title="F-number">f-stop</a> reduction. In microscopy, the transmittance value is sometimes used. In astronomy, the fractional transmittance is sometimes used (eclipses). </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="4">Notation </th> <th rowspan="2">Lens area opening, as fraction of the complete lens </th> <th rowspan="2"><i>f</i>-stop reduction (approx.) </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Welding_helmet#Shades" title="Welding helmet">ANSI shade</a> (approx.)<sup id="cite_ref-ANSIZ87.1_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ANSIZ87.1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th colspan="2" rowspan="2">Fractional transmittance </th></tr> <tr> <th>Optical density </th> <th>ND1number </th> <th>ND.number </th> <th>NDnumber </th></tr> <tr> <td>0.0 </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>1 </td> <td>0 </td> <td>— </td> <td>100% </td> <td>1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>0.3 </td> <td>ND 101 </td> <td>ND 0.3 </td> <td>ND2 </td> <td>1/2 </td> <td>1 </td> <td>1.7 </td> <td>50% </td> <td>0.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td>0.6 </td> <td>ND 102 </td> <td>ND 0.6 </td> <td>ND4 </td> <td>1/4 </td> <td>2 </td> <td>2.4 </td> <td>25% </td> <td>0.25 </td></tr> <tr> <td>0.9 </td> <td>ND 103 </td> <td>ND 0.9 </td> <td>ND8 </td> <td>1/8 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3.11 </td> <td>12.5% </td> <td>0.125 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1.0 </td> <td> </td> <td>ND 1.0 </td> <td>ND10 </td> <td>1/10 </td> <td>≈ <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="frac">3<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">3</span></span> </td> <td>3.33 </td> <td>10 % </td> <td>0.10 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1.2 </td> <td>ND 104 </td> <td>ND 1.2 </td> <td>ND16 </td> <td>1/16 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>3.81 </td> <td>6.25% </td> <td>0.0625 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1.5 </td> <td>ND 105 </td> <td>ND 1.5 </td> <td>ND32 </td> <td>1/32 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>4.51 </td> <td>3.125% </td> <td>0.03125 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1.8 </td> <td>ND 106 </td> <td>ND 1.8 </td> <td>ND64 </td> <td>1/64 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>5.21 </td> <td>1.563% </td> <td>0.015625 </td></tr> <tr> <td>2.0 </td> <td> </td> <td>ND 2.0 </td> <td>ND100 </td> <td>1/100 </td> <td>≈ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac">6<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">2</span>⁄<span class="den">3</span></span> </td> <td>5.67 </td> <td>1% </td> <td>0.01 </td></tr> <tr> <td>2.1 </td> <td>ND 107 </td> <td>ND 2.1 </td> <td>ND128 </td> <td>1/128 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>5.92 </td> <td>0.781% </td> <td>0.0078125 </td></tr> <tr> <td>2.4 </td> <td>ND 108 </td> <td>ND 2.4 </td> <td>ND256 </td> <td>1/256 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>6.62 </td> <td>0.391% </td> <td>0.00390625 </td></tr> <tr> <td>2.6 </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>ND400 </td> <td>1/400 </td> <td>≈ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac">8<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">2</span>⁄<span class="den">3</span></span> </td> <td>7.07 </td> <td>0.25% </td> <td>0.0025 </td></tr> <tr> <td>2.7 </td> <td>ND 109 </td> <td>ND 2.7 </td> <td>ND512 </td> <td>1/512 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>7.32 </td> <td>0.195% </td> <td>0.001953125 </td></tr> <tr> <td>3.0 </td> <td>ND 110 </td> <td>ND 3.0 </td> <td>ND1024 (also called ND1000) </td> <td>1/1024 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>8.00 </td> <td>0.1% </td> <td>0.001 </td></tr> <tr> <td>3.3 </td> <td>ND 111 </td> <td>ND 3.3 </td> <td>ND2048 </td> <td>1/2048 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>8.72 </td> <td>0.049% </td> <td>0.00048828125 </td></tr> <tr> <td>3.6 </td> <td>ND 112 </td> <td>ND 3.6 </td> <td>ND4096 </td> <td>1/4096 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>9.45 </td> <td>0.024% </td> <td>0.000244140625 </td></tr> <tr> <td>3.8 </td> <td> </td> <td>ND 3.8 </td> <td>ND6310 </td> <td>1/6310 </td> <td>≈ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac">12<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">2</span>⁄<span class="den">3</span></span> </td> <td>9.86 </td> <td>0.016% </td> <td>0.000158489319246 </td></tr> <tr> <td>3.9 </td> <td>ND 113 </td> <td>ND 3.9 </td> <td>ND8192 </td> <td>1/8192 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>10.15 </td> <td>0.012% </td> <td>0.0001220703125 </td></tr> <tr> <td>4.0 </td> <td> </td> <td>ND 4.0 </td> <td>ND10000 </td> <td>1/10000 </td> <td>≈ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac">13<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">3</span></span> </td> <td>10.33 </td> <td>0.01% </td> <td>0.0001 </td></tr> <tr> <td>5.0 </td> <td> </td> <td>ND 5.0 </td> <td>ND100000 </td> <td>1/100000 </td> <td>≈ <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac">16<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">2</span>⁄<span class="den">3</span></span> </td> <td>12.67 </td> <td>0.001% </td> <td>0.00001 </td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li><small>Note: Hoya, B+W, Cokin use code ND2 or ND2x, etc.; Lee, Tiffen use code 0.3ND, etc.; Leica uses code 1×, 4×, 8×, etc.</small><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><small>Note: ND 3.8 is the correct value for solar CCD exposure without risk of electronic damage.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></small></li> <li><small>Note: ND 5.0 is the minimum for direct eye solar observation without damage of retina. A further check must be performed for the particular filter used, checking on the spectrogram that also UV and IR are mitigated with the same value.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="If wrong this claim could lead to eye damage (May 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></small></li> <li><small>Note: ANSI shades are defined by standard as ranges with central values. They are here approximated using the equation from ANSI Z87.1, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S={\dfrac {7}{3}}log_{10}{\dfrac {1}{T_{L}}}+1}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>S</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mfrac> <mn>7</mn> <mn>3</mn> </mfrac> </mstyle> </mrow> <mi>l</mi> <mi>o</mi> <msub> <mi>g</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>10</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>L</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mstyle> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S={\dfrac {7}{3}}log_{10}{\dfrac {1}{T_{L}}}+1}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4321084f9bdf81bf2ebfb7b4e0577efd0b519140" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.171ex; width:18.95ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S={\dfrac {7}{3}}log_{10}{\dfrac {1}{T_{L}}}+1}"></span>, which bases <a href="/wiki/Transmittance#Luminous_transmittance" title="Transmittance">luminous transmittance</a> (<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T_{L}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>L</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T_{L}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1ee8de51b033092db57d6f739ecc540e753eca3b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.709ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T_{L}}"></span>) on CIE <a href="/wiki/Illuminant_A" class="mw-redirect" title="Illuminant A">Illuminant A</a>; ANSI shade numbers have much lower limits for ultraviolet transmittance.<sup id="cite_ref-ANSIZ87.1_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ANSIZ87.1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></small></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutral-density_filter&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHanke1979" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Hanke, Rudolph (1979). <i>Filter-Faszination</i> (in German). Monheim/Bayern. p. 70. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-88324-991-2" title="Special:BookSources/3-88324-991-2"><bdi>3-88324-991-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Filter-Faszination&rft.place=Monheim%2FBayern&rft.pages=70&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=3-88324-991-2&rft.aulast=Hanke&rft.aufirst=Rudolph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutral-density+filter" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ANSIZ87.1-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ANSIZ87.1_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ANSIZ87.1_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmerican_National_Standards_InstituteAmerican_Society_of_Safety_Engineers2003" class="citation web cs1">American National Standards Institute; American Society of Safety Engineers (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gov.law.ansi.z87.1.2003">"ANSI Z87.1-2003: Practice for Occupational and Educational Eye and Face Protection, 29"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ANSI+Z87.1-2003%3A+Practice+for+Occupational+and+Educational+Eye+and+Face+Protection%2C+29&rft.date=2003&rft.au=American+National+Standards+Institute&rft.au=American+Society+of+Safety+Engineers&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgov.law.ansi.z87.1.2003&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutral-density+filter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cambridgeincolour.com/tutorials/camera-lens-filters.htm">"CAMERA LENS FILTERS"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 12,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=CAMERA+LENS+FILTERS&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridgeincolour.com%2Ftutorials%2Fcamera-lens-filters.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeutral-density+filter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neutral-density_filter&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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