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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nociception"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Nociception</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nociception-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emotional_pain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emotional_pain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Emotional pain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emotional_pain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physical_pain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physical_pain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Physical pain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physical_pain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research_findings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research_findings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Research findings</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Research_findings-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Research findings subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Research_findings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Peripheral_nervous_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peripheral_nervous_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Peripheral nervous system</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Peripheral_nervous_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Receptors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Receptors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span>Receptors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Receptors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nerve_fibres" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nerve_fibres"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.2</span> <span>Nerve fibres</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nerve_fibres-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Central_nervous_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Central_nervous_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Central nervous system</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Central_nervous_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Brain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>Brain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Opioid_system_and_effects_of_analgesics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Opioid_system_and_effects_of_analgesics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Opioid system and effects of analgesics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Opioid_system_and_effects_of_analgesics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physiological_responses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physiological_responses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Physiological responses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physiological_responses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Protective_responses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Protective_responses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Protective responses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Protective_responses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Avoidance_learning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Avoidance_learning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Avoidance learning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Avoidance_learning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trade-offs_in_motivation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade-offs_in_motivation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7</span> <span>Trade-offs in motivation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade-offs_in_motivation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legislation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legislation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Legislation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legislation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Opinions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Opinions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Opinions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Opinions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pain_during_killing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pain_during_killing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Pain during killing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pain_during_killing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div 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id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Pain in crustaceans</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%B3%D8%AE%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%D9%BE%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="درد در سخت‌پوستان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="درد در سخت‌پوستان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pain_in_crustaceans" title="Pain in crustaceans – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Pain in crustaceans" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90au_%C4%91%E1%BB%9Bn_%E1%BB%9F_gi%C3%A1p_x%C3%A1c" title="Đau đớn ở giáp xác – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Đau đớn ở giáp xác" 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ethical debate</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lobster_08.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Lobster_08.jpg/300px-Lobster_08.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Lobster_08.jpg/450px-Lobster_08.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Lobster_08.jpg/600px-Lobster_08.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Close up of the head of a live lobster</figcaption></figure> <p>There is a scientific debate which questions whether <a href="/wiki/Crustacean" title="Crustacean">crustaceans</a> experience <a href="/wiki/Pain" title="Pain">pain</a>. It is a complex mental state, with a distinct perceptual quality but also associated with <a href="/wiki/Suffering" title="Suffering">suffering</a>, which is an emotional state. Because of this complexity, the presence of <a href="/wiki/Pain_in_animals" title="Pain in animals">pain in an animal</a>, or another human for that matter, cannot be determined unambiguously using observational methods, but the conclusion that animals experience pain is often inferred on the basis of likely presence of <a href="/wiki/Animal_consciousness" title="Animal consciousness">phenomenal consciousness</a> which is deduced from comparative brain physiology as well as physical and behavioural reactions.<sup id="cite_ref-abbott1995_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-abbott1995-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Key2014_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Key2014-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Definitions of pain vary, but most involve the ability of the nervous system to detect and reflexively react to <a href="/wiki/Noxious_stimuli" class="mw-redirect" title="Noxious stimuli">harmful stimuli</a> by avoiding it, and the ability to subjectively experience suffering. Suffering cannot be directly measured in other animals. Responses to putatively painful stimuli can be measured, but not the experience itself. To address this problem when assessing the capacity of other species to experience pain, <a href="/wiki/Argument_by_analogy" class="mw-redirect" title="Argument by analogy">argument by analogy</a> is sometimes used. </p><p>Crustaceans fulfill several criteria proposed as indicating that non-human animals may experience pain. These fulfilled criteria include a suitable nervous system and sensory receptors; opioid receptors and reduced responses to noxious stimuli when given analgesics and local anaesthetics; physiological changes to noxious stimuli; displaying protective motor reactions; exhibiting avoidance learning; and making trade-offs between noxious stimulus avoidance and other motivational requirements. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a>, endogenous <a href="/wiki/Opioid" title="Opioid">opioids</a> are neurochemicals that moderate pain by interacting with opioid receptors. Opioid peptides and opioid receptors occur naturally in crustaceans, and although it was concluded in 2005 "at present no certain conclusion can be drawn",<sup id="cite_ref-Sømme_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sømme-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> more recent considerations suggest their presence along with related physiological and behavioural responses as indicating that crustaceans may experience pain.<sup id="cite_ref-Dyuizen_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dyuizen-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Elwood2015_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elwood2015-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Opioids may moderate pain in crustaceans in a similar way to that in vertebrates. If crustaceans feel pain, there are ethical and animal welfare implications including the consequences of exposure to pollutants, and practices involving <a href="/wiki/Commercial_fishing" title="Commercial fishing">commercial</a> and <a href="/wiki/Recreational_fishing" title="Recreational fishing">recreational fishing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aquaculture" title="Aquaculture">aquaculture</a>, food preparation and for crustaceans used in <a href="/wiki/Animal_testing" title="Animal testing">scientific research</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pain_in_crustaceans&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Pain_in_animals" title="Pain in animals">Pain in animals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pain_in_invertebrates" title="Pain in invertebrates">Pain in invertebrates</a></div> <p>The possibility that crustaceans and other non-human animals may experience pain has a long history. Initially, this was based around theoretical and philosophical argument, but more recently has turned to scientific investigation.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy">Philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pain_in_crustaceans&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jan_Baptist_Weenix_-_Portrait_of_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Jan_Baptist_Weenix_-_Portrait_of_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg/220px-Jan_Baptist_Weenix_-_Portrait_of_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Jan_Baptist_Weenix_-_Portrait_of_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg/330px-Jan_Baptist_Weenix_-_Portrait_of_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Jan_Baptist_Weenix_-_Portrait_of_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg/440px-Jan_Baptist_Weenix_-_Portrait_of_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="678" data-file-height="774" /></a><figcaption>Descartes argued that animals could not experience pain</figcaption></figure> <p>The idea that non-human animals might not feel <a href="/wiki/Pain" title="Pain">pain</a> goes back to the 17th-century French philosopher, <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>, who argued that animals do not experience pain and suffering because they lack <a href="/wiki/Animal_consciousness" title="Animal consciousness">consciousness</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Carbone149_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carbone149-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Radner_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Radner-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Harrison_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harrison-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1789, the British philosopher and social reformist, <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a>, addressed in his book <i>An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation</i> the issue of our treatment of animals with the following often quoted words: "The question is not, Can they reason? nor, can they talk? but, Can they suffer?"<sup id="cite_ref-Bentham_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bentham-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Peter Singer</a>, a bioethicist and author of <i><a href="/wiki/Animal_Liberation_(book)" title="Animal Liberation (book)">Animal Liberation</a></i> published in 1975, suggested that consciousness is not necessarily the key issue: just because animals have smaller brains, or are ‘less conscious’ than humans, does not mean that they are not capable of feeling pain. He goes on further to argue that we do not assume newborn infants, people suffering from neurodegenerative brain diseases or people with learning disabilities experience less pain than we would.<sup id="cite_ref-WelcomeTrust_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WelcomeTrust-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Rollin" title="Bernard Rollin">Bernard Rollin</a>, the principal author of two U.S. federal laws regulating pain relief for animals, writes that researchers remained unsure into the 1980s as to whether animals experience pain, and veterinarians trained in the U.S. before 1989 were taught to simply ignore animal pain.<sup id="cite_ref-Rollin117_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rollin117-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his interactions with scientists and other veterinarians, Rollin was regularly asked to "prove" that animals are conscious, and to provide "scientifically acceptable" grounds for claiming that they feel pain.<sup id="cite_ref-Rollin117_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rollin117-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Continuing into the 1990s, discussions were further developed on the roles that philosophy and science had in understanding <a href="/wiki/Animal_cognition" title="Animal cognition">animal cognition</a> and mentality.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In subsequent years, it was argued there was strong support for the suggestion that some animals (most likely <a href="/wiki/Amniotes" class="mw-redirect" title="Amniotes">amniotes</a>) have at least simple conscious thoughts and feelings<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that the view animals feel pain differently to humans is now a minority view.<sup id="cite_ref-Carbone149_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carbone149-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scientific_investigation">Scientific investigation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pain_in_crustaceans&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Scientific investigation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:360px; ;"> <div class="quotebox-title" style=""><i>Cambridge Declaration on Consciousness</i> (2012)</div> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>The absence of a <a href="/wiki/Neocortex" title="Neocortex">neocortex</a> does not appear to preclude an organism from experiencing affective states. Convergent evidence indicates that non-human animals have the neuroanatomical, neurochemical, and neurophysiological substrates of conscious states along with the capacity to exhibit <a href="/wiki/Intention" title="Intention">intentional behaviors</a>. Consequently, the weight of evidence indicates that humans are not unique in possessing the <a href="/wiki/Neurological_substrate" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurological substrate">neurological substrates</a> that generate consciousness. Non-human animals, including all mammals and birds, and many other creatures, including octopuses, also possess these neurological substrates.<sup id="cite_ref-CDC_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CDC-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </blockquote> </div> <p>In the 20th and 21st centuries, there were many scientific investigations of pain in non-human animals. Argument by analogy is sometimes used to assess the capacity of other animals to experience pain. This is based on the principle that if a non-human animal's responses to noxious stimuli are similar to those of humans, they are likely to have had an analogous experience. For example, if a pin is stuck in a chimpanzee's finger and it rapidly withdraws its hand, then argument by analogy indicates that like humans, it felt pain.<sup id="cite_ref-Gherardi_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gherardi-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sherwin_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sherwin-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Elwood2011_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elwood2011-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2012 the American philosopher Gary Varner reviewed the research literature on pain in animals. His findings are summarised in the following table.<sup id="cite_ref-Varner2012_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Varner2012-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Arguing by analogy, Varner claims that any animal which exhibits the properties listed in the table could be said to experience pain. On that basis, he concludes that all vertebrates, including fish, probably experience pain, but invertebrates (e.g. crustaceans) apart from <a href="/wiki/Cephalopod" title="Cephalopod">cephalopods</a> probably do not experience pain.<sup id="cite_ref-Varner2012_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Varner2012-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vertebrates">Vertebrates</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pain_in_crustaceans&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Vertebrates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Arthritic rats self-select analgesic opiates.<sup id="cite_ref-Colpaert_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Colpaert-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2014, the veterinary <i>Journal of Small Animal Practice</i> published an article on the recognition of pain which started – "The ability to experience pain is universally shared by all mammals...".<sup id="cite_ref-Mathews_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mathews-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">Birds</a> with gait abnormalities self-select for a diet that contains <a href="/wiki/Carprofen" title="Carprofen">carprofen</a>, a human <a href="/wiki/Analgesic" title="Analgesic">analgesic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Danbury_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Danbury-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2005, it was written "Avian pain is likely analogous to pain experienced by most mammals"<sup id="cite_ref-Machin_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Machin-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in 2014, "it is accepted that birds perceive and respond to noxious stimuli and that birds feel pain."<sup id="cite_ref-Gaynor_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gaynor-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Veterinary articles have been published stating both reptiles<sup id="cite_ref-Mosley_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mosley-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mosley2001_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mosley2001-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sladky_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sladky-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and amphibians<sup id="cite_ref-Machin1999_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Machin1999-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Machin2001_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Machin2001-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stevens2011_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stevens2011-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> experience pain in a way analogous to humans, and that analgesics are effective in these two <a href="/wiki/Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">classes</a> of vertebrates. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Argument by analogy<sup id="cite_ref-Varner2012_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Varner2012-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Property </th> <th colspan="4">Invertebrates </th> <th colspan="5">Vertebrates </th></tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top"> <th>Earthworms </th> <th>Insects </th> <th>Leeches/<wbr />snails </th> <th>Cephalopods </th> <th>Fish </th> <th>Amphibians </th> <th>Reptiles </th> <th>Birds </th> <th>Mammals </th></tr> <tr> <td class="nowrap">Has <a href="/wiki/Nociceptor" title="Nociceptor">nociceptors</a> </td> <td align="center">? </td> <td align="center"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Red X" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Red_x.svg/13px-Red_x.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Red_x.svg/20px-Red_x.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Red_x.svg/26px-Red_x.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display: none;">N</span> </td> <td align="center"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Green tick" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/13px-Green_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/20px-Green_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/26px-Green_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span> </td> <td align="center">? </td> <td align="center"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Green tick" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/13px-Green_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/20px-Green_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/26px-Green_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span> </td> <td align="center"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Green tick" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/13px-Green_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/20px-Green_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/26px-Green_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span> </td> <td align="center"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Green tick" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/13px-Green_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/20px-Green_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/26px-Green_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span> </td> <td align="center"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Green tick" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/13px-Green_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/20px-Green_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/26px-Green_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span> </td> <td align="center"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Green tick" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/13px-Green_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/20px-Green_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/26px-Green_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Has brain </td> <td align="center"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Red X" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Red_x.svg/13px-Red_x.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Red_x.svg/20px-Red_x.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Red_x.svg/26px-Red_x.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display: none;">N</span> </td> <td align="center"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Red X" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Red_x.svg/13px-Red_x.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Red_x.svg/20px-Red_x.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Red_x.svg/26px-Red_x.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display: none;">N</span> </td> <td align="center"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Red X" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Red_x.svg/13px-Red_x.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Red_x.svg/20px-Red_x.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Red_x.svg/26px-Red_x.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display: none;">N</span> </td> <td align="center"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Green tick" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/13px-Green_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/20px-Green_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/26px-Green_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span> </td> <td align="center"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Green tick" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/13px-Green_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/20px-Green_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/26px-Green_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span> </td> <td align="center"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Green tick" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/13px-Green_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/20px-Green_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/26px-Green_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span> </td> <td align="center"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Green tick" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/13px-Green_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/20px-Green_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/26px-Green_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span> </td> <td align="center"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Green tick" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/13px-Green_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/20px-Green_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/26px-Green_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span> </td> <td align="center"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Green tick" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/13px-Green_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/20px-Green_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/26px-Green_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Nociceptors and brain linked </td> <td align="center"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Red X" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Red_x.svg/13px-Red_x.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Red_x.svg/20px-Red_x.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Red_x.svg/26px-Red_x.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display: none;">N</span> </td> <td align="center"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Red X" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Red_x.svg/13px-Red_x.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Red_x.svg/20px-Red_x.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Red_x.svg/26px-Red_x.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display: none;">N</span> </td> <td align="center"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Red X" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Red_x.svg/13px-Red_x.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Red_x.svg/20px-Red_x.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Red_x.svg/26px-Red_x.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display: none;">N</span> </td> <td align="center"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Green tick" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/13px-Green_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/20px-Green_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/26px-Green_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span> </td> <td align="center"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Green tick" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/13px-Green_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/20px-Green_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/26px-Green_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span> </td> <td align="center">? / <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Green tick" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/13px-Green_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/20px-Green_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/26px-Green_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span> </td> <td align="center">? / <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Green tick" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/13px-Green_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/20px-Green_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/26px-Green_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span> </td> <td align="center">? / <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Green tick" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/13px-Green_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/20px-Green_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/26px-Green_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span> </td> <td align="center"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Green tick" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/13px-Green_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/20px-Green_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/26px-Green_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Has <a href="/wiki/Endogenous" class="mw-redirect" title="Endogenous">endogenous</a> <a href="/wiki/Opioid" title="Opioid">opioids</a> </td> <td align="center"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Green tick" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/13px-Green_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/20px-Green_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/26px-Green_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span> </td> <td align="center"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Green tick" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/13px-Green_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/20px-Green_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/26px-Green_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span> </td> <td align="center">? </td> <td align="center"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Red X" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Red_x.svg/13px-Red_x.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Red_x.svg/20px-Red_x.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Red_x.svg/26px-Red_x.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display: none;">N</span> </td> <td align="center"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Green tick" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/13px-Green_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/20px-Green_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/26px-Green_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span> </td> <td align="center"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Green tick" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/13px-Green_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/20px-Green_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/26px-Green_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span> </td> <td align="center"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Green tick" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/13px-Green_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/20px-Green_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/26px-Green_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span> </td> <td align="center"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Green tick" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/13px-Green_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/20px-Green_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/26px-Green_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span> </td> <td align="center"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Green tick" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/13px-Green_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/20px-Green_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/26px-Green_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Analgesic" title="Analgesic">Analgesics</a> affect responses </td> <td align="center">? </td> <td align="center">? </td> <td align="center">? </td> <td align="center">? </td> <td align="center"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Green tick" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/13px-Green_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/20px-Green_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/26px-Green_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span> </td> <td align="center">? </td> <td align="center">? </td> <td align="center"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Green tick" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/13px-Green_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/20px-Green_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/26px-Green_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span> </td> <td align="center"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Green tick" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/13px-Green_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/20px-Green_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/26px-Green_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Response to damaging stimuli similar to humans </td> <td align="center"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Red X" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Red_x.svg/13px-Red_x.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Red_x.svg/20px-Red_x.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Red_x.svg/26px-Red_x.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display: none;">N</span> </td> <td align="center"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Red X" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Red_x.svg/13px-Red_x.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Red_x.svg/20px-Red_x.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Red_x.svg/26px-Red_x.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display: none;">N</span> </td> <td align="center">? </td> <td align="center"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Green tick" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/13px-Green_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/20px-Green_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/26px-Green_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span> </td> <td align="center"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Green tick" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/13px-Green_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/20px-Green_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/26px-Green_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span> </td> <td align="center"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Green tick" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/13px-Green_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/20px-Green_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/26px-Green_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span> </td> <td align="center"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Green tick" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/13px-Green_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/20px-Green_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/26px-Green_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span> </td> <td align="center"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Green tick" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/13px-Green_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/20px-Green_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/26px-Green_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span> </td> <td align="center"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Green tick" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/13px-Green_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/20px-Green_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/26px-Green_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In the table - </p> <dl><dd><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Green tick" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/13px-Green_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/20px-Green_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Green_check.svg/26px-Green_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span> denotes Varner believes reliable research indicates the taxon has the attribute</dd> <dd><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Red X" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Red_x.svg/13px-Red_x.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Red_x.svg/20px-Red_x.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Red_x.svg/26px-Red_x.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display: none;">N</span> denotes Varner believes reliable research indicates the taxon does not have the attribute</dd> <dd>? denotes Varner believes reliable research has not ascertained whether the taxon has the attribute or varies between species within the taxa.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Adaptive_value">Adaptive value</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pain_in_crustaceans&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Adaptive value"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">adaptive value</a> of nociception is obvious; an organism detecting a noxious stimulus immediately withdraws the limb, appendage or entire body from the noxious stimulus and thereby avoids further (potential) injury. However, a characteristic of pain (in mammals at least) is that pain can result in <a href="/wiki/Hyperalgesia" title="Hyperalgesia">hyperalgesia</a> (a heightened sensitivity to noxious stimuli) and <a href="/wiki/Allodynia" title="Allodynia">allodynia</a> (a heightened sensitivity to non-noxious stimuli). When this heightened sensitisation occurs, the adaptive value is less clear. First, the pain arising from the heightened sensitisation can be disproportionate to the actual tissue damage caused. Second, the heightened sensitisation may also become chronic, persisting well beyond the tissues healing. This can mean that rather than the actual tissue damage causing pain, it is the pain due to the heightened sensitisation that becomes the concern. This means the sensitisation process is sometimes termed <a href="/wiki/Maladaptive" class="mw-redirect" title="Maladaptive">maladaptive</a>. It is often suggested hyperalgesia and allodynia assist organisms to protect themselves during healing, but experimental evidence to support this has been lacking.<sup id="cite_ref-Price_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Price-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2014, the adaptive value of sensitisation due to injury was tested using the predatory interactions between <a href="/wiki/Longfin_inshore_squid" title="Longfin inshore squid">longfin inshore squid</a> (<i>Doryteuthis pealeii</i>) and <a href="/wiki/Black_sea_bass" title="Black sea bass">black sea bass</a> (<i>Centropristis striata</i>) which are natural predators of this squid. If injured squid are targeted by a bass, they began their defensive behaviours sooner (indicated by greater alert distances and longer flight initiation distances) than uninjured squid. If anaesthetic (1% ethanol and MgCl<sub>2</sub>) is administered prior to the injury, this prevents the sensitisation and blocks the behavioural effect. The authors claim this study is the first experimental evidence to support the argument that nociceptive sensitisation is actually an adaptive response to injuries.<sup id="cite_ref-Crooketal2014_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crooketal2014-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_experience_of_pain">The experience of pain</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pain_in_crustaceans&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: The experience of pain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although there are numerous definitions of <a href="/wiki/Pain" title="Pain">pain</a>, almost all involve two key components. </p><p>First, <a href="/wiki/Nociception" title="Nociception">nociception</a> is required.<sup id="cite_ref-Sneddon,_(2004)_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sneddon,_(2004)-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is the ability to detect noxious stimuli which evoke a <a href="/wiki/Reflex" title="Reflex">reflex</a> response that rapidly moves the entire animal, or the affected part of its body, away from the source of the stimulus. The concept of nociception does not imply any adverse, subjective "feeling" – it is a reflex action. An example in humans would be the rapid withdrawal of a finger that has touched something hot – the withdrawal occurs before any sensation of pain is actually experienced.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The second component is the experience of "pain" itself, or suffering – the internal, emotional interpretation of the nociceptive experience. Again in humans, this is when the withdrawn finger begins to hurt, moments after the withdrawal. Pain is therefore a private, emotional experience. Nociceptive reflexes act to immediately remove the animal or part of the body from a (potentially) damaging stimulus. However, without learning from this experience, the animal would likely expose itself to the damaging stimulus repeatedly. Pain has the adaptive advantage that it invokes a level of learning, thereby preventing the animal from repeatedly exposing itself to potential injury.<sup id="cite_ref-Elwood2016_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elwood2016-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pain cannot be directly measured in other animals, including other humans; responses to putatively painful stimuli can be measured, but not the experience itself. To address this problem when assessing the capacity of other species to experience pain, argument-by-analogy is used. This is based on the principle that if an animal responds to a stimulus in a similar way to ourselves, it is likely to have had an analogous experience.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nociception">Nociception</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pain_in_crustaceans&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Nociception"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nociception" title="Nociception">Nociception</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anatomy_and_physiology_of_animals_A_reflex_arc.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Anatomy_and_physiology_of_animals_A_reflex_arc.jpg/250px-Anatomy_and_physiology_of_animals_A_reflex_arc.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Anatomy_and_physiology_of_animals_A_reflex_arc.jpg/375px-Anatomy_and_physiology_of_animals_A_reflex_arc.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Anatomy_and_physiology_of_animals_A_reflex_arc.jpg/500px-Anatomy_and_physiology_of_animals_A_reflex_arc.jpg 2x" data-file-width="549" data-file-height="272" /></a><figcaption>Nociception: The reflex arc of a dog with a pin in her paw. Note there is no communication to the brain, but the paw is withdrawn by nervous impulses generated by the spinal cord. There is no conscious interpretation of the stimulus by the dog involved in the reflex itself.</figcaption></figure> <p>In vertebrates, nociceptive responses involve the transmission of a signal along a chain of <a href="/wiki/Nerve_fibre" class="mw-redirect" title="Nerve fibre">nerve fibres</a> from the site of a noxious stimulus at the periphery, to the spinal cord. This process evokes a <a href="/wiki/Reflex_arc" title="Reflex arc">reflex arc</a> response such as flinching or immediate withdrawal of a limb, generated at the spinal cord and not involving the brain. Nociception is found, in one form or another, across all major animal <a href="/wiki/Taxon" title="Taxon">taxa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sneddon,_(2004)_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sneddon,_(2004)-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nociception can be observed using modern imaging techniques and both <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiological</a> and behavioural responses to nociception can be detected. Many crustacean species, including the rockpool prawn (<i><a href="/wiki/Palaemon_elegans" title="Palaemon elegans">Palaemon elegans</a></i>),<sup id="cite_ref-Barr2008_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barr2008-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> exhibit the <a href="/wiki/Caridoid_escape_reaction" title="Caridoid escape reaction">caridoid escape reaction</a> – an immediate, nociceptive, reflex tail-flick response to noxious stimuli (see here<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emotional_pain">Emotional pain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pain_in_crustaceans&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Emotional pain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Psychological_pain" title="Psychological pain">Psychological pain</a></div> <p>Sometimes a distinction is made between "physical pain" and "emotional" or "<a href="/wiki/Psychological_pain" title="Psychological pain">psychological pain</a>". Emotional pain is the pain experienced in the absence of physical trauma, e.g. the pain experienced by humans after the loss of a loved one, or the break-up of a relationship. It has been argued that only <a href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">primates</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">humans</a>, can feel "emotional pain". However, research has provided evidence that monkeys, dogs, cats and birds can show signs of <a href="/wiki/Emotion_in_animals" title="Emotion in animals">emotional pain</a> and display behaviours associated with <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias_in_animals" title="Cognitive bias in animals">depression during painful experience</a>, i.e. lack of motivation, lethargy, anorexia, unresponsiveness to other animals.<sup id="cite_ref-WelcomeTrust_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WelcomeTrust-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physical_pain">Physical pain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pain_in_crustaceans&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Physical pain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pain" title="Pain">Pain</a></div> <p>The nerve impulses of the nociception response may be conducted to the brain thereby registering the location, intensity, quality and unpleasantness of the stimulus. This subjective component of pain involves conscious awareness of both the sensation and the unpleasantness (the aversive, negative <a href="/wiki/Affect_(psychology)" title="Affect (psychology)">affect</a>). The brain processes underlying conscious awareness of the unpleasantness (suffering), are not well understood. </p><p>There have been several published lists of criteria for establishing whether non-human animals experience pain, e.g.<sup id="cite_ref-Sneddon2014_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sneddon2014-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Elwood2009_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elwood2009-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some criteria that may indicate the potential of another species, including crustaceans, to feel pain include:<sup id="cite_ref-Elwood2009_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elwood2009-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>Has a suitable <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous system</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sensory_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory receptor">sensory receptors</a></li> <li>Has <a href="/wiki/Opioid_receptor" title="Opioid receptor">opioid receptors</a> and shows reduced responses to noxious stimuli when given <a href="/wiki/Analgesic" title="Analgesic">analgesics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Local_anaesthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Local anaesthetic">local anaesthetics</a></li> <li>Physiological changes to <a href="/wiki/Noxious_stimuli" class="mw-redirect" title="Noxious stimuli">noxious stimuli</a></li> <li>Displays protective motor reactions that might include reduced use of an affected area such as limping, rubbing, holding or <a href="/wiki/Autotomy" title="Autotomy">autotomy</a></li> <li>Shows <a href="/wiki/Avoidance_learning" title="Avoidance learning">avoidance learning</a></li> <li>Shows trade-offs between noxious stimulus avoidance and other motivational requirements</li> <li>High <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_ability" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive ability">cognitive ability</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sentience" title="Sentience">sentience</a></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research_findings">Research findings</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pain_in_crustaceans&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Research findings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Shri1000.webm/220px--Shri1000.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="161" data-durationhint="10" data-mwtitle="Shri1000.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Shri1000.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/1b/Shri1000.webm/Shri1000.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="656" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/1b/Shri1000.webm/Shri1000.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="196" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/1b/Shri1000.webm/Shri1000.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="328" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/1b/Shri1000.webm/Shri1000.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="492" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/1b/Shri1000.webm/Shri1000.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="492" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Shri1000.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="655" data-height="480" /></video></span><figcaption>A swimming prawn showing buoyancy in its natural environment</figcaption></figure> <p>The vast majority of research on pain in crustaceans has used (semi-) aquatic, <a href="/wiki/Decapoda" class="mw-redirect" title="Decapoda">decapoda</a> species. Animals living in largely different environments are unlikely to have developed the same nociceptive or pain-detecting neural mechanisms. Different environments will result in diverse <a href="/wiki/Selection_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Selection pressure">selection pressures</a> on different animal groups, as well as exposing them to differing types of nociceptive stimuli. For example, crustaceans living in an aquatic world can maintain a certain level of <a href="/wiki/Buoyancy" title="Buoyancy">buoyancy</a>, so the risk of collision due to gravity is limited compared with a terrestrial vertebrate. Similarly, noxious chemicals might be diluted considerably in an aquatic environment compared to terrestrial. Therefore, nociceptive and pain systems in aquatic animals may be quite dissimilar to terrestrial animals.<sup id="cite_ref-Sneddon2015_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sneddon2015-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Peripheral_nervous_system">Peripheral nervous system</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pain_in_crustaceans&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Peripheral nervous system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Text-book_of_comparative_anatomy_(1898)_(14592851568).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Text-book_of_comparative_anatomy_%281898%29_%2814592851568%29.jpg/220px-Text-book_of_comparative_anatomy_%281898%29_%2814592851568%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="438" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Text-book_of_comparative_anatomy_%281898%29_%2814592851568%29.jpg/330px-Text-book_of_comparative_anatomy_%281898%29_%2814592851568%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Text-book_of_comparative_anatomy_%281898%29_%2814592851568%29.jpg/440px-Text-book_of_comparative_anatomy_%281898%29_%2814592851568%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1464" data-file-height="2912" /></a><figcaption>The nervous systems of a selection of crustaceans.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Receptors">Receptors</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pain_in_crustaceans&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Receptors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Crayfish (<i>Procambarus clarkii</i>) respond quickly and strongly to high temperatures, however, they show no response to low temperature stimuli, or, when stimulated with <a href="/wiki/Capsaicin" title="Capsaicin">capsaicin</a> or <a href="/wiki/Isothiocyanate" title="Isothiocyanate">isothiocyanate</a> (both are irritants to mammals). Noxious high temperatures are considered to be a potentially ecologically relevant noxious stimulus for crayfish that can be detected by sensory neurons, which may be specialized nociceptors.<sup id="cite_ref-Puri_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Puri-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The common brown shrimp <i><a href="/wiki/Crangon_crangon" title="Crangon crangon">Crangon crangon</a></i> and the prawns <i><a href="/wiki/Palaemon_serratus" title="Palaemon serratus">Palaemon serratus</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Palaemon_elegans" title="Palaemon elegans">Palaemon elegans</a></i> all exhibit a nociceptive sensitivity to both hot and cold temperatures. Both thermal sensitivity levels and nociceptive thresholds change with changes in <a href="/wiki/Acclimation" class="mw-redirect" title="Acclimation">acclimation</a> temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nerve_fibres">Nerve fibres</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pain_in_crustaceans&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Nerve fibres"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Crayfish have peripheral nerve fibres<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which are responsive to noxious stimuli.<sup id="cite_ref-Puri_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Puri-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Neurons functionally specialized for nociception have been documented in other invertebrates including the leech <i><a href="/wiki/Hirudo_medicinalis" title="Hirudo medicinalis">Hirudo medicinalis</a></i>, the nematode <i><a href="/wiki/Caenorhabditis_elegans" title="Caenorhabditis elegans">Caenorhabditis elegans</a></i> and the molluscs <i><a href="/wiki/Aplysia_californica" class="mw-redirect" title="Aplysia californica">Aplysia californica</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Cepaea_nemoralis" title="Cepaea nemoralis">Cepaea nemoralis</a></i>. Changes in neuronal activity induced by noxious stimuli have been recorded in the nervous centres of <i><a href="/wiki/Caenorhabditis_elegans" title="Caenorhabditis elegans">Caenorhabditis elegans</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Drosophila_melanogaster" title="Drosophila melanogaster">Drosophila melanogaster</a></i> and larval <i><a href="/wiki/Manduca_sexta" title="Manduca sexta">Manduca sexta</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Dyuizen_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dyuizen-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Central_nervous_system">Central nervous system</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pain_in_crustaceans&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Central nervous system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The bodies of crustaceans are segmented; there is one <a href="/wiki/Ganglion" title="Ganglion">ganglion</a> (cluster of nerve cells) per segment. Each ganglion receives sensory and movement information via nerves coming from the muscles, body wall, and appendages such as walking legs, <a href="/wiki/Swimmeret" class="mw-redirect" title="Swimmeret">swimmerets</a> and mouthparts. The ganglia show great functional autonomy; information received by the ganglion is processed by the same ganglion, enabling a faster response than if the message had to travel all the way up the animal's body to the brain and then back. Information can be exchanged between ganglia enabling the animal to perform coordinated movements.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>When shore crabs (<i><a href="/wiki/Hemigrapsus_sanguineus" title="Hemigrapsus sanguineus">Hemigrapsus sanguineus</a></i>) have formalin injected into the <a href="/wiki/Cheliped" class="mw-redirect" title="Cheliped">cheliped</a> (claw), this evokes specific nociceptive behavior and neurochemical responses in the thoracic ganglia and the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-Dyuizen_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dyuizen-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Brain">Brain</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pain_in_crustaceans&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Brain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Symmetry_in_biology#Bilateral_symmetry" title="Symmetry in biology">Bilaterally symmetrical</a> animals characteristically have a collection of nervous tissue toward the <a href="/wiki/Anterior" class="mw-redirect" title="Anterior">anterior</a> region of their body. This is termed the <a href="/wiki/Supraesophageal_ganglion" title="Supraesophageal ganglion">supraesophageal ganglion</a> and may colloquially be referred to as the "brain". In decapods, the supraesophageal ganglion is divided into three main regions, the <a href="/wiki/Protocerebrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Protocerebrum">protocerebrum</a>, which consists of two optic lobes, and the median protocerebrum.<sup id="cite_ref-Sandeman_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sandeman-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2002, James Rose (University of Wyoming) and more recently Brian Key (University of Queensland) published reviews arguing that fish (and presumably crustaceans) cannot feel pain because they lack a <a href="/wiki/Neocortex" title="Neocortex">neocortex</a> in the brain and therefore do not have consciousness.<sup id="cite_ref-Key2014_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Key2014-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rose2002_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rose2002-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-RoseWEB_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RoseWEB-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Animal behaviouralist, <a href="/wiki/Temple_Grandin" title="Temple Grandin">Temple Grandin</a>, (Colorado State University) argues that animals could still have consciousness without a neocortex because "different species can use different brain structures and systems to handle the same functions."<sup id="cite_ref-grandin183_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-grandin183-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lynne Sneddon (University of Liverpool) proposes that to suggest a function suddenly arises without a primitive form defies the laws of evolution.<sup id="cite_ref-SneddonEvolution_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SneddonEvolution-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other researchers also believe that animal consciousness does not require a neocortex, but can arise from <a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">homologous</a> <a href="/wiki/Subcortical" class="mw-redirect" title="Subcortical">subcortical</a> brain networks.<sup id="cite_ref-CDC_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CDC-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Opioid_system_and_effects_of_analgesics">Opioid system and effects of analgesics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pain_in_crustaceans&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Opioid system and effects of analgesics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Opiates modulate nociception in vertebrates. In vertebrates, <a href="/wiki/Morphine" title="Morphine">morphine</a> is an analgesic and therefore ameliorates the sensation of pain. <a href="/wiki/Naloxone" title="Naloxone">Naloxone</a> is an opioid-receptor antagonist and therefore blocks the effects of morphine. Opioid modulation of nociception has been demonstrated in several invertebrate species.<sup id="cite_ref-Nieto_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nieto-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Mantis_shrimp_in_the_Philippines.webm/240px--Mantis_shrimp_in_the_Philippines.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="240" height="135" data-durationhint="15" data-mwtitle="Mantis_shrimp_in_the_Philippines.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Mantis_shrimp_in_the_Philippines.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/49/Mantis_shrimp_in_the_Philippines.webm/Mantis_shrimp_in_the_Philippines.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/49/Mantis_shrimp_in_the_Philippines.webm/Mantis_shrimp_in_the_Philippines.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Mantis_shrimp_in_the_Philippines.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/49/Mantis_shrimp_in_the_Philippines.webm/Mantis_shrimp_in_the_Philippines.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/49/Mantis_shrimp_in_the_Philippines.webm/Mantis_shrimp_in_the_Philippines.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/49/Mantis_shrimp_in_the_Philippines.webm/Mantis_shrimp_in_the_Philippines.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/49/Mantis_shrimp_in_the_Philippines.webm/Mantis_shrimp_in_the_Philippines.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>A mantis shrimp swimming in its natural environment. The first report of opiate effects in invertebrates is based on a mantis shrimp species</figcaption></figure> <p>The first report of opiate effects in invertebrates is based on the behavioural responses of the crustacean mantis shrimp <i><a href="/wiki/Squilla_mantis" title="Squilla mantis">Squilla mantis</a></i>. These shrimp respond to an electric shock with an immediate, violent, convulsive-like flexion of the body. If they are injected with morphine-HCL, this produces a dose-dependent analgesia by increasing the intensity threshold to the shock. This effect is fully blocked by naloxone.<sup id="cite_ref-Moldanado1982_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moldanado1982-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Crustaceans have a functional opioid system which includes the presence of opioid receptors similar to those of mammals. <a href="/wiki/%CE%94-opioid_receptor" title="Δ-opioid receptor">Delta-</a> and <a href="/wiki/%CE%9A-opioid_receptor" title="Κ-opioid receptor">Kappa</a>-opioid receptors have been described in crustaceans.<sup id="cite_ref-Hanke_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanke-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/RT-PCR" class="mw-redirect" title="RT-PCR">RT-PCR</a> research on the <a href="/wiki/American_lobster" title="American lobster">American lobster</a> (<i>Homarus americanus</i>) has revealed the presence of a <a href="/wiki/%CE%9C-opioid_receptor" title="Μ-opioid receptor">Mu-opioid receptor</a> transcript in neural and immune tissues, which exhibits a 100% sequence identity with its human counterpart.<sup id="cite_ref-Casares_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Casares-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the American lobster, endogenous morphine is found in the <a href="/wiki/Haemolymph" class="mw-redirect" title="Haemolymph">haemolymph</a> and ventral nerve cord. In lobsters which have had a <a href="/wiki/Pereiopod" class="mw-redirect" title="Pereiopod">pereiopod</a> (walking leg) cut off or been injected with the irritant <a href="/wiki/Lipopolysaccharide" title="Lipopolysaccharide">lipopolysaccharide</a>, the endogenous morphine levels initially increased by 24% for haemolymph and 48% for the nerve cord.<sup id="cite_ref-Casares_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Casares-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In vertebrates, opioid peptides (i.e., <a href="/wiki/Enkephalin" title="Enkephalin">enkephalins</a>) have been shown to be involved in nociception. <a href="/wiki/Leu-enkephalin" title="Leu-enkephalin">Leu-enkephalin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Met-enkephalin" title="Met-enkephalin">Met-enkephalin</a> are present in the thoracic ganglia of the shore crab, <i>Carcinus maenas</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lüschen_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lüschen-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Both morphine and naloxone affect the estuarine crab (<i><a href="/wiki/Neohelice" title="Neohelice">Neohelice granulata</a></i>) in a similar way to their effects on vertebrates: injections of morphine produce a dose-dependent reduction of their defensive response to an electric shock.<sup id="cite_ref-Lozada_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lozada-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, it has been suggested the attenuated defensive response could originate from either the analgesic or sedative properties of morphine, or both.<sup id="cite_ref-dyak_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dyak-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One study on the effects of a danger stimulus on the crab <i>Chasmagnathus granulatus</i> reported this induces opioid analgesia, which is influenced by naloxone.<sup id="cite_ref-Valeggia_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Valeggia-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In American lobsters, the response of endogenous morphine in both haemocytes and neural cells to noxious stimuli are mediated by naloxone.<sup id="cite_ref-Casares_52-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Casares-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When the antennae of rockpool prawns <i>Palaemon elegans</i> are rubbed with <a href="/wiki/Sodium_hydroxide" title="Sodium hydroxide">sodium hydroxide</a> or <a href="/wiki/Acetic_acid" title="Acetic acid">acetic acid</a> (both are irritants in mammals), they increase grooming and rubbing of the afflicted area against the side of the tank; this reaction is inhibited by <a href="/wiki/Benzocaine" title="Benzocaine">benzocaine</a> (a local anaesthetic in mammals), even though control prawns treated with only anaesthetic do not show reduced activity.<sup id="cite_ref-Barr2008_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barr2008-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Penaeus_vannamei_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Penaeus_vannamei_01.jpg/220px-Penaeus_vannamei_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Penaeus_vannamei_01.jpg/330px-Penaeus_vannamei_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Penaeus_vannamei_01.jpg/440px-Penaeus_vannamei_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2700" data-file-height="1787" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Whiteleg_shrimp" title="Whiteleg shrimp">whiteleg shrimp</a> (juvenile shown) has become the preferred species for shrimp farming</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Eyestalk_ablation" title="Eyestalk ablation">Eyestalk ablation</a> is the removal of one or both <a href="/wiki/Eyestalk" title="Eyestalk">eyestalks</a> from a crustacean. It is routinely practiced on female prawns in almost every marine shrimp maturation or reproduction facility in the world, both research and commercial. The aim of ablation is to stimulate the female shrimp to develop mature ovaries and spawn.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Macrobrachium_americanum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Macrobrachium americanum (page does not exist)">Macrobrachium americanum</a></i>, prawns treated with <a href="/wiki/Lignocaine" class="mw-redirect" title="Lignocaine">lignocaine</a> (a local anaesthetic in mammals), showed less rubbing, flicking and sheltering than those without the anaesthetic.<sup id="cite_ref-Diarte_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diarte-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One study on reducing the stress of prawns resulting from transportation concluded that Aqui-STM and <a href="/wiki/Clove_oil" class="mw-redirect" title="Clove oil">clove oil</a> (a natural anaesthetic) may be suitable anaesthetic treatments for prawns.<sup id="cite_ref-Coyle_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coyle-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physiological_responses">Physiological responses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pain_in_crustaceans&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Physiological responses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Higher levels of stress, as measured by lactate, occur in shore crabs exposed to brief electric shock compared to non-shocked controls. However, shocked crabs showed more vigorous behaviour than controls, possibly indicating it is increased behaviour causing the increased lactate. But, when crabs with the same level of behaviour are matched, shocked crabs still have a stronger stress response compared with controls. The authors suggested that their findings, coupled with previous findings of long-term motivational change and avoidance learning, "fulfils the criteria expected of a pain experience".<sup id="cite_ref-Elwood2015_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elwood2015-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others have criticised these findings, including the fact that the lactate levels measured were within the normal range measured for shore crabs, and that any increases in lactate in shocked crabs were possibly due to increased <a href="/wiki/Anaerobic_respiration" title="Anaerobic respiration">anaerobic</a> activity. They also argued that behavioural "activities that go beyond mere reflex responses" is an inadequate criterion for pain.<sup id="cite_ref-Stevens_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stevens-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In crayfish (<i>Procambarus clarkii</i>), <a href="/wiki/Anxiolytic" title="Anxiolytic">anxiolytic</a> (stress-reducing) drugs made for humans also reduce anxiety.<sup id="cite_ref-Elwood2016b_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elwood2016b-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Injection of formalin into the <a href="/wiki/Cheliped" class="mw-redirect" title="Cheliped">cheliped</a> of shore crabs (<i>Hemigrapsus sanguineus</i>) evokes specific nociceptive behavior and neurochemical responses in the brain and thoracic ganglion.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Protective_responses">Protective responses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pain_in_crustaceans&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Protective responses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pagurus_bernhardus.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Pagurus_bernhardus.JPG/220px-Pagurus_bernhardus.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Pagurus_bernhardus.JPG/330px-Pagurus_bernhardus.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Pagurus_bernhardus.JPG/440px-Pagurus_bernhardus.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2721" data-file-height="2143" /></a><figcaption>A hermit crab outside of its shell. Note the soft, curved abdomen which is vulnerable to predators.</figcaption></figure> <p>Most species of <a href="/wiki/Hermit_crab" title="Hermit crab">hermit crab</a> have long, spirally curved abdomens, which are soft, unlike the hard, calcified abdomens seen in related crustaceans. They protect themselves from predators by entering a salvaged empty seashell, into which they can retract their whole body. As they grow, they must leave their shell and find another larger, more suitable shell.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their shells are therefore highly valuable to them. When hermit crabs (<i><a href="/wiki/Pagurus_bernhardus" title="Pagurus bernhardus">Pagurus bernhardus</a></i>) are given an electric shock, they leave their shells and subsequently perform prolonged abdominal grooming at the site of where they received the shock.<sup id="cite_ref-Appel2009_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Appel2009-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Male <i>Chasmagnathus granulatus</i> crabs exhibit a "defensive response" to electric shocks.<sup id="cite_ref-Lozada_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lozada-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During a study on the ability of shore crabs (<i><a href="/wiki/Carcinus_maenas" title="Carcinus maenas">Carcinus maenas</a></i>) learning to avoid an electrical shock, it was observed that many crabs emerged from the dark shelter to avoid the shock thus entering a brightly lit area which would normally be avoided.<sup id="cite_ref-elwood2013_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-elwood2013-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Immediately after the injection of <a href="/wiki/Formalin" class="mw-redirect" title="Formalin">formalin</a> (an irritant in mammals) or saline into one <a href="/wiki/Chela_(organ)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chela (organ)">cheliped</a> (the leg which ends with the claw), shore crabs move quickly into the corner of the aquarium and "freeze" after 2 to 3 seconds. After 1 to 3 minutes, these injected animals are fidgety and exhibit a wide range of movements such as flexion, extension, shaking or rubbing the affected claw. Formalin-treated animals show 20-times more rubbing behaviour during the first minute after injection than saline-treated crabs. Intense rubbing of the claw results in <a href="/wiki/Autotomy" title="Autotomy">autotomy</a> (shedding) in 20% of animals of the formalin-treated group whereas saline-injected crabs do not autotomise the injected cheliped. During the 10 minutes after injection, crabs in the formalin-treated group tried to use the intact cheliped, guarding the damaged cheliped. The scientists conducting this study commented "the present results obtained in crabs may be indicative of pain experience rather than relating to a simple nociceptive reflex".<sup id="cite_ref-Dyuizen_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dyuizen-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other species of crab have been shown to autotomise legs when placed on a hot plate or exposed to a small electric shock.<sup id="cite_ref-Gherardi_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gherardi-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When the antennae of rockpool prawns (<i><a href="/wiki/Palaemon_elegans" title="Palaemon elegans">Palaemon elegans</a></i>) are rubbed with <a href="/wiki/Sodium_hydroxide" title="Sodium hydroxide">sodium hydroxide</a> or <a href="/wiki/Acetic_acid" title="Acetic acid">acetic acid</a> (both are irritants), the animals show increased grooming and rubbing of the afflicted area against the side of the tank. Furthermore, this reaction is inhibited by a local anaesthetic, even though control prawns treated with only anaesthetic did not show reduced activity. Other scientists suggested the rubbing may reflect an attempt to clean the affected area<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as application of anaesthetic alone caused an increase in grooming. </p><p>In one study, no behavioural or neural changes in three different crustacean species (red swamp crayfish (<i><a href="/wiki/Procambarus_clarkii" title="Procambarus clarkii">Procambarus clarkii</a></i>), white shrimp (<i><a href="/wiki/Litopenaeus_setiferus" title="Litopenaeus setiferus">Litopenaeus setiferus</a></i>) and <i><a href="/wiki/Palaemonetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaemonetes">Palaemonetes</a></i> sp.) were observed in response to noxious <a href="/wiki/Acid" title="Acid">acids</a> or <a href="/wiki/Base_(chemistry)" title="Base (chemistry)">bases</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-puri2010_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-puri2010-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Avoidance_learning">Avoidance learning</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pain_in_crustaceans&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Avoidance learning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Shore crabs quickly (within 1 or 2 trials) learn to avoid one of two dark shelters if choosing that shelter consistently results in them receiving an electric shock.<sup id="cite_ref-Magee_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Magee-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The crayfish <i>Procambarus clarkii</i> and the crab <i>Chasmagnathus granulatus</i> learn to associate an electric shock with a light turning on, or with the occupancy of the light compartment of the aquarium, respectively. They quickly learn to respond to these associations by walking to a safe area in which the shock is not delivered (crayfish) or by refraining from entering the light compartment (crab).<sup id="cite_ref-Gherardi_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gherardi-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trade-offs_in_motivation">Trade-offs in motivation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pain_in_crustaceans&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Trade-offs in motivation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_hermit_crab_emerges_from_its_shell.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/A_hermit_crab_emerges_from_its_shell.jpg/220px-A_hermit_crab_emerges_from_its_shell.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/A_hermit_crab_emerges_from_its_shell.jpg/330px-A_hermit_crab_emerges_from_its_shell.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/A_hermit_crab_emerges_from_its_shell.jpg/440px-A_hermit_crab_emerges_from_its_shell.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>A hermit crab</figcaption></figure> <p>Nociceptive responses are reflexes that do not change regardless of motivational priorities. In contrast, a painful experience may change the motivation for normal behavioural responses, thereby indicating a plastic response to an aversive stimulus, rather than a simple reflex response.<sup id="cite_ref-Elwood2009_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elwood2009-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2009, Elwood and Mirjam Appel showed that <a href="/wiki/Hermit_crab" title="Hermit crab">hermit crabs</a> make motivational trade-offs between electric shocks and the quality of the shells they inhabit.<sup id="cite_ref-elwood2009_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-elwood2009-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In particular, as hermit crabs are shocked more intensely, they become increasingly willing to leave their current shells for new shells, and they spend less time deciding whether to enter those new shells. Moreover, because the researchers did not offer the new shells until after the electrical stimulation had ended, the change in motivational behavior was the result of memory of the noxious event, not an immediate reflex. It was also shown that hermit crabs experiencing increasing electric shocks left their shell at a reduced intensity when the shell was from a less preferred species than did those in shells of a more desirable species. This demonstrates that hermit crabs are willing to risk predator attack by evacuating their shells to avoid a noxious stimulus and that this is dependent upon how valuable the shell is.<sup id="cite_ref-Sneddon2015_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sneddon2015-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A similar study shows that hermit crabs are less likely to leave their shells after electric shock if they are in an environment that contains the odour of predators. This shows the crabs trade-off the motivation to avoid electric shocks and predator avoidance.<sup id="cite_ref-Magee2016_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Magee2016-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Shore crabs (<i>Carcinus maenas</i>) also show motivational trade-offs; they will discard a valuable resource (a preferred shelter) to avoid future encounters with painful stimuli, thereby indicating avoidance learning – a key criterion of the ability to experience pain.<sup id="cite_ref-elwood2013_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-elwood2013-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2014 study<sup id="cite_ref-Fossat_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fossat-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> on crayfish (<i>Procambarus clarkii</i>) tested their responses in a fear paradigm, the <a href="/wiki/Elevated_plus_maze" title="Elevated plus maze">elevated plus maze</a> in which animals choose to walk on an elevated cross which offers both aversive and preferable conditions (in this case, two arms were lit and two were dark). Crayfish which experienced an electric shock displayed enhanced fearfulness or anxiety as demonstrated by their preference for the dark arms more than the light. Furthermore, shocked crayfish had relatively higher brain <a href="/wiki/Serotonin" title="Serotonin">serotonin</a> concentrations coupled with elevated blood glucose, which suggests a stress response.<sup id="cite_ref-Sneddon2015_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sneddon2015-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A follow-up study using the same species showed the intensity of the anxiety-like behaviour, presumably resulting from the pain, was dependent on the intensity of the electric shock until reaching a plateau. Such a quantitative relationship between stress and anxiety is also a very common feature of human and vertebrate anxiety.<sup id="cite_ref-Fossat2015_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fossat2015-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legislation">Legislation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pain_in_crustaceans&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Legislation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Legislation protects some invertebrates when they are being used in research; the taxa protected varies between countries and regions. </p> <table class="wikitable" style="margin:auto"> <caption><b>Legislation on the protection of invertebrates in research</b> adapted from<sup id="cite_ref-Tonkins_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tonkins-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Country or <br />region</th> <th>Invertebrates protected</th> <th>Legislation </th></tr> <tr> <td>Australia<br />(some states)</td> <td>Cephalopods</td> <td>Government National Health and Medical<br /> Research Council's Code of Practice (2004) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Canada</td> <td>Cephalopods and "some other higher invertebrates"</td> <td>Canadian Council on Animal Care (1991)<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>EU</td> <td>Cephalopods</td> <td><a href="/wiki/EU_Directive_2010/63/EU" class="mw-redirect" title="EU Directive 2010/63/EU">EU Directive 2010/63/EU</a><sup id="cite_ref-DIRECTIVE_2010/63/EU_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DIRECTIVE_2010/63/EU-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>New Zealand</td> <td>Octopuses, squids, crabs, lobsters, crayfish</td> <td>Animal Welfare Act (1999)<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Norway</td> <td>Squids, octopuses, decapod crustaceans, honeybees</td> <td>Norwegian Animal Welfare Act (2009)<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Switzerland</td> <td>Cephalopods, decapod crustaceans</td> <td>Swiss Animal Welfare Act (2008)<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Birch_(philosopher)" title="Jonathan Birch (philosopher)">Jonathan Birch</a>, philosopher of biology at the London School of Economics, argue we should apply the precautionary principle to animal sentience. Without lowering scientific standards, this principle leads to include in our animal protection laws any species for which we have at least a credible indicator of sentience. If we have good reasons to believe that a species of crab is sentient, it is sufficient to believe that all crabs (more than 4000 species) are sentient. Therefore, it is all the members of the decapod order that should be included in our animal welfare laws.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Opinions">Opinions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pain_in_crustaceans&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Opinions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Advocates for Animals, a Scottish <a href="/wiki/Animal_welfare" title="Animal welfare">animal welfare</a> group, stated in 2005 that "scientific evidence ... strongly suggests that there is a potential for <a href="/wiki/Decapoda" class="mw-redirect" title="Decapoda">decapod</a> crustaceans and cephalopods to experience pain and suffering". This is primarily due to "The likelihood that decapod crustaceans can feel pain [which] is supported by the fact that they have been shown to have opioid receptors and to respond to opioids (analgesics such as morphine) in a similar way to vertebrates." Similarities between decapod and vertebrate stress systems and behavioral responses to noxious stimuli were given as additional evidence for the capacity of decapods to experience pain.<sup id="cite_ref-afa_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-afa-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2005 a review of the literature by the Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food Safety tentatively concluded that "it is unlikely that [lobsters] can feel pain," though they note that "there is apparently a paucity of exact knowledge on sentience in crustaceans, and more research is needed." This conclusion is based on the <a href="/wiki/Lobster" title="Lobster">lobster</a>'s simple nervous system. The report assumes that the violent reaction of lobsters to boiling water is a reflex response (i.e. does not involve conscious perception) to noxious stimuli.<sup id="cite_ref-Sømme_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sømme-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/European_Food_Safety_Authority" title="European Food Safety Authority">European Food Safety Authority</a> (EFSA) 2005 publication<sup id="cite_ref-EFSA2005_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EFSA2005-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> stated that the largest of decapod crustaceans have complex behaviour, a pain system, considerable learning abilities and appear to have some degree of awareness. Based on this evidence, they placed all decapod crustaceans into the same category of research-animal protection as vertebrates. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pain_during_killing">Pain during killing</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pain_in_crustaceans&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Pain during killing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Crabhalf.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Crabhalf.jpg/220px-Crabhalf.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Crabhalf.jpg/330px-Crabhalf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Crabhalf.jpg/440px-Crabhalf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1476" data-file-height="978" /></a><figcaption>This <a href="/wiki/Chionoecetes" title="Chionoecetes">tanner crab</a> was cut in half before cooking</figcaption></figure> <p>The EFSA summarized that the killing methods most likely to cause pain and distress are:<sup id="cite_ref-Yue_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yue-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Any procedures whereby the abdomen is separated from the thorax</li> <li>The removal of tissue, flesh, or limbs while the crustacean is alive and fully conscious</li> <li>Placing crustaceans in water slowly heated to the boiling point</li> <li>Placing crustaceans directly into boiling water</li> <li>Placing marine crustaceans in fresh water</li> <li>Unfocused microwaving of the body as opposed to focal application to the head</li></ul> <p>A device called the <a href="/wiki/CrustaStun" title="CrustaStun">CrustaStun</a> has been invented to electrocute <a href="/wiki/Shellfish" title="Shellfish">shellfish</a>, such as lobsters, <a href="/wiki/Crabs" class="mw-redirect" title="Crabs">crabs</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Crayfish" title="Crayfish">crayfish</a>, before cooking. The device works by applying a 120-<a href="/wiki/Volt" title="Volt">volt</a>, 2 to 5 <a href="/wiki/Ampere" title="Ampere">amp</a> electrical charge to the animal. The manufacturer claims it renders the shellfish unconscious in 0.3 seconds and kills the animal in 5 to 10 seconds, compared to 3 minutes to kill a lobster or crab by boiling;<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, the source for the claim states that movements detected after 10 seconds were the result of heat's effect on the muscles or escape of air from the <a href="/wiki/Branchial_chamber" title="Branchial chamber">branchial chambers</a>, not voluntary movements, and the author declares this measure of 3 minutes "useless" for determining time until death.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pain_in_crustaceans&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Charybdis_japonica.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Charybdis_japonica.jpg/32px-Charybdis_japonica.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="24" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Charybdis_japonica.jpg/48px-Charybdis_japonica.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Charybdis_japonica.jpg/64px-Charybdis_japonica.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Crustaceans" title="Portal:Crustaceans">Crustaceans portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_cognition" title="Animal cognition">Animal cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cruelty_to_animals" title="Cruelty to animals">Cruelty to animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declawing_of_crabs" title="Declawing of crabs">Declawing of crabs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion_in_animals" title="Emotion in animals">Emotion in animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_uncertain_sentience" title="Ethics of uncertain sentience">Ethics of uncertain sentience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_status_of_animals_in_the_ancient_world" title="Moral status of animals in the ancient world">Moral status of animals in the ancient world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_and_suffering_in_laboratory_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Pain and suffering in laboratory animals">Pain and suffering in laboratory animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentience" title="Sentience">Sentience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veganism" title="Veganism">Veganism</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pain_in_crustaceans&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 32em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-abbott1995-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-abbott1995_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output 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mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pain_in_crustaceans&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Grandin, Temple and Deesing, Mark (2003 update) "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.grandin.com/welfare/fear.pain.stress.html">Distress in Animals: Is it Fear, Pain or Physical Stress?</a>" American Board of Veterinary Practitioners – Symposium 2002.</li> <li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gourmet.com/magazine/2000s/2004/08/consider_the_lobster">Consider the Lobster</a>" Essay by <a href="/wiki/David_Foster_Wallace" title="David Foster Wallace">David Foster Wallace</a>, published in <i><a href="/wiki/Gourmet_(magazine)" title="Gourmet (magazine)">Gourmet</a></i>, August 2004.</li></ul> <div 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.navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Animal_cognition" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Animal_cognition" title="Template:Animal cognition"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Animal_cognition" title="Template talk:Animal cognition"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Animal_cognition" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Animal cognition"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Animal_cognition" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Animal_cognition" title="Animal cognition">Animal cognition</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cognition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_communication" title="Animal communication">Animal communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_consciousness" title="Animal consciousness">Animal consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_language" title="Animal language">Animal language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias_in_animals" title="Cognitive bias in animals">Cognitive bias in animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_ethology" title="Cognitive ethology">Cognitive ethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_cognition" title="Comparative cognition">Comparative cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion_in_animals" title="Emotion in animals">Emotion in animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insect_cognition" title="Insect cognition">Insect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirror_test" title="Mirror test">Mirror test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroethology" title="Neuroethology">Neuroethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observational_learning" title="Observational learning">Observational learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primate_archaeology" title="Primate archaeology">Primate archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tool_use_by_non-humans" title="Tool use by non-humans">Tool use by non-humans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tool_use_by_sea_otters" title="Tool use by sea otters">sea otters</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vocal_learning" title="Vocal learning">Vocal learning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Intelligence</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bird_intelligence" title="Bird intelligence">Bird</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pigeon_intelligence" title="Pigeon intelligence">Pigeon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talking_bird" title="Talking bird">talking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat_intelligence" title="Cat intelligence">Cat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cephalopod_intelligence" title="Cephalopod intelligence">Cephalopod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cetacean_intelligence" title="Cetacean intelligence">Cetacean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dog_intelligence" title="Dog intelligence">Dog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elephant_cognition" title="Elephant cognition">Elephant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_intelligence" title="Fish intelligence">Fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primate_cognition" title="Primate cognition">Primate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_human_intelligence" title="Evolution of human intelligence">Hominid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarm_intelligence" title="Swarm intelligence">Swarm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pain</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_amphibians" title="Pain in amphibians">Pain in amphibians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_animals" title="Pain in animals">Pain in animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_cephalopods" title="Pain in cephalopods">Pain in cephalopods</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Pain in crustaceans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_fish" title="Pain in fish">Pain in fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_invertebrates" title="Pain in invertebrates">Pain in invertebrates</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Relation to brain</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brain_size" title="Brain size">Brain size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain-to-body_mass_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain-to-body mass ratio">Brain-to-body mass ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encephalization_quotient" title="Encephalization quotient">Encephalization quotient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_and_intelligence" title="Neuroscience and intelligence">Neuroscience and intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_animals_by_number_of_neurons" title="List of animals by number of neurons">Number of neurons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Animal_cognition" title="Category:Animal cognition">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Animal_welfare" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Animal_welfare" title="Template:Animal welfare"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Animal_welfare" title="Template talk:Animal welfare"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Animal_welfare" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Animal welfare"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Animal_welfare" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Animal_welfare" title="Animal welfare">Animal welfare</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abandoned_pets" title="Abandoned pets">Abandoned pets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_sport" title="Blood sport">Blood sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chick_culling" title="Chick culling">Chick culling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cormorant_culling" title="Cormorant culling">Cormorant culling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livestock_dehorning" title="Livestock dehorning">Livestock dehorning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eating_live_animals" title="Eating live animals">Eating live animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eating_live_seafood" title="Eating live seafood">Eating live seafood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensive_animal_farming" title="Intensive animal farming">Intensive animal farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensive_pig_farming" title="Intensive pig farming">Intensive pig farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overview_of_discretionary_invasive_procedures_on_animals" title="Overview of discretionary invasive procedures on animals">Overview of discretionary invasive procedures on animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dairy_farming" title="Dairy farming">Dairy farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poultry_farming" title="Poultry farming">Poultry farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puppy_mill" title="Puppy mill">Puppy mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vivisection" title="Vivisection">Vivisection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_of_farmed_insects" title="Welfare of farmed insects">Welfare of farmed insects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wild_animal_suffering" title="Wild animal suffering">Wild animal suffering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_farming" title="Wildlife farming">Wildlife farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feedback_(pork_industry)" title="Feedback (pork industry)">Feedback (pork industry)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foam_depopulation" title="Foam depopulation">Foam depopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ventilation_shutdown" title="Ventilation shutdown">Ventilation shutdown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barn_fire" title="Barn fire">Barn fire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_abnormal_behaviours_in_animals" title="List of abnormal behaviours in animals">Abnormal behaviours in animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_psychopathology" title="Animal psychopathology">Animal psychopathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_shelter" title="Animal shelter">Animal shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_welfare_science" title="Animal welfare science">Animal welfare science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_enrichment" title="Behavioral enrichment">Behavioral enrichment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassionate_conservation" title="Compassionate conservation">Compassionate conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_welfare" title="Conservation welfare">Conservation welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_uncertain_sentience" title="Ethics of uncertain sentience">Ethics of uncertain sentience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_omnivorism" title="Ethical omnivorism">Ethical omnivorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_freedoms" title="Five freedoms">Five freedoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humane_law_enforcement" title="Humane law enforcement">Humane law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_value_in_animal_ethics" title="Intrinsic value in animal ethics">Intrinsic value in animal ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rescue_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Rescue group">Rescue group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RSPCA_Assured" title="RSPCA Assured">RSPCA Assured</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Rs_(animal_research)" title="Three Rs (animal research)">Three Rs principles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_biology" title="Welfare biology">Welfare biology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pain in<br />nonhuman animals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_animals" title="Pain in animals">Pain in animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_amphibians" title="Pain in amphibians">Pain in amphibians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_cephalopods" title="Pain in cephalopods">Pain in cephalopods</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Pain in crustaceans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_fish" title="Pain in fish">Pain in fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_invertebrates" title="Pain in invertebrates">Pain in invertebrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grimace_scale" title="Grimace scale">Grimace scale</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_for_the_Prevention_of_Cruelty_to_Animals" title="American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals">ASPCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Defence_and_Anti-Vivisection_Society" title="Animal Defence and Anti-Vivisection Society">Animal Defence and Anti-Vivisection Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Defenders_International" title="Animal Defenders International">Animal Defenders International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Welfare_Party" title="Animal Welfare Party">Animal Welfare Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animals%27_Friend_Society" title="Animals' Friend Society">Animals' Friend Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Humane" title="American Humane">American Humane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Aid_Unlimited" title="Animal Aid Unlimited">Animal Aid Unlimited</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Welfare_Board_of_India" title="Animal Welfare Board of India">Animal Welfare Board of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Welfare_Institute" title="Animal Welfare Institute">Animal Welfare Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Badger_Trust" title="Badger Trust">Badger Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Band_of_Mercy" class="mw-redirect" title="Band of Mercy">Band of Mercy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battersea_Dogs_%26_Cats_Home" title="Battersea Dogs & Cats Home">Battersea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Best_Friends_Animal_Society" title="Best Friends Animal Society">Best Friends Animal Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_Cross_(animal_charity)" title="Blue Cross (animal charity)">Blue Cross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_Cross_of_India" title="Blue Cross of India">Blue Cross of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Care_for_the_Wild_International" title="Care for the Wild International">Care for the Wild International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cats_Protection" title="Cats Protection">Cats Protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassion_in_World_Farming" title="Compassion in World Farming">Compassion in World Farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Animal_Welfare_Foundation" title="Conservative Animal Welfare Foundation">CAWF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinnamon_Trust" title="Cinnamon Trust">Cinnamon Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogs_Trust" title="Dogs Trust">Dogs Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Society_for_the_Protection_of_Animals" title="Dutch Society for the Protection of Animals">DSPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSPCA" title="DSPCA">DSPCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurogroup_for_Animals" title="Eurogroup for Animals">Eurogroup for Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farm_Animal_Welfare_Committee" title="Farm Animal Welfare Committee">Farm Animal Welfare Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Paws" title="Four Paws">Four Paws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fund_for_the_Replacement_of_Animals_in_Medical_Experiments" title="Fund for the Replacement of Animals in Medical Experiments">FRAME</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hedgehog_Care" title="Hedgehog Care">Hedgehog Care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humane_Canada" title="Humane Canada">Humane Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humane_Farm_Animal_Care" title="Humane Farm Animal Care">Humane Farm Animal Care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humane_Society_of_the_United_States" title="Humane Society of the United States">HSUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humane_Society_International" title="Humane Society International">Humane Society International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humane_Slaughter_Association" title="Humane Slaughter Association">Humane Slaughter Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Animal_Rescue" title="International Animal Rescue">International Animal Rescue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Fund_for_Animal_Welfare" title="International Fund for Animal Welfare">IFAW</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Society_for_Applied_Ethology" title="International Society for Applied Ethology">International Society for Applied Ethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Society_for_Prevention_of_Cruelty_to_Animals" title="Irish Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals">ISPCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_animal_welfare_organizations" title="List of animal welfare organizations">List of animal welfare organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/League_Against_Cruel_Sports" title="League Against Cruel Sports">League Against Cruel Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_Connection" title="Marine Connection">Marine Connection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Society_for_the_Abolition_of_Cruel_Sports" title="National Society for the Abolition of Cruel Sports">National Society for the Abolition of Cruel Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_for_Animals" title="Network for Animals">Network for Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Dowding_Fund_for_Humane_Research" title="Lord Dowding Fund for Humane Research">Lord Dowding Fund for Humane Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MSPCA-Angell" title="MSPCA-Angell">MSPCA-Angell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Animal_Welfare_Trust" title="National Animal Welfare Trust">National Animal Welfare Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Anti-Vivisection_Society" title="National Anti-Vivisection Society">National Anti-Vivisection Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_for_Animals%27_Welfare" class="mw-redirect" title="National Council for Animals' Welfare">National Council for Animals' Welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OneKind" title="OneKind">OneKind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Party_for_Animal_Welfare" title="Party for Animal Welfare">Party for Animal Welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_for_Animals" title="People for Animals">People for Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Dispensary_for_Sick_Animals" title="People's Dispensary for Sick Animals">People's Dispensary for Sick Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_New_Zealand_Society_for_the_Prevention_of_Cruelty_to_Animals" title="Royal New Zealand Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals">RNZSPCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RSPCA" title="RSPCA">RSPCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RSPCA_Australia" title="RSPCA Australia">RSPCA Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Save_Me_(animal_welfare)" title="Save Me (animal welfare)">Save Me</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Society_for_Prevention_of_Cruelty_to_Animals" title="Scottish Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals">SSPCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiggywinkles" title="Tiggywinkles">Tiggywinkles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toronto_Humane_Society" title="Toronto Humane Society">Toronto Humane Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universities_Federation_for_Animal_Welfare" title="Universities Federation for Animal Welfare">UFAW</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_Aid_Foundation" title="Wildlife Aid Foundation">Wildlife Aid Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Animal_Protection" title="World Animal Protection">World Animal Protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Horse_Welfare" title="World Horse Welfare">World Horse Welfare</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Publications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/American_Humane_Magazine" class="mw-redirect" title="American Humane Magazine">American Humane Magazine</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Animal_Protection_(magazine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal Protection (magazine)">Animal Protection</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Animal_Welfare_(journal)" title="Animal Welfare (journal)">Animal Welfare</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/AWI_Quarterly" class="mw-redirect" title="AWI Quarterly">AWI Quarterly</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cruel_Sports_(magazine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cruel Sports (magazine)">Cruel Sports</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Human_Advocate_(magazine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Human Advocate (magazine)">Human Advocate</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Applied_Animal_Welfare_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science">Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Our_Dumb_Animals" title="Our Dumb Animals">Our Dumb Animals</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Animals%27_Guardian" class="mw-redirect" title="The Animals' Guardian">The Animals' Guardian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Cat_(magazine)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Cat (magazine)">The Cat</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Zoophilist_(magazine)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Zoophilist (magazine)">The Zoophilist</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Activists<br />and workers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Michael_C._Appleby" title="Michael C. Appleby">Michael C. Appleby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynthia_Bathurst" title="Cynthia Bathurst">Cynthia Bathurst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_E._Bershadker" title="Matthew E. Bershadker">Matthew E. Bershadker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christa_Blanke" title="Christa Blanke">Christa Blanke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moira_Brown" title="Moira Brown">Moira Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Cameron" title="Jan Cameron">Jan Cameron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judy_MacArthur_Clark" title="Judy MacArthur Clark">Judy MacArthur Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kendra_Coulter" title="Kendra Coulter">Kendra Coulter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Ronald_Davies" title="Peter Ronald Davies">Peter Ronald Davies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petra_Deimer" title="Petra Deimer">Petra Deimer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alanna_Devine" title="Alanna Devine">Alanna Devine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robin_Ganzert" title="Robin Ganzert">Robin Ganzert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celia_Hammond" title="Celia Hammond">Celia Hammond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alison_Hanlon" title="Alison Hanlon">Alison Hanlon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brian_Hare" title="Brian Hare">Brian Hare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathrin_Glock" title="Kathrin Glock">Kathrin Glock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emily_Patterson-Kane" title="Emily Patterson-Kane">Emily Patterson-Kane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Lymbery" title="Philip Lymbery">Philip Lymbery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damien_Mander" title="Damien Mander">Damien Mander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christine_Nicol" title="Christine Nicol">Christine Nicol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wayne_Pacelle" title="Wayne Pacelle">Wayne Pacelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharon_Pincott" title="Sharon Pincott">Sharon Pincott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilka_Reinhardt" title="Ilka Reinhardt">Ilka Reinhardt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jill_Robinson" title="Jill Robinson">Jill Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naomi_Sagara" title="Naomi Sagara">Naomi Sagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sepehr_Salimi" title="Sepehr Salimi">Sepehr Salimi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolfo_Sansolini" title="Adolfo Sansolini">Adolfo Sansolini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rakesh_Shukla_(animal_welfare_activist)" title="Rakesh Shukla (animal welfare activist)">Rakesh Shukla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karen_Stockin" title="Karen Stockin">Karen Stockin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patti_Strand" title="Patti Strand">Patti Strand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sally_Varma" title="Sally Varma">Sally Varma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tina_M._Widowski" title="Tina M. Widowski">Tina M. Widowski</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gertrude_Ansell" title="Gertrude Ansell">Gertrude Ansell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emily_Appleton" title="Emily Appleton">Emily Appleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._Baillie-Weaver" title="H. Baillie-Weaver">H. Baillie-Weaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madeleine_Bemelmans" title="Madeleine Bemelmans">Madeleine Bemelmans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Bergh" title="Henry Bergh">Henry Bergh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Brancker" title="Mary Brancker">Mary Brancker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Braithwaite" title="Victoria Braithwaite">Victoria Braithwaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_A._Caras" title="Roger A. Caras">Roger A. Caras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Cronin_(zookeeper)" title="Jim Cronin (zookeeper)">Jim Cronin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brian_Davies_(activist)" title="Brian Davies (activist)">Brian Davies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerard_Lysley_Derriman" title="Gerard Lysley Derriman">Gerard Lysley Derriman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Dickin" title="Maria Dickin">Maria Dickin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marjorie_Doggett" title="Marjorie Doggett">Marjorie Doggett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muriel_Dowding,_Baroness_Dowding" title="Muriel Dowding, Baroness Dowding">Muriel Dowding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alice_Drakoules" title="Alice Drakoules">Alice Drakoules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarah_J._Eddy" title="Sarah J. Eddy">Sarah J. Eddy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnes_Estcourt-Oswald" title="Agnes Estcourt-Oswald">Agnes Estcourt-Oswald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_G._Fairholme" title="Edward G. Fairholme">Edward G. Fairholme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aida_McAnn_Flemming" title="Aida McAnn Flemming">Aida McAnn Flemming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucy_Furman" title="Lucy Furman">Lucy Furman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basil_Goldstone" title="Basil Goldstone">Basil Goldstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julia_Goddard" title="Julia Goddard">Julia Goddard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Gower" title="Robert Gower">Robert Gower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colesworthey_Grant" title="Colesworthey Grant">Colesworthey Grant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Greenwood" title="George Greenwood">George Greenwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Gurney" title="Peter Gurney">Peter Gurney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_Victoria_Hall" title="Catherine Victoria Hall">Catherine Victoria Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Hemingway" title="Edward Hemingway">Edward Hemingway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rachel_Hirschfeld" title="Rachel Hirschfeld">Rachel Hirschfeld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sjoerd_Hofstra" title="Sjoerd Hofstra">Sjoerd Hofstra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clive_Hollands" title="Clive Hollands">Clive Hollands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_Houghton,_Baron_Houghton_of_Sowerby" title="Douglas Houghton, Baron Houghton of Sowerby">Douglas Houghton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_A._Hoyt" title="John A. Hoyt">John A. Hoyt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velma_Bronn_Johnston" title="Velma Bronn Johnston">Velma Bronn Johnston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Knapp" title="Albert Knapp">Albert Knapp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titus_Lander" title="Titus Lander">Titus Lander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carla_Lane" title="Carla Lane">Carla Lane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etta_Lemon" title="Etta Lemon">Etta Lemon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Lidiard" title="Victoria Lidiard">Victoria Lidiard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_Alpin_MacGregor" title="Alasdair Alpin MacGregor">Alasdair Alpin MacGregor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terry_Maple" title="Terry Maple">Terry Maple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Messer" title="Frederick Messer">Frederick Messer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Martin_(Irish_politician)" title="Richard Martin (Irish politician)">Richard Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirley_McGreal" title="Shirley McGreal">Shirley McGreal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgina_Cowper-Temple,_Lady_Mount_Temple" title="Georgina Cowper-Temple, Lady Mount Temple">Lady Mount Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Nevins" title="Harriet Nevins">Harriet Nevins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felix_Ortt" title="Felix Ortt">Felix Ortt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_Louisa_Pirkis" title="Catherine Louisa Pirkis">Catherine Louisa Pirkis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliza_Phillips" title="Eliza Phillips">Eliza Phillips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maude_Gillette_Phillips" title="Maude Gillette Phillips">Maude Gillette Phillips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Jackson_Pratt" title="Samuel Jackson Pratt">Samuel Jackson Pratt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilfred_Risdon" title="Wilfred Risdon">Wilfred Risdon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Roberts_(activist)" title="Peter Roberts (activist)">Peter Roberts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Salter" title="Jan Salter">Jan Salter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_Smithies" title="Catherine Smithies">Catherine Smithies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Bywater_Smithies" title="Thomas Bywater Smithies">Thomas Bywater Smithies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Snow" title="Herbert Snow">Herbert Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellin_Prince_Speyer" title="Ellin Prince Speyer">Ellin Prince Speyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christine_Stevens_(animal_welfare_activist)" title="Christine Stevens (animal welfare activist)">Christine Stevens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_S._S._Steuart" title="Douglas S. S. Steuart">Douglas S. S. Steuart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elisabeth_Svendsen" title="Elisabeth Svendsen">Elisabeth Svendsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Tealby" title="Mary Tealby">Mary Tealby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Trine" title="Ralph Waldo Trine">Ralph Waldo Trine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Trist" title="Sidney Trist">Sidney Trist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethel_Venton" title="Ethel Venton">Ethel Venton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M._Dudley_Ward" title="M. Dudley Ward">M. Dudley Ward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jessey_Wade" title="Jessey Wade">Jessey Wade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Wathes" title="Christopher Wathes">Christopher Wathes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Weber_(activist)" title="Franz Weber (activist)">Franz Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caroline_Earle_White" title="Caroline Earle White">Caroline Earle White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emily_Williamson" title="Emily Williamson">Emily Williamson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._Fergie_Woods" title="H. Fergie Woods">H. Fergie Woods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alice_Morgan_Wright" title="Alice Morgan Wright">Alice Morgan Wright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gretchen_Wyler" title="Gretchen Wyler">Gretchen Wyler</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scholars<br />and writers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Arluke" title="Arnold Arluke">Arnold Arluke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Balcombe" title="Jonathan Balcombe">Jonathan Balcombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Balls" title="Michael Balls">Michael Balls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Barstow" title="Geoffrey Barstow">Geoffrey Barstow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Bekoff" title="Marc Bekoff">Marc Bekoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Broom" title="Donald Broom">Donald Broom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marian_Dawkins" title="Marian Dawkins">Marian Dawkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Fogle" title="Bruce Fogle">Bruce Fogle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Goodall" title="Jane Goodall">Jane Goodall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_Grandin" title="Temple Grandin">Temple Grandin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celia_Haddon" title="Celia Haddon">Celia Haddon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Hurst" title="Jane Hurst">Jane Hurst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Hoyt" title="Erich Hoyt">Erich Hoyt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_J._King" title="Barbara J. King">Barbara J. King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alistair_Lawrence" title="Alistair Lawrence">Alistair Lawrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Macdonald_(biologist)" title="David Macdonald (biologist)">David Macdonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Marchant" title="Jeremy Marchant">Jeremy Marchant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeff_McMahan_(philosopher)" title="Jeff McMahan (philosopher)">Jeff McMahan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Mills_(biologist)" title="Daniel Mills (biologist)">Daniel Mills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sy_Montgomery" title="Sy Montgomery">Sy Montgomery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Morell" title="Virginia Morell">Virginia Morell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caitlin_O%27Connell-Rodwell" title="Caitlin O'Connell-Rodwell">Caitlin O'Connell-Rodwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clare_Palmer" title="Clare Palmer">Clare Palmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_J._Pearson" title="Susan J. Pearson">Susan J. Pearson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dale_Peterson" title="Dale Peterson">Dale Peterson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jessica_Pierce" title="Jessica Pierce">Jessica Pierce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diana_Reiss" title="Diana Reiss">Diana Reiss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Safina" title="Carl Safina">Carl Safina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Scully" title="Matthew Scully">Matthew Scully</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Shapiro_(author)" title="Paul Shapiro (author)">Paul Shapiro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jennifer_Skiff" title="Jennifer Skiff">Jennifer Skiff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Wohlleben" title="Peter Wohlleben">Peter Wohlleben</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal;">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Thorndike_Angell" title="George Thorndike Angell">George T. Angell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Bateson" title="Patrick Bateson">Patrick Bateson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Beddow_Bayly" title="Maurice Beddow Bayly">Beddow Bayly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Bell_(activist)" title="Ernest Bell (activist)">Ernest Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Berdoe" title="Edward Berdoe">Edward Berdoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Broome" title="Arthur Broome">Arthur Broome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Burden" title="Jean Burden">Jean Burden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerald_Carson_(writer)" title="Gerald Carson (writer)">Gerald Carson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Coleridge" title="Stephen Coleridge">Stephen Coleridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Adam_Dann" title="Christian Adam Dann">Christian Adam Dann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Morewood_Dowsett" title="J. Morewood Dowsett">J. Morewood Dowsett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audrey_Eyton" title="Audrey Eyton">Audrey Eyton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Fleming_(veterinary_surgeon)" title="George Fleming (veterinary surgeon)">George Fleming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Fletcher_(surgeon)" title="Ralph Fletcher (surgeon)">Ralph Fletcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Harrison" title="Ruth Harrison">Ruth Harrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._W._Hume" title="C. W. Hume">C. W. Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._Douglas_Hume" title="E. Douglas Hume">E. Douglas Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Macaulay_(editor)" title="James Macaulay (editor)">James Macaulay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basheer_Ahmad_Masri" title="Basheer Ahmad Masri">Basheer Ahmad Masri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Orpen_Morris" title="Francis Orpen Morris">Francis Orpen Morris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Nicholson_(printer)" title="George Nicholson (printer)">George Nicholson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siobhan_O%27Sullivan" title="Siobhan O'Sullivan">Siobhan O'Sullivan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Reinhardt" title="Charles Reinhardt">Charles Reinhardt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_H._Rowley" title="Francis H. Rowley">Francis H. Rowley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._M._S._Russell" title="W. M. S. Russell">W. M. S. Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chris_Sherwin" title="Chris Sherwin">Chris Sherwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colin_Spedding" title="Colin Spedding">Colin Spedding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_O._Stillman" title="William O. Stillman">William O. Stillman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Styles" title="John Styles">John Styles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bell_Taylor" title="Bell Taylor">Bell Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_von_Weber" title="Ernst von Weber">Ernst von Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D._G._M._Wood-Gush" title="D. G. M. Wood-Gush">D. G. M. Wood-Gush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frans_de_Waal" title="Frans de Waal">Frans de Waal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Wirth" title="Hugh Wirth">Hugh Wirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Youatt" title="William Youatt">William Youatt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Young_(animal_welfare_writer)" title="Thomas Young (animal welfare writer)">Thomas Young</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Categories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Animal_advocacy_parties" title="Category:Animal advocacy parties">Animal advocacy parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Animal_killing" title="Category:Animal killing">Animal killing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Animal_rights" title="Category:Animal rights">Animal rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Animal_welfare_and_rights_legislation" title="Category:Animal welfare and rights legislation">Animal welfare and rights legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Animal_sacrifice" title="Category:Animal sacrifice">Animal sacrifice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Animal_sanctuaries" title="Category:Animal sanctuaries">Animal sanctuaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Animal_testing" title="Category:Animal testing">Animal testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Animal_welfare_and_rights_by_country" title="Category:Animal welfare and rights by country">Animal welfare and rights by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cruelty_to_animals" title="Category:Cruelty to animals">Cruelty to animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Dishes_involving_the_consumption_of_live_animals" title="Category:Dishes involving the consumption of live animals">Dishes involving the consumption of live animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Fur_trade" title="Category:Fur trade">Fur trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:People_associated_with_animal_welfare_and_rights" title="Category:People associated with animal welfare and rights">People associated with animal welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Whaling" title="Category:Whaling">Whaling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religious<br />considerations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dhabihah" title="Dhabihah">Dhabihah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jhatka" title="Jhatka">Jhatka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kutha_meat" class="mw-redirect" title="Kutha meat">Kutha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shechita" title="Shechita">Shechita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tza%27ar_ba%27alei_chayim" title="Tza'ar ba'alei chayim">Tza'ar ba'alei chayim</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rituals and<br />festivals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blessing_of_animals" title="Blessing of animals">Blessing of animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bous_al_carrer" class="mw-redirect" title="Bous al carrer">Bous al carrer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cock_throwing" title="Cock throwing">Cock throwing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_de_Reines" title="Combat de Reines">Combat de Reines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eid_al-Adha" title="Eid al-Adha">Eid al-Adha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gadhimai_festival" title="Gadhimai festival">Gadhimai festival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goat_throwing" title="Goat throwing">Goat throwing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goose_pulling" title="Goose pulling">Goose pulling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Primate_Day" title="International Primate Day">International Primate Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kapparot" title="Kapparot">Kapparot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dog_Meat_Festival" title="Dog Meat Festival">Dog Meat Festival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monkey_Buffet_Festival" title="Monkey Buffet Festival">Monkey Buffet Festival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/October_Horse" title="October Horse">October Horse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pushkar_Camel_Fair" class="mw-redirect" title="Pushkar Camel Fair">Pushkar Camel Fair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapa_das_Bestas_of_Sabucedo" title="Rapa das Bestas of Sabucedo">Rapa das Bestas of Sabucedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Running_of_the_bulls" title="Running of the bulls">Running of the bulls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surin_Elephant_Round-up" title="Surin Elephant Round-up">Surin Elephant Round-up</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toro_embolado" title="Toro embolado">Toro embolado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Animal_Day" title="World Animal Day">World Animal Day</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legislation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_testing_regulations" title="Animal testing regulations">Animal testing regulations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animals_(Scientific_Procedures)_Act_1986" title="Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986">Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986</a> (UK)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Welfare_Act_1999" title="Animal Welfare Act 1999">Animal Welfare Act 1999</a> (NZ)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Welfare_Act_2006" title="Animal Welfare Act 2006">Animal Welfare Act 2006</a> (UK)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Welfare_Act_of_1966" title="Animal Welfare Act of 1966">Animal Welfare Act of 1966</a> (US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Welfare_(Sentience)_Act_2022" title="Animal Welfare (Sentience) Act 2022">Animal Welfare (Sentience) Act 2022</a> (UK)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cruelty_to_Animals_Act_1876" title="Cruelty to Animals Act 1876">Cruelty to Animals Act 1876</a> (UK)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/EU_Directive_2010/63/EU" class="mw-redirect" title="EU Directive 2010/63/EU">EU Directive 2010/63/EU</a> (EU)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union_Council_Directive_1999/74/EC" class="mw-redirect" title="European Union Council Directive 1999/74/EC">EU Directive 1999/74/EC</a> (EU)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horse_Protection_Act_of_1970" title="Horse Protection Act of 1970">Horse Protection Act of 1970</a> (US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_Act_2004" title="Hunting Act 2004">Hunting Act 2004</a> (UK)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_international_animal_welfare_conventions" title="List of international animal welfare conventions">List of international animal welfare conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_Animal_Welfare_Society#RA_8485_.E2.80.93_The_Animal_Welfare_Act_of_the_Philippines" title="Philippine Animal Welfare Society">Philippine Animal Welfare Act 1998</a> (Philippines)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_animal_rights_advocates" title="List of animal rights advocates">List of animal rights advocates</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Animal_welfare" title="Category:Animal welfare">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Animal_rights" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Animal_rights" title="Template:Animal rights"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Animal_rights" title="Template talk:Animal rights"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Animal_rights" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Animal rights"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Animal_rights" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Animal_rights" title="Animal rights">Animal rights</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Topics_(overviews,_concepts,_issues,_cases)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics (overviews, concepts, issues, cases)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_rights_movement" title="Animal rights movement">Animal rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_rights_by_country_or_territory" title="Animal rights by country or territory">Animal rights by country or territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_animal_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarchism and animal rights">Anarchism and animal rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_rights_and_punk_subculture" title="Animal rights and punk subculture">Animal rights and punk subculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_cruelty_and_the_Holocaust_analogy" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal cruelty and the Holocaust analogy">Animal cruelty–Holocaust analogies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_rights_in_Indian_religions" title="Animal rights in Indian religions">Animal rights in Indian religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_animal_rights" title="Christianity and animal rights">Christianity and animal rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_animal_rights" title="History of animal rights">History of animal rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_international_animal_welfare_conventions" title="List of international animal welfare conventions">List of international animal welfare conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_status_of_animals_in_the_ancient_world" title="Moral status of animals in the ancient world">Moral status of animals in the ancient world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_animal_welfare_and_rights" title="Timeline of animal welfare and rights">Timeline of animal welfare and rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_liberation" title="Total liberation">Total liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_on_Animal_Welfare" title="Universal Declaration on Animal Welfare">Universal Declaration on Animal Welfare</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_(animal_rights)" title="Abolitionism (animal rights)">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_cognition" title="Animal cognition">Animal cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_consciousness" title="Animal consciousness">Animal consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_ethics" title="Animal ethics">Animal ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal%E2%80%93industrial_complex" title="Animal–industrial complex">Animal–industrial complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_law" title="Animal law">Animal law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_protectionism" title="Animal protectionism">Animal protectionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_welfare" title="Animal welfare">Animal welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal-free_agriculture" title="Animal-free agriculture">Animal-free agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_marginal_cases" title="Argument from marginal cases">Argument from marginal cases</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Declaration_on_Consciousness" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge Declaration on Consciousness">Cambridge Declaration on Consciousness</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnism" title="Carnism">Carnism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_consideration_of_interests" title="Equal consideration of interests">Equal consideration of interests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion_in_animals" title="Emotion in animals">Emotion in animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_eating_meat" title="Ethics of eating meat">Ethics of eating meat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_uncertain_sentience" title="Ethics of uncertain sentience">Ethics of uncertain sentience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">Ethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insects_in_ethics" title="Insects in ethics">Insects in ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meat_paradox" class="mw-redirect" title="Meat paradox">Meat paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_rescue" title="Open rescue">Open rescue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_hunting" title="Opposition to hunting">Opposition to hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personism" title="Personism">Personism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Replaceability_argument" title="Replaceability argument">Replaceability argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentiocentrism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sentiocentrism">Sentiocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Speciesism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veganism" title="Veganism">Veganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegaphobia" title="Vegaphobia">Vegaphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetarianism" title="Vegetarianism">Vegetarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Animal_agriculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal agriculture">Animal agriculture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_product" title="Animal product">Animal product</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battery_cage" title="Battery cage">Battery cage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bile_bear" title="Bile bear">Bile bear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chick_culling" title="Chick culling">Chick culling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentrated_animal_feeding_operation" title="Concentrated animal feeding operation">Concentrated animal feeding operation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_farming" title="Fish farming">Fish farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fur_farming" title="Fur farming">Fur farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fur_trade" title="Fur trade">Fur trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insect_farming" title="Insect farming">Insect farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensive_animal_farming" title="Intensive animal farming">Intensive animal farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensive_pig_farming" title="Intensive pig farming">Intensive pig farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livestock" title="Livestock">Livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poultry_farming" title="Poultry farming">Poultry farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slaughterhouse" title="Slaughterhouse">Slaughterhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_farming" title="Wildlife farming">Wildlife farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_animal" title="Working animal">Working animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feedback_(pork_industry)" title="Feedback (pork industry)">Feedback (pork industry)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foam_depopulation" title="Foam depopulation">Foam depopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ventilation_shutdown" title="Ventilation shutdown">Ventilation shutdown</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Animal_testing" title="Animal testing">Animal testing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternatives_to_animal_testing" title="Alternatives to animal testing">Alternatives to animal testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_testing_on_non-human_primates" title="Animal testing on non-human primates">Animal testing on non-human primates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_testing_regulations" title="Animal testing regulations">Animal testing regulations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_ape_research_ban" class="mw-redirect" title="Great ape research ban">Great ape research ban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Scare" title="Green Scare">Green Scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huntingdon_Life_Sciences" title="Huntingdon Life Sciences">Huntingdon Life Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model_organism" title="Model organism">Model organism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nafovanny" title="Nafovanny">Nafovanny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Backfire_(FBI)" title="Operation Backfire (FBI)">Operation Backfire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vivisection" title="Vivisection">Vivisection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Animal_welfare" title="Animal welfare">Animal welfare</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_euthanasia" title="Animal euthanasia">Animal euthanasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cruelty_to_animals" title="Cruelty to animals">Cruelty to animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_animals" title="Pain in animals">Pain in animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_amphibians" title="Pain in amphibians">Pain in amphibians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_cephalopods" title="Pain in cephalopods">Pain in cephalopods</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Pain in crustaceans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_fish" title="Pain in fish">Pain in fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_invertebrates" title="Pain in invertebrates">Pain in invertebrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_and_suffering_in_laboratory_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Pain and suffering in laboratory animals">Pain and suffering in laboratory animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_of_farmed_insects" title="Welfare of farmed insects">Welfare of farmed insects</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fishing" title="Fishing">Fishing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_fishing" title="Commercial fishing">Commercial fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_bait" title="Fishing bait">Fishing bait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recreational_fishing" title="Recreational fishing">Recreational fishing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wild_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Wild animals">Wild animals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Culling_wildlife" class="mw-redirect" title="Culling wildlife">Culling wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hare_coursing" title="Hare coursing">Hare coursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting" title="Hunting">Hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_primate_trade" title="International primate trade">International primate trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivory_trade" title="Ivory trade">Ivory trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predation_problem" title="Predation problem">Predation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seal_hunting" title="Seal hunting">Seal hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wild_animal_suffering" title="Wild animal suffering">Wild animal suffering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_management" title="Wildlife management">Wildlife management</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abandoned_pets" title="Abandoned pets">Abandoned pets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_sacrifice" title="Animal sacrifice">Animal sacrifice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_slaughter" title="Animal slaughter">Animal slaughter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_trial" title="Animal trial">Animal trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animals_in_sport" title="Animals in sport">Animals in sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Live_food" title="Live food">Live food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Live_export" title="Live export">Live export</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brown_Dog_affair" title="Brown Dog affair">Brown Dog affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_primates" title="Cambridge University primates">Cambridge University primates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McLibel_case" title="McLibel case">McLibel case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monkey_selfie_copyright_dispute" title="Monkey selfie copyright dispute">Monkey selfie copyright dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pit_of_despair" title="Pit of despair">Pit of despair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stop_Huntingdon_Animal_Cruelty" title="Stop Huntingdon Animal Cruelty">SHAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silver_Spring_monkeys" title="Silver Spring monkeys">Silver Spring monkeys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Riverside_1985_laboratory_raid" title="University of California, Riverside 1985 laboratory raid">University of California, Riverside 1985 laboratory raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unnecessary_Fuss" title="Unnecessary Fuss">Unnecessary Fuss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_currents" title="War of the currents">War of the currents</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Methodologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Direct_Action_Everywhere" title="Direct Action Everywhere">Direct Action Everywhere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunt_sabotage" title="Hunt sabotage">Hunt sabotage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Observances</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_Animal_Day" title="World Animal Day">World Animal Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Day_for_the_End_of_Speciesism" title="World Day for the End of Speciesism">World Day for the End of Speciesism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Day_for_Laboratory_Animals" title="World Day for Laboratory Animals">World Day for Laboratory Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Day_for_the_End_of_Fishing" title="World Day for the End of Fishing">World Day for the End of Fishing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Advocates_(academics,_writers,_activists)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_animal_rights_advocates" title="List of animal rights advocates">Advocates</a> (academics, writers, activists)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics<br />and writers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carol_J._Adams" title="Carol J. Adams">Carol J. Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aysha_Akhtar" title="Aysha Akhtar">Aysha Akhtar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kristin_Andrews" title="Kristin Andrews">Kristin Andrews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Beauchamp" title="Tom Beauchamp">Tom Beauchamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Bekoff" title="Marc Bekoff">Marc Bekoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_Best" title="Steven Best">Steven Best</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paola_Cavalieri" title="Paola Cavalieri">Paola Cavalieri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_R._L._Clark" title="Stephen R. L. Clark">Stephen R. L. Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_Cochrane" title="Alasdair Cochrane">Alasdair Cochrane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._M._Coetzee" title="J. M. Coetzee">J. M. Coetzee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alice_Crary" title="Alice Crary">Alice Crary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_DeGrazia" title="David DeGrazia">David DeGrazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dombrowski" title="Daniel Dombrowski">Daniel Dombrowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sue_Donaldson" title="Sue Donaldson">Sue Donaldson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephine_Donovan" title="Josephine Donovan">Josephine Donovan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Dunayer" title="Joan Dunayer">Joan Dunayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mylan_Engel" title="Mylan Engel">Mylan Engel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catia_Faria" title="Catia Faria">Catia Faria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Finsen" title="Lawrence Finsen">Lawrence Finsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gary_L._Francione" title="Gary L. Francione">Gary L. Francione</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Garner" title="Robert Garner">Robert Garner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Val%C3%A9ry_Giroux" title="Valéry Giroux">Valéry Giroux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lori_Gruen" title="Lori Gruen">Lori Gruen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hadley_(philosopher)" title="John Hadley (philosopher)">John Hadley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Horta" title="Oscar Horta">Oscar Horta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dale_Jamieson" title="Dale Jamieson">Dale Jamieson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyle_Johannsen" title="Kyle Johannsen">Kyle Johannsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanie_Joy" title="Melanie Joy">Melanie Joy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilda_Kean" title="Hilda Kean">Hilda Kean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_Kymlicka" title="Will Kymlicka">Will Kymlicka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renan_Larue" title="Renan Larue">Renan Larue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Lepeltier" title="Thomas Lepeltier">Thomas Lepeltier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Linzey" title="Andrew Linzey">Andrew Linzey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clair_Linzey" title="Clair Linzey">Clair Linzey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dan_Lyons" title="Dan Lyons">Dan Lyons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Nibert" title="David Nibert">David Nibert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Martha Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clare_Palmer" title="Clare Palmer">Clare Palmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Patterson_(author)" title="Charles Patterson (author)">Charles Patterson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Pearce_(philosopher)" title="David Pearce (philosopher)">David Pearce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jessica_Pierce" title="Jessica Pierce">Jessica Pierce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evelyn_Pluhar" title="Evelyn Pluhar">Evelyn Pluhar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Rowlands" title="Mark Rowlands">Mark Rowlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_D._Ryder" title="Richard D. Ryder">Richard D. Ryder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_F._Sapontzis" title="Steve F. Sapontzis">Steve F. Sapontzis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeff_Sebo" title="Jeff Sebo">Jeff Sebo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_Segal" title="Jérôme Segal">Jérôme Segal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Peter Singer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gary_Steiner" title="Gary Steiner">Gary Steiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cass_Sunstein" title="Cass Sunstein">Cass Sunstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Sztybel" title="David Sztybel">David Sztybel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Tye_(philosopher)" title="Michael Tye (philosopher)">Michael Tye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatjana_Vi%C5%A1ak" title="Tatjana Višak">Tatjana Višak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Waldau" title="Paul Waldau">Paul Waldau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corey_Lee_Wrenn" title="Corey Lee Wrenn">Corey Lee Wrenn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Renaud_Boullier" title="David Renaud Boullier">David Renaud Boullier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_St._C._Bostock" title="Stephen St. C. Bostock">Stephen St. C. Bostock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brigid_Brophy" title="Brigid Brophy">Brigid Brophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Buchan" title="Peter Buchan">Peter Buchan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mona_Caird" title="Mona Caird">Mona Caird</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscilla_Cohn" title="Priscilla Cohn">Priscilla Cohn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Crowe_(vicar)" title="Henry Crowe (vicar)">Henry Crowe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herman_Daggett" title="Herman Daggett">Herman Daggett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dean_(curate)" title="Richard Dean (curate)">Richard Dean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Dietler" title="Wilhelm Dietler">Wilhelm Dietler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Hamilton_Drummond" title="William Hamilton Drummond">William Hamilton Drummond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Payson_Evans" title="Edward Payson Evans">Edward Payson Evans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._Forster" title="T. Forster">T. Forster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Galsworthy" title="John Galsworthy">John Galsworthy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_G._Gentry" title="Thomas G. Gentry">Thomas G. Gentry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Helps" title="Arthur Helps">Arthur Helps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hildrop" title="John Hildrop">John Hildrop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Zephaniah_Holwell" title="John Zephaniah Holwell">John Zephaniah Holwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soame_Jenyns" title="Soame Jenyns">Soame Jenyns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Christian_Friedrich_Krause" title="Karl Christian Friedrich Krause">Karl Christian Friedrich Krause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lawrence_(writer)" title="John Lawrence (writer)">John Lawrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_R._Magel" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles R. Magel">Charles R. Magel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Meslier" title="Jean Meslier">Jean Meslier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Midgley" title="Mary Midgley">Mary Midgley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Howard_Moore" title="J. Howard Moore">J. Howard Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ferrater_Mora" title="José Ferrater Mora">José Ferrater Mora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Nelson" title="Leonard Nelson">Leonard Nelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Nicholson_(librarian)" title="Edward Nicholson (librarian)">Edward Nicholson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siobhan_O%27Sullivan" title="Siobhan O'Sullivan">Siobhan O'Sullivan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rod_Preece" title="Rod Preece">Rod Preece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humphrey_Primatt" title="Humphrey Primatt">Humphrey Primatt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Rachels" title="James Rachels">James Rachels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Regan" title="Tom Regan">Tom Regan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Peabody_Rogers" title="Nathaniel Peabody Rogers">Nathaniel Peabody Rogers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Rollin" title="Bernard Rollin">Bernard Rollin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Stephens_Salt" title="Henry Stephens Salt">Henry Stephens Salt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurids_Smith" title="Laurids Smith">Laurids Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Styles" title="John Styles">John Styles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Tryon" title="Thomas Tryon">Thomas Tryon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gary_Varner" title="Gary Varner">Gary Varner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Friedrich_Ludwig_Volckmann" title="Johann Friedrich Ludwig Volckmann">Johann Friedrich Ludwig Volckmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Anne_Warren" title="Mary Anne Warren">Mary Anne Warren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Gottlieb_Weigen" title="Adam Gottlieb Weigen">Adam Gottlieb Weigen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Winckler" title="Johann Heinrich Winckler">Johann Heinrich Winckler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_M._Wise" title="Steven M. Wise">Steven M. Wise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jon_Wynne-Tyson" title="Jon Wynne-Tyson">Jon Wynne-Tyson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Activists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Aspey" title="James Aspey">James Aspey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greg_Avery" title="Greg Avery">Greg Avery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matt_Ball" title="Matt Ball">Matt Ball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Balluch" title="Martin Balluch">Martin Balluch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carole_Baskin" title="Carole Baskin">Carole Baskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbi_Twins" title="Barbi Twins">Barbi Twins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brigitte_Bardot" title="Brigitte Bardot">Brigitte Bardot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_Baur" title="Gene Baur">Gene Baur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yves_Bonnardel" title="Yves Bonnardel">Yves Bonnardel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joey_Carbstrong" title="Joey Carbstrong">Joey Carbstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aymeric_Caron" title="Aymeric Caron">Aymeric Caron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jake_Conroy" title="Jake Conroy">Jake Conroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rod_Coronado" title="Rod Coronado">Rod Coronado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karen_Dawn" title="Karen Dawn">Karen Dawn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chris_DeRose" title="Chris DeRose">Chris DeRose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Feldmann" title="John Feldmann">John Feldmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Friedrich" title="Bruce Friedrich">Bruce Friedrich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juliet_Gellatley" title="Juliet Gellatley">Juliet Gellatley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tal_Gilboa" title="Tal Gilboa">Tal Gilboa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Goetschel" title="Antoine Goetschel">Antoine Goetschel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Gold_(activist)" title="Mark Gold (activist)">Mark Gold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brigitte_Gothi%C3%A8re" title="Brigitte Gothière">Brigitte Gothière</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wayne_Hsiung" title="Wayne Hsiung">Wayne Hsiung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Laws" title="Charlotte Laws">Charlotte Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronnie_Lee" title="Ronnie Lee">Ronnie Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Lyman" title="Howard Lyman">Howard Lyman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evanna_Lynch" title="Evanna Lynch">Evanna Lynch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Maher" title="Bill Maher">Bill Maher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keith_Mann" title="Keith Mann">Keith Mann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Mason_(activist)" title="Jim Mason (activist)">Jim Mason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dan_Mathews" title="Dan Mathews">Dan Mathews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jo-Anne_McArthur" title="Jo-Anne McArthur">Jo-Anne McArthur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lu%C3%ADsa_Mell" class="mw-redirect" title="Luísa Mell">Luísa Mell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_McKenna" title="Virginia McKenna">Virginia McKenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morrissey" title="Morrissey">Morrissey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingrid_Newkirk" title="Ingrid Newkirk">Ingrid Newkirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heather_Nicholson" title="Heather Nicholson">Heather Nicholson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Norris_(activist)" title="Jack Norris (activist)">Jack Norris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ric_O%27Barry" title="Ric O'Barry">Ric O'Barry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Olivier" title="David Olivier">David Olivier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alex_Pacheco_(activist)" title="Alex Pacheco (activist)">Alex Pacheco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craig_Rosebraugh" title="Craig Rosebraugh">Craig Rosebraugh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jasmin_Singer" title="Jasmin Singer">Jasmin Singer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kim_Stallwood" title="Kim Stallwood">Kim Stallwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynda_Stoner" title="Lynda Stoner">Lynda Stoner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marianne_Thieme" title="Marianne Thieme">Marianne Thieme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darren_Thurston" title="Darren Thurston">Darren Thurston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christine_Townend" title="Christine Townend">Christine Townend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wendy_Turner-Webster" title="Wendy Turner-Webster">Wendy Turner-Webster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Vlasak" title="Jerry Vlasak">Jerry Vlasak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louise_Wallis" title="Louise Wallis">Louise Wallis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gary_Yourofsky" title="Gary Yourofsky">Gary Yourofsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/That_Vegan_Teacher" title="That Vegan Teacher">That Vegan Teacher</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Amory" title="Cleveland Amory">Cleveland Amory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_B._Amos" title="Henry B. Amos">Henry B. Amos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Barker" title="Bob Barker">Bob Barker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Bell_(animal_rights_activist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ernest Bell (animal rights activist)">Ernest Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edith_Carrington" title="Edith Carrington">Edith Carrington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frances_Power_Cobbe" title="Frances Power Cobbe">Frances Power Cobbe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Court" title="Joan Court">Joan Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karen_Davis_(activist)" title="Karen Davis (activist)">Karen Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Dixon" title="Royal Dixon">Royal Dixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muriel_Dowding,_Baroness_Dowding" title="Muriel Dowding, Baroness Dowding">Muriel Dowding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Farians" title="Elizabeth Farians">Elizabeth Farians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emarel_Freshel" title="Emarel Freshel">Emarel Freshel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_G%C3%A9raud" title="André Géraud">André Géraud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Gompertz" title="Lewis Gompertz">Lewis Gompertz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Granger" title="James Granger">James Granger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barry_Horne_(activist)" title="Barry Horne (activist)">Barry Horne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Huot" title="Marie Huot">Marie Huot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lizzy_Lind_af_Hageby" title="Lizzy Lind af Hageby">Lizzy Lind af Hageby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jessie_Mackay" title="Jessie Mackay">Jessie Mackay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norm_Phelps" title="Norm Phelps">Norm Phelps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Jill_Phipps" title="Death of Jill Phipps">Jill Phipps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maud_Ingersoll_Probasco" title="Maud Ingersoll Probasco">Maud Ingersoll Probasco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Ruesch" title="Hans Ruesch">Hans Ruesch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nell_Shipman" title="Nell Shipman">Nell Shipman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Spira" title="Henry Spira">Henry Spira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Tyler" title="Andrew Tyler">Andrew Tyler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gretchen_Wyler" title="Gretchen Wyler">Gretchen Wyler</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Movement_(groups,_parties)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Animal_rights_movement" title="Animal rights movement">Movement</a> (groups, parties)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Anti-Vivisection_Society" title="American Anti-Vivisection Society">American Anti-Vivisection Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Aid" title="Animal Aid">Animal Aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Ethics_(organization)" title="Animal Ethics (organization)">Animal Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Justice_(organization)" title="Animal Justice (organization)">Animal Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Justice_Project" title="Animal Justice Project">Animal Justice Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Legal_Defense_Fund" title="Animal Legal Defense Fund">Animal Legal Defense Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Liberation_(organisation)" title="Animal Liberation (organisation)">Animal Liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Liberation_Front" title="Animal Liberation Front">Animal Liberation Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Rising" title="Animal Rising">Animal Rising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AnimaNaturalis" title="AnimaNaturalis">AnimaNaturalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Vivisection_Coalition" title="Anti-Vivisection Coalition">Anti-Vivisection Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anonymous_for_the_Voiceless" title="Anonymous for the Voiceless">Anonymous for the Voiceless</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beauty_Without_Cruelty" title="Beauty Without Cruelty">Beauty Without Cruelty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Born_Free_Foundation" title="Born Free Foundation">Born Free Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centre_for_Animals_and_Social_Justice" title="Centre for Animals and Social Justice">Centre for Animals and Social Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Animal_Protection_Network" title="Chinese Animal Protection Network">Chinese Animal Protection Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cruelty_Free_International" title="Cruelty Free International">Cruelty Free International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_Action_Everywhere" title="Direct Action Everywhere">Direct Action Everywhere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctors_Against_Animal_Experiments" title="Doctors Against Animal Experiments">Doctors Against Animal Experiments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equanimal" title="Equanimal">Equanimal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Every_Animal" title="Every Animal">Every Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farm_Animal_Rights_Movement" title="Farm Animal Rights Movement">Farm Animal Rights Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faunalytics" title="Faunalytics">Faunalytics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Ape_Project" title="Great Ape Project">Great Ape Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunt_Saboteurs_Association" title="Hunt Saboteurs Association">Hunt Saboteurs Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_Defense_of_Animals" title="In Defense of Animals">In Defense of Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korea_Animal_Rights_Advocates" title="Korea Animal Rights Advocates">Korea Animal Rights Advocates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L214" title="L214">L214</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_Chance_for_Animals" title="Last Chance for Animals">Last Chance for Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Animal_Rights_Coalition" title="Massachusetts Animal Rights Coalition">Massachusetts Animal Rights Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercy_for_Animals" title="Mercy for Animals">Mercy for Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Centre_for_Animal_Ethics" title="Oxford Centre for Animal Ethics">Oxford Centre for Animal Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_for_the_Ethical_Treatment_of_Animals" title="People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals">People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_for_Animals" title="Rise for Animals">Rise for Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentience_Politics" title="Sentience Politics">Sentience Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncaged_Campaigns" title="Uncaged Campaigns">Uncaged Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Activists_for_Animal_Rights" title="United Activists for Animal Rights">United Activists for Animal Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Poultry_Concerns" title="United Poultry Concerns">United Poultry Concerns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UPF-Centre_for_Animal_Ethics" title="UPF-Centre for Animal Ethics">UPF-Centre for Animal Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viva!_(organisation)" title="Viva! (organisation)">Viva!</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voice_for_Animals_Humane_Society" title="Voice for Animals Humane Society">Voice for Animals Humane Society</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Anti-Vivisection_Society" title="Canadian Anti-Vivisection Society">Canadian Anti-Vivisection Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanitarian_League" title="Humanitarian League">Humanitarian League</a> (1891–1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millennium_Guild" class="mw-redirect" title="Millennium Guild">Millennium Guild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Group_(animal_rights)" title="Oxford Group (animal rights)">Oxford Group</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Parties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Justice_Party" title="Animal Justice Party">Animal Justice Party</a> (Australia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Politics_EU" title="Animal Politics EU">Animal Politics EU</a> (Europe)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Protection_Party_of_Canada" title="Animal Protection Party of Canada">Animal Protection Party of Canada</a> (Canada)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Justice_Party_of_Finland" title="Animal Justice Party of Finland">Animal Justice Party of Finland</a> (Finland)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animals%27_Party" title="Animals' Party">Animals' Party</a> (Sweden)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animalist_Movement" title="Animalist Movement">Animalist Movement</a> (Italy)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animalist_Party_with_the_Environment" title="Animalist Party with the Environment">Animalist Party with the Environment</a> (Spain)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/DierAnimal" title="DierAnimal">DierAnimal</a> (Belgium)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Environment_Animal_Protection_Party" title="Human Environment Animal Protection Party">Human Environment Animal Protection Party</a> (Germany)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Animalist_Party" title="Italian Animalist Party">Italian Animalist Party</a> (Italy)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Party_for_the_Animals" title="Party for the Animals">Party for the Animals</a> (Netherlands)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_Animals_Nature" title="People Animals Nature">People Animals Nature</a> (Portugal)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/V-Partei3" title="V-Partei3">V-Partei³</a> (Germany)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Activism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Rights_National_Conference" title="Animal Rights National Conference">Animal Rights National Conference</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Media_(books,_films,_periodicals,_albums)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Media (books, films, periodicals, albums)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Books</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Abstinence_from_Eating_Animals" title="On Abstinence from Eating Animals">On Abstinence from Eating Animals</a></i> (3rd century)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Moral_Inquiries_on_the_Situation_of_Man_and_of_Brutes" title="Moral Inquiries on the Situation of Man and of Brutes">Moral Inquiries on the Situation of Man and of Brutes</a></i> (1824)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Rights_of_Animals" class="mw-redirect" title="The Rights of Animals">The Rights of Animals</a></i> (1838)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Ethics_of_Diet" title="The Ethics of Diet">The Ethics of Diet</a></i> (1883)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Animals%27_Rights" title="Animals' Rights">Animals' Rights</a></i> (1892)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Evolutional_Ethics_and_Animal_Psychology" title="Evolutional Ethics and Animal Psychology">Evolutional Ethics and Animal Psychology</a></i> (1897)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Better-World_Philosophy" title="Better-World Philosophy">Better-World Philosophy</a></i> (1899)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Universal_Kinship" title="The Universal Kinship">The Universal Kinship</a></i> (1906)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Ethics" title="The New Ethics">The New Ethics</a></i> (1907)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Animals,_Men_and_Morals" title="Animals, Men and Morals">Animals, Men and Morals</a></i> (1971)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Animal_Liberation_(book)" title="Animal Liberation (book)">Animal Liberation</a></i> (1975)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Case_for_Animal_Rights" title="The Case for Animal Rights">The Case for Animal Rights</a></i> (1983)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Morals,_Reason,_and_Animals" title="Morals, Reason, and Animals">Morals, Reason, and Animals</a></i> (1987)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zoos_and_Animal_Rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoos and Animal Rights">Zoos and Animal Rights</a></i> (1993)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Animals,_Property,_and_the_Law" title="Animals, Property, and the Law">Animals, Property, and the Law</a></i> (1995)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Lives_of_Animals" title="The Lives of Animals">The Lives of Animals</a></i> (1999)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eternal_Treblinka" title="Eternal Treblinka">Eternal Treblinka</a></i> (2001)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Do_Animals_Have_Rights%3F_(book)" title="Do Animals Have Rights? (book)">Do Animals Have Rights?</a></i> (2005)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Striking_at_the_Roots" title="Striking at the Roots">Striking at the Roots</a></i> (2008)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/An_American_Trilogy_(book)" title="An American Trilogy (book)">An American Trilogy</a></i> (2009)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/An_Introduction_to_Animals_and_Political_Theory" title="An Introduction to Animals and Political Theory">An Introduction to Animals and Political Theory</a></i> (2010)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Animal_Rights_Without_Liberation" title="Animal Rights Without Liberation">Animal Rights Without Liberation</a></i> (2012)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Political_Animals_and_Animal_Politics" title="Political Animals and Animal Politics">Political Animals and Animal Politics</a></i> (2014)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Animal_(De)liberation" title="Animal (De)liberation">Animal (De)liberation</a></i> (2016)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sentientist_Politics" title="Sentientist Politics">Sentientist Politics</a></i> (2018)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wild_Animal_Ethics" title="Wild Animal Ethics">Wild Animal Ethics</a></i> (2020)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Animal_Ethics_in_the_Wild" title="Animal Ethics in the Wild">Animal Ethics in the Wild</a></i> (2022)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Making_a_Stand_for_Animals" title="Making a Stand for Animals">Making a Stand for Animals</a></i> (2022)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Films</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Animals_Film" title="The Animals Film">The Animals Film</a></i> (1981)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Cow_at_My_Table" title="A Cow at My Table">A Cow at My Table</a></i> (1998)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shores_of_Silence" title="Shores of Silence">Shores of Silence</a></i> (2000)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Witness_(2000_film)" title="The Witness (2000 film)">The Witness</a></i> (2000)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Meet_Your_Meat" title="Meet Your Meat">Meet Your Meat</a></i> (2002)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Legally_Blonde_2:_Red,_White_%26_Blonde" title="Legally Blonde 2: Red, White & Blonde">Legally Blonde 2</a></i> (2003)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Meatrix" title="The Meatrix">The Meatrix</a></i> (2003)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Peaceable_Kingdom_(film)" title="Peaceable Kingdom (film)">Peaceable Kingdom</a></i> (2004)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Earthlings_(film)" title="Earthlings (film)">Earthlings</a></i> (2005)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Behind_the_Mask_(2006_film)" title="Behind the Mask (2006 film)">Behind the Mask</a></i> (2006)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Your_Mommy_Kills_Animals" title="Your Mommy Kills Animals">Your Mommy Kills Animals</a></i> (2007)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Cove_(film)" title="The Cove (film)">The Cove</a></i> (2009)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Peaceable_Kingdom:_The_Journey_Home" title="Peaceable Kingdom: The Journey Home">Peaceable Kingdom: The Journey Home</a></i> (2009)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Forks_Over_Knives" title="Forks Over Knives">Forks Over Knives</a></i> (2011)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vegucated" title="Vegucated">Vegucated</a></i> (2011)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/An_Apology_to_Elephants" title="An Apology to Elephants">An Apology to Elephants</a></i> (2013)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Speciesism:_The_Movie" title="Speciesism: The Movie">Speciesism: The Movie</a></i> (2013)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Ghosts_in_Our_Machine" title="The Ghosts in Our Machine">The Ghosts in Our Machine</a></i> (2013)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Unlocking_the_Cage" title="Unlocking the Cage">Unlocking the Cage</a></i> (2016)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dominion_(2018_film)" title="Dominion (2018 film)">Dominion</a></i> (2018)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Seaspiracy" title="Seaspiracy">Seaspiracy</a></i> (2021)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Periodicals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Journals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Animal_Sentience_(journal)" title="Animal Sentience (journal)">Animal Sentience</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Between_the_Species" title="Between the Species">Between the Species</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cahiers_antisp%C3%A9cistes" title="Cahiers antispécistes">Cahiers antispécistes</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Etica_%26_Animali" title="Etica & Animali">Etica & Animali</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Animal_Ethics" title="Journal of Animal Ethics">Journal of Animal Ethics</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Relations._Beyond_Anthropocentrism" title="Relations. Beyond Anthropocentrism">Relations. Beyond Anthropocentrism</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Animals%27_Defender" class="mw-redirect" title="The Animals' Defender">The Animals' Defender</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Magazines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Arkangel_(magazine)" title="Arkangel (magazine)">Arkangel</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bite_Back" title="Bite Back">Bite Back</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Muutoksen_kev%C3%A4t" title="Muutoksen kevät">Muutoksen kevät</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/No_Compromise_(magazine)" title="No Compromise (magazine)">No Compromise</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Satya_(magazine)" title="Satya (magazine)">Satya</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_songs_about_animal_rights" title="List of songs about animal rights">Albums</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Animal_Liberation_(album)" title="Animal Liberation (album)">Animal Liberation</a></i> (1987)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tame_Yourself" title="Tame Yourself">Tame Yourself</a></i> (1991)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Manifesto_(Deadlock_album)" title="Manifesto (Deadlock album)">Manifesto</a></i> (2008)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Salvation_of_Innocents" title="Salvation of Innocents">Salvation of Innocents</a></i> (2014)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Onward_to_Freedom" title="Onward to Freedom">Onward to Freedom</a></i> (2014)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fairs and exhibitions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_on_your_Plate" title="Holocaust on your Plate">Holocaust on your Plate</a></i> (2003)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Animal_rights" title="Category:Animal rights">Category</a> <small style="">( 139 )</small></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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