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href="#Modern_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Modern era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Main_branches_of_engineering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Main_branches_of_engineering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Main branches of engineering</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Main_branches_of_engineering-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Main branches of engineering subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Main_branches_of_engineering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Chemical_engineering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chemical_engineering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Chemical engineering</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chemical_engineering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Civil_engineering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civil_engineering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Civil engineering</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civil_engineering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electrical_engineering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electrical_engineering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Electrical engineering</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electrical_engineering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mechanical_engineering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mechanical_engineering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Mechanical engineering</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mechanical_engineering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bioengineering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bioengineering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Bioengineering</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bioengineering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interdisciplinary_engineering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interdisciplinary_engineering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Interdisciplinary engineering</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interdisciplinary_engineering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_branches_of_engineering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_branches_of_engineering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Other branches of engineering</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Other_branches_of_engineering-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Other branches of engineering subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Other_branches_of_engineering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Aerospace_engineering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aerospace_engineering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Aerospace engineering</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aerospace_engineering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marine_engineering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marine_engineering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Marine engineering</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marine_engineering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Computer_engineering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Computer_engineering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Computer engineering</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Computer_engineering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geological_engineering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geological_engineering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Geological engineering</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geological_engineering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Practice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Practice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Practice</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Practice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Methodology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methodology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Methodology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Methodology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Methodology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Methodology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Problem_solving" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Problem_solving"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Problem solving</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Problem_solving-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Computer_use" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Computer_use"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Computer use</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Computer_use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_context" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_context"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Social context</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Social_context-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Social context subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Social_context-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Code_of_ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Code_of_ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Code of ethics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Code_of_ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relationships_with_other_disciplines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relationships_with_other_disciplines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Relationships with other disciplines</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Relationships_with_other_disciplines-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Relationships with other disciplines subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Relationships_with_other_disciplines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medicine_and_biology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medicine_and_biology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Medicine and biology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medicine_and_biology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Art" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Art</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Business" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Business"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.4</span> <span>Business</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Business-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_fields" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_fields"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.5</span> <span>Other fields</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_fields-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Engineering</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 165 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-165" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">165 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingenieurswese" title="Ingenieurswese – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Ingenieurswese" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingenieurwissenschaften" title="Ingenieurwissenschaften – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Ingenieurwissenschaften" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%98%E1%88%80%E1%8A%95%E1%8B%B2%E1%88%B5%E1%8A%90%E1%89%B5" title="መሀንዲስነት – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="መሀንዲስነት" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80" title="अभियांत्रिकी – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="अभियांत्रिकी" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%A9" title="هندسة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="هندسة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inchenier%C3%ADa" title="Incheniería – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Incheniería" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE" title="অভিযান্ত্ৰিক বিদ্যা – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="অভিযান্ত্ৰিক বিদ্যা" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inxenier%C3%ADa" title="Inxeniería – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Inxeniería" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80" title="अभियान्त्रिकी – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="अभियान्त्रिकी" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अवधी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%BCh%C9%99ndislik" title="Mühəndislik – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Mühəndislik" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%84%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="موهندیسلیک – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="موهندیسلیک" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8C%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%B2" title="প্রকৌশল – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="প্রকৌশল" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kang-t%C3%AAng-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Kang-têng-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kang-têng-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%A1_%D1%8D%D1%88%D0%B5" title="Инженерлыҡ эше – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Инженерлыҡ эше" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BD%D0%B6%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Інжынерная справа – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Інжынерная справа" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BD%D0%B6%D1%8B%D0%BD%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Інжынэрная справа – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Інжынэрная справа" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inhenyeriya" title="Inhenyeriya – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Inhenyeriya" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Инженерна наука – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Инженерна наука" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingenieurwesn" title="Ingenieurwesn – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Ingenieurwesn" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%96%E0%BD%9F%E0%BD%BC%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A6%E0%BE%90%E0%BE%B2%E0%BD%B4%E0%BD%93%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%82%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94%E0%BC%8D" title="བཟོ་སྐྲུན་རིག་པ། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="བཟོ་སྐྲུན་རིག་པ།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/In%C5%BEenjerstvo" title="Inženjerstvo – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Inženjerstvo" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijinerezh" title="Ijinerezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Ijinerezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enginyeria" title="Enginyeria – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Enginyeria" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inhenyeriya" title="Inhenyeriya – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Inhenyeriya" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/In%C5%BEen%C3%BDrstv%C3%AD" title="Inženýrství – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Inženýrství" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peirianneg" title="Peirianneg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Peirianneg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingeni%C3%B8rvidenskab" title="Ingeniørvidenskab – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Ingeniørvidenskab" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingenieurwissenschaften" title="Ingenieurwissenschaften – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Ingenieurwissenschaften" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inseneriteadused" title="Inseneriteadused – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Inseneriteadused" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CF%80%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AE%CE%BC%CE%B5%CF%82_%CE%BC%CE%B7%CF%87%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8E%CE%BD" title="Επιστήμες μηχανικών – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Επιστήμες μηχανικών" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insnier%C3%ACa" title="Insnierìa – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Insnierìa" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Emiliàn e rumagnòl</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingenier%C3%ADa" title="Ingeniería – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ingeniería" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/In%C4%9Denierarto" title="Inĝenierarto – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Inĝenierarto" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engenieria" title="Engenieria – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Engenieria" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingeniaritza" title="Ingeniaritza – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ingeniaritza" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="مهندسی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مهندسی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Engineering" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ing%C3%A9nierie" title="Ingénierie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Ingénierie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inzegnerie" title="Inzegnerie – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Inzegnerie" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innealt%C3%B3ireacht" title="Innealtóireacht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Innealtóireacht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeshaghteyrys" title="Jeshaghteyrys – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Jeshaghteyrys" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innleadaireachd" title="Innleadaireachd – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Innleadaireachd" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enxe%C3%B1ar%C3%ADa" title="Enxeñaría – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Enxeñaría" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B7%A5%E5%AD%B8" title="工學 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="工學" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ki mw-list-item"><a href="https://ki.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injiniarini" title="Injiniarini – Kikuyu" lang="ki" hreflang="ki" data-title="Injiniarini" data-language-autonym="Gĩkũyũ" data-language-local-name="Kikuyu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gĩkũyũ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%87%E0%AA%9C%E0%AA%A8%E0%AB%87%E0%AA%B0%E0%AB%80" title="ઇજનેરી – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="ઇજનેરી" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%BBng-chh%C3%A0ng-ho%CC%8Dk" title="Kûng-chhàng-ho̍k – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Kûng-chhàng-ho̍k" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%B5%ED%95%99" title="공학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="공학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injinia." title="Injinia. – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Injinia." data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-haw mw-list-item"><a href="https://haw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CA%BBenehana" title="ʻenehana – Hawaiian" lang="haw" hreflang="haw" data-title="ʻenehana" data-language-autonym="Hawaiʻi" data-language-local-name="Hawaiian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hawaiʻi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%83%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%BF%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Ճարտարագիտություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ճարտարագիտություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80" title="अभियान्त्रिकी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अभियान्त्रिकी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/In%C5%BEenjerstvo" title="Inženjerstvo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Inženjerstvo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injeniorarto" title="Injeniorarto – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Injeniorarto" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inhenieria" title="Inhenieria – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Inhenieria" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bpy mw-list-item"><a href="https://bpy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8C%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%B2" title="প্রকৌশল – Bishnupriya" lang="bpy" hreflang="bpy" data-title="প্রকৌশল" data-language-autonym="বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী" data-language-local-name="Bishnupriya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perekayasaan" title="Perekayasaan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Perekayasaan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingenieria" title="Ingenieria – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Ingenieria" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingenierie" title="Ingenierie – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Ingenierie" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubunjineli" title="Ubunjineli – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="Ubunjineli" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiXhosa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/UmNgcikisho" title="UmNgcikisho – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="UmNgcikisho" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verkfr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Verkfræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Verkfræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingegneria" title="Ingegneria – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ingegneria" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A0%D7%93%D7%A1%D7%94" title="הנדסה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הנדסה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A8knik" title="Tèknik – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Tèknik" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kl mw-list-item"><a href="https://kl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingeni%C3%B8rilerineq" title="Ingeniørilerineq – Kalaallisut" lang="kl" hreflang="kl" data-title="Ingeniørilerineq" data-language-autonym="Kalaallisut" data-language-local-name="Kalaallisut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kalaallisut</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%8E%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%9C%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%97%E0%B3%8D%E2%80%8C" title="ಎಂಜಿನಿಯರಿಂಗ್‌ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಎಂಜಿನಿಯರಿಂಗ್‌" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inghenier%C3%ADa" title="Ingheniería – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Ingheniería" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kapampangan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9F%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D_%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%AA%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="საინჟინრო მეცნიერება – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="საინჟინრო მეცნიერება" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%90%D9%86%D9%9B%D8%AC%DB%8C%D9%96%D9%86%D9%8E%D8%B1%D9%90%D9%86%D9%9B%DA%AF" title="اِنٛجیٖنَرِنٛگ – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="اِنٛجیٖنَرِنٛگ" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3" title="Инжиниринг – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Инжиниринг" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ynjynorieth" title="Ynjynorieth – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Ynjynorieth" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uhandisi" title="Uhandisi – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Uhandisi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enjenyeri" title="Enjenyeri – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Enjenyeri" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enj%C3%A9ny%C3%A9ri" title="Enjényéri – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Enjényéri" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endezyar%C3%AE" title="Endezyarî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Endezyarî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enjenyeriya" title="Enjenyeriya – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Enjenyeriya" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladino</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%B4%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%B3" title="ວິສະວະກຳ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ວິສະວະກຳ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ars_ingeniaria" title="Ars ingeniaria – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Ars ingeniaria" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/In%C5%BEenierija" title="Inženierija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Inženierija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/In%C5%BEinerija" title="Inžinerija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Inžinerija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inzegnaja_(universcit%C3%A6)" title="Inzegnaja (universcitæ) – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Inzegnaja (universcitæ)" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injenia" title="Injenia – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Injenia" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injegneria" title="Injegneria – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Injegneria" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9rn%C3%B6ki_tudom%C3%A1ny" title="Mérnöki tudomány – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Mérnöki tudomány" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="अभियांत्रिकी शास्त्र – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="अभियांत्रिकी शास्त्र" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मैथिली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Инженерство – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Инженерство" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injenieria" title="Injenieria – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Injenieria" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%8E%E0%B5%BB%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D" title="എൻജിനീയറിങ്ങ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="എൻജിനീയറിങ്ങ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80" title="अभियांत्रिकी – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="अभियांत्रिकी" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B3%D9%87" title="هندسه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="هندسه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kejuruteraan" title="Kejuruteraan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kejuruteraan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angenharie" title="Angenharie – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Angenharie" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%BB%D1%8D%D1%85_%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Инженерийн шинжлэх ухаан – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Инженерийн шинжлэх ухаан" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%82%E1%80%BB%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%94%E1%80%AE%E1%80%9A%E1%80%AC_%E1%80%94%E1%80%8A%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%95%E1%80%8A%E1%80%AC" title="အင်ဂျင်နီယာ နည်းပညာ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အင်ဂျင်နီယာ နည်းပညာ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Engineering" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%99" title="इन्जिनियरिङ – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="इन्जिनियरिङ" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97" title="इञ्जिनियरिङ्ग – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="इञ्जिनियरिङ्ग" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B7%A5%E5%AD%A6" title="工学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="工学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/%27Ngegner%C3%ACa" title="'Ngegnerìa – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="'Ngegnerìa" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Napulitano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%B3%D3%80%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%85" title="Инженеран гӀуллакх – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Инженеран гӀуллакх" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingeni%C3%B8rvitenskap" title="Ingeniørvitenskap – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Ingeniørvitenskap" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingeni%C3%B8rvitskap" title="Ingeniørvitskap – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Ingeniørvitskap" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injenieria" title="Injenieria – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Injenieria" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engenhari%C3%A1" title="Engenhariá – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Engenhariá" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AC%E0%AD%88%E0%AC%B7%E0%AD%9F%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%95_%E0%AC%AC%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%9C%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%9E%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A8" title="ବୈଷୟିକ ବିଜ୍ଞାନ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ବୈଷୟିକ ବିଜ୍ଞାନ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injineriingii" title="Injineriingii – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Injineriingii" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhandislik" title="Muhandislik – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Muhandislik" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%87%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BF%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%97" title="ਇੰਜਨੀਅਰਿੰਗ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਇੰਜਨੀਅਰਿੰਗ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AC%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%B1%D9%86%DA%AF" title="انجینرنگ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="انجینرنگ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%B1%D9%8A" title="انجينري – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="انجينري" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injinierin" title="Injinierin – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Injinierin" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%98%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%98" title="វិស្វកម្ម – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="វិស្វកម្ម" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/In%C5%BCynieria" title="Inżynieria – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Inżynieria" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engenharia" title="Engenharia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Engenharia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inginerie" title="Inginerie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Inginerie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%27illikachay" title="K'illikachay – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="K'illikachay" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B6%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%97%D1%80%D1%96%D0%BD%D2%91" title="Інджінїрінґ – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Інджінїрінґ" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE" title="Инженерное дело – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Инженерное дело" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Инженерия – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Инженерия" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sm mw-list-item"><a href="https://sm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%27Inisinia" title="'Inisinia – Samoan" lang="sm" hreflang="sm" data-title="'Inisinia" data-language-autonym="Gagana Samoa" data-language-local-name="Samoan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gagana Samoa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="यन्त्रशास्त्रम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="यन्त्रशास्त्रम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingenieria" title="Ingenieria – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Ingenieria" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingineerin" title="Ingineerin – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Ingineerin" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inxhinieria" title="Inxhinieria – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Inxhinieria" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ncignir%C3%ACa" title="Ncignirìa – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Ncignirìa" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%89%E0%B6%82%E0%B6%A2%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%9A%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%94_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="ඉංජිනේරු විද්‍යාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ඉංජිනේරු විද්‍යාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Engineering" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A6%D8%B1%DA%B1" title="انجنيئرڱ – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="انجنيئرڱ" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/In%C5%BEinierstvo" title="Inžinierstvo – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Inžinierstvo" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/In%C5%BEenirstvo" title="Inženirstvo – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Inženirstvo" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%95%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="ئەندازیاری – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئەندازیاری" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%B5%D1%9A%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Инжењерство – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Инжењерство" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/In%C5%BEenjerstvo" title="Inženjerstvo – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Inženjerstvo" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9kayasa" title="Rékayasa – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Rékayasa" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tekniset_tieteet" title="Tekniset tieteet – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Tekniset tieteet" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingenj%C3%B6rsvetenskap" title="Ingenjörsvetenskap – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Ingenjörsvetenskap" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inhenyeriya" title="Inhenyeriya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Inhenyeriya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="பொறியியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பொறியியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Инженерлык – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Инженерлык" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%87%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%9C%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%80%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%97%E0%B1%8D" title="ఇంజనీరింగ్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ఇంజనీరింగ్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tet mw-list-item"><a href="https://tet.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enje%C3%B1aria" title="Enjeñaria – Tetum" lang="tet" hreflang="tet" data-title="Enjeñaria" data-language-autonym="Tetun" data-language-local-name="Tetum" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tetun</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="วิศวกรรมศาสตร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="วิศวกรรมศาสตร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ti mw-list-item"><a href="https://ti.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%9D%E1%88%85%E1%8A%95%E1%8B%B5%E1%88%B5%E1%8A%93" title="ምህንድስና – Tigrinya" lang="ti" hreflang="ti" data-title="ምህንድስና" data-language-autonym="ትግርኛ" data-language-local-name="Tigrinya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ትግርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%83%D2%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%81%D3%A3" title="Муҳандисӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Муҳандисӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ve mw-list-item"><a href="https://ve.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enginiari_(Engineering)" title="Enginiari (Engineering) – Venda" lang="ve" hreflang="ve" data-title="Enginiari (Engineering)" data-language-autonym="Tshivenda" data-language-local-name="Venda" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tshivenda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tcy mw-list-item"><a href="https://tcy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%87%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%9C%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%97%E0%B3%8D" title="ಇಂಜಿನಿಯರಿಂಗ್ – Tulu" lang="tcy" hreflang="tcy" data-title="ಇಂಜಿನಿಯರಿಂಗ್" data-language-autonym="ತುಳು" data-language-local-name="Tulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ತುಳು</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%BChendislik" title="Mühendislik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Mühendislik" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/In%C5%BEenerlik" title="Inženerlik – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Inženerlik" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Інженерія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Інженерія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AC%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%A6%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="انجینئری – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="انجینئری" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%95%D8%AA_%D8%A6%D9%89%D9%84%D9%85%D9%89" title="سانائەت ئىلمى – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="سانائەت ئىلمى" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzegnaria" title="Enzegnaria – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Enzegnaria" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%E1%BB%B9_thu%E1%BA%ADt" title="Kỹ thuật – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Kỹ thuật" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng 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//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Applied science and research</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Engineering_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Engineering (disambiguation)">Engineering (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg/253px-Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg" decoding="async" width="253" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg/380px-Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg/506px-Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="760" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">steam engine</a>, the major driver in the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, underscores the importance of engineering in modern history. This <a href="/wiki/Beam_engine" title="Beam engine">beam engine</a> is on display in the <a href="/wiki/Technical_University_of_Madrid" title="Technical University of Madrid">Technical University of Madrid</a>.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Engineering</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_engineering" title="History of engineering">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_engineering" title="Outline of engineering">Outline</a></li> <li>Glossary <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering:_A%E2%80%93L" title="Glossary of engineering: A–L">A–L</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering:_M%E2%80%93Z" title="Glossary of engineering: M–Z">M–Z</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Engineering" title="Category:Engineering">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Engineering" title="Portal:Engineering">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:TopicTOC-Engineering" title="Template:TopicTOC-Engineering"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:TopicTOC-Engineering" title="Template talk:TopicTOC-Engineering"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:TopicTOC-Engineering" title="Special:EditPage/Template:TopicTOC-Engineering"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Engineering</b> is the practice of using <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Engineering_design_process" title="Engineering design process">engineering design process</a><sup id="cite_ref-EngineeringMethod_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EngineeringMethod-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to solve technical problems, increase efficiency and productivity, and improve systems. Modern engineering comprises many subfields which include <a href="/wiki/Design" title="Design">designing</a> and improving <a href="/wiki/Infrastructure" title="Infrastructure">infrastructure</a>, <a href="/wiki/Machinery" class="mw-redirect" title="Machinery">machinery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vehicles" class="mw-redirect" title="Vehicles">vehicles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">electronics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Materials_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Materials engineering">materials</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Energy_system" title="Energy system">energy systems</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The discipline of engineering encompasses a broad range of more specialized <a href="/wiki/Fields_of_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Fields of engineering">fields of engineering</a>, each with a more specific emphasis on particular areas of <a href="/wiki/Applied_mathematics" title="Applied mathematics">applied mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Applied_science" title="Applied science">applied science</a>, and types of application. See <a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering" title="Glossary of engineering">glossary of engineering</a>. </p><p>The term <i>engineering</i> is derived from the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">ingenium</i></span>, meaning "cleverness".<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/American_Engineers%27_Council_for_Professional_Development" title="American Engineers' Council for Professional Development">American Engineers' Council for Professional Development</a> (ECPD, the predecessor of <a href="/wiki/ABET" title="ABET">ABET</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-ABET_History_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ABET_History-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> has defined "engineering" as: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The creative application of scientific principles to design or develop structures, machines, apparatus, or manufacturing processes, or works utilizing them singly or in combination; or to construct or operate the same with full cognizance of their design; or to forecast their behavior under specific operating conditions; all as respects an intended function, economics of operation and safety to life and property.<sup id="cite_ref-ECPD_Canons_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ECPD_Canons-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ECPD_Definition_on_Britannica_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ECPD_Definition_on_Britannica-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_engineering" title="History of engineering">History of engineering</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Grondplan_citadel_Lille.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Grondplan_citadel_Lille.JPG/220px-Grondplan_citadel_Lille.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Grondplan_citadel_Lille.JPG/330px-Grondplan_citadel_Lille.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Grondplan_citadel_Lille.JPG/440px-Grondplan_citadel_Lille.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Raised-relief_map" title="Raised-relief map">Relief map</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Citadel_of_Lille" title="Citadel of Lille">Citadel of Lille</a>, designed in 1668 by <a href="/wiki/Vauban" class="mw-redirect" title="Vauban">Vauban</a>, the foremost military engineer of his age</figcaption></figure> <p>Engineering has existed since ancient times, when <a href="/wiki/Humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Humans">humans</a> devised inventions such as the <a href="/wiki/Wedge" title="Wedge">wedge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lever" title="Lever">lever</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wheel" title="Wheel">wheel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pulley" title="Pulley">pulley</a>, etc. </p><p>The term <i>engineering</i> is derived from the word <i>engineer</i>, which itself dates back to the 14th century when an <i>engine'er</i> (literally, one who builds or operates a <i><a href="/wiki/Siege_engine" title="Siege engine">siege engine</a></i>) referred to "a constructor of military engines".<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this context, now obsolete, an "engine" referred to a military machine, <i>i.e.</i>, a mechanical contraption used in war (for example, a <a href="/wiki/Catapult" title="Catapult">catapult</a>). Notable examples of the obsolete usage which have survived to the present day are military engineering corps, <i>e.g.</i>, the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Army_Corps_of_Engineers" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Army Corps of Engineers">U.S. Army Corps of Engineers</a>. </p><p>The word "engine" itself is of even older origin, ultimately deriving from the Latin <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">ingenium</i></span> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1250</span>), meaning "innate quality, especially mental power, hence a clever invention."<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Later, as the design of civilian structures, such as bridges and buildings, matured as a technical discipline, the term <a href="/wiki/Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">civil engineering</a><sup id="cite_ref-ECPD_Definition_on_Britannica_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ECPD_Definition_on_Britannica-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> entered the lexicon as a way to distinguish between those specializing in the construction of such non-military projects and those involved in the discipline of <a href="/wiki/Military_engineering" title="Military engineering">military engineering</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_era">Ancient era</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg/220px-Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg/330px-Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg/440px-Pont_du_Gard_BLS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="12648" data-file-height="4882" /></a><figcaption>The Ancient Romans built <a href="/wiki/Aqueduct_(watercourse)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aqueduct (watercourse)">aqueducts</a> to bring a steady supply of clean and fresh water to cities and towns in the empire.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_pyramids" title="Egyptian pyramids">pyramids</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ziggurats" class="mw-redirect" title="Ziggurats">ziggurats</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Acropolis_of_Athens" title="Acropolis of Athens">Acropolis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parthenon" title="Parthenon">Parthenon</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece"> Greece</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">Roman aqueducts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Via_Appia" class="mw-redirect" title="Via Appia">Via Appia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Colosseum" title="Colosseum">Colosseum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Teotihuac%C3%A1n" class="mw-redirect" title="Teotihuacán">Teotihuacán</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Brihadeeswarar_Temple" class="mw-redirect" title="Brihadeeswarar Temple">Brihadeeswarar Temple</a> of <a href="/wiki/Thanjavur" title="Thanjavur">Thanjavur</a>, among many others, stand as a testament to the ingenuity and skill of ancient civil and military engineers. Other monuments, no longer standing, such as the <a href="/wiki/Hanging_Gardens_of_Babylon" title="Hanging Gardens of Babylon">Hanging Gardens of Babylon</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pharos_of_Alexandria" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharos of Alexandria">Pharos of Alexandria</a>, were important engineering achievements of their time and were considered among the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Wonders_of_the_Ancient_World" title="Seven Wonders of the Ancient World">Seven Wonders of the Ancient World</a>. </p><p>The six classic <a href="/wiki/Simple_machines" class="mw-redirect" title="Simple machines">simple machines</a> were known in the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">ancient Near East</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Wedge" title="Wedge">wedge</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Inclined_plane" title="Inclined plane">inclined plane</a> (ramp) were known since <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric" class="mw-redirect" title="Prehistoric">prehistoric</a> times.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Wheel" title="Wheel">wheel</a>, along with the <a href="/wiki/Wheel_and_axle" title="Wheel and axle">wheel and axle</a> mechanism, was invented in <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> (modern Iraq) during the 5th millennium BC.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Lever" title="Lever">lever</a> mechanism first appeared around 5,000 years ago in the <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a>, where it was used in a simple <a href="/wiki/Balance_scale" class="mw-redirect" title="Balance scale">balance scale</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Paipetis_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paipetis-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and to move large objects in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_technology" title="Ancient Egyptian technology">ancient Egyptian technology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lever was also used in the <a href="/wiki/Shadoof" title="Shadoof">shadoof</a> water-lifting device, the first <a href="/wiki/Crane_(machine)" title="Crane (machine)">crane</a> machine, which appeared in Mesopotamia <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3000 BC</span>,<sup id="cite_ref-Paipetis_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paipetis-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and then in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_technology" title="Ancient Egyptian technology">ancient Egyptian technology</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2000 BC</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest evidence of <a href="/wiki/Pulley" title="Pulley">pulleys</a> date back to Mesopotamia in the early 2nd millennium BC,<sup id="cite_ref-Eisenbrauns_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eisenbrauns-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Twelfth Dynasty">Twelfth Dynasty</a> (1991–1802 BC).<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Screw_(simple_machine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Screw (simple machine)">screw</a>, the last of the simple machines to be invented,<sup id="cite_ref-Woods_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Woods-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> first appeared in Mesopotamia during the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Assyrian">Neo-Assyrian</a> period (911–609) BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Eisenbrauns_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eisenbrauns-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_pyramids" title="Egyptian pyramids">Egyptian pyramids</a> were built using three of the six simple machines, the inclined plane, the wedge, and the lever, to create structures like the <a href="/wiki/Great_Pyramid_of_Giza" title="Great Pyramid of Giza">Great Pyramid of Giza</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The earliest civil engineer known by name is <a href="/wiki/Imhotep" title="Imhotep">Imhotep</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ECPD_Definition_on_Britannica_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ECPD_Definition_on_Britannica-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As one of the officials of the <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">Pharaoh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Djoser" title="Djoser">Djosèr</a>, he probably designed and supervised the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Pyramid_of_Djoser" title="Pyramid of Djoser">Pyramid of Djoser</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Step_Pyramid" class="mw-redirect" title="Step Pyramid">Step Pyramid</a>) at <a href="/wiki/Saqqara" title="Saqqara">Saqqara</a> in Egypt around 2630–2611 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Barry_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barry-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest practical <a href="/wiki/Water-power" class="mw-redirect" title="Water-power">water-powered</a> machines, the <a href="/wiki/Water_wheel" title="Water wheel">water wheel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Watermill" title="Watermill">watermill</a>, first appeared in the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Empire">Persian Empire</a>, in what are now Iraq and Iran, by the early 4th century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kush</a> developed the <a href="/wiki/Sakia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sakia">Sakia</a> during the 4th century BC, which relied on animal power instead of human energy.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hafirs" class="mw-redirect" title="Hafirs">Hafirs</a> were developed as a type of <a href="/wiki/Reservoir" title="Reservoir">reservoir</a> in Kush to store and contain water as well as boost irrigation.<sup id="cite_ref-Hinkel_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hinkel-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Sappers" class="mw-redirect" title="Sappers">Sappers</a> were employed to build <a href="/wiki/Causeways" class="mw-redirect" title="Causeways">causeways</a> during military campaigns.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kushite ancestors built <a href="/wiki/Speos" class="mw-redirect" title="Speos">speos</a> during the Bronze Age between 3700 and 3250 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Bloomeries" class="mw-redirect" title="Bloomeries">Bloomeries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnaces</a> were also created during the 7th centuries BC in Kush.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Humphris_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Humphris-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a> developed machines in both civilian and military domains. The <a href="/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism" title="Antikythera mechanism">Antikythera mechanism</a>, an early known mechanical <a href="/wiki/Analog_computer" title="Analog computer">analog computer</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the mechanical <a href="/wiki/Archimedes#Discoveries_and_inventions" title="Archimedes">inventions</a> of <a href="/wiki/Archimedes" title="Archimedes">Archimedes</a>, are examples of Greek mechanical engineering. Some of Archimedes' inventions, as well as the Antikythera mechanism, required sophisticated knowledge of <a href="/wiki/Differential_(mechanical_device)" title="Differential (mechanical device)">differential gearing</a> or <a href="/wiki/Epicyclic_gearing" title="Epicyclic gearing">epicyclic gearing</a>, two key principles in machine theory that helped design the <a href="/wiki/Gear_train" title="Gear train">gear trains</a> of the Industrial Revolution, and are widely used in fields such as <a href="/wiki/Robotics" title="Robotics">robotics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Automotive_engineering" title="Automotive engineering">automotive engineering</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ancient Chinese, Greek, Roman and <a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Hunnic</a> armies employed military machines and inventions such as <a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">artillery</a> which was developed by the Greeks around the 4th century BC,<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Trireme" title="Trireme">trireme</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ballista" title="Ballista">ballista</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Catapult" title="Catapult">catapult</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Trebuchet" title="Trebuchet">trebuchet</a> by Chinese circa 6th-5th century BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</h3></div> <p>The earliest practical <a href="/wiki/Wind-power" class="mw-redirect" title="Wind-power">wind-powered</a> machines, the <a href="/wiki/Windmill" title="Windmill">windmill</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wind_pump" class="mw-redirect" title="Wind pump">wind pump</a>, first appeared in the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a>, in what are now Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan, by the 9th century AD.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest practical <a href="/wiki/Steam-power" class="mw-redirect" title="Steam-power">steam-powered</a> machine was a <a href="/wiki/Steam_jack" class="mw-redirect" title="Steam jack">steam jack</a> driven by a <a href="/wiki/Steam_turbine" title="Steam turbine">steam turbine</a>, described in 1551 by <a href="/wiki/Taqi_al-Din_Muhammad_ibn_Ma%27ruf" class="mw-redirect" title="Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf">Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Egypt" title="Ottoman Egypt">Ottoman Egypt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Cotton_gin" title="Cotton gin">cotton gin</a> was invented in India by the 6th century AD,<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Spinning_wheel" title="Spinning wheel">spinning wheel</a> was invented in the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic world">Islamic world</a> by the early 11th century,<sup id="cite_ref-Pacey_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pacey-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> both of which were fundamental to the growth of the <a href="/wiki/Cotton_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Cotton industry">cotton industry</a>. The spinning wheel was also a precursor to the <a href="/wiki/Spinning_jenny" title="Spinning jenny">spinning jenny</a>, which was a key development during the early <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> in the 18th century.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The earliest <a href="/wiki/Program_(machine)" title="Program (machine)">programmable machines</a> were developed in the Muslim world. A <a href="/wiki/Music_sequencer" title="Music sequencer">music sequencer</a>, a programmable <a href="/wiki/Musical_instrument" title="Musical instrument">musical instrument</a>, was the earliest type of programmable machine. The first music sequencer was an automated <a href="/wiki/Flute" title="Flute">flute</a> player invented by the <a href="/wiki/Banu_Musa" class="mw-redirect" title="Banu Musa">Banu Musa</a> brothers, described in their <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Ingenious_Devices" title="Book of Ingenious Devices">Book of Ingenious Devices</a></i>, in the 9th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Koetsier_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koetsier-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1206, Al-Jazari invented programmable <a href="/wiki/Automata" class="mw-redirect" title="Automata">automata</a>/<a href="/wiki/Robot" title="Robot">robots</a>. He described four <a href="/wiki/Automaton" title="Automaton">automaton</a> musicians, including drummers operated by a programmable <a href="/wiki/Drum_machine" title="Drum machine">drum machine</a>, where they could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns.<sup id="cite_ref-Sharkey_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sharkey-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Agricola1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Agricola1.jpg/170px-Agricola1.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Agricola1.jpg/255px-Agricola1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Agricola1.jpg/340px-Agricola1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="729" data-file-height="1221" /></a><figcaption>A water-powered <a href="/wiki/Mine_hoist" class="mw-redirect" title="Mine hoist">mine hoist</a> used for raising ore, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1556</span></figcaption></figure> <p>Before the development of modern engineering, mathematics was used by artisans and craftsmen, such as <a href="/wiki/Millwright" title="Millwright">millwrights</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clockmaker" title="Clockmaker">clockmakers</a>, instrument makers and surveyors. Aside from these professions, universities were not believed to have had much practical significance to technology.<sup id="cite_ref-Robinson-Musnon_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robinson-Musnon-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 32">: 32 </span></sup> </p><p>A standard reference for the state of mechanical arts during the Renaissance is given in the mining engineering treatise <i><a href="/wiki/De_re_metallica" title="De re metallica">De re metallica</a></i> (1556), which also contains sections on geology, mining, and chemistry. <i>De re metallica</i> was the standard chemistry reference for the next 180 years.<sup id="cite_ref-Robinson-Musnon_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robinson-Musnon-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_era">Modern era</h3></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_world%27s_first_iron_bridge.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/The_world%27s_first_iron_bridge.jpg/253px-The_world%27s_first_iron_bridge.jpg" decoding="async" width="253" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/The_world%27s_first_iron_bridge.jpg/380px-The_world%27s_first_iron_bridge.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/The_world%27s_first_iron_bridge.jpg/506px-The_world%27s_first_iron_bridge.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption>The application of the steam engine allowed coke to be substituted for charcoal in iron making, lowering the cost of iron, which provided engineers with a new material for building bridges. This bridge was made of <a href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">cast iron</a>, which was soon displaced by less brittle <a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">wrought iron</a> as a structural material.</figcaption></figure> <p>The science of <a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">classical mechanics</a>, sometimes called Newtonian mechanics, formed the scientific basis of much of modern engineering.<sup id="cite_ref-Robinson-Musnon_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robinson-Musnon-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the rise of engineering as a <a href="/wiki/Profession" title="Profession">profession</a> in the 18th century, the term became more narrowly applied to fields in which mathematics and science were applied to these ends. Similarly, in addition to military and civil engineering, the fields then known as the <a href="/wiki/Mechanic_arts" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanic arts">mechanic arts</a> became incorporated into engineering. </p><p>Canal building was an important engineering work during the early phases of the Industrial Revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/John_Smeaton" title="John Smeaton">John Smeaton</a> was the first self-proclaimed civil engineer and is often regarded as the "father" of civil engineering. He was an English civil engineer responsible for the design of bridges, canals, harbors, and lighthouses. He was also a capable <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_engineer" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical engineer">mechanical engineer</a> and an eminent <a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">physicist</a>. Using a model water wheel, Smeaton conducted experiments for seven years, determining ways to increase efficiency.<sup id="cite_ref-University_Of_Chicago_Press_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-University_Of_Chicago_Press-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 127">: 127 </span></sup> Smeaton introduced iron axles and gears to water wheels.<sup id="cite_ref-Robinson-Musnon_45-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robinson-Musnon-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 69">: 69 </span></sup> Smeaton also made mechanical improvements to the <a href="/wiki/Newcomen_steam_engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Newcomen steam engine">Newcomen steam engine</a>. Smeaton designed the third <a href="/wiki/Eddystone_Lighthouse" title="Eddystone Lighthouse">Eddystone Lighthouse</a> (1755–59) where he pioneered the use of '<a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_lime" title="Hydraulic lime">hydraulic lime</a>' (a form of <a href="/wiki/Mortar_(masonry)" title="Mortar (masonry)">mortar</a> which will set under water) and developed a technique involving dovetailed blocks of granite in the building of the lighthouse. He is important in the history, rediscovery of, and development of modern <a href="/wiki/Cement" title="Cement">cement</a>, because he identified the compositional requirements needed to obtain "hydraulicity" in lime; work which led ultimately to the invention of <a href="/wiki/Portland_cement" title="Portland cement">Portland cement</a>. </p><p>Applied science led to the development of the steam engine. The sequence of events began with the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Barometer" title="Barometer">barometer</a> and the measurement of atmospheric pressure by <a href="/wiki/Evangelista_Torricelli" title="Evangelista Torricelli">Evangelista Torricelli</a> in 1643, demonstration of the force of atmospheric pressure by <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Guericke" title="Otto von Guericke">Otto von Guericke</a> using the <a href="/wiki/Magdeburg_hemispheres" title="Magdeburg hemispheres">Magdeburg hemispheres</a> in 1656, laboratory experiments by <a href="/wiki/Denis_Papin" title="Denis Papin">Denis Papin</a>, who built experimental model steam engines and demonstrated the use of a piston, which he published in 1707. <a href="/wiki/Edward_Somerset,_2nd_Marquess_of_Worcester" title="Edward Somerset, 2nd Marquess of Worcester">Edward Somerset, 2nd Marquess of Worcester</a> published a book of 100 inventions containing a method for raising waters similar to a <a href="/wiki/Coffee_percolator" title="Coffee percolator">coffee percolator</a>. <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Morland" title="Samuel Morland">Samuel Morland</a>, a mathematician and inventor who worked on pumps, left notes at the Vauxhall Ordinance Office on a steam pump design that <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Savery" title="Thomas Savery">Thomas Savery</a> read. In 1698 Savery built a steam pump called "The Miner's Friend". It employed both vacuum and pressure.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Iron merchant <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Newcomen" title="Thomas Newcomen">Thomas Newcomen</a>, who built the first commercial piston steam engine in 1712, was not known to have any scientific training.<sup id="cite_ref-University_Of_Chicago_Press_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-University_Of_Chicago_Press-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 32">: 32 </span></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pan_Am_Boeing_747-121_N732PA_Bidini.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Pan_Am_Boeing_747-121_N732PA_Bidini.jpg/250px-Pan_Am_Boeing_747-121_N732PA_Bidini.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Pan_Am_Boeing_747-121_N732PA_Bidini.jpg/375px-Pan_Am_Boeing_747-121_N732PA_Bidini.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Pan_Am_Boeing_747-121_N732PA_Bidini.jpg/500px-Pan_Am_Boeing_747-121_N732PA_Bidini.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1225" data-file-height="818" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jumbo_Jet" class="mw-redirect" title="Jumbo Jet">Jumbo Jet</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The application of steam-powered cast iron blowing cylinders for providing pressurized air for <a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnaces</a> lead to a large increase in iron production in the late 18th century. The higher furnace temperatures made possible with steam-powered blast allowed for the use of more lime in <a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnaces</a>, which enabled the transition from charcoal to <a href="/wiki/Coke_(fuel)" title="Coke (fuel)">coke</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These innovations lowered the cost of iron, making <a href="/wiki/Wagonway" title="Wagonway">horse railways</a> and iron bridges practical. The <a href="/wiki/Puddling_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Puddling process">puddling process</a>, patented by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Cort" title="Henry Cort">Henry Cort</a> in 1784 produced large scale quantities of wrought iron. <a href="/wiki/Hot_blast" title="Hot blast">Hot blast</a>, patented by <a href="/wiki/James_Beaumont_Neilson" title="James Beaumont Neilson">James Beaumont Neilson</a> in 1828, greatly lowered the amount of fuel needed to smelt iron. With the development of the high pressure steam engine, the power to weight ratio of steam engines made practical steamboats and locomotives possible.<sup id="cite_ref-HunterIndustrialPower_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HunterIndustrialPower-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New steel making processes, such as the <a href="/wiki/Bessemer_process" title="Bessemer process">Bessemer process</a> and the open hearth furnace, ushered in an area of heavy engineering in the late 19th century. </p><p>One of the most famous engineers of the mid-19th century was <a href="/wiki/Isambard_Kingdom_Brunel" title="Isambard Kingdom Brunel">Isambard Kingdom Brunel</a>, who built railroads, dockyards and steamships. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gulf_Offshore_Platform.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Gulf_Offshore_Platform.jpg/170px-Gulf_Offshore_Platform.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Gulf_Offshore_Platform.jpg/255px-Gulf_Offshore_Platform.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Gulf_Offshore_Platform.jpg/340px-Gulf_Offshore_Platform.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>Offshore platform, <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf of Mexico</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> created a demand for machinery with metal parts, which led to the development of several <a href="/wiki/Machine_tools" class="mw-redirect" title="Machine tools">machine tools</a>. Boring cast iron cylinders with precision was not possible until <a href="/wiki/John_Wilkinson_(industrialist)" title="John Wilkinson (industrialist)">John Wilkinson</a> invented his <a href="/wiki/John_Wilkinson_(industrialist)#Boring_machine_for_steam_engines" title="John Wilkinson (industrialist)">boring machine</a>, which is considered the first <a href="/wiki/Machine_tool" title="Machine tool">machine tool</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other machine tools included the <a href="/wiki/Screw_cutting_lathe" class="mw-redirect" title="Screw cutting lathe">screw cutting lathe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Milling_machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Milling machine">milling machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turret_lathe" title="Turret lathe">turret lathe</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Planer_(metalworking)" title="Planer (metalworking)">metal planer</a>. Precision machining techniques were developed in the first half of the 19th century. These included the use of gigs to guide the machining tool over the work and fixtures to hold the work in the proper position. Machine tools and machining techniques capable of producing <a href="/wiki/Interchangeable_parts" title="Interchangeable parts">interchangeable parts</a> lead to <a href="/wiki/Mass_production" title="Mass production">large scale factory production</a> by the late 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The United States Census of 1850 listed the occupation of "engineer" for the first time with a count of 2,000.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were fewer than 50 engineering graduates in the U.S. before 1865. In 1870 there were a dozen U.S. mechanical engineering graduates, with that number increasing to 43 per year in 1875. In 1890, there were 6,000 engineers in civil, <a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mining</a>, mechanical and electrical.<sup id="cite_ref-HunterIndustrialPower_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HunterIndustrialPower-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There was no chair of applied mechanism and applied mechanics at Cambridge until 1875, and no chair of engineering at Oxford until 1907. Germany established technical universities earlier.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The foundations of <a href="/wiki/Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering">electrical engineering</a> in the 1800s included the experiments of <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Volta" title="Alessandro Volta">Alessandro Volta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georg_Ohm" title="Georg Ohm">Georg Ohm</a> and others and the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Electric_telegraph" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric telegraph">electric telegraph</a> in 1816 and the <a href="/wiki/Electric_motor" title="Electric motor">electric motor</a> in 1872. The theoretical work of <a href="/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell">James Maxwell</a> (see: <a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations" title="Maxwell's equations">Maxwell's equations</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Hertz" title="Heinrich Hertz">Heinrich Hertz</a> in the late 19th century gave rise to the field of <a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">electronics</a>. The later inventions of the <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tube</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistor</a> further accelerated the development of electronics to such an extent that electrical and electronics engineers currently outnumber their colleagues of any other engineering specialty.<sup id="cite_ref-ECPD_Definition_on_Britannica_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ECPD_Definition_on_Britannica-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">Chemical engineering</a> developed in the late nineteenth century.<sup id="cite_ref-ECPD_Definition_on_Britannica_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ECPD_Definition_on_Britannica-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Industrial scale manufacturing demanded new materials and new processes and by 1880 the need for large scale production of chemicals was such that a new industry was created, dedicated to the development and large scale manufacturing of chemicals in new industrial plants.<sup id="cite_ref-ECPD_Definition_on_Britannica_6-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ECPD_Definition_on_Britannica-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The role of the chemical engineer was the design of these chemical plants and processes.<sup id="cite_ref-ECPD_Definition_on_Britannica_6-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ECPD_Definition_on_Britannica-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Four_solaire_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Four_solaire_001.jpg/260px-Four_solaire_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Four_solaire_001.jpg/390px-Four_solaire_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Four_solaire_001.jpg/520px-Four_solaire_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8886" data-file-height="3780" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Odeillo_solar_furnace" title="Odeillo solar furnace">solar furnace at Odeillo</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Pyr%C3%A9n%C3%A9es-Orientales" title="Pyrénées-Orientales">Pyrénées-Orientales</a> in <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> can reach temperatures up to 3,500 °C (6,330 °F).</figcaption></figure> <p>Aeronautical engineering deals with <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_design_process" title="Aircraft design process">aircraft design process</a> design while <a href="/wiki/Aerospace_engineering" title="Aerospace engineering">aerospace engineering</a> is a more modern term that expands the reach of the discipline by including <a href="/wiki/Spacecraft" title="Spacecraft">spacecraft</a> design. Its origins can be traced back to the aviation pioneers around the start of the 20th century although the work of <a href="/wiki/Sir_George_Cayley" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir George Cayley">Sir George Cayley</a> has recently been dated as being from the last decade of the 18th century. Early knowledge of aeronautical engineering was largely empirical with some concepts and skills imported from other branches of engineering.<sup id="cite_ref-americana_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-americana-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first <a href="/wiki/PhD" class="mw-redirect" title="PhD">PhD</a> in engineering (technically, <i>applied science and engineering</i>) awarded in the United States went to <a href="/wiki/Josiah_Willard_Gibbs" title="Josiah Willard Gibbs">Josiah Willard Gibbs</a> at <a href="/wiki/Yale_University" title="Yale University">Yale University</a> in 1863; it was also the second PhD awarded in science in the U.S.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Only a <a href="/wiki/Decade" title="Decade">decade</a> after the successful flights by the <a href="/wiki/Wright_brothers" title="Wright brothers">Wright brothers</a>, there was extensive development of aeronautical engineering through development of military aircraft that were used in <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>. Meanwhile, research to provide fundamental background science continued by combining <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physics" title="Theoretical physics">theoretical physics</a> with experiments. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Main_branches_of_engineering">Main branches of engineering</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a topical guide, see <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_engineering" title="Outline of engineering">Outline of engineering</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hoover_dam_from_air.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Hoover_dam_from_air.jpg/250px-Hoover_dam_from_air.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Hoover_dam_from_air.jpg/375px-Hoover_dam_from_air.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Hoover_dam_from_air.jpg/500px-Hoover_dam_from_air.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hoover_Dam" title="Hoover Dam">Hoover Dam</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Engineering is a broad discipline that is often broken down into several sub-disciplines. Although an engineer will usually be trained in a specific discipline, he or she may become multi-disciplined through experience. Engineering is often characterized as having four main branches:<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-UK_Council_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UK_Council-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ramchandani2000_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ramchandani2000-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> chemical engineering, civil engineering, electrical engineering, and mechanical engineering. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chemical_engineering">Chemical engineering</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">Chemical engineering</a></div> <p>Chemical engineering is the application of physics, chemistry, biology, and engineering principles in order to carry out chemical processes on a commercial scale, such as the manufacture of <a href="/wiki/Commodity_chemicals" title="Commodity chemicals">commodity chemicals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Specialty_chemicals" class="mw-redirect" title="Specialty chemicals">specialty chemicals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_refining" class="mw-redirect" title="Petroleum refining">petroleum refining</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microfabrication" title="Microfabrication">microfabrication</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fermentation" title="Fermentation">fermentation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">biomolecule production</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Civil_engineering">Civil engineering</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">Civil engineering</a></div> <p>Civil engineering is the design and construction of public and private works, such as <a href="/wiki/Infrastructure" title="Infrastructure">infrastructure</a> (airports, roads, railways, water supply, and treatment etc.), bridges, tunnels, dams, and buildings.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Civil engineering is traditionally broken into a number of sub-disciplines, including <a href="/wiki/Structural_engineering" title="Structural engineering">structural engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Environmental_engineering" title="Environmental engineering">environmental engineering</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">surveying</a>. It is traditionally considered to be separate from <a href="/wiki/Military_engineering" title="Military engineering">military engineering</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-eb_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eb-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electrical_engineering">Electrical engineering</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering">Electrical engineering</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rotterdam_Ahoy_Europort_2011_(14).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Rotterdam_Ahoy_Europort_2011_%2814%29.JPG/220px-Rotterdam_Ahoy_Europort_2011_%2814%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Rotterdam_Ahoy_Europort_2011_%2814%29.JPG/330px-Rotterdam_Ahoy_Europort_2011_%2814%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Rotterdam_Ahoy_Europort_2011_%2814%29.JPG/440px-Rotterdam_Ahoy_Europort_2011_%2814%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1936" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Electric_motor" title="Electric motor">Electric motor</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Electrical engineering is the design, study, and manufacture of various electrical and electronic systems, such as <a href="/wiki/Broadcast_engineering" title="Broadcast engineering">broadcast engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electrical_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical circuit">electrical circuits</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electrical_generator" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical generator">generators</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electric_motor" title="Electric motor">motors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic">electromagnetic</a>/<a href="/wiki/Electromechanical" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromechanical">electromechanical</a> devices, <a href="/wiki/Electronic_devices" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronic devices">electronic devices</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electronic_circuits" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronic circuits">electronic circuits</a>, <a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">optical fibers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Optoelectronic_device" class="mw-redirect" title="Optoelectronic device">optoelectronic devices</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computer</a> systems, <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications" title="Telecommunications">telecommunications</a>, <a href="/wiki/Instrumentation" title="Instrumentation">instrumentation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Control_system" title="Control system">control systems</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">electronics</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mechanical_engineering">Mechanical engineering</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_engineering" title="Mechanical engineering">Mechanical engineering</a></div> <p>Mechanical engineering is the design and manufacture of physical or mechanical systems, such as power and <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a> systems, <a href="/wiki/Aerospace" title="Aerospace">aerospace</a>/<a href="/wiki/Aircraft" title="Aircraft">aircraft</a> products, <a href="/wiki/Weapon_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Weapon systems">weapon systems</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transportation" class="mw-redirect" title="Transportation">transportation</a> products, <a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine" title="Internal combustion engine">engines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Compressors" class="mw-redirect" title="Compressors">compressors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Powertrain" title="Powertrain">powertrains</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kinematic_chain" title="Kinematic chain">kinematic chains</a>, vacuum technology, <a href="/wiki/Vibration_isolation" title="Vibration isolation">vibration isolation</a> equipment, <a href="/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">manufacturing</a>, robotics, turbines, audio equipments, and <a href="/wiki/Mechatronics" title="Mechatronics">mechatronics</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bioengineering">Bioengineering</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological engineering</a></div> <p>Bioengineering is the engineering of biological systems for a useful purpose. Examples of bioengineering research include bacteria engineered to produce chemicals, new medical imaging technology, portable and rapid disease diagnostic devices, prosthetics, biopharmaceuticals, and tissue-engineered organs. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Interdisciplinary_engineering">Interdisciplinary engineering</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_engineering_branches" title="List of engineering branches">List of engineering branches</a></div> <p>Interdisciplinary engineering draws from more than one of the principle branches of the practice. Historically, <a href="/wiki/Naval_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Naval engineering">naval engineering</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mining_engineering" title="Mining engineering">mining engineering</a> were major branches. Other engineering fields are <a href="/wiki/Manufacturing_engineering" title="Manufacturing engineering">manufacturing engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acoustical_engineering" title="Acoustical engineering">acoustical engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corrosion_engineering" title="Corrosion engineering">corrosion engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Instrumentation_and_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Instrumentation and control">instrumentation and control</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aerospace_engineering" title="Aerospace engineering">aerospace</a>, <a href="/wiki/Automotive_engineering" title="Automotive engineering">automotive</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">computer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electronic_engineering" title="Electronic engineering">electronic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Information_engineering" title="Information engineering">information engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_engineering" title="Petroleum engineering">petroleum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Environmental_engineering" title="Environmental engineering">environmental</a>, <a href="/wiki/Systems_engineering" title="Systems engineering">systems</a>, <a href="/wiki/Audio_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Audio engineering">audio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">software</a>, <a href="/wiki/Architectural_engineering" title="Architectural engineering">architectural</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_engineering" title="Agricultural engineering">agricultural</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biosystems_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Biosystems engineering">biosystems</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biomedical_engineering" title="Biomedical engineering">biomedical</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Geological_engineering" title="Geological engineering">geological</a>, <a href="/wiki/Textile_manufacturing" title="Textile manufacturing">textile</a>, <a href="/wiki/Industrial_engineering" title="Industrial engineering">industrial</a>, <a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">materials</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_engineering" title="Nuclear engineering">nuclear engineering</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These and other branches of engineering are represented in the 36 licensed member institutions of the UK <a href="/wiki/Engineering_Council" title="Engineering Council">Engineering Council</a>. </p><p>New specialties sometimes combine with the traditional fields and form new branches – for example, <a href="/wiki/Earth_systems_engineering_and_management" title="Earth systems engineering and management">Earth systems engineering and management</a> involves a wide range of subject areas including <a href="/wiki/Engineering_studies" title="Engineering studies">engineering studies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Environmental_science" title="Environmental science">environmental science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Engineering_ethics" title="Engineering ethics">engineering ethics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_engineering" title="Philosophy of engineering">philosophy of engineering</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_branches_of_engineering">Other branches of engineering</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aerospace_engineering">Aerospace engineering</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aerospace_engineering" title="Aerospace engineering">Aerospace engineering</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PIA19664-MarsInSightLander-Assembly-20150430.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/PIA19664-MarsInSightLander-Assembly-20150430.jpg/250px-PIA19664-MarsInSightLander-Assembly-20150430.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/PIA19664-MarsInSightLander-Assembly-20150430.jpg/375px-PIA19664-MarsInSightLander-Assembly-20150430.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/PIA19664-MarsInSightLander-Assembly-20150430.jpg/500px-PIA19664-MarsInSightLander-Assembly-20150430.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3600" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>The <i><a href="/wiki/InSight" title="InSight">InSight</a></i> lander with solar panels deployed in a cleanroom</figcaption></figure> <p>Aerospace engineering covers the design, development, manufacture and operational behaviour of <a href="/wiki/Aircraft" title="Aircraft">aircraft</a>, <a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">satellites</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rocket" title="Rocket">rockets</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marine_engineering">Marine engineering</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Marine_engineering" title="Marine engineering">Marine engineering</a></div> <p>Marine engineering covers the design, development, manufacture and operational behaviour of <a href="/wiki/Watercraft" title="Watercraft">watercraft</a> and stationary structures like <a href="/wiki/Oil_platform" title="Oil platform">oil platforms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Port" title="Port">ports</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computer_engineering">Computer engineering</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">Computer engineering</a></div> <p>Computer engineering (CE) is a branch of engineering that integrates several fields of computer science and <a href="/wiki/Electronic_engineering" title="Electronic engineering">electronic engineering</a> required to develop <a href="/wiki/Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">computer hardware</a> and <a href="/wiki/Software" title="Software">software</a>. Computer engineers usually have training in electronic engineering (or <a href="/wiki/Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering">electrical engineering</a>), <a href="/wiki/Software_design" title="Software design">software design</a>, and hardware-software integration instead of only <a href="/wiki/Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">software engineering</a> or electronic engineering. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geological_engineering">Geological engineering</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Geological_engineering" title="Geological engineering">Geological engineering</a></div> <p>Geological engineering is associated with anything constructed on or within the Earth. This discipline applies <a href="/wiki/Geological" class="mw-redirect" title="Geological">geological</a> sciences and engineering principles to direct or support the work of other disciplines such as <a href="/wiki/Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">civil engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Environmental_engineering" title="Environmental engineering">environmental engineering</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mining_engineering" title="Mining engineering">mining engineering</a>. Geological engineers are involved with impact studies for facilities and operations that affect surface and subsurface environments, such as rock excavations (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Tunnels" class="mw-redirect" title="Tunnels">tunnels</a>), <a href="/wiki/Building_foundation" class="mw-redirect" title="Building foundation">building foundation</a> consolidation, slope and fill stabilization, <a href="/wiki/Landslide" title="Landslide">landslide</a> risk assessment, groundwater monitoring, <a href="/wiki/Groundwater_remediation" title="Groundwater remediation">groundwater remediation</a>, mining excavations, and <a href="/wiki/Natural_resource" title="Natural resource">natural resource</a> exploration. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Practice">Practice</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Engineering" title="Special:EditPage/Engineering">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>One who practices engineering is called an <a href="/wiki/Engineer" title="Engineer">engineer</a>, and those licensed to do so may have more formal designations such as <a href="/wiki/Professional_Engineer" class="mw-redirect" title="Professional Engineer">Professional Engineer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chartered_Engineer" class="mw-redirect" title="Chartered Engineer">Chartered Engineer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Incorporated_Engineer" class="mw-redirect" title="Incorporated Engineer">Incorporated Engineer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ingenieur" class="mw-redirect" title="Ingenieur">Ingenieur</a>, <a href="/wiki/European_Engineer" title="European Engineer">European Engineer</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Federal_Aviation_Administration#Designated_Engineering_Representative_(DER)" title="Federal Aviation Administration">Designated Engineering Representative</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methodology">Methodology</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Engineering" title="Special:EditPage/Engineering">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dampfturbine_Montage01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Dampfturbine_Montage01.jpg/170px-Dampfturbine_Montage01.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Dampfturbine_Montage01.jpg/255px-Dampfturbine_Montage01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Dampfturbine_Montage01.jpg/340px-Dampfturbine_Montage01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1779" data-file-height="2126" /></a><figcaption>Design of a <a href="/wiki/Turbine" title="Turbine">turbine</a> requires collaboration of engineers from many fields, as the system involves mechanical, electro-magnetic and chemical processes. The <a href="/wiki/Turbine_blade" title="Turbine blade">blades</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stator" title="Stator">rotor and stator</a> as well as the <a href="/wiki/Steam_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Steam cycle">steam cycle</a> all need to be carefully designed and optimized.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Engineering_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Engineering design">engineering design</a> process, engineers apply mathematics and sciences such as physics to find novel solutions to problems or to improve existing solutions. Engineers need proficient knowledge of relevant sciences for their design projects. As a result, many engineers continue to learn new material throughout their careers. </p><p>If multiple solutions exist, engineers weigh each design choice based on their merit and choose the solution that best matches the requirements. The task of the engineer is to identify, understand, and interpret the constraints on a design in order to yield a successful result. It is generally insufficient to build a technically successful product, rather, it must also meet further requirements. </p><p>Constraints may include available resources, physical, imaginative or technical limitations, flexibility for future modifications and additions, and other factors, such as requirements for cost, <a href="/wiki/Safety_engineering" title="Safety engineering">safety</a>, marketability, productivity, and <a href="/wiki/Serviceability_(computer)" title="Serviceability (computer)">serviceability</a>. By understanding the constraints, engineers derive <a href="/wiki/Specifications" class="mw-redirect" title="Specifications">specifications</a> for the limits within which a viable object or system may be produced and operated. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Problem_solving">Problem solving</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Booster-Layout.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Booster-Layout.jpg/290px-Booster-Layout.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="103" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Booster-Layout.jpg/435px-Booster-Layout.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Booster-Layout.jpg/580px-Booster-Layout.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5770" data-file-height="2058" /></a><figcaption>A drawing for a <a href="/wiki/Steam_locomotive" title="Steam locomotive">steam locomotive</a>. Engineering is applied to <a href="/wiki/Design" title="Design">design</a>, with emphasis on function and the utilization of mathematics and science.</figcaption></figure> <p>Engineers use their knowledge of <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Empirical_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical knowledge">appropriate experience</a> or <a href="/wiki/Tacit_knowledge" title="Tacit knowledge">tacit knowledge</a> to find suitable solutions to a particular problem. Creating an appropriate <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_model" title="Mathematical model">mathematical model</a> of a problem often allows them to analyze it (sometimes definitively), and to test potential solutions.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>More than one solution to a design problem usually exists so the different <a href="/wiki/Design_choice" title="Design choice">design choices</a> have to be evaluated on their merits before the one judged most suitable is chosen. <a href="/wiki/Genrich_Altshuller" class="mw-redirect" title="Genrich Altshuller">Genrich Altshuller</a>, after gathering statistics on a large number of <a href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">patents</a>, suggested that <a href="/wiki/Compromise" title="Compromise">compromises</a> are at the heart of "<a href="/wiki/Level_of_invention" title="Level of invention">low-level</a>" engineering designs, while at a higher level the best design is one which eliminates the core contradiction causing the problem.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Engineers typically attempt to predict how well their designs will perform to their specifications prior to full-scale production. They use, among other things: <a href="/wiki/Prototype" title="Prototype">prototypes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scale_model" title="Scale model">scale models</a>, <a href="/wiki/Simulation" title="Simulation">simulations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Destructive_testing" title="Destructive testing">destructive tests</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nondestructive_testing" title="Nondestructive testing">nondestructive tests</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Stress_testing" title="Stress testing">stress tests</a>. Testing ensures that products will perform as expected but only in so far as the testing has been representative of use in service. For products, such as aircraft, that are used differently by different users failures and unexpected shortcomings (and necessary design changes) can be expected throughout the operational life of the product.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Engineers take on the responsibility of producing designs that will perform as well as expected and, except those employed in specific areas of the <a href="/wiki/Arms_industry" title="Arms industry">arms industry</a>, will not harm people. Engineers typically include a <a href="/wiki/Factor_of_safety" title="Factor of safety">factor of safety</a> in their designs to reduce the risk of unexpected failure. </p><p>The study of failed products is known as <a href="/wiki/Forensic_engineering" title="Forensic engineering">forensic engineering</a>. It attempts to identify the cause of failure to allow a redesign of the product and so prevent a re-occurrence. Careful analysis is needed to establish the cause of failure of a product. The consequences of a failure may vary in severity from the minor cost of a machine breakdown to large loss of life in the case of accidents involving aircraft and large stationary structures like buildings and dams.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computer_use">Computer use</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CFD_Shuttle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/CFD_Shuttle.jpg/220px-CFD_Shuttle.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/CFD_Shuttle.jpg/330px-CFD_Shuttle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/CFD_Shuttle.jpg/440px-CFD_Shuttle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="516" data-file-height="387" /></a><figcaption>A computer simulation of high velocity air flow around a <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_orbiter" title="Space Shuttle orbiter">Space Shuttle orbiter</a> during re-entry. Solutions to the flow require <a href="/wiki/Finite_element_method" title="Finite element method">modelling</a> of the combined effects of <a href="/wiki/Navier%E2%80%93Stokes_equations" title="Navier–Stokes equations">fluid flow</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Heat_equation" title="Heat equation">heat equations</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>As with all modern scientific and technological endeavors, computers and software play an increasingly important role. As well as the typical business <a href="/wiki/Application_software" title="Application software">application software</a> there are a number of computer aided applications (<a href="/wiki/Computer-aided_technologies" title="Computer-aided technologies">computer-aided technologies</a>) specifically for engineering. Computers can be used to generate models of fundamental physical processes, which can be solved using <a href="/wiki/Numerical_method" title="Numerical method">numerical methods</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WorldWideWebAroundWikipedia.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/WorldWideWebAroundWikipedia.png/290px-WorldWideWebAroundWikipedia.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/WorldWideWebAroundWikipedia.png/435px-WorldWideWebAroundWikipedia.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/WorldWideWebAroundWikipedia.png/580px-WorldWideWebAroundWikipedia.png 2x" data-file-width="1185" data-file-height="853" /></a><figcaption>Graphic representation of a minute fraction of the WWW, demonstrating <a href="/wiki/Hyperlink" title="Hyperlink">hyperlinks</a></figcaption></figure> <p>One of the most widely used <a href="/wiki/Design_tool" title="Design tool">design tools</a> in the profession is <a href="/wiki/Computer-aided_design" title="Computer-aided design">computer-aided design</a> (CAD) software. It enables engineers to create 3D models, 2D drawings, and schematics of their designs. CAD together with <a href="/wiki/Digital_mockup" title="Digital mockup">digital mockup</a> (DMU) and <a href="/wiki/Computer-aided_engineering" title="Computer-aided engineering">CAE</a> software such as <a href="/wiki/Finite_element_method" title="Finite element method">finite element method analysis</a> or <a href="/wiki/Analytic_element_method" title="Analytic element method">analytic element method</a> allows engineers to create models of designs that can be analyzed without having to make expensive and time-consuming physical prototypes. </p><p>These allow products and components to be checked for flaws; assess fit and assembly; study ergonomics; and to analyze static and dynamic characteristics of systems such as stresses, temperatures, electromagnetic emissions, electrical currents and voltages, digital logic levels, fluid flows, and kinematics. Access and distribution of all this information is generally organized with the use of <a href="/wiki/Product_data_management" title="Product data management">product data management</a> software.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are also many tools to support specific engineering tasks such as <a href="/wiki/Computer-aided_manufacturing" title="Computer-aided manufacturing">computer-aided manufacturing</a> (CAM) software to generate <a href="/wiki/CNC" class="mw-redirect" title="CNC">CNC</a> machining instructions; <a href="/wiki/Manufacturing_process_management" title="Manufacturing process management">manufacturing process management</a> software for production engineering; <a href="/wiki/Electronic_design_automation" title="Electronic design automation">EDA</a> for <a href="/wiki/Printed_circuit_board" title="Printed circuit board">printed circuit board</a> (PCB) and circuit <a href="/wiki/Schematic" title="Schematic">schematics</a> for electronic engineers; <a href="/wiki/Maintenance,_repair,_and_operations" class="mw-redirect" title="Maintenance, repair, and operations">MRO</a> applications for maintenance management; and Architecture, engineering and construction (AEC) software for civil engineering. </p><p>In recent years the use of computer software to aid the development of goods has collectively come to be known as <a href="/wiki/Product_lifecycle_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Product lifecycle management">product lifecycle management</a> (PLM).<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Social_context">Social context</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kismet-IMG_6007-gradient.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Kismet-IMG_6007-gradient.jpg/220px-Kismet-IMG_6007-gradient.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Kismet-IMG_6007-gradient.jpg/330px-Kismet-IMG_6007-gradient.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Kismet-IMG_6007-gradient.jpg/440px-Kismet-IMG_6007-gradient.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5500" data-file-height="3667" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Robotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Robotic">Robotic</a> <a href="/wiki/Kismet_(robot)" title="Kismet (robot)">Kismet</a> can produce a range of facial expressions.</figcaption></figure> <p>The engineering profession engages in a range of activities, from collaboration at the societal level, and smaller individual projects. Almost all engineering projects are obligated to a funding source: a company, a set of investors, or a government. The types of engineering that are less constrained by such a funding source, are <i><a href="/wiki/Pro_bono" title="Pro bono">pro bono</a></i>, and <a href="/wiki/Open-design" class="mw-redirect" title="Open-design">open-design</a> engineering. </p><p>Engineering has interconnections with society, culture and human behavior. Most products and constructions used by modern society, are influenced by engineering. Engineering activities have an impact on the environment, society, economies, and public safety. </p><p>Engineering projects can be controversial. Examples from different engineering disciplines include: the development of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Three_Gorges_Dam" title="Three Gorges Dam">Three Gorges Dam</a>, the design and use of <a href="/wiki/Sport_utility_vehicle" class="mw-redirect" title="Sport utility vehicle">sport utility vehicles</a> and the extraction of <a href="/wiki/Fuel_oil" title="Fuel oil">oil</a>. In response, some engineering companies have enacted serious <a href="/wiki/Corporate_social_responsibility" title="Corporate social responsibility">corporate and social responsibility</a> policies. </p><p>The attainment of many of the <a href="/wiki/Millennium_Development_Goals" title="Millennium Development Goals">Millennium Development Goals</a> requires the achievement of sufficient engineering capacity to develop infrastructure and sustainable technological development.<sup id="cite_ref-MDG_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MDG-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ElementBlack2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/ElementBlack2.jpg/250px-ElementBlack2.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/ElementBlack2.jpg/375px-ElementBlack2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/ElementBlack2.jpg/500px-ElementBlack2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>Radar, <a href="/wiki/GPS" class="mw-redirect" title="GPS">GPS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lidar" title="Lidar">lidar</a>, etc. are all combined to provide proper navigation and <a href="/wiki/Obstacle_avoidance" title="Obstacle avoidance">obstacle avoidance</a> (vehicle developed for 2007 <a href="/wiki/DARPA_Urban_Challenge" class="mw-redirect" title="DARPA Urban Challenge">DARPA Urban Challenge</a>).</figcaption></figure> <p>Overseas development and relief NGOs make considerable use of engineers, to apply solutions in disaster and development scenarios. Some charitable organizations use engineering directly for development: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Engineers_Without_Borders" title="Engineers Without Borders">Engineers Without Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineers_Against_Poverty" title="Engineers Against Poverty">Engineers Against Poverty</a></li> <li>Registered Engineers for Disaster Relief</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineers_for_a_Sustainable_World" title="Engineers for a Sustainable World">Engineers for a Sustainable World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_for_Change" title="Engineering for Change">Engineering for Change</a></li> <li>Engineering Ministries International<sup id="cite_ref-EMI_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EMI-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Engineering companies in more developed economies face challenges with regard to the number of engineers being trained, compared with those retiring. This problem is prominent in the UK where engineering has a poor image and low status.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are negative economic and political issues that this can cause, as well as ethical issues.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is agreed the engineering profession faces an "image crisis".<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The UK holds the <a href="/wiki/Category:Engineering_companies_by_country" title="Category:Engineering companies by country">most engineering companies</a> compared to other European countries, together with the United States.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Code_of_ethics">Code of ethics</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Engineering_ethics" title="Engineering ethics">Engineering ethics</a></div> <p>Many <a href="/wiki/Engineering_societies" class="mw-redirect" title="Engineering societies">engineering societies</a> have established codes of practice and <a href="/wiki/Engineering_ethics" title="Engineering ethics">codes of ethics</a> to guide members and inform the public at large. The <a href="/wiki/National_Society_of_Professional_Engineers" title="National Society of Professional Engineers">National Society of Professional Engineers</a> code of ethics states: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p> Engineering is an important and learned profession. As members of this profession, engineers are expected to exhibit the highest standards of honesty and integrity. Engineering has a direct and vital impact on the quality of life for all people. Accordingly, the services provided by engineers require honesty, impartiality, fairness, and equity, and must be dedicated to the protection of the public health, safety, and welfare. Engineers must perform under a standard of professional behavior that requires adherence to the highest principles of ethical conduct.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In Canada, engineers wear the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Ring" title="Iron Ring">Iron Ring</a> as a symbol and reminder of the obligations and ethics associated with their profession.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relationships_with_other_disciplines">Relationships with other disciplines</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Science">Science</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><i>Scientists study the world as it is; engineers create the world that has never been.</i></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Theodore_von_K%C3%A1rm%C3%A1n" title="Theodore von Kármán">Theodore von Kármán</a><sup id="cite_ref-Caltech_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caltech-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ryschkewitsch_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ryschkewitsch-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Worker_inside_the_target_chamber_of_the_National_Ignition_Facility.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Worker_inside_the_target_chamber_of_the_National_Ignition_Facility.jpg/260px-Worker_inside_the_target_chamber_of_the_National_Ignition_Facility.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Worker_inside_the_target_chamber_of_the_National_Ignition_Facility.jpg/390px-Worker_inside_the_target_chamber_of_the_National_Ignition_Facility.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Worker_inside_the_target_chamber_of_the_National_Ignition_Facility.jpg/520px-Worker_inside_the_target_chamber_of_the_National_Ignition_Facility.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4256" data-file-height="2499" /></a><figcaption>Engineers, scientists and technicians at work on target positioner inside <a href="/wiki/National_Ignition_Facility" title="National Ignition Facility">National Ignition Facility</a> (NIF) target chamber</figcaption></figure> <p>There exists an overlap between the sciences and engineering practice; in engineering, one applies science. Both areas of endeavor rely on accurate observation of materials and phenomena. Both use mathematics and classification criteria to analyze and communicate observations.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Scientists may also have to complete engineering tasks, such as designing experimental apparatus or building prototypes. Conversely, in the process of developing technology, engineers sometimes find themselves exploring new phenomena, thus becoming, for the moment, scientists or more precisely "engineering scientists".<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_station_pictured_from_the_SpaceX_Crew_Dragon_5_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/The_station_pictured_from_the_SpaceX_Crew_Dragon_5_%28cropped%29.jpg/260px-The_station_pictured_from_the_SpaceX_Crew_Dragon_5_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/The_station_pictured_from_the_SpaceX_Crew_Dragon_5_%28cropped%29.jpg/390px-The_station_pictured_from_the_SpaceX_Crew_Dragon_5_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/The_station_pictured_from_the_SpaceX_Crew_Dragon_5_%28cropped%29.jpg/520px-The_station_pictured_from_the_SpaceX_Crew_Dragon_5_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6633" data-file-height="3820" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a> is used to conduct science experiments in space.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the book <i><a href="/wiki/What_Engineers_Know_and_How_They_Know_It" title="What Engineers Know and How They Know It">What Engineers Know and How They Know It</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-vincenti_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vincenti-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Walter_Vincenti" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Vincenti">Walter Vincenti</a> asserts that engineering research has a character different from that of scientific research. First, it often deals with areas in which the basic <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> or <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> are well understood, but the problems themselves are too complex to solve in an exact manner. </p><p>There is a "real and important" difference between engineering and physics as similar to any science field has to do with technology.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Physics is an exploratory science that seeks knowledge of principles while engineering uses knowledge for practical applications of principles. The former equates an understanding into a mathematical principle while the latter measures variables involved and creates technology.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For technology, physics is an auxiliary and in a way technology is considered as applied physics.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though physics and engineering are interrelated, it does not mean that a physicist is trained to do an engineer's job. A physicist would typically require additional and relevant training.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Physicists and engineers engage in different lines of work.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But PhD physicists who specialize in sectors of <a href="/wiki/Engineering_physics" title="Engineering physics">engineering physics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Applied_physics" title="Applied physics">applied physics</a> are titled as Technology officer, R&D Engineers and System Engineers.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An example of this is the use of numerical approximations to the <a href="/wiki/Navier%E2%80%93Stokes_equations" title="Navier–Stokes equations">Navier–Stokes equations</a> to describe aerodynamic flow over an aircraft, or the use of the <a href="/wiki/Finite_element_method" title="Finite element method">finite element method</a> to calculate the stresses in complex components. Second, engineering research employs many semi-<a href="/wiki/Empirical_methods" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical methods">empirical methods</a> that are foreign to pure scientific research, one example being the method of parameter variation.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As stated by Fung <i>et al.</i> in the revision to the classic engineering text <i>Foundations of Solid Mechanics</i>: </p> <blockquote><p>Engineering is quite different from science. Scientists try to understand nature. Engineers try to make things that do not exist in nature. Engineers stress innovation and invention. To embody an invention the engineer must put his idea in concrete terms, and design something that people can use. That something can be a complex system, device, a gadget, a material, a method, a computing program, an innovative experiment, a new solution to a problem, or an improvement on what already exists. Since a design has to be realistic and functional, it must have its geometry, dimensions, and characteristics data defined. In the past engineers working on new designs found that they did not have all the required information to make design decisions. Most often, they were limited by insufficient scientific knowledge. Thus they studied <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mechanics" title="Mechanics">mechanics</a>. Often they had to add to the sciences relevant to their profession. Thus engineering sciences were born.<sup id="cite_ref-Fung_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fung-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Although engineering solutions make use of scientific principles, engineers must also take into account safety, efficiency, economy, reliability, and constructability or ease of fabrication as well as the environment, ethical and legal considerations such as patent infringement or liability in the case of failure of the solution.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medicine_and_biology">Medicine and biology</h3></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Modern_3T_MRI.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Modern_3T_MRI.JPG/250px-Modern_3T_MRI.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Modern_3T_MRI.JPG/375px-Modern_3T_MRI.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Modern_3T_MRI.JPG/500px-Modern_3T_MRI.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>A 3 tesla clinical <a href="/wiki/MRI_scanner" class="mw-redirect" title="MRI scanner">MRI scanner</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The study of the human body, albeit from different directions and for different purposes, is an important common link between medicine and some engineering disciplines. <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">Medicine</a> aims to sustain, repair, enhance and even replace functions of the <a href="/wiki/Human_body" title="Human body">human body</a>, if necessary, through the use of <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technology</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GFP_Mice_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/GFP_Mice_01.jpg/220px-GFP_Mice_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/GFP_Mice_01.jpg/330px-GFP_Mice_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/GFP_Mice_01.jpg/440px-GFP_Mice_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1005" data-file-height="784" /></a><figcaption>Genetically engineered mice expressing <a href="/wiki/Green_fluorescent_protein" title="Green fluorescent protein">green fluorescent protein</a>, which glows green under blue light. The central mouse is <a href="/wiki/Wild-type" class="mw-redirect" title="Wild-type">wild-type</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Modern medicine can replace several of the body's functions through the use of artificial organs and can significantly alter the function of the human body through artificial devices such as, for example, <a href="/wiki/Brain_implant" title="Brain implant">brain implants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pacemakers" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacemakers">pacemakers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Boston_U_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boston_U-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-IEEE_foreign_parts_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IEEE_foreign_parts-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fields of <a href="/wiki/Bionics" title="Bionics">bionics</a> and medical bionics are dedicated to the study of synthetic implants pertaining to natural systems. </p><p>Conversely, some engineering disciplines view the human body as a biological machine worth studying and are dedicated to emulating many of its functions by replacing <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a> with technology. This has led to fields such as <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Artificial_neural_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial neural network">neural networks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fuzzy_logic" title="Fuzzy logic">fuzzy logic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Robot" title="Robot">robotics</a>. There are also substantial interdisciplinary interactions between engineering and medicine.<sup id="cite_ref-IME_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IME-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-IEEE_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IEEE-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Both fields provide solutions to real world problems. This often requires moving forward before phenomena are completely understood in a more rigorous scientific sense and therefore experimentation and empirical knowledge is an integral part of both. </p><p>Medicine, in part, studies the function of the human body. The human body, as a biological machine, has many functions that can be modeled using engineering methods.<sup id="cite_ref-Royal_Academy_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Royal_Academy-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The heart for example functions much like a pump,<sup id="cite_ref-Science_Museum_of_Minnesota_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Science_Museum_of_Minnesota-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the skeleton is like a linked structure with levers,<sup id="cite_ref-Minnesota_State_University_emuseum_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Minnesota_State_University_emuseum-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the brain produces <a href="/wiki/Signal_(electrical_engineering)" class="mw-redirect" title="Signal (electrical engineering)">electrical signals</a> etc.<sup id="cite_ref-UC_Berkeley_News_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UC_Berkeley_News-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These similarities as well as the increasing importance and application of engineering principles in medicine, led to the development of the field of <a href="/wiki/Biomedical_engineering" title="Biomedical engineering">biomedical engineering</a> that uses concepts developed in both disciplines. </p><p>Newly emerging branches of science, such as <a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">systems biology</a>, are adapting analytical tools traditionally used for engineering, such as systems modeling and computational analysis, to the description of biological systems.<sup id="cite_ref-Royal_Academy_100-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Royal_Academy-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Art">Art</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_presumed_self-portrait_-_WGA12798.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_presumed_self-portrait_-_WGA12798.jpg/170px-Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_presumed_self-portrait_-_WGA12798.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="265" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_presumed_self-portrait_-_WGA12798.jpg/255px-Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_presumed_self-portrait_-_WGA12798.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_presumed_self-portrait_-_WGA12798.jpg/340px-Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_presumed_self-portrait_-_WGA12798.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2408" data-file-height="3754" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a>, seen here in a self-portrait, has been described as the epitome of the artist/engineer.<sup id="cite_ref-Bjerklie,_David_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bjerklie,_David-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He is also known for his studies on <a href="/wiki/Human_anatomy" title="Human anatomy">human anatomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiology</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>There are connections between engineering and art, for example, <a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">architecture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Landscape_architecture" title="Landscape architecture">landscape architecture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Industrial_design" title="Industrial design">industrial design</a> (even to the extent that these disciplines may sometimes be included in a university's <a href="/wiki/Faculty_(division)" title="Faculty (division)">Faculty</a> of Engineering).<sup id="cite_ref-National_Science_Foundation:The_Art_of_Engineering_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-National_Science_Foundation:The_Art_of_Engineering-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MIT_World:The_Art_of_Engineering_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MIT_World:The_Art_of_Engineering-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-University_of_Texas_at_Dallas_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-University_of_Texas_at_Dallas-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Art_Institute_of_Chicago" title="Art Institute of Chicago">Art Institute of Chicago</a>, for instance, held an exhibition about the art of <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>'s aerospace design.<sup id="cite_ref-NASA_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASA-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Maillart" title="Robert Maillart">Robert Maillart</a>'s bridge design is perceived by some to have been deliberately artistic.<sup id="cite_ref-Princeton_U_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Princeton_U-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the <a href="/wiki/University_of_South_Florida" title="University of South Florida">University of South Florida</a>, an engineering professor, through a grant with the <a href="/wiki/National_Science_Foundation" title="National Science Foundation">National Science Foundation</a>, has developed a course that connects art and engineering.<sup id="cite_ref-National_Science_Foundation:The_Art_of_Engineering_105-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-National_Science_Foundation:The_Art_of_Engineering-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Chief_engineer_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chief_engineer-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among famous historical figures, <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a> is a well-known <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> artist and engineer, and a prime example of the nexus between art and engineering.<sup id="cite_ref-Bjerklie,_David_104-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bjerklie,_David-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Drew_U_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drew_U-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Business">Business</h3></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Business_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Business engineering">Business engineering</a> deals with the relationship between professional engineering, IT systems, business administration and <a href="/wiki/Change_management" title="Change management">change management</a>. <a href="/wiki/Engineering_management" title="Engineering management">Engineering management</a> or "Management engineering" is a specialized field of <a href="/wiki/Management" title="Management">management</a> concerned with engineering practice or the engineering industry sector. The demand for management-focused engineers (or from the opposite perspective, managers with an understanding of engineering), has resulted in the development of specialized engineering management degrees that develop the knowledge and skills needed for these roles. During an engineering management course, students will develop <a href="/wiki/Industrial_engineering" title="Industrial engineering">industrial engineering</a> skills, knowledge, and expertise, alongside knowledge of business administration, management techniques, and strategic thinking. Engineers specializing in change management must have in-depth knowledge of the application of <a href="/wiki/Industrial_and_organizational_psychology" title="Industrial and organizational psychology">industrial and organizational psychology</a> principles and methods. Professional engineers often train as <a href="/wiki/Certified_management_consultant" title="Certified management consultant">certified management consultants</a> in the very specialized field of <a href="/wiki/Management_consulting" title="Management consulting">management consulting</a> applied to engineering practice or the engineering sector. This work often deals with large scale complex <a href="/wiki/Business_transformation" title="Business transformation">business transformation</a> or <a href="/wiki/Business_process_management" title="Business process management">business process management</a> initiatives in aerospace and defence, automotive, oil and gas, machinery, pharmaceutical, food and beverage, electrical and electronics, power distribution and generation, utilities and transportation systems. This combination of technical engineering practice, management consulting practice, industry sector knowledge, and change management expertise enables professional engineers who are also qualified as management consultants to lead major business transformation initiatives. These initiatives are typically sponsored by C-level executives. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_fields">Other fields</h3></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a>, the term <i>engineering</i> has been borrowed for the study of the subjects of <a href="/wiki/Social_engineering_(political_science)" title="Social engineering (political science)">social engineering</a> and <a href="/wiki/Political_engineering" title="Political engineering">political engineering</a>, which deal with forming <a href="/wiki/Political_structure" title="Political structure">political</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_structure" title="Social structure">social structures</a> using engineering methodology coupled with <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a> principles. <a href="/wiki/Marketing_engineering" title="Marketing engineering">Marketing engineering</a> and <a href="/wiki/Financial_engineering" title="Financial engineering">financial engineering</a> have similarly borrowed the term. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1034237262">.mw-parser-output .stack{box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .stack>div{margin:1px;overflow:hidden}@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-left{float:left;clear:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-right{float:right;clear:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-left{float:left;clear:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-right{float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-left{float:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-right{float:right;margin-left:1em}}</style><div class="stack mw-stack stack-right"><div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg/28px-Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg/42px-Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg/56px-Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Engineering" title="Portal:Engineering">Engineering portal</a></span></li></ul></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_engineering" title="Outline of engineering">Outline of engineering</a></div> <dl><dt>Lists</dt></dl> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_aerospace_engineering_topics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of aerospace engineering topics">List of aerospace engineering topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_basic_chemical_engineering_topics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of basic chemical engineering topics">List of basic chemical engineering topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_electrical_engineering_topics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of electrical engineering topics">List of electrical engineering topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_engineering_societies" title="List of engineering societies">List of engineering societies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_engineering_topics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of engineering topics">List of engineering topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_engineers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of engineers">List of engineers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_genetic_engineering_topics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of genetic engineering topics">List of genetic engineering topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mechanical_engineering_topics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of mechanical engineering topics">List of mechanical engineering topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nanoengineering_topics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of nanoengineering topics">List of nanoengineering topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_software_engineering_topics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of software engineering topics">List of software engineering topics</a></li></ul> </div> <dl><dt>Glossaries</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics" title="Glossary of areas of mathematics">Glossary of areas of mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_biology" title="Glossary of biology">Glossary of biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossary of chemistry">Glossary of chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering" title="Glossary of engineering">Glossary of engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_physics" title="Glossary of physics">Glossary of physics</a></li></ul> </div> <dl><dt>Related subjects</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Controversies_over_the_term_Engineer" class="mw-redirect" title="Controversies over the term Engineer">Controversies over the term Engineer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Design" title="Design">Design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earthquake_engineering" title="Earthquake engineering">Earthquake engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineer" title="Engineer">Engineer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_economics" title="Engineering economics">Engineering economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_education" title="Engineering education">Engineering education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_education_research" title="Engineering education research">Engineering education research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_engineering_science" title="Environmental engineering science">Environmental engineering science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Engineering_Education" title="Global Engineering Education">Global Engineering Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_engineering" title="Green engineering">Green engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_engineering" title="Reverse engineering">Reverse engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_failure" class="mw-redirect" title="Structural failure">Structural failure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_engineering" title="Sustainable engineering">Sustainable engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_engineering" title="Women in engineering">Women in engineering</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-EngineeringMethod-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-EngineeringMethod_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHammackAnderson2022" class="citation web cs1">Hammack, William; Anderson, John (February 16, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://issues.org/penumbra-engineering-perspective-hammack-anderson/">"Working in the Penumbra of Understanding"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Issues_in_Science_and_Technology" title="Issues in Science and Technology">Issues in Science and Technology</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/National_Academies_of_Sciences,_Engineering,_and_Medicine" title="National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine">National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arizona_State_University" title="Arizona State University">Arizona State University</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230803142849/https://issues.org/penumbra-engineering-perspective-hammack-anderson/">Archived</a> from the original on August 3, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 3,</span> 2023</span>. <q>The method used by engineers to create artifacts and systems—from cellular telephony, computers and smartphones, and GPS to remote controls, airplanes, and biomimetic materials and devices—isn't the same method scientists use in their work. The scientific method has a prescribed process: state a question, observe, state a hypothesis, test, analyze, and interpret. It doesn't know what will be discovered, what truth will be revealed. In contrast, the engineering method aims for a specific goal and cannot be reduced to a set of fixed steps that must be followed.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Issues+in+Science+and+Technology&rft.atitle=Working+in+the+Penumbra+of+Understanding&rft.date=2022-02-16&rft.aulast=Hammack&rft.aufirst=William&rft.au=Anderson%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fissues.org%2Fpenumbra-engineering-perspective-hammack-anderson%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">definition of "engineering" from the <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/">https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210216234801/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/">Archived</a> February 16, 2021, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Cambridge Academic Content Dictionary © Cambridge University</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iaeng.org/about_IAENG.html">"About IAENG"</a>. <i>iaeng.org</i>. International Association of Engineers. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210126145541/http://www.iaeng.org/about_IAENG.html">Archived</a> from the original on January 26, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 17,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=iaeng.org&rft.atitle=About+IAENG&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iaeng.org%2Fabout_IAENG.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ABET_History-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ABET_History_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.abet.org/about-abet/history/">"About ABET - History"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240326113804/https://www.abet.org/about-abet/history/">Archived</a> from the original on March 26, 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 27,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=About+ABET+-+History&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.abet.org%2Fabout-abet%2Fhistory%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ECPD_Canons-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ECPD_Canons_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/26393909">"Engineers' Council for Professional Development. (1947). Canons of ethics for engineers"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070929123703/http://www.worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/26393909%26referer%3Dbrief_results">Archived</a> from the original on September 29, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 10,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Engineers%27+Council+for+Professional+Development.+%281947%29.+Canons+of+ethics+for+engineers&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcatlibraries.org%2Foclc%2F26393909&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ECPD_Definition_on_Britannica-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ECPD_Definition_on_Britannica_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ECPD_Definition_on_Britannica_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ECPD_Definition_on_Britannica_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ECPD_Definition_on_Britannica_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ECPD_Definition_on_Britannica_6-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ECPD_Definition_on_Britannica_6-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ECPD_Definition_on_Britannica_6-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2024" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Smith, Ralph J. (March 29, 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240425073917/https://www.britannica.com/technology/engineering">"engineering"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/engineering">the original</a> on April 25, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=engineering&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.date=2024-03-29&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Ralph+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftechnology%2Fengineering&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReference-OED-engineer" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?q=engineer">"engineer"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i> (Online ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=engineer&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.edition=Online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oed.com%2Fsearch%2Fdictionary%2F%3Fq%3Dengineer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/public/login/loggingin#withyourlibrary">participating institution membership</a> required.)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Origin: 1250–1300; ME engin < AF, OF < L ingenium nature, innate quality, esp. mental power, hence a clever invention, equiv. to in- + -genium, equiv. to gen- begetting; Source: Random House Unabridged Dictionary, Random House, Inc. 2006.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoorey1999" class="citation book cs1">Moorey, Peter Roger Stuart (1999). <i>Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: The Archaeological Evidence</i>. <a href="/wiki/Eisenbrauns" title="Eisenbrauns">Eisenbrauns</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-042-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-042-2"><bdi>978-1-57506-042-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Mesopotamian+Materials+and+Industries%3A+The+Archaeological+Evidence&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-1-57506-042-2&rft.aulast=Moorey&rft.aufirst=Peter+Roger+Stuart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFD.T._Potts2012" class="citation book cs1">D.T. Potts (2012). <i>A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East</i>. p. 285.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Archaeology+of+the+Ancient+Near+East&rft.pages=285&rft.date=2012&rft.au=D.T.+Potts&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Paipetis-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Paipetis_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Paipetis_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaipetisCeccarelli2010" class="citation book cs1">Paipetis, S. A.; Ceccarelli, Marco (2010). <i>The Genius of Archimedes – 23 Centuries of Influence on Mathematics, Science and Engineering: Proceedings of an International Conference held at Syracuse, Italy, June 8–10, 2010</i>. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science_%26_Business_Media" class="mw-redirect" title="Springer Science & Business Media">Springer Science & Business Media</a>. p. 416. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-481-9091-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-481-9091-1"><bdi>978-90-481-9091-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Genius+of+Archimedes+%E2%80%93+23+Centuries+of+Influence+on+Mathematics%2C+Science+and+Engineering%3A+Proceedings+of+an+International+Conference+held+at+Syracuse%2C+Italy%2C+June+8%E2%80%9310%2C+2010&rft.pages=416&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-90-481-9091-1&rft.aulast=Paipetis&rft.aufirst=S.+A.&rft.au=Ceccarelli%2C+Marco&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClarkeEngelbach1990" class="citation book cs1">Clarke, Somers; Engelbach, Reginald (1990). <i>Ancient Egyptian Construction and Architecture</i>. <a href="/wiki/Courier_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Courier Corporation">Courier Corporation</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">86–</span>90. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-26485-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-26485-1"><bdi>978-0-486-26485-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egyptian+Construction+and+Architecture&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E86-%3C%2Fspan%3E90&rft.pub=Courier+Corporation&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-486-26485-1&rft.aulast=Clarke&rft.aufirst=Somers&rft.au=Engelbach%2C+Reginald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaiella2006" class="citation book cs1">Faiella, Graham (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bGMyBTS0-v0C&pg=PA27"><i>The Technology of Mesopotamia</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Rosen_Publishing_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="The Rosen Publishing Group">The Rosen Publishing Group</a>. p. 27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4042-0560-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4042-0560-4"><bdi>978-1-4042-0560-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200103045623/https://books.google.com/books?id=bGMyBTS0-v0C&pg=PA27">Archived</a> from the original on January 3, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 13,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Technology+of+Mesopotamia&rft.pages=27&rft.pub=The+Rosen+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-4042-0560-4&rft.aulast=Faiella&rft.aufirst=Graham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbGMyBTS0-v0C%26pg%3DPA27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Eisenbrauns-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eisenbrauns_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eisenbrauns_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoorey1999" class="citation book cs1">Moorey, Peter Roger Stuart (1999). <i>Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: The Archaeological Evidence</i>. <a href="/wiki/Eisenbrauns" title="Eisenbrauns">Eisenbrauns</a>. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-042-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-042-2"><bdi>978-1-57506-042-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Mesopotamian+Materials+and+Industries%3A+The+Archaeological+Evidence&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-1-57506-042-2&rft.aulast=Moorey&rft.aufirst=Peter+Roger+Stuart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArnold1991" class="citation book cs1">Arnold, Dieter (1991). <i>Building in Egypt: Pharaonic Stone Masonry</i>. Oxford University Press. p. 71. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511374-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511374-7"><bdi>978-0-19-511374-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Building+in+Egypt%3A+Pharaonic+Stone+Masonry&rft.pages=71&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-19-511374-7&rft.aulast=Arnold&rft.aufirst=Dieter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Woods-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Woods_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodsMary_B._Woods2000" class="citation book cs1">Woods, Michael; Mary B. Woods (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E1tzW_aDnxsC&pg=PA58"><i>Ancient Machines: From Wedges to Waterwheels</i></a>. USA: Twenty-First Century Books. p. 58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8225-2994-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8225-2994-7"><bdi>0-8225-2994-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200104003216/https://books.google.com/books?id=E1tzW_aDnxsC&pg=PA58">Archived</a> from the original on January 4, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 13,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Machines%3A+From+Wedges+to+Waterwheels&rft.place=USA&rft.pages=58&rft.pub=Twenty-First+Century+Books&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-8225-2994-7&rft.aulast=Woods&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Mary+B.+Woods&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DE1tzW_aDnxsC%26pg%3DPA58&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWood2000" class="citation book cs1">Wood, Michael (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientcommunica00wood/page/35"><i>Ancient Machines: From Grunts to Graffiti</i></a>. Minneapolis, MN: Runestone Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientcommunica00wood/page/35">35, 36</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8225-2996-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8225-2996-3"><bdi>0-8225-2996-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Machines%3A+From+Grunts+to+Graffiti&rft.place=Minneapolis%2C+MN&rft.pages=35%2C+36&rft.pub=Runestone+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-8225-2996-3&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fancientcommunica00wood%2Fpage%2F35&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Barry-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Barry_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKemp2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Barry_J._Kemp" class="mw-redirect" title="Barry J. Kemp">Kemp, Barry J.</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IT6CAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT159"><i>Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilisation</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. 159. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-56388-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-56388-3"><bdi>978-1-134-56388-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200801100712/https://books.google.com/books?id=IT6CAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT159">Archived</a> from the original on August 1, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 20,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egypt%3A+Anatomy+of+a+Civilisation&rft.pages=159&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-134-56388-3&rft.aulast=Kemp&rft.aufirst=Barry+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIT6CAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT159&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSelin2013" class="citation book cs1">Selin, Helaine (2013). <i>Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Westen Cultures</i>. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science_%26_Business_Media" class="mw-redirect" title="Springer Science & Business Media">Springer Science & Business Media</a>. p. 282. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-017-1416-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-017-1416-7"><bdi>978-94-017-1416-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+the+History+of+Science%2C+Technology%2C+and+Medicine+in+Non-Westen+Cultures&rft.pages=282&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-94-017-1416-7&rft.aulast=Selin&rft.aufirst=Helaine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFG._Mokhtar1981" class="citation book cs1">G. Mokhtar (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gB6DcMU94GUC&q=ancient+irrigation+saqiya&pg=PA309"><i>Ancient civilizations of Africa</i></a>. Unesco. International Scientific Committee for the Drafting of a General History of Africa. p. 309. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-435-94805-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-435-94805-4"><bdi>978-0-435-94805-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220502161727/https://books.google.com/books?id=gB6DcMU94GUC&q=ancient+irrigation+saqiya&pg=PA309">Archived</a> from the original on May 2, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 19,</span> 2012</span> – via Books.google.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+civilizations+of+Africa&rft.pages=309&rft.pub=Unesco.+International+Scientific+Committee+for+the+Drafting+of+a+General+History+of+Africa&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-435-94805-4&rft.au=G.+Mokhtar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgB6DcMU94GUC%26q%3Dancient%2Birrigation%2Bsaqiya%26pg%3DPA309&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hinkel-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hinkel_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fritz Hintze, Kush XI; pp. 222–224.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/siegewarfare.html">"Siege warfare in ancient Egypt"</a>. Tour Egypt<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 23,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Siege+warfare+in+ancient+Egypt&rft.pub=Tour+Egypt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.touregypt.net%2Ffeaturestories%2Fsiegewarfare.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBianchi2004" class="citation book cs1">Bianchi, Robert Steven (2004). <i>Daily Life of the Nubians</i>. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 227. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32501-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32501-4"><bdi>978-0-313-32501-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Daily+Life+of+the+Nubians&rft.pages=227&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-313-32501-4&rft.aulast=Bianchi&rft.aufirst=Robert+Steven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHumphrisCharltonKeenSauder2018" class="citation journal cs1">Humphris, Jane; Charlton, Michael F.; Keen, Jake; Sauder, Lee; Alshishani, Fareed (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00934690.2018.1479085">"Iron Smelting in Sudan: Experimental Archaeology at The Royal City of Meroe"</a>. <i>Journal of Field Archaeology</i>. <b>43</b> (5): 399. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00934690.2018.1479085">10.1080/00934690.2018.1479085</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0093-4690">0093-4690</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Field+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Iron+Smelting+in+Sudan%3A+Experimental+Archaeology+at+The+Royal+City+of+Meroe&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=399&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00934690.2018.1479085&rft.issn=0093-4690&rft.aulast=Humphris&rft.aufirst=Jane&rft.au=Charlton%2C+Michael+F.&rft.au=Keen%2C+Jake&rft.au=Sauder%2C+Lee&rft.au=Alshishani%2C+Fareed&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F00934690.2018.1479085&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollinsBurns2007" class="citation book cs1">Collins, Robert O.; Burns, James M. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PZcX2jQFTRcC&pg=PA61"><i>A History of Sub-Saharan Africa</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-86746-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-86746-7"><bdi>978-0-521-86746-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183058/https://books.google.com/books?id=PZcX2jQFTRcC&pg=PA61">Archived</a> from the original on July 9, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 23,</span> 2020</span> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Sub-Saharan+Africa&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-86746-7&rft.aulast=Collins&rft.aufirst=Robert+O.&rft.au=Burns%2C+James+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPZcX2jQFTRcC%26pg%3DPA61&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdwards2004" class="citation book cs1">Edwards, David N. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6tsaBtp0WrMC&pg=PA173"><i>The Nubian Past: An Archaeology of the Sudan</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-48276-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-48276-6"><bdi>978-0-203-48276-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210709181948/https://books.google.com/books?id=6tsaBtp0WrMC&pg=PA173">Archived</a> from the original on July 9, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 23,</span> 2020</span> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nubian+Past%3A+An+Archaeology+of+the+Sudan&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-203-48276-6&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=David+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6tsaBtp0WrMC%26pg%3DPA173&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Humphris-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Humphris_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHumphrisCharltonKeenSauder2018" class="citation journal cs1">Humphris J, Charlton MF, Keen J, Sauder L, Alshishani F (June 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00934690.2018.1479085">"Iron Smelting in Sudan: Experimental Archaeology at The Royal City of Meroe"</a>. <i>Journal of Field Archaeology</i>. <b>43</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">399–</span>416. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00934690.2018.1479085">10.1080/00934690.2018.1479085</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Field+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Iron+Smelting+in+Sudan%3A+Experimental+Archaeology+at+The+Royal+City+of+Meroe&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E399-%3C%2Fspan%3E416&rft.date=2018-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00934690.2018.1479085&rft.aulast=Humphris&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Charlton%2C+MF&rft.au=Keen%2C+J&rft.au=Sauder%2C+L&rft.au=Alshishani%2C+F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F00934690.2018.1479085&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.antikythera-mechanism.gr/project/general/the-project.html">The Antikythera Mechanism Research Project</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080428070448/http://www.antikythera-mechanism.gr/project/general/the-project.html">Archived</a> 2008-04-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", The Antikythera Mechanism Research Project. Retrieved July 1, 2007 Quote: "The Antikythera Mechanism is now understood to be dedicated to astronomical phenomena and operates as a complex mechanical "computer" which tracks the cycles of the Solar System."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilford2008" class="citation news cs1">Wilford, John (July 31, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/31/science/31computer.html?hp">"Discovering How Greeks Computed in 100 B.C."</a> <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131204053238/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/31/science/31computer.html?hp">Archived</a> from the original on December 4, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 21,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Discovering+How+Greeks+Computed+in+100+B.C.&rft.date=2008-07-31&rft.aulast=Wilford&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2008%2F07%2F31%2Fscience%2F31computer.html%3Fhp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright,_M_T.2005" class="citation journal cs1">Wright, M T. (2005). "Epicyclic Gearing and the Antikythera Mechanism, part 2". <i>Antiquarian Horology</i>. <b>29</b> (1 (September 2005)): <span class="nowrap">54–</span>60.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Antiquarian+Horology&rft.atitle=Epicyclic+Gearing+and+the+Antikythera+Mechanism%2C+part+2&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=1+%28September+2005%29&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E54-%3C%2Fspan%3E60&rft.date=2005&rft.au=Wright%2C+M+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/244231/ancient-Greece/261062/Military-technology">Britannica on Greek civilization in the 5th century – Military technology</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090606072841/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/244231/ancient-Greece/261062/Military-technology">Archived</a> June 6, 2009, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Quote: "The 7th century, by contrast, had witnessed rapid innovations, such as the introduction of the hoplite and the trireme, which still were the basic instruments of war in the 5th." and "But it was the development of artillery that opened an epoch, and this invention did not predate the 4th century. It was first heard of in the context of Sicilian warfare against Carthage in the time of Dionysius I of Syracuse."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChevedden1988" class="citation book cs1">Chevedden, Paul E. (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/On_the_Social_Origins_of_Medieval_Instit/OVX8j0zR6QYC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=trebuchet&pg=PA179&printsec=frontcover">"<small>THE HYBRID TREBUCHET:: THE HALFWAY STEP TO THE COUNTERWEIGHT TREBUCHET</small>"</a>. In Kagay, Donald J.; O'Callaghan, Joseph F.; Vann, Theresa M. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/On_the_Social_Origins_of_Medieval_Instit/OVX8j0zR6QYC?hl=en&gbpv=0"><i>On the Social Origins of Medieval Institutions Essays in Honor of Joseph F. O'Callaghan</i></a>. <small>THE MEDIEVAL MEDITTERANEAN PEOPLES, ECONOMIES, AND CULTURES, 400-1453</small>. Vol. 19. <a href="/wiki/Leiden" title="Leiden">Leiden</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>, <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6ln" class="mw-redirect" title="Köln">Köln</a>: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill</a>. p. 179. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004110960" title="Special:BookSources/9789004110960"><bdi>9789004110960</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0928-5520">0928-5520</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 16,</span> 2025</span> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%3Csmall%3ETHE+HYBRID+TREBUCHET%3A%3A+THE+HALFWAY+STEP+TO+THE+COUNTERWEIGHT+TREBUCHET%3C%2Fsmall%3E&rft.btitle=On+the+Social+Origins+of+Medieval+Institutions+Essays+in+Honor+of+Joseph+F.+O%27Callaghan&rft.place=Leiden%2C+Boston%2C+K%C3%B6ln&rft.series=%3Csmall%3ETHE+MEDIEVAL+MEDITTERANEAN+PEOPLES%2C+ECONOMIES%2C+AND+CULTURES%2C+400-1453%3C%2Fsmall%3E&rft.pages=179&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1988&rft.issn=0928-5520&rft.isbn=9789004110960&rft.aulast=Chevedden&rft.aufirst=Paul+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.co.uk%2Fbooks%2Fedition%2FOn_the_Social_Origins_of_Medieval_Instit%2FOVX8j0zR6QYC%3Fhl%3Den%26gbpv%3D1%26dq%3Dtrebuchet%26pg%3DPA179%26printsec%3Dfrontcover&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: url-status (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_url-status" title="Category:CS1 maint: url-status">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Y_Hassan" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmad Y Hassan">Ahmad Y Hassan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Donald_Routledge_Hill" class="mw-redirect" title="Donald Routledge Hill">Donald Routledge Hill</a> (1986). <i>Islamic Technology: An illustrated history</i>, p. 54. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-42239-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-42239-6">0-521-42239-6</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLucas2006" class="citation book cs1">Lucas, Adam (2006). <i>Wind, Water, Work: Ancient and Medieval Milling Technology</i>. Brill Publishers. p. 65. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-14649-0" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-14649-0"><bdi>90-04-14649-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wind%2C+Water%2C+Work%3A+Ancient+and+Medieval+Milling+Technology&rft.pages=65&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=90-04-14649-0&rft.aulast=Lucas&rft.aufirst=Adam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEldridge1980" class="citation book cs1">Eldridge, Frank (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/windmachines00fran/page/15"><i>Wind Machines</i></a> (2nd ed.). New York: Litton Educational Publishing, Inc. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/windmachines00fran/page/15">15</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-442-26134-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-442-26134-9"><bdi>0-442-26134-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wind+Machines&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=15&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Litton+Educational+Publishing%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=0-442-26134-9&rft.aulast=Eldridge&rft.aufirst=Frank&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwindmachines00fran%2Fpage%2F15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShepherd2011" class="citation book cs1">Shepherd, William (2011). <i>Electricity Generation Using Wind Power</i> (1 ed.). Singapore: World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-4304-13-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-4304-13-9"><bdi>978-981-4304-13-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Electricity+Generation+Using+Wind+Power&rft.place=Singapore&rft.pages=4&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=World+Scientific+Publishing+Co.+Pte.+Ltd.&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-981-4304-13-9&rft.aulast=Shepherd&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history-science-technology.com/Notes/Notes%201.htm">Taqi al-Din and the First Steam Turbine, 1551 A.D.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080218171045/http://www.history-science-technology.com/Notes/Notes%201.htm">Archived</a> February 18, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, web page, accessed on line October 23, 2009; this web page refers to <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Y_Hassan" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmad Y Hassan">Ahmad Y Hassan</a> (1976), <i>Taqi al-Din and Arabic Mechanical Engineering</i>, pp. 34–5, Institute for the History of Arabic Science, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Aleppo" title="University of Aleppo">University of Aleppo</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Y._Hassan" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmad Y. Hassan">Ahmad Y. Hassan</a> (1976), <i>Taqi al-Din and Arabic Mechanical Engineering</i>, pp. 34–35, Institute for the History of Arabic Science, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Aleppo" title="University of Aleppo">University of Aleppo</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Lakwete" class="citation book cs1">Lakwete, Angela (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uOMaGVnPfBcC"><i>Inventing the Cotton Gin: Machine and Myth in Antebellum America</i></a>. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-7394-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-7394-2"><bdi>978-0-8018-7394-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210420214459/https://books.google.com/books?id=uOMaGVnPfBcC">Archived</a> from the original on April 20, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 13,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inventing+the+Cotton+Gin%3A+Machine+and+Myth+in+Antebellum+America&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E6&rft.pub=The+Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-7394-2&rft.au=Lakwete%2C+Angela&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuOMaGVnPfBcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pacey-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pacey_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPacey1991" class="citation book cs1">Pacey, Arnold (1991) [1990]. <i>Technology in World Civilization: A Thousand-Year History</i> (First MIT Press paperback ed.). Cambridge MA: The MIT Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">23–</span>24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Technology+in+World+Civilization%3A+A+Thousand-Year+History&rft.place=Cambridge+MA&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E23-%3C%2Fspan%3E24&rft.edition=First+MIT+Press+paperback&rft.pub=The+MIT+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Pacey&rft.aufirst=Arnold&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFŽmolek2013" class="citation book cs1">Žmolek, Michael Andrew (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-RKaAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA328"><i>Rethinking the Industrial Revolution: Five Centuries of Transition from Agrarian to Industrial Capitalism in England</i></a>. Brill. p. 328. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-25179-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-25179-3"><bdi>978-90-04-25179-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191229031336/https://books.google.com/books?id=-RKaAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA328">Archived</a> from the original on December 29, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 13,</span> 2019</span>. <q>The spinning jenny was basically an adaptation of its precursor the spinning wheel</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rethinking+the+Industrial+Revolution%3A+Five+Centuries+of+Transition+from+Agrarian+to+Industrial+Capitalism+in+England&rft.pages=328&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-90-04-25179-3&rft.aulast=%C5%BDmolek&rft.aufirst=Michael+Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-RKaAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA328&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Koetsier-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Koetsier_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoetsier2001" class="citation journal cs1">Koetsier, Teun (2001). "On the prehistory of programmable machines: musical automata, looms, calculators". <i>Mechanism and Machine Theory</i>. <b>36</b> (5). Elsevier: <span class="nowrap">589–</span>603. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0094-114X%2801%2900005-2">10.1016/S0094-114X(01)00005-2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mechanism+and+Machine+Theory&rft.atitle=On+the+prehistory+of+programmable+machines%3A+musical+automata%2C+looms%2C+calculators&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E589-%3C%2Fspan%3E603&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0094-114X%2801%2900005-2&rft.aulast=Koetsier&rft.aufirst=Teun&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKapurCarnegieMurphyLong2017" class="citation journal cs1">Kapur, Ajay; Carnegie, Dale; Murphy, Jim; Long, Jason (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1355771817000103">"Loudspeakers Optional: A history of non-loudspeaker-based electroacoustic music"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Organised_Sound" title="Organised Sound">Organised Sound</a></i>. <b>22</b> (2). <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>: <span class="nowrap">195–</span>205. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1355771817000103">10.1017/S1355771817000103</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1355-7718">1355-7718</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143427257">143427257</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Organised+Sound&rft.atitle=Loudspeakers+Optional%3A+A+history+of+non-loudspeaker-based+electroacoustic+music&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E195-%3C%2Fspan%3E205&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143427257%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1355-7718&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS1355771817000103&rft.aulast=Kapur&rft.aufirst=Ajay&rft.au=Carnegie%2C+Dale&rft.au=Murphy%2C+Jim&rft.au=Long%2C+Jason&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS1355771817000103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sharkey-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sharkey_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Professor Noel Sharkey, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070629182810/http://www.shef.ac.uk/marcoms/eview/articles58/robot.html">A 13th Century Programmable Robot (Archive)</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Sheffield" title="University of Sheffield">University of Sheffield</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Robinson-Musnon-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Robinson-Musnon_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robinson-Musnon_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robinson-Musnon_45-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robinson-Musnon_45-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMussonRobinson1969" class="citation book cs1">Musson, A.E.; Robinson, Eric H. (1969). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sciencetechnolog00aemu"><i>Science and Technology in the Industrial Revolution</i></a></span>. University of Toronto Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0802016379" title="Special:BookSources/978-0802016379"><bdi>978-0802016379</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Technology+in+the+Industrial+Revolution&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0802016379&rft.aulast=Musson&rft.aufirst=A.E.&rft.au=Robinson%2C+Eric+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsciencetechnolog00aemu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor1969" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, George Rogers (1969). <i>The Transportation Revolution, 1815–1860</i>. M.E. Sharpe. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87332-101-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87332-101-3"><bdi>978-0-87332-101-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Transportation+Revolution%2C+1815%E2%80%931860&rft.pub=M.E.+Sharpe&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0-87332-101-3&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=George+Rogers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-University_Of_Chicago_Press-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-University_Of_Chicago_Press_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-University_Of_Chicago_Press_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosen2012" class="citation book cs1">Rosen, William (2012). <i>The Most Powerful Idea in the World: A Story of Steam, Industry and Invention</i>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-72634-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-72634-2"><bdi>978-0-226-72634-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Most+Powerful+Idea+in+the+World%3A+A+Story+of+Steam%2C+Industry+and+Invention&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-226-72634-2&rft.aulast=Rosen&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJenkins1936" class="citation book cs1">Jenkins, Rhys (1936). <i>Links in the History of Engineering and Technology from Tudor Times</i>. Ayer Publishing. p. 66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8369-2167-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8369-2167-0"><bdi>978-0-8369-2167-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Links+in+the+History+of+Engineering+and+Technology+from+Tudor+Times&rft.pages=66&rft.pub=Ayer+Publishing&rft.date=1936&rft.isbn=978-0-8369-2167-0&rft.aulast=Jenkins&rft.aufirst=Rhys&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTylecote1992" class="citation book cs1">Tylecote, R.F. (1992). <i>A History of Metallurgy, Second Edition</i>. London: Maney Publishing, for the Institute of Materials. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-901462-88-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-901462-88-6"><bdi>978-0-901462-88-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Metallurgy%2C+Second+Edition&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Maney+Publishing%2C+for+the+Institute+of+Materials&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-901462-88-6&rft.aulast=Tylecote&rft.aufirst=R.F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HunterIndustrialPower-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HunterIndustrialPower_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HunterIndustrialPower_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunter1985" class="citation book cs1">Hunter, Louis C. (1985). <i>A History of Industrial Power in the United States, 1730–1930, Vol. 2: Steam Power</i>. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Industrial+Power+in+the+United+States%2C+1730%E2%80%931930%2C+Vol.+2%3A+Steam+Power&rft.place=Charlottesville&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Virginia&rft.date=1985&rft.aulast=Hunter&rft.aufirst=Louis+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoe1916" class="citation book cs1">Roe, Joseph Wickham (1916). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X-EJAAAAIAAJ"><i>English and American Tool Builders</i></a>. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/16011753">16011753</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210126171157/https://books.google.com/books?id=X-EJAAAAIAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on January 26, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 10,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=English+and+American+Tool+Builders&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+Connecticut&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1916&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F16011753&rft.aulast=Roe&rft.aufirst=Joseph+Wickham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DX-EJAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHounshell1984" class="citation cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_A._Hounshell" title="David A. Hounshell">Hounshell, David A.</a> (1984). <i>From the American System to Mass Production, 1800–1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States</i>. Baltimore, Maryland: <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University_Press" title="Johns Hopkins University Press">Johns Hopkins University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-2975-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-2975-8"><bdi>978-0-8018-2975-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/83016269">83016269</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1104810110">1104810110</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+the+American+System+to+Mass+Production%2C+1800%E2%80%931932%3A+The+Development+of+Manufacturing+Technology+in+the+United+States&rft.place=Baltimore%2C+Maryland&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1104810110&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F83016269&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-2975-8&rft.aulast=Hounshell&rft.aufirst=David+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCowan1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Schwartz_Cowan" title="Ruth Schwartz Cowan">Cowan, Ruth Schwartz</a> (1997). <i>A Social History of American Technology</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 138. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-504605-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-504605-2"><bdi>978-0-19-504605-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Social+History+of+American+Technology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=138&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-19-504605-2&rft.aulast=Cowan&rft.aufirst=Ruth+Schwartz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams1982" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Trevor I. 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US: Oxford University Press. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-858159-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-858159-8"><bdi>978-0-19-858159-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+Twentieth+Century+Technology&rft.place=US&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-19-858159-8&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Trevor+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-americana-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-americana_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Every,_Kermit_E.1986" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Van Every, Kermit E. (1986). "Aeronautical engineering". <i>Encyclopedia Americana</i>. Vol. 1. Grolier Incorporated. p. 226.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Aeronautical+engineering&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Americana&rft.pages=226&rft.pub=Grolier+Incorporated&rft.date=1986&rft.au=Van+Every%2C+Kermit+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheeler1951" class="citation book cs1">Wheeler, Lynde Phelps (1951). <i>Josiah Willard Gibbs – the History of a Great Mind</i>. Ox Bow Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-881987-11-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-881987-11-6"><bdi>978-1-881987-11-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Josiah+Willard+Gibbs+%E2%80%93+the+History+of+a+Great+Mind&rft.pub=Ox+Bow+Press&rft.date=1951&rft.isbn=978-1-881987-11-6&rft.aulast=Wheeler&rft.aufirst=Lynde+Phelps&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Hy9WAAAAMAAJ&q=In+most+universities+it+should+be+possible+to+cover+the+main+branches+of+engineering,+ie+civil,+mechanical,+electrical+and+chemical+engineering+in+this+way.">Journal of the British Nuclear Energy Society: Volume 1 British Nuclear Energy Society – 1962 – Snippet view</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150921052200/https://books.google.com/books?id=Hy9WAAAAMAAJ&q=In+most+universities+it+should+be+possible+to+cover+the+main+branches+of+engineering,+ie+civil,+mechanical,+electrical+and+chemical+engineering+in+this+way.&dq=In+most+universities+it+should+be+possible+to+cover+the+main+branches+of+engineering,+ie+civil,+mechanical,+electrical+and+chemical+engineering+in+this+way.&hl=en&ei=2UkYTff0MZL-ngfesbGMDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA">Archived</a> September 21, 2015, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Quote: In most universities it should be possible to cover the main branches of engineering, i.e. civil, mechanical, electrical and chemical engineering in this way. More specialized fields of engineering application, of which <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear power</a> is ...</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-UK_Council-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-UK_Council_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070810194330/http://www.engc.org.uk/documents/Hamilton.pdf">The Engineering Profession</a> by Sir James Hamilton, UK Engineering Council Quote: "The Civilingenior degree encompasses the main branches of engineering civil, mechanical, electrical, chemical." (From the Internet Archive)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ramchandani2000-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ramchandani2000_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIndu_Ramchandani2000" class="citation book cs1">Indu Ramchandani (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=g37xOBJfersC&pg=PA146"><i>Student's Britannica India,7vol.Set</i></a>. Popular Prakashan. p. 146. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85229-761-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85229-761-2"><bdi>978-0-85229-761-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131205220547/http://books.google.com/books?id=g37xOBJfersC&pg=PA146">Archived</a> from the original on December 5, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 23,</span> 2013</span>. <q>Branches: There are traditionally four primary engineering disciplines: civil, mechanical, electrical and chemical.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Student%27s+Britannica+India%2C7vol.Set&rft.pages=146&rft.pub=Popular+Prakashan&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-85229-761-2&rft.au=Indu+Ramchandani&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dg37xOBJfersC%26pg%3DPA146&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070216235716/http://live.asce.org/hh/index.mxml?versionChecked=true">"History and Heritage of Civil Engineering"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/ASCE" class="mw-redirect" title="ASCE">ASCE</a></i>. 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Philippine Studies, vol. 11, no. 4, 1963. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WKgSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA600">p. 600</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">"Relationship between physics and electrical engineering". <i>Journal of the A.I.E.E</i>. <b>46</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">107–</span>108. 1927. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FJAIEE.1927.6534988">10.1109/JAIEE.1927.6534988</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:51673339">51673339</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+A.I.E.E.&rft.atitle=Relationship+between+physics+and+electrical+engineering&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E107-%3C%2Fspan%3E108&rft.date=1927&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FJAIEE.1927.6534988&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A51673339%23id-name%3DS2CID&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Puttaswamaiah. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lkitoDyVWG0C&pg=PA208"><i>Future Of Economic Science</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181026144027/https://books.google.com/books?id=lkitoDyVWG0C&pg=PA208">Archived</a> October 26, 2018, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Oxford and IBH Publishing, 2008, p. 208.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yoseph Bar-Cohen, Cynthia L. Breazeal. <i>Biologically Inspired Intelligent Robots</i>. SPIE Press, 2003. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8194-4872-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8194-4872-9">978-0-8194-4872-9</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5SZiAKpFwgC&pg=PA190">p. 190</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">C. Morón, E. Tremps, A. García, J.A. Somolinos (2011) The Physics and its Relation with the Engineering, INTED2011 Proceedings <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://library.iated.org/view/MORON2011THE">pp. 5929–34</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161220101632/https://library.iated.org/view/MORON2011THE">Archived</a> December 20, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-614-7423-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-84-614-7423-3">978-84-614-7423-3</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R Gazzinelli, R L Moreira, W N Rodrigues. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sJLsCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA110"><i>Physics and Industrial Development: Bridging the Gap</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200801102853/https://books.google.com/books?id=sJLsCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA110">Archived</a> August 1, 2020, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. World Scientific, 1997, p. 110.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Steve Fuller. Knowledge Management Foundations. Routledge, 2012. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-38982-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-38982-5">978-1-136-38982-5</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ScgJBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA92">p. 92</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200801095210/https://books.google.com/books?id=ScgJBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA92">Archived</a> August 1, 2020, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aip.org/sites/default/files/statistics/phd-plus-10/physprivsect-chap7.pdf">"Industrial Physicists: Primarily specialising in Engineering"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. American Institute for Physics. October 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150906191436/https://www.aip.org/sites/default/files/statistics/phd-plus-10/physprivsect-chap7.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on September 6, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 23,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Industrial+Physicists%3A+Primarily+specialising+in+Engineering&rft.pub=American+Institute+for+Physics&rft.date=2016-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aip.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fstatistics%2Fphd-plus-10%2Fphysprivsect-chap7.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaofu2009" class="citation book cs1">Baofu, Peter (March 26, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Pu8YBwAAQBAJ&dq=engineering+research+employs+many+semi-empirical+methods+that+are+foreign+to+pure+scientific+research,+one+example+being+the+method+of+parameter+variation&pg=PA141"><i>The Future of Post-Human Engineering: A Preface to a New Theory of Technology</i></a>. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 141. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4438-0813-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4438-0813-2"><bdi>978-1-4438-0813-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Future+of+Post-Human+Engineering%3A+A+Preface+to+a+New+Theory+of+Technology&rft.pages=141&rft.pub=Cambridge+Scholars+Publishing&rft.date=2009-03-26&rft.isbn=978-1-4438-0813-2&rft.aulast=Baofu&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPu8YBwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dengineering%2Bresearch%2Bemploys%2Bmany%2Bsemi-empirical%2Bmethods%2Bthat%2Bare%2Bforeign%2Bto%2Bpure%2Bscientific%2Bresearch%2C%2Bone%2Bexample%2Bbeing%2Bthe%2Bmethod%2Bof%2Bparameter%2Bvariation%26pg%3DPA141&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fung-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fung_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Classical and Computational Solid Mechanics, YC Fung and P. Tong</i>. World Scientific. 2001.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Classical+and+Computational+Solid+Mechanics%2C+YC+Fung+and+P.+Tong&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=2001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nspe.org/resources/ethics/code-ethics">"Code of Ethics | National Society of Professional Engineers"</a>. <i>www.nspe.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200218064318/https://www.nspe.org/resources/ethics/code-ethics">Archived</a> from the original on February 18, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 10,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.nspe.org&rft.atitle=Code+of+Ethics+%7C+National+Society+of+Professional+Engineers&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nspe.org%2Fresources%2Fethics%2Fcode-ethics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Boston_U-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Boston_U_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bu.edu/wcp/Papers/Bioe/BioeMcGe.htm">"Ethical Assessment of Implantable Brain Chips. Ellen M. McGee and G.Q. Maguire, Jr. from Boston University"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160407064911/http://www.bu.edu/wcp/Papers/Bioe/BioeMcGe.htm">Archived</a> from the original on April 7, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 30,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ethical+Assessment+of+Implantable+Brain+Chips.+Ellen+M.+McGee+and+G.Q.+Maguire%2C+Jr.+from+Boston+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bu.edu%2Fwcp%2FPapers%2FBioe%2FBioeMcGe.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IEEE_foreign_parts-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-IEEE_foreign_parts_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvans-Pughe2003" class="citation journal cs1">Evans-Pughe, C. (May 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1204814">"Foreign parts (electronic body implants)"</a>. <i>IEE Review</i>. <b>49</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">30–</span>33. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1049%2Fir%3A20030503">10.1049/ir:20030503</a> (inactive December 7, 2024)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 3,</span> 2020</span>. <q>Feeling threatened by cyborgs?</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEE+Review&rft.atitle=Foreign+parts+%28electronic+body+implants%29&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E30-%3C%2Fspan%3E33&rft.date=2003-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1049%2Fir%3A20030503&rft.aulast=Evans-Pughe&rft.aufirst=C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fdocument%2F1204814&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of December 2024 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_December_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of December 2024">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IME-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-IME_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uphs.upenn.edu/ime/mission.html">Institute of Medicine and Engineering: Mission statement The mission of the Institute for Medicine and Engineering (IME) is to stimulate fundamental research at the interface between biomedicine and engineering/physical/computational sciences leading to innovative applications in biomedical research and clinical practice.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070317145554/http://www.uphs.upenn.edu/ime/mission.html">Archived</a> March 17, 2007, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IEEE-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-IEEE_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/RecentIssue.jsp?punumber=51">"IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology: Both general and technical articles on current technologies and methods used in biomedical and clinical engineering ..."</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070213074931/http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/RecentIssue.jsp?punumber=51">Archived</a> from the original on February 13, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 30,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=IEEE+Engineering+in+Medicine+and+Biology%3A+Both+general+and+technical+articles+on+current+technologies+and+methods+used+in+biomedical+and+clinical+engineering+...&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fxpl%2FRecentIssue.jsp%3Fpunumber%3D51&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Royal_Academy-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Royal_Academy_100-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Royal_Academy_100-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.acmedsci.ac.uk/images/pressRelease/1170256174.pdf">Royal Academy of Engineering and Academy of Medical Sciences: Systems Biology: a vision for engineering and medicine in pdf: quote1: Systems Biology is an emerging methodology that has yet to be defined quote2: It applies the concepts of systems engineering to the study of complex biological systems through iteration between computational or mathematical modelling and experimentation.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070410011033/http://www.acmedsci.ac.uk/images/pressRelease/1170256174.pdf">Archived</a> April 10, 2007, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Science_Museum_of_Minnesota-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Science_Museum_of_Minnesota_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.smm.org/heart/lessons/lesson5a.htm">"Science Museum of Minnesota: Online Lesson 5a; The heart as a pump"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060927073422/http://www.smm.org/heart/lessons/lesson5a.htm">Archived</a> from the original on September 27, 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 27,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Science+Museum+of+Minnesota%3A+Online+Lesson+5a%3B+The+heart+as+a+pump&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.smm.org%2Fheart%2Flessons%2Flesson5a.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Minnesota_State_University_emuseum-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Minnesota_State_University_emuseum_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/biology/humananatomy/skeletal/skeletalsystem.html">Minnesota State University emuseum: Bones act as levers</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081220001131/http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/biology/humananatomy/skeletal/skeletalsystem.html">Archived</a> December 20, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-UC_Berkeley_News-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-UC_Berkeley_News_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2005/02/23_brainwaves.shtml">"UC Berkeley News: UC researchers create model of brain's electrical storm during a seizure"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070202183307/http://www.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2005/02/23_brainwaves.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on February 2, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 30,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=UC+Berkeley+News%3A+UC+researchers+create+model+of+brain%27s+electrical+storm+during+a+seizure&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.berkeley.edu%2Fnews%2Fmedia%2Freleases%2F2005%2F02%2F23_brainwaves.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bjerklie,_David-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bjerklie,_David_104-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bjerklie,_David_104-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bjerklie, David. "The Art of Renaissance Engineering." <i>MIT's Technology Review</i> Jan./Feb.1998: 54–59. Article explores the concept of the "artist-engineer", an individual who used his artistic talent in engineering. Quote from article: Da Vinci reached the pinnacle of "artist-engineer"-dom, Quote2: "It was Leonardo da Vinci who initiated the most ambitious expansion in the role of artist-engineer, progressing from astute observer to inventor to theoretician." (Bjerklie 58)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-National_Science_Foundation:The_Art_of_Engineering-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-National_Science_Foundation:The_Art_of_Engineering_105-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-National_Science_Foundation:The_Art_of_Engineering_105-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=107990&org=NSF">"National Science Foundation:The Art of Engineering: Professor uses the fine arts to broaden students' engineering perspectives"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180919211145/https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=107990&org=NSF">Archived</a> from the original on September 19, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 6,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=National+Science+Foundation%3AThe+Art+of+Engineering%3A+Professor+uses+the+fine+arts+to+broaden+students%27+engineering+perspectives&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nsf.gov%2Fnews%2Fnews_summ.jsp%3Fcntn_id%3D107990%26org%3DNSF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MIT_World:The_Art_of_Engineering-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MIT_World:The_Art_of_Engineering_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mitworld.mit.edu/video/362/">MIT World:The Art of Engineering: Inventor James Dyson on the Art of Engineering: quote: A member of the British Design Council, James Dyson has been designing products since graduating from the Royal College of Art in 1970.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060705232213/http://mitworld.mit.edu/video/362/">Archived</a> July 5, 2006, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-University_of_Texas_at_Dallas-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-University_of_Texas_at_Dallas_107-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://iiae.utdallas.edu/">"University of Texas at Dallas: The Institute for Interactive Arts and Engineering"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070403182106/http://iiae.utdallas.edu/">Archived</a> from the original on April 3, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 30,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=University+of+Texas+at+Dallas%3A+The+Institute+for+Interactive+Arts+and+Engineering&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fiiae.utdallas.edu%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NASA-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NASA_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030815085429/http://www.artic.edu/aic/exhibitions/nasa/overview.html">"Aerospace Design: The Art of Engineering from NASA's Aeronautical Research"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.artic.edu/aic/exhibitions/nasa/overview.html">the original</a> on August 15, 2003<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 31,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Aerospace+Design%3A+The+Art+of+Engineering+from+NASA%27s+Aeronautical+Research&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.artic.edu%2Faic%2Fexhibitions%2Fnasa%2Foverview.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Princeton_U-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Princeton_U_109-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBillington1989" class="citation book cs1">Billington, David P. (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press.princeton.edu/titles/137.html"><i>Princeton U: Robert Maillart's Bridges: The Art of Engineering: quote: no doubt that Maillart was fully conscious of the aesthetic implications ...</i></a> Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691024219" title="Special:BookSources/978-0691024219"><bdi>978-0691024219</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070420145552/http://press.princeton.edu/titles/137.html">Archived</a> from the original on April 20, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 31,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Princeton+U%3A+Robert+Maillart%27s+Bridges%3A+The+Art+of+Engineering%3A+quote%3A+no+doubt+that+Maillart+was+fully+conscious+of+the+aesthetic+implications+...&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0691024219&rft.aulast=Billington&rft.aufirst=David+P.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpress.princeton.edu%2Ftitles%2F137.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chief_engineer-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Chief_engineer_110-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chiefengineer.org/content/content_display.cfm/seqnumber_content/2697.htm">quote:..the tools of artists and the perspective of engineers..</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070927180822/http://www.chiefengineer.org/content/content_display.cfm/seqnumber_content/2697.htm">Archived</a> September 27, 2007, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Drew_U-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Drew_U_111-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.users.drew.edu/~ejustin/leonardo.htm">Drew U: user website: cites Bjerklie paper</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070419194433/http://www.users.drew.edu/~ejustin/leonardo.htm">Archived</a> April 19, 2007, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlockley2012" class="citation book cs1">Blockley, David (2012). <i>Engineering: a very short introduction</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-957869-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-957869-6"><bdi>978-0-19-957869-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Engineering%3A+a+very+short+introduction&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-19-957869-6&rft.aulast=Blockley&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDorf,_Richard2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_C._Dorf" title="Richard C. Dorf">Dorf, Richard</a>, ed. (2005). <i>The Engineering Handbook</i> (2 ed.). Boca Raton: CRC. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-1586-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-1586-2"><bdi>978-0-8493-1586-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Engineering+Handbook&rft.place=Boca+Raton&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=CRC&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8493-1586-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBillington1996" class="citation book cs1">Billington, David P. (1996). <i>The Innovators: The Engineering Pioneers Who Made America Modern</i> (New ed.). Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-14026-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-14026-9"><bdi>978-0-471-14026-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Innovators%3A+The+Engineering+Pioneers+Who+Made+America+Modern&rft.edition=New&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-471-14026-9&rft.aulast=Billington&rft.aufirst=David+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMadhavan2015" class="citation book cs1">Madhavan, Guru (2015). <i>Applied Minds: How Engineers Think</i>. W.W. Norton.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Applied+Minds%3A+How+Engineers+Think&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Madhavan&rft.aufirst=Guru&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPetroski1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Petroski" title="Henry Petroski">Petroski, Henry</a> (1992). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/toengineerishuma00petr"><i>To Engineer is Human: The Role of Failure in Successful Design</i></a></span>. Vintage. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-679-73416-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-679-73416-1"><bdi>978-0-679-73416-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=To+Engineer+is+Human%3A+The+Role+of+Failure+in+Successful+Design&rft.pub=Vintage&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-679-73416-1&rft.aulast=Petroski&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftoengineerishuma00petr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLord2000" class="citation book cs1">Lord, Charles R. (2000). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/guidetoinformati00lord"><i>Guide to Information Sources in Engineering</i></a></span>. Libraries Unlimited. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56308-699-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56308-699-1"><bdi>978-1-56308-699-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Guide+to+Information+Sources+in+Engineering&rft.pub=Libraries+Unlimited&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-56308-699-1&rft.aulast=Lord&rft.aufirst=Charles+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fguidetoinformati00lord&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVincenti1993" class="citation book cs1">Vincenti, Walter G. (1993). <a href="/wiki/What_Engineers_Know_and_How_They_Know_It" title="What Engineers Know and How They Know It"><i>What Engineers Know and How They Know It: Analytical Studies from Aeronautical History</i></a>. The Johns Hopkins University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-4588-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-4588-8"><bdi>978-0-8018-4588-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Engineers+Know+and+How+They+Know+It%3A+Analytical+Studies+from+Aeronautical+History&rft.pub=The+Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-4588-8&rft.aulast=Vincenti&rft.aufirst=Walter+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEngineering" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" 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.navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Engineering683" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Engineering_fields" title="Template:Engineering fields"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a 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title="Interdisciplinarity">interdisciplinarity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">Civil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architectural_engineering" title="Architectural engineering">Architectural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_engineering" title="Coastal engineering">Coastal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_engineering" title="Construction engineering">Construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earthquake_engineering" title="Earthquake engineering">Earthquake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_engineering" title="Ecological engineering">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_engineering" title="Environmental engineering">Environmental</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sanitary_engineering" title="Sanitary engineering">Sanitary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geological_engineering" title="Geological engineering">Geological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geotechnical_engineering" title="Geotechnical engineering">Geotechnical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_engineering" title="Hydraulic engineering">Hydraulic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_engineering" title="Mining engineering">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_or_urban_engineering" title="Municipal or urban engineering">Municipal/urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offshore_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Offshore engineering">Offshore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_engineering" title="River engineering">River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_engineering" title="Structural engineering">Structural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_engineering" title="Transportation engineering">Transportation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_engineering_(transportation)" title="Traffic engineering (transportation)">Traffic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Railway_engineering" title="Railway engineering">Railway</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_engineering" title="Mechanical engineering">Mechanical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acoustical_engineering" title="Acoustical engineering">Acoustic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerospace_engineering" title="Aerospace engineering">Aerospace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_engineering" title="Automotive engineering">Automotive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomechanical_engineering" title="Biomechanical engineering">Biomechanical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_engineering" title="Energy engineering">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing_engineering" title="Manufacturing engineering">Manufacturing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_engineering" title="Marine engineering">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_architecture" title="Naval architecture">Naval architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Railway_engineering" title="Railway engineering">Railway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_engineering" title="Sports engineering">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_engineering" title="Thermal engineering">Thermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribology" title="Tribology">Tribology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering">Electrical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Broadcast_engineering" title="Broadcast engineering">Broadcast</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_computer_engineering" title="Outline of computer engineering">outline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Control_engineering" title="Control engineering">Control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromechanics" title="Electromechanics">Electromechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_engineering" title="Electronic engineering">Electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microwave_engineering" title="Microwave engineering">Microwaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_engineering" title="Optical engineering">Optical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_engineering" title="Power engineering">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio-frequency_engineering" title="Radio-frequency engineering">Radio-frequency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signal_processing" title="Signal processing">Signal processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_engineering" title="Telecommunications engineering">Telecommunications</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">Chemical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biochemical_engineering" title="Biochemical engineering">Biochemical/bioprocess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioresource_engineering" title="Bioresource engineering">Bioresource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tissue_engineering" title="Tissue engineering">Tissue</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction_engineering" title="Chemical reaction engineering">Chemical reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrochemical_engineering" title="Electrochemical engineering">Electrochemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_engineering" title="Food engineering">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_engineering" title="Molecular engineering">Molecular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paper_engineering" title="Paper engineering">Paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_engineering" title="Petroleum engineering">Petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_engineering" title="Process engineering">Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction_engineering" title="Chemical reaction engineering">Reaction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">Materials</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomaterial" title="Biomaterial">Biomaterial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_engineering" title="Ceramic engineering">Ceramics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrosion_engineering" title="Corrosion engineering">Corrosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_engineering" title="Molecular engineering">Molecular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">Nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_engineering" title="Polymer engineering">Polymers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device" title="Semiconductor device">Semiconductors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_engineering" title="Surface engineering">Surfaces</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Systems_engineering_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Systems engineering (disambiguation)">Computer</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_engineering" title="Artificial intelligence engineering">AI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">Computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybersecurity_engineering" title="Cybersecurity engineering">Cybersecurity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_engineering" title="Data engineering">Data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_network_engineering" title="Computer network engineering">Networks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robotics_engineering" title="Robotics engineering">Robotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">Software</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png/50px-Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png/75px-Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png/100px-Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Engineering_education" title="Engineering education">Engineering education</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Engineering" title="Bachelor of Engineering">Bachelor of Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science" title="Bachelor of Science">Bachelor of Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master%27s_degree" title="Master's degree">Master's degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctorate" title="Doctorate">Doctorate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graduate_certificate" title="Graduate certificate">Graduate certificate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineer%27s_degree" title="Engineer's degree">Engineer's degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation_and_licensure_in_engineering" title="Regulation and licensure in engineering">Licensed engineer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Engineer" title="Engineer">Engineer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glossary" title="Glossary">Glossaries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Engineering <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering:_A%E2%80%93L" title="Glossary of engineering: A–L">A–L</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering:_M%E2%80%93Z" title="Glossary of engineering: M–Z">M–Z</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering" title="Glossary of aerospace engineering">Aerospace engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_civil_engineering" title="Glossary of civil engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering" title="Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering">Electrical and electronics engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering" title="Glossary of mechanical engineering">Mechanical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_structural_engineering" title="Glossary of structural engineering">Structural engineering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_engineering" title="Agricultural engineering">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audio_engineer" title="Audio engineer">Audio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automation_engineering" title="Automation engineering">Automation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomedical_engineering" title="Biomedical engineering">Biomedical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_engineering" title="Clinical engineering">Clinical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_technology" title="Health technology">Health technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_engineering" title="Pharmaceutical engineering">Pharmaceutical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_engineering" title="Rehabilitation engineering">Rehabilitation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building_services_engineering" title="Building services engineering">Building services</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical,_electrical,_and_plumbing" title="Mechanical, electrical, and plumbing">MEP</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Design_engineer" title="Design engineer">Design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explosives_engineering" title="Explosives engineering">Explosives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facilities_engineering" title="Facilities engineering">Facilities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_protection_engineering" title="Fire protection engineering">Fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_engineering" title="Forensic engineering">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_engineering" title="Climate engineering">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomatics_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Geomatics engineering">Geomatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_drawing" title="Engineering drawing">Graphics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_engineering" title="Industrial engineering">Industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_engineering" title="Information engineering">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentation_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Instrumentation engineering">Instrumentation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentation_and_control_engineering" title="Instrumentation and control engineering">Instrumentation and control</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logistics_engineering" title="Logistics engineering">Logistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_management" title="Engineering management">Management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_mathematics" title="Engineering mathematics">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechatronics" title="Mechatronics">Mechatronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_engineering" title="Military engineering">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_engineering" title="Nuclear engineering">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology_engineering" title="Ontology engineering">Ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Packaging_engineering" title="Packaging engineering">Packaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_physics" title="Engineering physics">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privacy_engineering" title="Privacy engineering">Privacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_engineering" title="Safety engineering">Safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_engineering" title="Security engineering">Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Survey engineering">Survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_engineering" title="Sustainable engineering">Sustainability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_engineering" title="Systems engineering">Systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textile_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Textile engineering">Textile</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Engineering" title="Category:Engineering">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Engineering" class="extiw" title="commons:Engineering">Commons</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Engineering" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Engineering">Wikiproject</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Engineering" title="Portal:Engineering">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_science439" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_science" title="Template:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_science" title="Template talk:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_science439" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mill%27s_Methods" class="mw-redirect" title="Mill's Methods">Mill's Methods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensurability_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Commensurability (philosophy of science)">Commensurability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construct_(philosophy)" title="Construct (philosophy)">Construct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correlation" title="Correlation">Correlation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Correlation_function" title="Correlation function">function</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creative_synthesis" title="Creative synthesis">Creative synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">Empirical evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">Experiment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Design_of_experiments" title="Design of experiments">design</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explanatory_power" title="Explanatory power">Explanatory power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">Fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_method" title="Feminist method">Feminist method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_contextualism" title="Functional contextualism">Functional contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">Hypothesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_hypothesis" title="Alternative hypothesis">alternative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Null_hypothesis" title="Null hypothesis">null</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ignoramus_et_ignorabimus" title="Ignoramus et ignorabimus">Ignoramus et ignorabimus</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Inductive reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertheoretic_reduction" title="Intertheoretic reduction">Intertheoretic reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquiry" title="Inquiry">Inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">Observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">Paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_evidence" title="Scientific evidence">Scientific evidence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_practice" title="Evidence-based practice">Evidence-based practice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law">Scientific law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_pluralism" title="Scientific pluralism">Scientific pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testability" title="Testability">Testability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">Theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theory_choice" title="Theory choice">choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory-ladenness" title="Theory-ladenness">ladenness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">scientific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underdetermination" title="Underdetermination">Underdetermination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_and_attribute_(research)" title="Variable and attribute (research)">Variable</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_variable" title="Control variable">control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependent_and_independent_variables" title="Dependent and independent variables">dependent and independent</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_science_articles" title="Index of philosophy of science articles">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_empiricism" title="Constructive empiricism">Constructive empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_realism" title="Constructive realism">Constructive realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivist epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological anarchism">Epistemological anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionism" title="Evolutionism">Evolutionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothetico-deductive_model" title="Hypothetico-deductive model">Hypothetico-deductive model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductionism" title="Inductionism">Inductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model-dependent_realism" title="Model-dependent realism">Model-dependent realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Received_view_of_theories" title="Received view of theories">Received view</a> / <a href="/wiki/Semantic_view_of_theories" title="Semantic view of theories">Semantic view of theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_essentialism" title="Scientific essentialism">Scientific essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_formalism" title="Scientific formalism">Scientific formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy of...</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_archaeology" title="Philosophy of archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of economics">Economics‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_linguistics" title="Philosophy of linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_research" title="Descriptive research">Descriptive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exact_sciences" title="Exact sciences">Exact sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_and_soft_science" title="Hard and soft science">Hard and soft science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-science" title="Non-science">Non-science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_science" title="Normative science">Normative science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protoscience" title="Protoscience">Protoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Questionable_cause" title="Questionable cause">Questionable cause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">Rhetoric of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Sociology of scientific knowledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_science" title="List of philosophers of science">Philosophers of science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Precursors10" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Precursors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Henri Poincaré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Duhem" title="Pierre Duhem">Pierre Duhem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Rudolf Steiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Pearson" title="Karl Pearson">Karl Pearson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Windelband" title="Wilhelm Windelband">Wilhelm Windelband</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">C. D. Broad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Michael Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Hempel" title="Carl Gustav Hempel">Carl Gustav Hempel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos">Imre Lakatos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Hacking" title="Ian Hacking">Ian Hacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Laudan" title="Larry Laudan">Larry Laudan</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_science" title="Category:Philosophy of science">Category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, 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<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture" title="Glossary of architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Glossary of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy" title="Glossary of astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_biology" title="Glossary of biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_botanical_terms" title="Glossary of botanical terms">Botany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_calculus" title="Glossary of calculus">Calculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_cell_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossary of cell biology">Cell biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" title="Glossary of chemistry terms">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_civil_engineering" title="Glossary of civil engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research" title="Glossary of clinical research">Clinical research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_hardware_terms" title="Glossary of computer hardware terms">Computer hardware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science" title="Glossary of computer science">Computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_developmental_biology" title="Glossary of developmental biology">Developmental and reproductive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_ecology" title="Glossary of ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_economics" title="Glossary of economics">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering" title="Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering">Electrical and electronics engineering</a></li> <li>Engineering <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering:_A%E2%80%93L" title="Glossary of engineering: A–L">A–L</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering:_M%E2%80%93Z" title="Glossary of engineering: M–Z">M–Z</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_entomology_terms" title="Glossary of entomology terms">Entomology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science" title="Glossary of environmental science">Environmental science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_genetics_and_evolutionary_biology" title="Glossary of genetics and evolutionary biology">Genetics and evolutionary biology</a></li> <li>Cellular and molecular biology <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_cellular_and_molecular_biology_(0%E2%80%93L)" title="Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (0–L)">0–L</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_cellular_and_molecular_biology_(M%E2%80%93Z)" title="Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z)">M–Z</a></li></ul></li> <li>Geography <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A%E2%80%93M)" title="Glossary of geography terms (A–M)">A–M</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N%E2%80%93Z)" title="Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)">N–Z</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Arabic_toponyms" title="Glossary of Arabic toponyms">Arabic toponyms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Hebrew_toponyms" title="Glossary of Hebrew toponyms">Hebrew toponyms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oikonyms_in_Western_and_South_Asia" title="Oikonyms in Western and South Asia">Western and South Asia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_geology" title="Glossary of geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_ichthyology" title="Glossary of ichthyology">Ichthyology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_machine_vision" title="Glossary of machine vision">Machine vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics" title="Glossary of areas of mathematics">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering" title="Glossary of mechanical engineering">Mechanical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine" title="Glossary of medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology" title="Glossary of meteorology">Meteorology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_mycology" title="Glossary of mycology">Mycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_nanotechnology" title="Glossary of nanotechnology">Nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_bird_terms" title="Glossary of bird terms">Ornithology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_physics" title="Glossary of physics">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_probability_and_statistics" title="Glossary of probability and statistics">Probability and statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry" title="Glossary of psychiatry">Psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_quantum_computing" title="Glossary of quantum computing">Quantum computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_robotics" title="Glossary of robotics">Robotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_scientific_naming" title="Glossary of scientific naming">Scientific naming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_structural_engineering" title="Glossary of structural engineering">Structural engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_virology" title="Glossary of virology">Virology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Major_industries631" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Industries" title="Template:Industries"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Industries" title="Template talk:Industries"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Industries" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Industries"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Major_industries631" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Major <a href="/wiki/Industry_(economics)" title="Industry (economics)">industries</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Natural_sector631" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Primary_sector_of_the_economy" title="Primary sector of the economy">Natural sector</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biotic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">Agriculture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arable_farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Arable farming">Arable farming</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cereal#Production" title="Cereal">Cereals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legume#Uses" title="Legume">Legumes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetable_farming" title="Vegetable farming">Vegetables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiber_crop" title="Fiber crop">Fiber crops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetable_oil" title="Vegetable oil">Oilseeds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar_industry" title="Sugar industry">Sugar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobacco_industry" title="Tobacco industry">Tobacco</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permanent_crop" title="Permanent crop">Permanent crops</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pome" title="Pome">Apples et al.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berry#Commercial_production" title="Berry">Berries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citrus_production" title="Citrus production">Citrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drupe" title="Drupe">Stone fruits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_culinary_fruits#Tropical_and_tropical-like_fruit" title="List of culinary fruits">Tropical fruit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viticulture" title="Viticulture">Viticulture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cocoa_bean#Cultivation" title="Cocoa bean">Cocoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coffee_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Coffee industry">Coffee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tea#Production" title="Tea">Tea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nut_(fruit)#Production" title="Nut (fruit)">Nuts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olive" title="Olive">Olives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicinal_plants" title="Medicinal plants">Medicinal plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spice" title="Spice">Spices</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horticulture_industry" title="Horticulture industry">Horticulture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Floral_industry" title="Floral industry">Flowers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seed_company" title="Seed company">Seeds</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_husbandry" title="Animal husbandry">Animal husbandry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beef_cattle" title="Beef cattle">Beef cattle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dairy_farming#Market" title="Dairy farming">Dairy farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fur_farming" title="Fur farming">Fur farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horse_industry" title="Horse industry">Horses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livestock" title="Livestock">Other livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pig_farming" title="Pig farming">Pig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wool#Production" title="Wool">Wool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poultry_farming" title="Poultry farming">Poultry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beekeeping" title="Beekeeping">Beekeeping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cochineal#Farming" title="Cochineal">Cochineal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shellac" title="Shellac">Shellac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silk#Production_process" title="Silk">Silk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting" title="Hunting">Hunting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trapping" title="Trapping">Fur trapping</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">Forestry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Silviculture" title="Silviculture">Silviculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bamboo_cultivation" title="Bamboo cultivation">Bamboo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logging" title="Logging">Logging</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Firewood" title="Firewood">Firewood</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rattan#Economic_and_environmental_issues" title="Rattan">Rattan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sap" title="Sap">Tree tapping</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frankincense#Production" title="Frankincense">Frankincense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gum_arabic#Production" title="Gum arabic">Gum arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutta-percha#Uses" title="Gutta-percha">Gutta-percha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maple_syrup#Production" title="Maple syrup">Maple syrup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mastic_(plant_resin)#Cultivation" title="Mastic (plant resin)">Mastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rubber#Production" title="Natural rubber">Natural rubber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palm_sugar" title="Palm sugar">Palm sugar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palm_syrup" title="Palm syrup">syrup</a>, & <a href="/wiki/Palm_wine" title="Palm wine">wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_stores_industry" title="Naval stores industry">Pine resin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mushroom_hunting" title="Mushroom hunting">Wild mushrooms</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fungiculture" title="Fungiculture">Fungiculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truffle" title="Truffle">Truffles</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Aquatic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_industry" title="Fishing industry">Fishing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anchovy#Fisheries" title="Anchovy">Anchovies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herring#Fisheries" title="Herring">Herring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sardine#Fisheries" title="Sardine">Sardines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cod_fisheries" title="Cod fisheries">Cod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haddock#Fisheries" title="Haddock">Haddock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_pollock#Fisheries" title="Alaska pollock">Pollock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mackerel#Fisheries" title="Mackerel">Mackerel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shark#Fishery" title="Shark">Shark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swordfish#Fisheries" title="Swordfish">Swordfish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuna#Fishing_industry" title="Tuna">Tuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crab_fisheries" title="Crab fisheries">Crabs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lobster_fishing" title="Lobster fishing">Lobsters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_urchin#As_food" title="Sea urchin">Sea urchins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squid#Commercial_fishing" title="Squid">Squid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whaling" title="Whaling">Whaling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquaculture" title="Aquaculture">Aquaculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carp#Aquaculture" title="Carp">Carp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquaculture_of_catfish" title="Aquaculture of catfish">Catfish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquaculture_of_tilapia" title="Aquaculture of tilapia">Tilapia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abalone#Farming" title="Abalone">Abalone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mussel#Aquaculture" title="Mussel">Mussels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyster_farming" title="Oyster farming">Oysters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultured_pearl" title="Cultured pearl">Pearls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_microalgae_in_hatcheries" title="Culture of microalgae in hatcheries">Microalgae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seaweed_farming" title="Seaweed farming">Seaweed</a></li></ul></li> <li>Both <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clam_digging" title="Clam digging">Clams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_cucumbers_as_food" title="Sea cucumbers as food">Sea cucumbers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scallop#Seafood_industry" title="Scallop">Scallops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salmon" title="Salmon">Salmon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shrimp#Human_uses" title="Shrimp">Shrimp</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil fuel industry">Fossil fuels</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coal_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Coal industry">Coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peat" title="Peat">Peat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">Natural gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_shale_industry" title="Oil shale industry">Oil shale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry" title="Petroleum industry">Petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_sands" title="Oil sands">Tar sands</a></li></ul></li> <li>Mining of ores <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aluminium#Production_and_refinement" title="Aluminium">Aluminum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copper#Production" title="Copper">Copper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_ore#Production_and_consumption" title="Iron ore">Iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_mining" title="Gold mining">Gold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silver_mining" title="Silver mining">Silver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palladium" title="Palladium">Palladium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platinum#Production" title="Platinum">Platinum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium#Production" title="Lithium">Lithium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rare-earth_element#Global_rare-earth_production" title="Rare-earth element">Rare-earth metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_mining" title="Uranium mining">Uranium</a></li></ul></li> <li>Other minerals <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gemstone" title="Gemstone">Gemstones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus#Production" title="Phosphorus">Phosphorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potash#Production" title="Potash">Potash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt#Production" title="Salt">Salt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur#Production" title="Sulfur">Sulfur</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarry" title="Quarry">Quarrying</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gravel_pit" title="Gravel pit">Gravel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand_mining" title="Sand mining">Sand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalk_mining" title="Chalk mining">Chalk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clay_pit" title="Clay pit">Clay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gypsum#Mining" title="Gypsum">Gypsum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limestone#Uses" title="Limestone">Limestone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimension_stone#Production" title="Dimension stone">Dimension stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granite#Industry" title="Granite">Granite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marble#Production" title="Marble">Marble</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Industrial_sector631" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Secondary_sector_of_the_economy" title="Secondary sector of the economy">Industrial sector</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Manufacturing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Light_industry" title="Light industry">Light industry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_industry" title="Food industry">Food</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feed_manufacturing" title="Feed manufacturing">Animal feed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baking#Commercial_baking" title="Baking">Baking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canning" title="Canning">Canning</a></li> <li>Dairy products</li> <li>Flour</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meat_industry" title="Meat industry">Meat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convenience_food" title="Convenience food">Prepared</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_preservation" title="Food preservation">Preserved</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candy_making" title="Candy making">Sweets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetable_oil#Production" title="Vegetable oil">Vegetable oils</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drink_industry" title="Drink industry">Beverages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brewing_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Brewing industry">Beer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bottled_water" title="Bottled water">Bottled water</a></li> <li>Liquor</li> <li>Soft drinks</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winemaking" title="Winemaking">Wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textile_industry" title="Textile industry">Textiles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carding" title="Carding">Carding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dyeing" title="Dyeing">Dyeing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textile_printing" title="Textile printing">Prints</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinning_(textiles)" title="Spinning (textiles)">Spinning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weaving" title="Weaving">Weaving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carpet" title="Carpet">Carpets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lace" title="Lace">Lace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linens" title="Linens">Linens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rope" title="Rope">Rope</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_industry" title="Clothing industry">Clothing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fashion_accessory" title="Fashion accessory">Accessories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dressmaker" title="Dressmaker">Dressmaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fur_clothing" title="Fur clothing">Furs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hatmaking" title="Hatmaking">Hatmaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewing" title="Sewing">Sewing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoemaking" title="Shoemaking">Shoemaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tailor" title="Tailor">Tailoring</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printing" title="Printing">Printing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bookbinding" title="Bookbinding">Bookbinding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paper_embossing" title="Paper embossing">Embossing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engraving" title="Engraving">Engraving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_printing" title="Security printing">Secure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Typesetting" title="Typesetting">Typesetting</a></li></ul></li> <li>Media reproduction <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cassette_tape" title="Cassette tape">Cassette tapes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Production_of_phonograph_records" title="Production of phonograph records">Phonographs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compact_Disc_manufacturing" class="mw-redirect" title="Compact Disc manufacturing">Optical discs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal_fabrication" title="Metal fabrication">Metal fabrication</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boilermaking" class="mw-redirect" title="Boilermaking">Boilermaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Builders_hardware" title="Builders hardware">Builders'</a> & <a href="/wiki/Household_hardware" class="mw-redirect" title="Household hardware">household hardware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cutlery" title="Cutlery">Cutlery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunsmith" title="Gunsmith">Gunsmithing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locksmithing" title="Locksmithing">Locksmithing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_shop" title="Machine shop">Machining</a></li> <li>Other <a href="/wiki/Metalsmith" title="Metalsmith">smithing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Powder_metallurgy" title="Powder metallurgy">Powder metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prefabrication" title="Prefabrication">Prefabrication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_finishing" title="Surface finishing">Surface finishing</a></li></ul></li> <li>Other fabrication <ul><li><a href="/wiki/3D_printing" title="3D printing">3D printing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blow_molding" title="Blow molding">Blow molding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drawing_(manufacturing)" title="Drawing (manufacturing)">Drawing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extrusion" title="Extrusion">Extrusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glassblowing" title="Glassblowing">Glassblowing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Injection_moulding" title="Injection moulding">Injection moulding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">Pottery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sintering" title="Sintering">Sintering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stonemasonry" title="Stonemasonry">Stonemasonry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodworking" title="Woodworking">Woodworking</a></li></ul></li> <li>Furniture</li> <li>Other goods <ul><li>Baggage</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bicycle_industry" title="Bicycle industry">Bicycles</a></li> <li>Jewellery</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_device" title="Medical device">Medical supplies</a></li> <li>Musical instruments</li> <li>Office supplies</li> <li>Outdoors & sports equipment</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_protective_equipment" title="Personal protective equipment">Personal protective equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toy#Economics" title="Toy">Toys</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Electrical <br /> & optical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electronics_industry" title="Electronics industry">Electronics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_component" title="Electronic component">Components</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printed_circuit_board#Manufacturing" title="Printed circuit board">Circuit boards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_industry" title="Semiconductor industry">Semiconductors</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer industry">Computers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_computer_system_manufacturers" title="List of computer system manufacturers">Computer systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_computer_hardware_manufacturers" title="List of computer hardware manufacturers">Parts & peripherals</a></li> <li>Blank <a href="/wiki/Computer_data_storage#Storage_media" title="Computer data storage">storage media</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_equipment" title="Telecommunications equipment">Communications equipment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_phone#Sales" title="Mobile phone">Mobile phones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_equipment_provider" title="Network equipment provider">Network infrastructure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_electronics#Products" title="Consumer electronics">Consumer electronics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Television_set#Major_manufacturers" title="Television set">Televisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_game_console#Market" title="Video game console">Video game consoles</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentation" title="Instrumentation">Instrumentation</a> <ul><li>Clocks and watches</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_navigation_device#Consumer_applications" title="Satellite navigation device">GPS devices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_instrument#List_of_scientific_instruments_manufacturers" title="Scientific instrument">Scientific instruments</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging#Industry" title="Medical imaging">Medical imaging systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_instrument" title="Optical instrument">Optical instruments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Camera" title="Camera">Cameras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telescopic_sight" title="Telescopic sight">Gun</a> & <a href="/wiki/Spotting_scope" title="Spotting scope">spotting scopes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser_construction" title="Laser construction">Laser construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_manufacturing_and_testing" title="Optical manufacturing and testing">Lens grinding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microscope" title="Microscope">Microscopes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">Telescopes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_device" title="Electrical device">Electrical equipment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electric_battery" title="Electric battery">Batteries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_cable" title="Electrical cable">Electrical</a> & <a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">fiber optic</a> cables</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_light" title="Electric light">Electric lighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_motor" title="Electric motor">Electric motors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_appliance" title="Home appliance">Home appliances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformer" title="Transformer">Transformers</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chemical_industry" title="Chemical industry">Chemicals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Coal & <a href="/wiki/Oil_refinery" title="Oil refinery">oil refining</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bitumen" title="Bitumen">Bitumen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coke_(fuel)" title="Coke (fuel)">Coke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diesel_fuel" title="Diesel fuel">Diesel fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_oil" title="Fuel oil">Fuel oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gasoline" title="Gasoline">Gasoline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jet_fuel" title="Jet fuel">Jet fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerosene" title="Kerosene">Kerosene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_oil" title="Mineral oil">Mineral oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paraffin_wax" title="Paraffin wax">Paraffin wax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrochemical" title="Petrochemical">Petrochemicals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_jelly" title="Petroleum jelly">Petroleum jelly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propane" title="Propane">Propane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_oil" title="Synthetic oil">Synthetic oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tar" title="Tar">Tar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commodity_chemicals" title="Commodity chemicals">Commodity chemicals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fertilizer#Production" title="Fertilizer">Fertilizers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_gas" title="Industrial gas">Industrial gases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigment" title="Pigment">Pigments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element#Allotropes" title="Chemical element">Pure elements</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciality_chemicals" title="Speciality chemicals">Speciality chemicals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adhesive" title="Adhesive">Adhesives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrochemical" title="Agrochemical">Agrochemicals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aroma_compound" title="Aroma compound">Aroma compounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleaning_agent" title="Cleaning agent">Cleaning products</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics" title="Cosmetics">Cosmetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explosive" title="Explosive">Explosives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fireworks" title="Fireworks">Fireworks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paint" title="Paint">Paints</a> & <a href="/wiki/Ink" title="Ink">inks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perfume" title="Perfume">Perfumes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soap" title="Soap">Soap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toiletries" class="mw-redirect" title="Toiletries">Toiletries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fine_chemical" title="Fine chemical">Fine chemicals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_industry" title="Pharmaceutical industry">Pharmaceuticals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Production_of_antibiotics" title="Production of antibiotics">Antibiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_product" title="Blood product">Blood products</a></li> <li>Chemical & hormonal <a href="/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">contraceptives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generic_drug" title="Generic drug">Generic drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade" title="Illegal drug trade">Illegal drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dietary_supplement" title="Dietary supplement">Supplements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine" title="Vaccine">Vaccines</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Materials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leather" title="Leather">Leather</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liming_(leather_processing)" title="Liming (leather processing)">Liming</a> & <a href="/wiki/Deliming" title="Deliming">deliming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanning_(leather)" title="Tanning (leather)">Tanning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Currier" title="Currier">Currying</a> & <a href="/wiki/Oiling_(leather_processing)" title="Oiling (leather processing)">oiling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood_industry" title="Wood industry">Wood</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wood_drying" title="Wood drying">Drying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sawmill" title="Sawmill">Sawmilling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineered_wood" title="Engineered wood">Engineered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lumber" title="Lumber">Lumber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood-plastic_composite" class="mw-redirect" title="Wood-plastic composite">Composite</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulp_and_paper_industry" title="Pulp and paper industry">Paper</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sizing#Papermaking" title="Sizing">Sizing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardboard" title="Cardboard">Cardboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulp_(paper)" title="Pulp (paper)">Pulp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tissue_paper" title="Tissue paper">Tissue</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_rubber" title="Synthetic rubber">Rubber</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tire_manufacturing" title="Tire manufacturing">Tires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulcanization" title="Vulcanization">Vulcanized rubber</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastics_industry" title="Plastics industry">Plastics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commodity_plastics" title="Commodity plastics">Commodity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_plastic" title="Engineering plastic">Engineered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-performance_plastics" title="High-performance plastics">Specialty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelletizing" title="Pelletizing">Pellets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_fiber" title="Synthetic fiber">Synthetic fibers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermoplastic" title="Thermoplastic">Thermoplastics</a> & <a href="/wiki/Thermosetting_polymer" title="Thermosetting polymer">thermosets</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_production" title="Glass production">Glass</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Borosilicate_glass" title="Borosilicate glass">Borosilicate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fused_quartz" title="Fused quartz">Fused quartz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soda%E2%80%93lime_glass" title="Soda–lime glass">Soda-lime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Float_glass" title="Float glass">Float glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_fiber" title="Glass fiber">Glass fiber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_wool" title="Glass wool">Glass wool</a> & <a href="/wiki/Fiberglass" title="Fiberglass">fiberglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_glass" title="Safety glass">Safety glass</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic" title="Ceramic">Ceramics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brickworks" title="Brickworks">Brick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earthenware" title="Earthenware">Earthenware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porcelain#Other_uses" title="Porcelain">Porcelain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refractory" title="Refractory">Refractory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tile" title="Tile">Tile</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cement#Cement_industry_in_the_world" title="Cement">Cement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mortar_(masonry)" title="Mortar (masonry)">Mortar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plaster" title="Plaster">Plaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ready-mix_concrete" title="Ready-mix concrete">Ready-mix concrete</a></li></ul></li> <li>Other mineral <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrasive" title="Abrasive">Abrasives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_fibers" title="Carbon fibers">Carbon fibers</a> & <a href="/wiki/Allotropes_of_carbon" title="Allotropes of carbon">advanced materials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_wool" title="Mineral wool">Mineral wool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_gem" class="mw-redirect" title="Synthetic gem">Synthetic gems</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extractive_metallurgy" title="Extractive metallurgy">Metal refining</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ironworks" title="Ironworks">Iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aluminium_smelting" title="Aluminium smelting">Aluminum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copper_extraction" title="Copper extraction">Copper</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">Alloys</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Steel_mill" title="Steel mill">Steel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forming_(metalworking)" title="Forming (metalworking)">Formed metal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rolling_(metalworking)" title="Rolling (metalworking)">Rolled</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forging" title="Forging">Forged</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundry" title="Foundry">Cast metal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Heavy_industry" title="Heavy industry">Heavy industry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Machine_industry" title="Machine industry">Machinery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conveyor_system" title="Conveyor system">Conveyors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_equipment" title="Heavy equipment">Heavy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_machinery" title="Hydraulic machinery">Hydraulic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_tool_builder" title="Machine tool builder">Machine tools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turbo_generator" title="Turbo generator">Power</a> & <a href="/wiki/Wind_turbine" title="Wind turbine">wind turbines</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry" title="Automotive industry">Automobiles</a></li> <li>Other heavy <a href="/wiki/Vehicle" title="Vehicle">vehicles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerospace_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerospace industry">Aerospace</a> & <a href="/wiki/Space_industry" title="Space industry">space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rolling_stock" title="Rolling stock">Rail vehicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">Ships</a> & <a href="/wiki/Oil_platform" title="Oil platform">offshore platforms</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arms_industry" title="Arms industry">Weapons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Public_utility" title="Public utility">Utilities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Power <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electric_power_industry" title="Electric power industry">Electric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_gas#Domestic_use" title="Natural gas">Gas distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_commercialization" title="Renewable energy commercialization">Renewable</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_industry" title="Water industry">Water</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sewage_treatment" title="Sewage treatment">Sewage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management_industry" title="Waste management industry">Waste management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Waste_collection" title="Waste collection">Collection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landfill" title="Landfill">Dumping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazardous_waste" title="Hazardous waste">Hazardous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recycling" title="Recycling">Recycling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_remediation" title="Environmental remediation">Remediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_industry" title="Telecommunications industry">Telecom networks</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cable_television" title="Cable television">Cable TV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_service_provider" title="Internet service provider">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_phone_operator" title="Mobile phone operator">Mobile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">Satellite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telephone_company" class="mw-redirect" title="Telephone company">Telephone</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Construction" title="Construction">Construction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Building" title="Building">Buildings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_property" title="Commercial property">Commercial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_architecture" title="Industrial architecture">Industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_construction" title="Home construction">Residential</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">Civil engineering</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bridge_building" class="mw-redirect" title="Bridge building">Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Railway_track" title="Railway track">Railways</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roadbuilding" class="mw-redirect" title="Roadbuilding">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel#Construction" title="Tunnel">Tunnels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canal#Construction" title="Canal">Canals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dam" title="Dam">Dams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dredging#Major_dredging_companies" title="Dredging">Dredging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harbor" title="Harbor">Harbors</a></li></ul></li> <li>Specialty trades <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cabinetry" title="Cabinetry">Cabinetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demolition" title="Demolition">Demolition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_wiring" title="Electrical wiring">Electrical wiring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elevator_mechanic" title="Elevator mechanic">Elevators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heating,_ventilation,_and_air_conditioning#HVAC_industry_and_standards" title="Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning">HVAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_painter_and_decorator" title="House painter and decorator">Painting and decorating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plumbing" title="Plumbing">Plumbing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earthworks_(engineering)" title="Earthworks (engineering)">Site preparation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Service_sector631" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Tertiary_sector_of_the_economy" title="Tertiary sector of the economy">Service sector</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sales" title="Sales">Sales</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retail" title="Retail">Retail</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Car_dealership" title="Car dealership">Car dealership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fast-moving_consumer_goods" title="Fast-moving consumer goods">Consumer goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_store" title="General store">General store</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grocery_store" title="Grocery store">Grocery store</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Department_store" title="Department store">Department store</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mail_order" title="Mail order">Mail order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Online_shopping" title="Online shopping">Online shopping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specialty_store" title="Specialty store">Specialty store</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wholesaling" title="Wholesaling">Wholesale</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auction" title="Auction">Auction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broker" title="Broker">Brokerage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distribution_(marketing)" title="Distribution (marketing)">Distribution</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Transport" title="Transport">Transport</a> <br /> & Storage</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cargo" title="Cargo">Cargo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_cargo" title="Air cargo">Air cargo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermodal_freight_transport" title="Intermodal freight transport">Intermodal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mail" title="Mail">Mail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moving_company" title="Moving company">Moving company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_freight_transport" title="Rail freight transport">Rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trucking" class="mw-redirect" title="Trucking">Trucking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passenger_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Passenger transport">Passenger transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airline" title="Airline">Airlines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Car_rental" title="Car rental">Car rentals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passenger_rail" class="mw-redirect" title="Passenger rail">Passenger rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ridesharing_company" title="Ridesharing company">Ridesharing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxi" title="Taxi">Taxis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warehouse" title="Warehouse">Warehousing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Self_storage" title="Self storage">Self storage</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hospitality_industry" title="Hospitality industry">Hospitality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foodservice" title="Foodservice">Foodservice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drinking_establishment" title="Drinking establishment">Drink service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coffeehouse" title="Coffeehouse">Cafés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catering" title="Catering">Catering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fast_food" title="Fast food">Fast food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_delivery" title="Food delivery">Food delivery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restaurant" title="Restaurant">Restaurants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teahouse" title="Teahouse">Teahouses</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hotel" title="Hotel">Hotels</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Asset_management" title="Asset management">Asset management</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Financial_services" title="Financial services">Financial services</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bank" title="Bank">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Credit" title="Credit">Credit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_adviser" title="Financial adviser">Financial advice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holding_company" title="Holding company">Holding company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_funds_transfer" title="Electronic funds transfer">Money transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Payment_card_industry" title="Payment card industry">Payment cards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_management" title="Risk management">Risk management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_(finance)" title="Security (finance)">Securities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance" title="Insurance">Insurance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_insurance" title="Health insurance">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_insurance" title="Life insurance">Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pension_fund" title="Pension fund">Pension funding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_insurance" title="Property insurance">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinsurance" title="Reinsurance">Reinsurance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_estate_economics" title="Real estate economics">Real estate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Real_estate_agent" title="Real estate agent">Brokerage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_management" title="Property management">Property management</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Professional_services" title="Professional services">Professional</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accounting_network" title="Accounting network">Accounting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assurance_services" title="Assurance services">Assurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audit" title="Audit">Audit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bookkeeping" title="Bookkeeping">Bookkeeping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_advisor" title="Tax advisor">Tax advice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architectural_firm" title="Architectural firm">Architecture</a> & <a class="mw-selflink selflink">engineering</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inspection" title="Inspection">Inspection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">Surveying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_test" title="Physical test">Physical</a>, <a href="/wiki/Product_testing" title="Product testing">product</a>, & <a href="/wiki/System_testing" title="System testing">system testing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Design" title="Design">Design</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fashion_design" title="Fashion design">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interior_design" title="Interior design">Interior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_design" title="Industrial design">Product</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practice_of_law" title="Practice of law">Legal services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management" title="Management">Management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consulting_firm" title="Consulting firm">Consulting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_relations" title="Public relations">Public relations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marketing" title="Marketing">Marketing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advertising_industry" title="Advertising industry">Advertising</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creative_industries" title="Creative industries">Creative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_industry" title="Language industry">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_and_development" title="Research and development">Research and development</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basic_research" title="Basic research">Basic research</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_industry" title="Healthcare industry">Healthcare</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Medicine <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dentist_office" class="mw-redirect" title="Dentist office">Dentist offices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospital" title="Hospital">Hospitals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nursing" title="Nursing">Nursing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Residential_care" title="Residential care">Residential care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veterinary_medicine" title="Veterinary medicine">Veterinary medicine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Entertainment#Industry" title="Entertainment">Entertainment</a><br /> & <a href="/wiki/Leisure_industry" title="Leisure industry">leisure</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Audio-visual <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Film_industry" title="Film industry">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_industry" title="Music industry">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_game_industry" title="Video game industry">Video games</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broadcasting" title="Broadcasting">Broadcasting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/News_agency" title="News agency">News</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_industry" title="Radio industry">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television#Content" title="Television">Television</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_industry" title="Sport industry">Sport</a></li> <li>Travel <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_travel" title="Business travel">Business travel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cruise_line" title="Cruise line">Cruise lines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism" title="Tourism">Tourism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casino" title="Casino">Gambling</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Online_gambling" title="Online gambling">Online</a></li></ul></li> <li>Venues <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amusement_arcade" title="Amusement arcade">Arcades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amusement_park" title="Amusement park">Amusement parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fair" title="Fair">Fairgrounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nightclub" title="Nightclub">Nightclubs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabletop_game_industry" title="Tabletop game industry">Tabletop games</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Publishing" title="Publishing">Publishing</a> <br /> & <a href="/wiki/Mass_media" title="Mass media">Mass media</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Written <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Book" title="Book">Books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodical_literature" title="Periodical literature">Periodicals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_industry" title="Software industry">Software</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Web_hosting_service" title="Web hosting service">Hosting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_networking_service" title="Social networking service">Social networks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Streaming_media" title="Streaming media">Streaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Website" title="Website">Websites</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">Education</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_education" title="Primary education">Primary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_education" title="Secondary education">Secondary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertiary_education" title="Tertiary education">Tertiary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vocational_school" title="Vocational school">Vocational school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University" title="University">University</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standardized_test" title="Standardized test">Testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tutoring" title="Tutoring">Tutoring</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Administrative <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Customer_service" title="Customer service">Customer service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lease" title="Lease">Leasing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renting" title="Renting">Renting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employment_agency" title="Employment agency">Staffing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_investigator" title="Private investigator">Private investigation</a> & <a href="/wiki/Security_company" title="Security company">security</a></li></ul></li> <li>Maintenance <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Janitor" class="mw-redirect" title="Janitor">Janitors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_maintenance" title="Landscape maintenance">Landscaping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maintenance_(technical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Maintenance (technical)">Repairs</a></li> <li>Personal services <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beauty_salon" title="Beauty salon">Beauty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_cleaning" title="Dry cleaning">Dry cleaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funeral_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Funeral industry">Funeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maid_service" title="Maid service">Maid service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pet_industry" title="Pet industry">Pet care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_industry" title="Sex industry">Sex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_industry" title="Poverty industry">Poverty</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Related631" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Related</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Industry_classification" title="Industry classification">Classification <br /> standards</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Production-based <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_and_New_Zealand_Standard_Industrial_Classification" title="Australian and New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification">ANZSIC</a></li> <li><i><b><a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Industrial_Classification" title="International Standard Industrial Classification">ISIC</a></b></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_Classification_of_Economic_Activities_in_the_European_Community" title="Statistical Classification of Economic Activities in the European Community">NACE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_Industry_Classification_System" title="North American Industry Classification System">NAICS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Industrial_Classification" title="Standard Industrial Classification">SIC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_Standard_Industrial_Classification_of_Economic_Activities" title="United Kingdom Standard Industrial Classification of Economic Activities">UKSIC</a></li></ul></li> <li>Market-based <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_Industry_Classification_Standard" title="Global Industry Classification Standard">GICS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industry_Classification_Benchmark" title="Industry Classification Benchmark">ICB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Refinitiv_Business_Classification" title="The Refinitiv Business Classification">TRBC</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Factors_of_production" title="Factors of production">Inputs</a> <br /> & <a href="/wiki/Output_(economics)" title="Output (economics)">outputs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Externality" title="Externality">Externalities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Community" title="Community">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well-being" title="Well-being">Well-being</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funding" title="Funding">Funding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goods" title="Goods">Goods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commodity" title="Commodity">Commodities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Final_good" title="Final good">Final</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate_good" title="Intermediate good">Intermediate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raw_material" title="Raw material">Raw material</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innovation" title="Innovation">Innovation</a></li> <li>Primary inputs <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Work_(human_activity)" title="Work (human activity)">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource" title="Natural resource">Natural resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_capital" title="Physical capital">Physical capital</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Service_(economics)" title="Service (economics)">Services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">Technology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Organization" title="Organization">Organization</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centralization" class="mw-redirect" title="Centralization">Centralization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartel" title="Cartel">Cartel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conglomerate_(company)" title="Conglomerate (company)">Conglomerate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horizontal_integration" title="Horizontal integration">Horizontal integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mergers_and_acquisitions" title="Mergers and acquisitions">Mergers and acquisitions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">Monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopsony" title="Monopsony">Monopsony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertical_integration" title="Vertical integration">Vertical integration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decentralization" title="Decentralization">Decentralization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Competition_law" title="Competition law">Enforced breakup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freelancer" title="Freelancer">Freelancing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homesteading" title="Homesteading">Homesteading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outsourcing" title="Outsourcing">Outsourcing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Putting-out_system" title="Putting-out system">Putting-out system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_spin-off" title="Corporate spin-off">Spinning-off</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporary_work" title="Temporary work">Temporary work</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ownership" title="Ownership">Ownership</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative" title="Cooperative">Cooperative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint-stock_company" title="Joint-stock company">Joint-stock company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalization" title="Nationalization">Nationalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonprofit_organization" title="Nonprofit organization">Nonprofit organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partnership" title="Partnership">Partnership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privatization" title="Privatization">Privatization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sole_proprietorship" title="Sole proprietorship">Sole proprietorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-owned_enterprise" title="State-owned enterprise">State-owned enterprise</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Industry_(economics)" title="Category:Industry (economics)"><b>Category</b></a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Industries" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Industries"><b>Commons</b></a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, 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colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11023#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1261" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11023#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, 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