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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Encoding_and_execution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Encoding and execution</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Encoding_and_execution-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Encoding and execution subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Encoding_and_execution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Programming_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Programming_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Programming languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Programming_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Compilation,_interpretation,_and_execution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compilation,_interpretation,_and_execution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Compilation, interpretation, and execution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Compilation,_interpretation,_and_execution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legal_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Legal issues</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legal_issues-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Legal issues subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Legal_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Liability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Liability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Liability</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Liability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Licenses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Licenses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Licenses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Licenses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Patents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Patents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Patents</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Patents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Impact</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Software</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 135 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-135" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">135 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagteware" title="Sagteware – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Sagteware" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software" title="Software – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Software" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="برمجية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="برمجية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software" title="Software – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Software" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programa_d%27ordenador" title="Programa d'ordenador – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Programa d'ordenador" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proqram_t%C9%99minat%C4%B1" title="Proqram təminatı – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Proqram təminatı" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%85" title="یازیلیم – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="یازیلیم" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AB%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%93%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0" title="কম্পিউটার সফটওয়্যার – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="কম্পিউটার সফটওয়্যার" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakakas_bayut" title="Pakakas bayut – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Pakakas bayut" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Banjar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C5%84g-th%C3%A9" title="Nńg-thé – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Nńg-thé" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D3%99%D0%BD_%D1%82%D3%99%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D2%AF" title="Программа менән тәьмин итеү – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Программа менән тәьмин итеү" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B5_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%8F%D1%87%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Праграмнае забеспячэнне – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Праграмнае забеспячэнне" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B5_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BF%D1%8F%D1%87%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Праграмнае забесьпячэньне – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Праграмнае забесьпячэньне" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B0" title="सॉफ्टवेयर – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="सॉफ्टवेयर" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%82%D1%83%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Софтуер – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Софтуер" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%98%E0%BD%89%E0%BD%BA%E0%BD%93%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%86%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B" title="མཉེན་ཆས་ – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="མཉེན་ཆས་" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Softver" title="Softver – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Softver" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meziant" title="Meziant – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Meziant" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programari" title="Programari – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Programari" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%C4%83%D0%BF%D0%B0_%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%C4%95%C3%A7%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8" title="Программăпа тивĕçтересси – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Программăпа тивĕçтересси" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software" title="Software – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Software" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meddalwedd" title="Meddalwedd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Meddalwedd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computerprogram" title="Computerprogram – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Computerprogram" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D9%88%D9%81%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%B1" title="صوفتوير – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="صوفتوير" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software" title="Software – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Software" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarkvara" title="Tarkvara – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Tarkvara" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9B%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C" title="Λογισμικό – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Λογισμικό" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software" title="Software – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Software" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programaro" title="Programaro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Programaro" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software" title="Software – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Software" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B1%D9%85%E2%80%8C%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="نرم‌افزار – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نرم‌افزار" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software" title="Software – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Software" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ritb%C3%BAna%C3%B0ur" title="Ritbúnaður – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Ritbúnaður" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logiciel" title="Logiciel – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Logiciel" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bogearra%C3%AD" title="Bogearraí – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Bogearraí" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathar-bog" title="Bathar-bog – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Bathar-bog" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software" title="Software – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Software" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-glk mw-list-item"><a href="https://glk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A3%D9%88%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="نرمأوزار – Gilaki" lang="glk" hreflang="glk" data-title="نرمأوزار" data-language-autonym="گیلکی" data-language-local-name="Gilaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>گیلکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ngi%C3%B4n-th%C3%AD" title="Ngiôn-thí – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Ngiôn-thí" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%86%8C%ED%94%84%ED%8A%B8%EC%9B%A8%EC%96%B4" title="소프트웨어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="소프트웨어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software" title="Software – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Software" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BE%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A3%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%A1%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%B0%D5%B8%D5%BE%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Ծրագրային ապահովում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ծրագրային ապահովում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B0" title="सॉफ्टवेयर – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सॉफ्टवेयर" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Softwara" title="Softwara – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Softwara" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hornjoserbsce</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programska_podr%C5%A1ka" title="Programska podrška – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Programska podrška" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mol-varo" title="Mol-varo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Mol-varo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sopwer" title="Sopwer – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Sopwer" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perangkat_lunak" title="Perangkat lunak – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Perangkat lunak" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmario" title="Programmario – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Programmario" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iu mw-list-item"><a href="https://iu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%90%8A%E1%95%BF%E1%91%A6%E1%91%90%E1%96%85_%E1%96%83%E1%95%86%E1%91%95%E1%90%85%E1%94%AD%E1%90%85%E1%91%89_%E1%91%8E%E1%91%8E%E1%95%8B%E1%95%90%E1%95%95%E1%96%93" title="ᐊᕿᑦᑐᖅ ᖃᕆᑕᐅᔭᐅᑉ ᑎᑎᕋᕐᕕᖓ – Inuktitut" lang="iu" hreflang="iu" data-title="ᐊᕿᑦᑐᖅ ᖃᕆᑕᐅᔭᐅᑉ ᑎᑎᕋᕐᕕᖓ" data-language-autonym="ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut" data-language-local-name="Inuktitut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugb%C3%BAna%C3%B0ur" title="Hugbúnaður – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Hugbúnaður" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software" title="Software – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Software" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%95%D7%9B%D7%A0%D7%94" title="תוכנה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תוכנה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piranti_alus" title="Piranti alus – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Piranti alus" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%B6" title="ತಂತ್ರಾಂಶ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ತಂತ್ರಾಂಶ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D2%93%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Бағдарлама – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Бағдарлама" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maunzilaini" title="Maunzilaini – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Maunzilaini" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nermalav" title="Nermalav – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Nermalav" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BA_%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Программалык жабдык – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Программалык жабдык" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%8A%E0%BA%AD%E0%BA%9A%E0%BB%81%E0%BA%A7" title="ຊອບແວ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ຊອບແວ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpus_programmatum" title="Corpus programmatum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Corpus programmatum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmat%C5%ABra" title="Programmatūra – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Programmatūra" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software" title="Software – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Software" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programin%C4%97_%C4%AFranga" title="Programinė įranga – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Programinė įranga" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software" title="Software – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Software" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lit%C3%A1mbwisi" title="Litámbwisi – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Litámbwisi" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingála</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software" title="Software – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Software" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szoftver" title="Szoftver – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Szoftver" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Програмска опрема – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Програмска опрема" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rindrankajy" title="Rindrankajy – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Rindrankajy" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%BC_%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%AB%E0%B5%8D%E2%80%8C%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E2%80%8C%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%BC" title="കമ്പ്യൂട്ടർ സോഫ്‌റ്റ്‌വെയർ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കമ്പ്യൂട്ടർ സോഫ്‌റ്റ്‌വെയർ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80" title="आज्ञावली – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="आज्ञावली" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%81%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%B1" title="سوفتوير – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="سوفتوير" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perisian" title="Perisian – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Perisian" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ni%C5%8Dng-gi%C3%B4ng" title="Niōng-giông – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Niōng-giông" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software" title="Software – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Software" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B6" title="Програм хангамж – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Програм хангамж" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%80%E1%80%BD%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%95%E1%80%BB%E1%80%B0%E1%80%90%E1%80%AC_%E1%80%86%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B7%E1%80%96%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9D%E1%80%B2%E1%80%9B%E1%80%BA" title="ကွန်ပျူတာ ဆော့ဖ်ဝဲရ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ကွန်ပျူတာ ဆော့ဖ်ဝဲရ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software" title="Software – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Software" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B0" title="सफ्टवेयर – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="सफ्टवेयर" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0" title="सफ्टवेर – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="सफ्टवेर" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%BD%E3%83%95%E3%83%88%E3%82%A6%E3%82%A7%E3%82%A2" title="ソフトウェア – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ソフトウェア" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programvare" title="Programvare – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Programvare" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programvare" title="Programvare – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Programvare" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logicial" title="Logicial – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Logicial" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D2%A5%D0%B4%D1%8B%D1%88" title="Программе вораҥдыш – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Программе вораҥдыш" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%B8%E0%AC%AB%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%9F%E0%AD%B1%E0%AD%87%E0%AC%B0" title="ସଫ୍ଟୱେର – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ସଫ୍ଟୱେର" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosaajii" title="Mosaajii – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Mosaajii" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dasturiy_ta%CA%BCminot" title="Dasturiy taʼminot – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Dasturiy taʼminot" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%AB%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%9F%E0%A8%B5%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%B0" title="ਸਾਫ਼ਟਵੇਅਰ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸਾਫ਼ਟਵੇਅਰ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%B9_%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%A6%D8%B1" title="سافٹ ویئر – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="سافٹ ویئر" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9E%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B7%E1%80%9D%E1%80%BD%E1%80%B2%E1%80%B8" title="သော့ဝွဲး – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="သော့ဝွဲး" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%BC%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%B1" title="سافټویر – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="سافټویر" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software" title="Software – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Software" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oprogramowanie" title="Oprogramowanie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Oprogramowanie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software" title="Software – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Software" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmal%C4%B1q_t%C3%A1miynat" title="Programmalıq támiynat – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Programmalıq támiynat" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programma_teminat%C4%B1" title="Programma teminatı – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Programma teminatı" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qırımtatarca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software" title="Software – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Software" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llamp%27u_kaq" title="Llamp'u kaq – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Llamp'u kaq" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D2%91%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%87%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Проґрамове забеспечіня – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Проґрамове забеспечіня" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Программное обеспечение – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Программное обеспечение" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%82%D1%83%D1%8D%D1%80" title="Софтуэр – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Софтуэр" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software" title="Software – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Software" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saftware" title="Saftware – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Saftware" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Softueri_kompjuterik" title="Softueri kompjuterik – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Softueri kompjuterik" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software" title="Software – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Software" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9C%E0%B6%AB%E0%B6%9A_%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%98%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%82%E0%B6%9C" title="පරිගණක මෘදුකාංග – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="පරිගණක මෘදුකාංග" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software" title="Software – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Software" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Softv%C3%A9r" title="Softvér – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Softvér" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programska_oprema" title="Programska oprema – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Programska oprema" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software" title="Software – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Software" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DB%95%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8E%D8%B1" title="نەرمامێر – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="نەرمامێر" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Софтвер – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Софтвер" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Softver" title="Softver – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Softver" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohjelmisto" title="Ohjelmisto – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ohjelmisto" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programvara" title="Programvara – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Programvara" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software" title="Software – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Software" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D" title="மென்பொருள் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மென்பொருள்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BB%D3%99%D0%BD_%D1%82%D3%99%D1%8D%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%88" title="Программа белән тәэмин ителеш – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Программа белән тәэмин ителеш" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B1%82%E0%B0%9F%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%AB%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%9F%E0%B1%8D%E2%80%8C%E0%B0%B5%E0%B1%87%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D" title="కంప్యూటర్ సాఫ్ట్‌వేర్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="కంప్యూటర్ సాఫ్ట్‌వేర్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%8C%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="ซอฟต์แวร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ซอฟต์แวร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Нармафзор – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Нармафзор" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8F%A9%E1%8F%82%E1%8E%A8_%E1%8E%A6%E1%8E%BE%E1%8F%97%E1%8F%85%E1%8F%97" title="ᏩᏂᎨ ᎦᎾᏗᏅᏗ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᏩᏂᎨ ᎦᎾᏗᏅᏗ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᏣᎳᎩ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaz%C4%B1l%C4%B1m" title="Yazılım – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Yazılım" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Програмне забезпечення – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Програмне забезпечення" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%B9_%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%A6%D8%B1" title="سافٹ ویئر – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="سافٹ ویئر" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software" title="Software – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Software" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ph%E1%BA%A7n_m%E1%BB%81m" title="Phần mềm – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Phần mềm" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software" title="Software – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Software" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%BD%AF%E4%BB%B6" title="软件 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="软件" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%95%D7%95%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%95%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%92" title="ווייכווארג – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="ווייכווארג" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a 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<div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Instructions a computer can execute</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Software_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Software (disambiguation)">Software (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JavaScript_code.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/JavaScript_code.png/220px-JavaScript_code.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/JavaScript_code.png/330px-JavaScript_code.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/JavaScript_code.png/440px-JavaScript_code.png 2x" data-file-width="882" data-file-height="587" /></a><figcaption>Software written in the <a href="/wiki/JavaScript" title="JavaScript">JavaScript</a> language</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Software</b> consists of <a href="/wiki/Computer_program" title="Computer program">computer programs</a> that instruct the <a href="/wiki/Execution_(computing)" title="Execution (computing)">execution</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pis-p16_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pis-p16-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Software also includes design documents and specifications. </p><p>The history of software is closely tied to the development of digital computers in the mid-20th century. Early programs were written in the <a href="/wiki/Machine_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Machine language">machine language</a> specific to the hardware. The introduction of <a href="/wiki/High-level_programming_language" title="High-level programming language">high-level programming languages</a> in 1958 allowed for more human-readable instructions, making <a href="/wiki/Software_development" title="Software development">software development</a> easier and more portable across different <a href="/wiki/Computer_architecture" title="Computer architecture">computer architectures</a>. Software in a programming language is run through a <a href="/wiki/Compiler" title="Compiler">compiler</a> or <a href="/wiki/Interpreter_(computing)" title="Interpreter (computing)">interpreter</a> to <a href="/wiki/Execution_(computing)" title="Execution (computing)">execute</a> on the architecture's hardware. Over time, software has become complex, owing to developments in <a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">networking</a>, <a href="/wiki/Operating_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Operating systems">operating systems</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Databases" class="mw-redirect" title="Databases">databases</a>. </p><p>Software can generally be categorized into two main types: </p> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating systems</a>, which manage hardware resources and provide services for applications</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Application_software" title="Application software">application software</a>, which performs specific tasks for users</li></ol> <p>The rise of <a href="/wiki/Cloud_computing" title="Cloud computing">cloud computing</a> has introduced the new software delivery model <a href="/wiki/Software_as_a_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Software as a Service">Software as a Service</a> (SaaS). In SaaS, applications are hosted by a <a href="/wiki/Application_service_provider" title="Application service provider">provider</a> and <a href="/wiki/HTTP" title="HTTP">accessed</a> over the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>. </p><p>The process of developing software involves several stages. The stages include <a href="/wiki/Software_design" title="Software design">software design</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computer_programming" title="Computer programming">programming</a>, <a href="/wiki/Software_testing" title="Software testing">testing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Software_release_life_cycle" title="Software release life cycle">release</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Software_maintenance" title="Software maintenance">maintenance</a>. <a href="/wiki/Software_quality_assurance" title="Software quality assurance">Software quality assurance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Information_security" title="Information security">security</a> are critical aspects of software development, as <a href="/wiki/Computer_bug" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer bug">bugs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vulnerability_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vulnerability (computing)">security vulnerabilities</a> can lead to system failures and security breaches. Additionally, legal issues such as software licenses and intellectual property rights play a significant role in the distribution of software products. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_software" title="History of software">History of software</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:07R01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/07R01.jpg/220px-07R01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/07R01.jpg/330px-07R01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/07R01.jpg/440px-07R01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6500" data-file-height="4200" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuit</a> is an essential invention to produce modern software systems.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones201419,_22_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones201419,_22-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The first use of the word <i>software</i> is credited to mathematician <a href="/wiki/John_Wilder_Tukey" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wilder Tukey">John Wilder Tukey</a> in 1958.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETracy20212_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETracy20212-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first programmable computers, which appeared at the end of the 1940s,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023519_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023519-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were programmed in <a href="/wiki/Machine_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Machine language">machine language</a>. Machine language is difficult to debug and not <a href="/wiki/Portability_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Portability (computing)">portable</a> across different computers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023520–521_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023520–521-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Initially, hardware resources were more expensive than <a href="/wiki/Human_resources" title="Human resources">human resources</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023522_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023522-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As programs became complex, <a href="/wiki/Programmer_productivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Programmer productivity">programmer productivity</a> became the bottleneck. The introduction of <a href="/wiki/High-level_programming_language" title="High-level programming language">high-level programming languages</a> in 1958 <a href="/wiki/Abstraction_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Abstraction (computing)">hid</a> the details of the hardware and expressed the underlying <a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithms</a> into the code .<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023521_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023521-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETracy20211_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETracy20211-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early languages include <a href="/wiki/Fortran" title="Fortran">Fortran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lisp_(programming_language)" title="Lisp (programming language)">Lisp</a>, and <a href="/wiki/COBOL" title="COBOL">COBOL</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETracy20211_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETracy20211-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Software_categories" title="Software categories">Software categories</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Operating_system_placement_(software).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Operating_system_placement_%28software%29.svg/170px-Operating_system_placement_%28software%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Operating_system_placement_%28software%29.svg/255px-Operating_system_placement_%28software%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Operating_system_placement_%28software%29.svg/340px-Operating_system_placement_%28software%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="370" /></a><figcaption>A diagram showing how the <a href="/wiki/User_(computing)" title="User (computing)">user</a> interacts with <a href="/wiki/Application_software" title="Application software">application software</a> on a typical <a href="/wiki/Desktop_computer" title="Desktop computer">desktop computer</a>. The application software layer interfaces with the <a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating system</a>, which in turn communicates with the <a href="/wiki/Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">hardware</a>. The arrows indicate information flow.</figcaption></figure> <p>There are two main types of software: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">Operating systems</a> are "the <a href="/wiki/Abstraction_layer" title="Abstraction layer">layer of software</a> that manages a computer's resources for its users and their <a href="/wiki/Application_software" title="Application software">applications</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndersonDahlin20146_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndersonDahlin20146-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are three main purposes that an operating system fulfills:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndersonDahlin20147_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndersonDahlin20147-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>Allocating resources between different applications, deciding when they will receive <a href="/wiki/Central_processing_unit" title="Central processing unit">central processing unit</a> (CPU) time or space in <a href="/wiki/Computer_memory" title="Computer memory">memory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndersonDahlin20147_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndersonDahlin20147-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Providing an interface that abstracts the details of accessing <a href="/wiki/Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">hardware</a> details (like physical memory) to make things easier for programmers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndersonDahlin20147_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndersonDahlin20147-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETanenbaumBos20235_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETanenbaumBos20235-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Offering common services, such as an interface for accessing network and disk devices. This enables an application to be run on different hardware without needing to be rewritten.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndersonDahlin20147,_9,_13_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndersonDahlin20147,_9,_13-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Application_software" title="Application software">Application software</a> runs on top of the operating system and uses the computer's resources to perform a task.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndersonDahlin20146–7_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndersonDahlin20146–7-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are many different types of application software because the range of tasks that can be performed with modern computers is so large.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones2014121_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones2014121-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Applications account for most software<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETracy202166_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETracy202166-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and require the <a href="/wiki/Operating_environment" title="Operating environment">environment</a> provided by an operating system, and often other applications, in order to function.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETracy202172_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETracy202172-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Comparison_of_on-premise,_IaaS,_PaaS,_and_SaaS.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Comparison_of_on-premise%2C_IaaS%2C_PaaS%2C_and_SaaS.png/530px-Comparison_of_on-premise%2C_IaaS%2C_PaaS%2C_and_SaaS.png" decoding="async" width="530" height="287" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Comparison_of_on-premise%2C_IaaS%2C_PaaS%2C_and_SaaS.png/795px-Comparison_of_on-premise%2C_IaaS%2C_PaaS%2C_and_SaaS.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Comparison_of_on-premise%2C_IaaS%2C_PaaS%2C_and_SaaS.png/1060px-Comparison_of_on-premise%2C_IaaS%2C_PaaS%2C_and_SaaS.png 2x" data-file-width="1300" data-file-height="704" /></a><figcaption>Comparison of on-premise hardware and software, <a href="/wiki/Infrastructure_as_a_service" title="Infrastructure as a service">infrastructure as a service</a> (IaaS), <a href="/wiki/Platform_as_a_service" title="Platform as a service">platform as a service</a> (PaaS), and <a href="/wiki/Software_as_a_service" title="Software as a service">software as a service</a> (SaaS)</figcaption></figure> <p>Software can also be categorized by how it is <a href="/wiki/Software_deployment" title="Software deployment">deployed</a>. Traditional applications are purchased with a perpetual <a href="/wiki/Software_license" title="Software license">license</a> for a specific version of the software, downloaded, and run on hardware belonging to the purchaser.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Regan2022386_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Regan2022386-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rise of <a href="/wiki/The_Internet" class="mw-redirect" title="The Internet">the Internet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cloud_computing" title="Cloud computing">cloud computing</a> enabled a new model, <a href="/wiki/Software_as_a_service" title="Software as a service">software as a service</a> (SaaS),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbell-KellyGarcia-Swartz2015156–157_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbell-KellyGarcia-Swartz2015156–157-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in which the provider hosts the software (usually built on top of rented <a href="/wiki/Infrastructure_as_a_service" title="Infrastructure as a service">infrastructure</a> or <a href="/wiki/Platform_as_a_service" title="Platform as a service">platforms</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERosatiLynn202023_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosatiLynn202023-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and provides the use of the software to customers, often in exchange for a <a href="/wiki/Subscription_fee" class="mw-redirect" title="Subscription fee">subscription fee</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Regan2022386_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Regan2022386-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 2023, SaaS products—which are usually delivered via a <a href="/wiki/Web_application" title="Web application">web application</a>—had become the primary method that companies deliver applications.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatt20234_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatt20234-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Software_development_and_maintenance">Software development and maintenance</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Traditional_software_development_life_cycle_diagram.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Traditional_software_development_life_cycle_diagram.png/550px-Traditional_software_development_life_cycle_diagram.png" decoding="async" width="550" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Traditional_software_development_life_cycle_diagram.png/825px-Traditional_software_development_life_cycle_diagram.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Traditional_software_development_life_cycle_diagram.png/1100px-Traditional_software_development_life_cycle_diagram.png 2x" data-file-width="2546" data-file-height="630" /></a><figcaption>Diagram for a traditional <a href="/wiki/Software_development_life_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Software development life cycle">software development life cycle</a> from 1988. The numbers represent the typical cost of each phase.</figcaption></figure> <p>Software companies aim to deliver a high-quality product on time and under budget. A challenge is that <a href="/wiki/Software_development_effort_estimation" title="Software development effort estimation">software development effort estimation</a> is often inaccurate.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Regan20227_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Regan20227-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Software_development" title="Software development">Software development</a> begins by conceiving the project, evaluating its feasibility, analyzing the business requirements, and making a <a href="/wiki/Software_design" title="Software design">software design</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Regan20225_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Regan20225-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDooley20171_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDooley20171-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most software projects speed up their development by <a href="/wiki/Software_reuse" class="mw-redirect" title="Software reuse">reusing</a> or incorporating existing software, either in the form of <a href="/wiki/Commercial_off-the-shelf" title="Commercial off-the-shelf">commercial off-the-shelf</a> (COTS) or <a href="/wiki/Open-source_software" title="Open-source software">open-source software</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Regan202218,_110–111_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Regan202218,_110–111-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETracy202143,_76_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETracy202143,_76-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Software_quality_assurance" title="Software quality assurance">Software quality assurance</a> is typically a combination of manual <a href="/wiki/Code_review" title="Code review">code review</a> by other engineers<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Regan2022117–118_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Regan2022117–118-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and automated <a href="/wiki/Software_testing" title="Software testing">software testing</a>. Due to time constraints, testing cannot cover all aspects of the software's intended functionality, so developers often focus on the most critical functionality.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Regan202254_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Regan202254-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Formal_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal method">Formal methods</a> are used in some safety-critical systems to prove the correctness of code,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Regan2022267_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Regan2022267-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while <a href="/wiki/User_acceptance_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="User acceptance testing">user acceptance testing</a> helps to ensure that the product meets customer expectations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Regan202220_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Regan202220-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are a variety of <a href="/wiki/Software_development_methodologies" class="mw-redirect" title="Software development methodologies">software development methodologies</a>, which vary from completing all steps in order to concurrent and iterative models.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Regan20229_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Regan20229-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Software development is driven by <a href="/wiki/Software_requirements" title="Software requirements">requirements</a> taken from prospective users, as opposed to maintenance, which is driven by events such as a change request.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETripathyNaik201426_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETripathyNaik201426-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Frequently, software is <a href="/wiki/Software_release_life_cycle" title="Software release life cycle">released</a> in an incomplete state when the development team runs out of time or funding.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReifer201222_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReifer201222-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite <a href="/wiki/Software_testing" title="Software testing">testing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Software_quality_assurance" title="Software quality assurance">quality assurance</a>, virtually all software contains <a href="/wiki/Software_bug" title="Software bug">bugs</a> where the system does not work as intended. Post-release <a href="/wiki/Software_maintenance" title="Software maintenance">software maintenance</a> is necessary to remediate these bugs when they are found and keep the software working as the environment changes over time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETripathyNaik20144,_27_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETripathyNaik20144,_27-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New features are often added after the release. Over time, the level of maintenance becomes increasingly restricted before being cut off entirely when the product is withdrawn from the market.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETripathyNaik201489_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETripathyNaik201489-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As software <a href="/wiki/Software_aging" title="Software aging">ages</a>, it becomes known as <a href="/wiki/Legacy_software" class="mw-redirect" title="Legacy software">legacy software</a> and can remain in use for decades, even if there is no one left who knows how to fix it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETracy20213_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETracy20213-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over the lifetime of the product, software maintenance is estimated to comprise 75 percent or more of the total development cost.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVarga20186_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVarga20186-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUlziit_''et_al.''2015764_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUlziit_''et_al.''2015764-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Completing a software project involves various forms of expertise, not just in <a href="/wiki/Software_programmer" class="mw-redirect" title="Software programmer">software programmers</a> but also testing, documentation writing, <a href="/wiki/Software_project_management" title="Software project management">project management</a>, <a href="/wiki/Graphic_design" title="Graphic design">graphic design</a>, <a href="/wiki/User_experience" title="User experience">user experience</a>, user support, <a href="/wiki/Marketing" title="Marketing">marketing</a>, and fundraising.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETuckerMorellide_Silva20117_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETuckerMorellide_Silva20117-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStull201824–25_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStull201824–25-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDooley20171_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDooley20171-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Quality_and_security">Quality and security</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Software_quality" title="Software quality">Software quality</a> and <a href="/wiki/Computer_security" title="Computer security">Computer security</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Software_quality" title="Software quality">Software quality</a> is defined as meeting the stated requirements as well as customer expectations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalin20183_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalin20183-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Quality is an overarching term that can refer to a code's correct and efficient behavior, its reusability and <a href="/wiki/Porting" title="Porting">portability</a>, or the ease of modification.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalin201826_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalin201826-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is usually more cost-effective to build quality into the product from the beginning rather than try to add it later in the development process.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Regan202268,_117_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Regan202268,_117-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Higher quality code will reduce lifetime cost to both suppliers and customers as it is more reliable and <a href="/wiki/Maintainability" title="Maintainability">easier to maintain</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Regan20223,_268_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Regan20223,_268-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVarga201812_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVarga201812-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Software failures in <a href="/wiki/Safety-critical_system" title="Safety-critical system">safety-critical systems</a> can be very serious including death.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Regan20223,_268_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Regan20223,_268-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By some estimates, the cost of poor quality software can be as high as 20 to 40 percent of sales.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Regan2022119_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Regan2022119-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite developers' goal of delivering a product that works entirely as intended, virtually all software contains bugs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAblonBogart20171_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAblonBogart20171-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The rise of the Internet also greatly increased the need for <a href="/wiki/Computer_security" title="Computer security">computer security</a> as it enabled malicious actors to conduct <a href="/wiki/Cyberattack" title="Cyberattack">cyberattacks</a> remotely.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbell-KellyGarcia-Swartz2015164_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbell-KellyGarcia-Swartz2015164-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Regan2022266_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Regan2022266-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If a bug creates a security risk, it is called a <a href="/wiki/Vulnerability_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vulnerability (computing)">vulnerability</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAblonBogart20172_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAblonBogart20172-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaswaniElbayadi202125_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaswaniElbayadi202125-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Software_patch" class="mw-redirect" title="Software patch">Software patches</a> are often released to fix identified vulnerabilities, but those that remain unknown (<a href="/wiki/Zero-day_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Zero-day (computing)">zero days</a>) as well as those that have not been patched are still liable for exploitation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaswaniElbayadi202126–27_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaswaniElbayadi202126–27-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vulnerabilities vary in their ability to be <a href="/wiki/Exploit_(computer_security)" title="Exploit (computer security)">exploited</a> by malicious actors,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAblonBogart20172_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAblonBogart20172-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the actual risk is dependent on the nature of the vulnerability as well as the value of the surrounding system.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaberHibbert20185–6_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaberHibbert20185–6-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although some vulnerabilities can only be used for <a href="/wiki/Denial_of_service" class="mw-redirect" title="Denial of service">denial of service</a> attacks that compromise a system's availability, others allow the attacker to <a href="/wiki/Code_injection" title="Code injection">inject</a> and run their own code (called <a href="/wiki/Malware" title="Malware">malware</a>), without the user being aware of it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAblonBogart20172_49-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAblonBogart20172-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To thwart cyberattacks, all software in the system must be designed to withstand and recover from external attack.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Regan2022266_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Regan2022266-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite efforts to ensure security, a significant fraction of computers are infected with malware.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKitchinDodge201137_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKitchinDodge201137-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Encoding_and_execution">Encoding and execution</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Programming_languages">Programming languages</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Programming_language" title="Programming language">Programming language</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:C_Hello_World_Program.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/C_Hello_World_Program.png/290px-C_Hello_World_Program.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/C_Hello_World_Program.png/435px-C_Hello_World_Program.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/C_Hello_World_Program.png/580px-C_Hello_World_Program.png 2x" data-file-width="789" data-file-height="655" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Source_code" title="Source code">source code</a> for a computer program in <a href="/wiki/C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a>. The gray lines are <a href="/wiki/Comment_(computer_programming)" title="Comment (computer programming)">comments</a> that explain the program to humans. When <a href="/wiki/Compiled" class="mw-redirect" title="Compiled">compiled</a> and <a href="/wiki/Execution_(computing)" title="Execution (computing)">run</a>, it will give the output "<a href="/wiki/%22Hello,_World!%22_program" title=""Hello, World!" program">Hello, world!</a>".</figcaption></figure> <p>Programming languages are the format in which software is written. Since the 1950s, thousands of different programming languages have been invented; some have been in use for decades, while others have fallen into disuse.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETracy2021117_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETracy2021117-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some definitions classify <a href="/wiki/Machine_code" title="Machine code">machine code</a>—the exact instructions directly implemented by the hardware—and <a href="/wiki/Assembly_language" title="Assembly language">assembly language</a>—a more human-readable alternative to machine code whose statements can be translated one-to-one into machine code—as programming languages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETracy2021118–120_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETracy2021118–120-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Programs written in the <a href="/wiki/High-level_programming_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="High-level programming languages">high-level programming languages</a> used to create software share a few main characteristics: knowledge of machine code is not necessary to write them, they can be <a href="/wiki/Ported" class="mw-redirect" title="Ported">ported</a> to other computer systems, and they are more concise and human-readable than machine code.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETracy2021118–119_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETracy2021118–119-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They must be both human-readable and capable of being translated into unambiguous instructions for computer hardware.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKitchinDodge201126_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKitchinDodge201126-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Compilation,_interpretation,_and_execution"><span id="Compilation.2C_interpretation.2C_and_execution"></span>Compilation, interpretation, and execution</h3></div> <p>The invention of high-level programming languages was simultaneous with the <a href="/wiki/Compiler" title="Compiler">compilers</a> needed to translate them automatically into machine code.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETracy2021121_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETracy2021121-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most programs do not contain all the resources needed to run them and rely on external <a href="/wiki/Software_library" class="mw-redirect" title="Software library">libraries</a>. Part of the compiler's function is to link these files in such a way that the program can be executed by the hardware. Once compiled, the program can be saved as an <a href="/wiki/Object_file" title="Object file">object file</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Loader_(computing)" title="Loader (computing)">loader</a> (part of the operating system) can take this saved file and <a href="/wiki/Execution_(computing)" title="Execution (computing)">execute</a> it as a <a href="/wiki/Process" title="Process">process</a> on the computer hardware.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETracy2021122–123_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETracy2021122–123-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some programming languages use an <a href="/wiki/Interpreter_(computing)" title="Interpreter (computing)">interpreter</a> instead of a compiler. An interpreter converts the program into machine code at <a href="/wiki/Execution_(computing)" title="Execution (computing)">run time</a>, which makes them 10 to 100 times slower than compiled programming languages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Regan2022375_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Regan2022375-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201228_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201228-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legal_issues">Legal issues</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Liability">Liability</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Software_product_liability" title="Software product liability">Software product liability</a></div> <p>Software is often released with the knowledge that it is incomplete or contains bugs. Purchasers knowingly buy it in this state, which has led to a legal regime where <a href="/wiki/Product_liability" title="Product liability">liability</a> for software products is significantly curtailed compared to other products.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKitchinDodge201136–37_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKitchinDodge201136–37-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Licenses">Licenses</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Software_license" title="Software license">Software license</a> and <a href="/wiki/Software_copyright" title="Software copyright">Software copyright</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cube_in_Blender_Editor.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Cube_in_Blender_Editor.jpg/220px-Cube_in_Blender_Editor.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Cube_in_Blender_Editor.jpg/330px-Cube_in_Blender_Editor.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Cube_in_Blender_Editor.jpg/440px-Cube_in_Blender_Editor.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1977" data-file-height="1290" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Blender_(software)" title="Blender (software)">Blender</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Free_software" title="Free software">free software</a> program</figcaption></figure> <p>Source code is protected by <a href="/wiki/Copyright_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Copyright law">copyright law</a> that vests the owner with the exclusive right to copy the code. The underlying ideas or algorithms are not protected by copyright law, but are often treated as a <a href="/wiki/Trade_secret" title="Trade secret">trade secret</a> and concealed by such methods as <a href="/wiki/Non-disclosure_agreement" title="Non-disclosure agreement">non-disclosure agreements</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Regan2022394–396_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Regan2022394–396-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Software_copyright" title="Software copyright">Software copyright</a> has been recognized since the mid-1970s and is vested in the company that makes the software, not the employees or <a href="/wiki/Independent_contracting_in_the_United_States" title="Independent contracting in the United States">contractors</a> who wrote it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Regan2022403_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Regan2022403-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The use of most software is governed by an agreement (<a href="/wiki/Software_license" title="Software license">software license</a>) between the copyright holder and the user. <a href="/wiki/Proprietary_software" title="Proprietary software">Proprietary software</a> is usually sold under a restrictive license that limits copying and reuse (often enforced with tools such as <a href="/wiki/Digital_rights_management" title="Digital rights management">digital rights management</a> (DRM)).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Regan2022394,_404_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Regan2022394,_404-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Open-source_licenses" class="mw-redirect" title="Open-source licenses">Open-source licenses</a>, in contrast, allow free use and redistribution of software with few conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Regan2022403_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Regan2022403-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most open-source licenses used for software require that modifications be released under the same license, which can create complications when open-source software is reused in proprietary projects.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanger201644–45_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanger201644–45-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Patents">Patents</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Software_patent" title="Software patent">Software patent</a> and <a href="/wiki/Software_patent_debate" title="Software patent debate">Software patent debate</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">Patents</a> give an inventor an exclusive, time-limited license for a novel product or process.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Regan2022395_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Regan2022395-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ideas about what software could accomplish are not protected by law and concrete implementations are instead covered by <a href="/wiki/Copyright_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Copyright law">copyright law</a>. In some countries, a requirement for the claimed invention to have an effect on the physical world may also be part of the requirements for a software patent to be held valid.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Software_patent" title="Software patent">Software patents</a> have been <a href="/wiki/Software_patent_debate" title="Software patent debate">historically controversial</a>. Before the 1998 case <i><a href="/wiki/State_Street_Bank_%26_Trust_Co._v._Signature_Financial_Group,_Inc." title="State Street Bank & Trust Co. v. Signature Financial Group, Inc.">State Street Bank & Trust Co. v. Signature Financial Group, Inc.</a></i>, software patents were generally not recognized in the United States. In that case, the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> decided that business processes could be patented.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones201419_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones201419-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Patent applications are complex and costly, and lawsuits involving patents can drive up the cost of products.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Regan2022398_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Regan2022398-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike copyrights, patents generally only apply in the jurisdiction where they were issued.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Regan2022399_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Regan2022399-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Impact">Impact</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_computer_graphic_of_the_Queen_Elizabeth_carrier_and_carrier_group.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/A_computer_graphic_of_the_Queen_Elizabeth_carrier_and_carrier_group.jpg/220px-A_computer_graphic_of_the_Queen_Elizabeth_carrier_and_carrier_group.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/A_computer_graphic_of_the_Queen_Elizabeth_carrier_and_carrier_group.jpg/330px-A_computer_graphic_of_the_Queen_Elizabeth_carrier_and_carrier_group.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/A_computer_graphic_of_the_Queen_Elizabeth_carrier_and_carrier_group.jpg/440px-A_computer_graphic_of_the_Queen_Elizabeth_carrier_and_carrier_group.jpg 2x" data-file-width="953" data-file-height="517" /></a><figcaption>Computer-generated simulations are one of the advances enabled by software.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManovich2013333_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManovich2013333-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Engineer <a href="/wiki/Capers_Jones" title="Capers Jones">Capers Jones</a> writes that "computers and software are making profound changes to every aspect of human life: education, work, warfare, entertainment, medicine, law, and everything else".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones201432_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones201432-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has become ubiquitous in <a href="/wiki/Everyday_life" title="Everyday life">everyday life</a> in <a href="/wiki/Developed_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Developed countries">developed countries</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKitchinDodge2011iv_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKitchinDodge2011iv-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In many cases, software augments the functionality of existing technologies such as household <a href="/wiki/Home_appliance" title="Home appliance">appliances</a> and <a href="/wiki/Elevator" title="Elevator">elevators</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKitchinDodge20115_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKitchinDodge20115-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Software also spawned entirely new technologies such as <a href="/wiki/The_Internet" class="mw-redirect" title="The Internet">the Internet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Video_games" class="mw-redirect" title="Video games">video games</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mobile_phones" class="mw-redirect" title="Mobile phones">mobile phones</a>, and <a href="/wiki/GPS" class="mw-redirect" title="GPS">GPS</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKitchinDodge20115_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKitchinDodge20115-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones2014xxviii_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones2014xxviii-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New methods of communication, including <a href="/wiki/Email" title="Email">email</a>, <a href="/wiki/Internet_forum" title="Internet forum">forums</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blog" title="Blog">blogs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microblogging" title="Microblogging">microblogging</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wiki" title="Wiki">wikis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">social media</a>, were enabled by the Internet.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManovich2013329_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManovich2013329-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Massive amounts of knowledge exceeding any paper-based library are now available with a quick <a href="/wiki/Web_search" class="mw-redirect" title="Web search">web search</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones2014xxviii_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones2014xxviii-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most creative professionals have switched to software-based tools such as <a href="/wiki/Computer-aided_design" title="Computer-aided design">computer-aided design</a>, <a href="/wiki/3D_modeling" title="3D modeling">3D modeling</a>, digital <a href="/wiki/Image_editing" title="Image editing">image editing</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Computer_animation" title="Computer animation">computer animation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManovich2013333_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManovich2013333-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Almost every complex device is controlled by software.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones2014xxviii_76-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones2014xxviii-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-pis-p16-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pis-p16_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output 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href="#CITEREFManovich2013">Manovich 2013</a>, p. 333.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones201432-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones201432_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJones2014">Jones 2014</a>, p. 32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKitchinDodge2011iv-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKitchinDodge2011iv_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKitchinDodge2011">Kitchin & Dodge 2011</a>, p. iv.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKitchinDodge20115-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKitchinDodge20115_75-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKitchinDodge20115_75-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKitchinDodge2011">Kitchin & Dodge 2011</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones2014xxviii-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones2014xxviii_76-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones2014xxviii_76-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones2014xxviii_76-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJones2014">Jones 2014</a>, p. xxviii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEManovich2013329-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManovich2013329_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFManovich2013">Manovich 2013</a>, p. 329.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAblonBogart2017" class="citation book cs1">Ablon, Lillian; Bogart, Andy (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/research_reports/RR1700/RR1751/RAND_RR1751.pdf"><i>Zero Days, Thousands of Nights: The Life and Times of Zero-Day Vulnerabilities and Their Exploits</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Rand Corporation. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8330-9761-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8330-9761-3"><bdi>978-0-8330-9761-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zero+Days%2C+Thousands+of+Nights%3A+The+Life+and+Times+of+Zero-Day+Vulnerabilities+and+Their+Exploits&rft.pub=Rand+Corporation&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-8330-9761-3&rft.aulast=Ablon&rft.aufirst=Lillian&rft.au=Bogart%2C+Andy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rand.org%2Fcontent%2Fdam%2Frand%2Fpubs%2Fresearch_reports%2FRR1700%2FRR1751%2FRAND_RR1751.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndersonDahlin2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_E._Anderson" title="Thomas E. Anderson">Anderson, Thomas</a>; Dahlin, Michael (2014). <i>Operating Systems: Principles and Practice</i> (2 ed.). Recursive Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9856735-2-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9856735-2-9"><bdi>978-0-9856735-2-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Operating+Systems%3A+Principles+and+Practice&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Recursive+Books&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-9856735-2-9&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft.au=Dahlin%2C+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbell-KellyGarcia-Swartz2015" class="citation book cs1">Campbell-Kelly, Martin; Garcia-Swartz, Daniel D. (2015). <i>From Mainframes to Smartphones: A History of the International Computer Industry</i>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-28655-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-28655-9"><bdi>978-0-674-28655-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Mainframes+to+Smartphones%3A+A+History+of+the+International+Computer+Industry&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-674-28655-9&rft.aulast=Campbell-Kelly&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft.au=Garcia-Swartz%2C+Daniel+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaswaniElbayadi2021" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Neil_Daswani" title="Neil Daswani">Daswani, Neil</a>; Elbayadi, Moudy (2021). <i>Big Breaches: Cybersecurity Lessons for Everyone</i>. Apress. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4842-6654-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4842-6654-0"><bdi>978-1-4842-6654-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Big+Breaches%3A+Cybersecurity+Lessons+for+Everyone&rft.pub=Apress&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-4842-6654-0&rft.aulast=Daswani&rft.aufirst=Neil&rft.au=Elbayadi%2C+Moudy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDooley2017" class="citation book cs1">Dooley, John F. (2017). <i>Software Development, Design and Coding: With Patterns, Debugging, Unit Testing, and Refactoring</i>. Apress. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4842-3153-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4842-3153-1"><bdi>978-1-4842-3153-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Software+Development%2C+Design+and+Coding%3A+With+Patterns%2C+Debugging%2C+Unit+Testing%2C+and+Refactoring&rft.pub=Apress&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-4842-3153-1&rft.aulast=Dooley&rft.aufirst=John+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGabbrielliMartini2023" class="citation book cs1">Gabbrielli, Maurizio; Martini, Simone (2023). <i>Programming Languages: Principles and Paradigms</i> (2nd ed.). Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-031-34144-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-031-34144-1"><bdi>978-3-031-34144-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Programming+Languages%3A+Principles+and+Paradigms&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-3-031-34144-1&rft.aulast=Gabbrielli&rft.aufirst=Maurizio&rft.au=Martini%2C+Simone&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalin2018" class="citation book cs1">Galin, Daniel (2018). <i>Software Quality: Concepts and Practice</i>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-119-13449-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-119-13449-7"><bdi>978-1-119-13449-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Software+Quality%3A+Concepts+and+Practice&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-119-13449-7&rft.aulast=Galin&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaberHibbert2018" class="citation book cs1">Haber, Morey J.; Hibbert, Brad (2018). <i>Asset Attack Vectors: Building Effective Vulnerability Management Strategies to Protect Organizations</i>. Apress. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4842-3627-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4842-3627-7"><bdi>978-1-4842-3627-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Asset+Attack+Vectors%3A+Building+Effective+Vulnerability+Management+Strategies+to+Protect+Organizations&rft.pub=Apress&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-4842-3627-7&rft.aulast=Haber&rft.aufirst=Morey+J.&rft.au=Hibbert%2C+Brad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2014" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Capers (2014). <i>The Technical and Social History of Software Engineering</i>. Pearson Education. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-321-90342-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-321-90342-6"><bdi>978-0-321-90342-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Technical+and+Social+History+of+Software+Engineering&rft.pub=Pearson+Education&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-321-90342-6&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Capers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKitchinDodge2011" class="citation book cs1">Kitchin, Rob; Dodge, Martin (2011). <i>Code/space: Software and Everyday Life</i>. MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-04248-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-04248-2"><bdi>978-0-262-04248-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Code%2Fspace%3A+Software+and+Everyday+Life&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-262-04248-2&rft.aulast=Kitchin&rft.aufirst=Rob&rft.au=Dodge%2C+Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLanger2016" class="citation book cs1">Langer, Arthur M. (2016). <i>Guide to Software Development: Designing and Managing the Life Cycle</i>. 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Bloomsbury Academic. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-62356-745-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-62356-745-3"><bdi>978-1-62356-745-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Software+Takes+Command&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-62356-745-3&rft.aulast=Manovich&rft.aufirst=Lev&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Regan2022" class="citation book cs1">O'Regan, Gerard (2022). <i>Concise Guide to Software Engineering: From Fundamentals to Application Methods</i>. Springer Nature. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-031-07816-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-031-07816-3"><bdi>978-3-031-07816-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Concise+Guide+to+Software+Engineering%3A+From+Fundamentals+to+Application+Methods&rft.pub=Springer+Nature&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-3-031-07816-3&rft.aulast=O%27Regan&rft.aufirst=Gerard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOsterweil2013" class="citation book cs1">Osterweil, Leon J. (2013). "What Is Software? The Role of Empirical Methods in Answering the Question". <i>Perspectives on the Future of Software Engineering: Essays in Honor of Dieter Rombach</i>. Springer. pp. 237–254. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-37395-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-642-37395-4"><bdi>978-3-642-37395-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=What+Is+Software%3F+The+Role+of+Empirical+Methods+in+Answering+the+Question&rft.btitle=Perspectives+on+the+Future+of+Software+Engineering%3A+Essays+in+Honor+of+Dieter+Rombach&rft.pages=237-254&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-3-642-37395-4&rft.aulast=Osterweil&rft.aufirst=Leon+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRahman_et_al.2024" class="citation journal cs1">Rahman, Hanif Ur; da Silva, Alberto Rodrigues; Alzayed, Asaad; Raza, Mushtaq (2024). "A Systematic Literature Review on Software Maintenance Offshoring Decisions". <i>Information and Software Technology</i>. <b>172</b>: 107475. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.infsof.2024.107475">10.1016/j.infsof.2024.107475</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Information+and+Software+Technology&rft.atitle=A+Systematic+Literature+Review+on+Software+Maintenance+Offshoring+Decisions&rft.volume=172&rft.pages=107475&rft.date=2024&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.infsof.2024.107475&rft.aulast=Rahman&rft.aufirst=Hanif+Ur&rft.au=da+Silva%2C+Alberto+Rodrigues&rft.au=Alzayed%2C+Asaad&rft.au=Raza%2C+Mushtaq&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReifer2012" class="citation book cs1">Reifer, Donald J. (2012). <i>Software Maintenance Success Recipes</i>. CRC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4398-5167-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4398-5167-8"><bdi>978-1-4398-5167-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Software+Maintenance+Success+Recipes&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-4398-5167-8&rft.aulast=Reifer&rft.aufirst=Donald+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosatiLynn2020" class="citation book cs1">Rosati, Pierangelo; Lynn, Theo (2020). "Measuring the Business Value of Infrastructure Migration to the Cloud". <i>Measuring the Business Value of Cloud Computing</i>. Springer International Publishing. pp. 19–37. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-43198-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-030-43198-3"><bdi>978-3-030-43198-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Measuring+the+Business+Value+of+Infrastructure+Migration+to+the+Cloud&rft.btitle=Measuring+the+Business+Value+of+Cloud+Computing&rft.pages=19-37&rft.pub=Springer+International+Publishing&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-3-030-43198-3&rft.aulast=Rosati&rft.aufirst=Pierangelo&rft.au=Lynn%2C+Theo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSebesta2012" class="citation book cs1">Sebesta, Robert W. (2012). <i>Concepts of Programming Languages</i> (10 ed.). Addison-Wesley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-139531-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-139531-2"><bdi>978-0-13-139531-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Concepts+of+Programming+Languages&rft.edition=10&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-13-139531-2&rft.aulast=Sebesta&rft.aufirst=Robert+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStull2018" class="citation book cs1">Stull, Edward (2018). <i>UX Fundamentals for Non-UX Professionals: User Experience Principles for Managers, Writers, Designers, and Developers</i>. Apress. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4842-3811-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4842-3811-0"><bdi>978-1-4842-3811-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=UX+Fundamentals+for+Non-UX+Professionals%3A+User+Experience+Principles+for+Managers%2C+Writers%2C+Designers%2C+and+Developers&rft.pub=Apress&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-4842-3811-0&rft.aulast=Stull&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTanenbaumBos2023" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_S._Tanenbaum" title="Andrew S. Tanenbaum">Tanenbaum, Andrew S.</a>; Bos, Herbert (2023). <i>Modern Operating Systems, Global Edition</i>. Pearson Higher Ed. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-292-72789-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-292-72789-9"><bdi>978-1-292-72789-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Operating+Systems%2C+Global+Edition&rft.pub=Pearson+Higher+Ed&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-292-72789-9&rft.aulast=Tanenbaum&rft.aufirst=Andrew+S.&rft.au=Bos%2C+Herbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTracy2021" class="citation book cs1">Tracy, Kim W. (2021). <i>Software: A Technical History</i>. Morgan & Claypool Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4503-8724-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4503-8724-8"><bdi>978-1-4503-8724-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Software%3A+A+Technical+History&rft.pub=Morgan+%26+Claypool+Publishers&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-4503-8724-8&rft.aulast=Tracy&rft.aufirst=Kim+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTripathyNaik2014" class="citation book cs1">Tripathy, Priyadarshi; Naik, Kshirasagar (2014). <i>Software Evolution and Maintenance: A Practitioner's Approach</i>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-60341-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-60341-3"><bdi>978-0-470-60341-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Software+Evolution+and+Maintenance%3A+A+Practitioner%27s+Approach&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-470-60341-3&rft.aulast=Tripathy&rft.aufirst=Priyadarshi&rft.au=Naik%2C+Kshirasagar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTuckerMorellide_Silva2011" class="citation book cs1">Tucker, Allen; Morelli, Ralph; de Silva, Chamindra (2011). <i>Software Development: An Open Source Approach</i>. CRC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4398-8460-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4398-8460-7"><bdi>978-1-4398-8460-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Software+Development%3A+An+Open+Source+Approach&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4398-8460-7&rft.aulast=Tucker&rft.aufirst=Allen&rft.au=Morelli%2C+Ralph&rft.au=de+Silva%2C+Chamindra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUlziit_et_al.2015" class="citation journal cs1">Ulziit, Bayarbuyan; Warraich, Zeeshan Akhtar; Gencel, Cigdem; Petersen, Kai (2015). "A conceptual framework of challenges and solutions for managing global software maintenance". <i>Journal of Software: Evolution and Process</i>. <b>27</b> (10): 763–792. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fsmr.1720">10.1002/smr.1720</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Software%3A+Evolution+and+Process&rft.atitle=A+conceptual+framework+of+challenges+and+solutions+for+managing+global+software+maintenance&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=763-792&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fsmr.1720&rft.aulast=Ulziit&rft.aufirst=Bayarbuyan&rft.au=Warraich%2C+Zeeshan+Akhtar&rft.au=Gencel%2C+Cigdem&rft.au=Petersen%2C+Kai&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatt2023" class="citation book cs1">Watt, Andy (2023). <i>Building Modern SaaS Applications with C# And . NET: Build, Deploy, and Maintain Professional SaaS Applications</i>. Packt. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-80461-087-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-80461-087-9"><bdi>978-1-80461-087-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Building+Modern+SaaS+Applications+with+C%23+And+.+NET%3A+Build%2C+Deploy%2C+and+Maintain+Professional+SaaS+Applications&rft.pub=Packt&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-80461-087-9&rft.aulast=Watt&rft.aufirst=Andy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVarga2018" class="citation book cs1">Varga, Ervin (2018). <i>Unraveling Software Maintenance and Evolution: Thinking Outside the Box</i>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-71303-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-71303-8"><bdi>978-3-319-71303-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unraveling+Software+Maintenance+and+Evolution%3A+Thinking+Outside+the+Box&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-3-319-71303-8&rft.aulast=Varga&rft.aufirst=Ervin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoftware" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Active</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Personal_computer" title="Personal computer">Personal <br /> computers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amazon_Digital_Game_Store" class="mw-redirect" title="Amazon Digital Game Store">Amazon Digital Game Store</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle.net" title="Battle.net">Battle.net</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Fish_Games" title="Big Fish Games">Big Fish Games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrome_Web_Store" title="Chrome Web Store">Chrome Web Store</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_River" title="Digital River">Digital River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct2Drive" title="Direct2Drive">Direct2Drive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discord_(software)" class="mw-redirect" title="Discord (software)">Discord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DLsite" title="DLsite">DLsite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KDE_Gear" title="KDE Gear">Discover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DMM_Games" class="mw-redirect" title="DMM Games">DMM Games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EA_(service)" title="EA (service)">EA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epic_Games_Store" title="Epic Games Store">Epic Games Store</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flathub" class="mw-redirect" title="Flathub">Flathub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GameHouse" title="GameHouse">GameHouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GamersGate" title="GamersGate">GamersGate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamesplanet" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamesplanet">Gamesplanet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_Jolt" title="Game Jolt">Game Jolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GNOME_Software" title="GNOME Software">GNOME Software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GOG.com" title="GOG.com">GOG.com</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humble_Store" class="mw-redirect" title="Humble Store">Humble Store</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IndieGala" title="IndieGala">IndieGala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itch.io" title="Itch.io">itch.io</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inside_Mac_Games" title="Inside Mac Games">MacGameStore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MacUpdate" title="MacUpdate">MacUpdate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mac_App_Store" title="Mac App Store">Mac App Store</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta_Horizon_Store" title="Meta Horizon Store">Meta Horizon Store</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Store" title="Microsoft Store">Microsoft Store</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MSN_Games" title="MSN Games">MSN Games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutaku" title="Nutaku">Nutaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pogo.com" title="Pogo.com">Pogo.com</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pokki" title="Pokki">Pokki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PureOS" title="PureOS">PureOS Software Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robot_Cache" title="Robot Cache">Robot Cache</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rockstar_Games_Social_Club" class="mw-redirect" title="Rockstar Games Social Club">Rockstar Games Social Club</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snap_Store" class="mw-redirect" title="Snap Store">Snap Store</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steam_(service)" title="Steam (service)">Steam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubisoft_Connect" title="Ubisoft Connect">Ubisoft Connect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viveport" class="mw-redirect" title="Viveport">Viveport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WeGame" title="WeGame">WeGame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WildTangent" title="WildTangent">WildTangent</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Video_game_console" title="Video game console">Consoles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Store" title="Microsoft Store">Microsoft Store</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nintendo_eShop" title="Nintendo eShop">Nintendo eShop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PlayStation_Store" title="PlayStation Store">PlayStation Store</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mobile_device" title="Mobile device">Mobile <br /> devices</a> §</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amazon_Appstore" title="Amazon Appstore">Amazon Appstore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/App_Store_(Apple)" title="App Store (Apple)">Apple App Store</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appland" title="Appland">Appland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aptoide" title="Aptoide">Aptoide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cafe_Bazaar" title="Cafe Bazaar">Cafe Bazaar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cydia" title="Cydia">Cydia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DLsite" title="DLsite">DLsite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epic_Games_Store" title="Epic Games Store">Epic Games Store</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-Droid" title="F-Droid">F-Droid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galaxy_Store" title="Galaxy Store">Galaxy Store</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GetJar" title="GetJar">GetJar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Google_Play" title="Google Play">Google Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huawei_AppGallery" title="Huawei AppGallery">Huawei AppGallery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta_Horizon_Store" title="Meta Horizon Store">Meta Horizon Store</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MiKandi" title="MiKandi">MiKandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutaku" title="Nutaku">Nutaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_Touch" title="Ubuntu Touch">OpenStore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PureOS" title="PureOS">PureOS Software Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SlideME" class="mw-redirect" title="SlideME">SlideME</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TapTap" title="TapTap">TapTap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viveport" class="mw-redirect" title="Viveport">Viveport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arcade_video_game#Technology" title="Arcade video game">Arcade</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NESiCAxLive" title="NESiCAxLive">NESiCAxLive</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Defunct</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allmyapps" title="Allmyapps">Allmyapps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BlackBerry_World" title="BlackBerry World">BlackBerry World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Club_Nokia" title="Club Nokia">Club Nokia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desura" title="Desura">Desura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Download!" title="Download!">Download!</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GameAgent" title="GameAgent">GameAgent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GameShadow" title="GameShadow">GameShadow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GameTap" title="GameTap">GameTap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Games_for_Windows_Marketplace" class="mw-redirect" title="Games for Windows Marketplace">Games for Windows Marketplace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Handango" title="Handango">Handango</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impulse_(software)" title="Impulse (software)">Impulse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intel_AppUp" title="Intel AppUp">Intel AppUp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kartridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Kartridge">Kartridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazaa" title="Kazaa">Kazaa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N-Gage_(service)" title="N-Gage (service)">N-Gage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nokia_Store" class="mw-redirect" title="Nokia Store">Nokia Store</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opera_Mobile_Store" title="Opera Mobile Store">Opera Mobile Store</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PlayNow_Arena" title="PlayNow Arena">PlayNow Arena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stardock_Central" title="Stardock Central">Stardock Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triton_(content_delivery)" title="Triton (content delivery)">Triton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_App_Store" class="mw-redirect" title="Ubuntu App Store">Ubuntu App Store</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_Software_Center" title="Ubuntu Software Center">Ubuntu Software Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vodafone_live!" title="Vodafone live!">Vodafone live!</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wii_Shop_Channel" title="Wii Shop Channel">Wii Shop Channel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windows_Marketplace" title="Windows Marketplace">Windows Marketplace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windows_Marketplace_for_Mobile" title="Windows Marketplace for Mobile">Windows Marketplace for Mobile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windows_Phone_Store" title="Windows Phone Store">Windows Phone Store</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xbox_Games_Store" title="Xbox Games Store">Xbox Games Store</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xbox_Live_Arcade" title="Xbox Live Arcade">Xbox Live Arcade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yahoo!_Games" class="mw-redirect" title="Yahoo! Games">Yahoo! Games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zune_Marketplace" class="mw-redirect" title="Zune Marketplace">Zune Marketplace</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>§ Also includes <a href="/wiki/Smart_TV" title="Smart TV">Smart TVs</a> and standalone <a href="/wiki/Virtual_reality_headset" title="Virtual reality headset">VR headsets</a> <br /></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Software" title="Category:Software">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Software" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Software">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portal</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Free_and_open-source_software_logo_%282009%29.svg/19px-Free_and_open-source_software_logo_%282009%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Free_and_open-source_software_logo_%282009%29.svg/29px-Free_and_open-source_software_logo_%282009%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Free_and_open-source_software_logo_%282009%29.svg/38px-Free_and_open-source_software_logo_%282009%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Free_and_open-source_software" title="Portal:Free and open-source software">Free and open-source software</a></li></ul></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236088147">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 2em}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;padding:0.2em 0;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px;line-height:22px}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;align-items:baseline;padding:0.2em 0;column-gap:1em;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{display:flex;align-items:baseline;margin:0.15em 0;min-height:24px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-logo{width:22px;line-height:22px;margin:0 0.2em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-link{margin:0 0.2em;text-align:left}@media screen and (max-width:960px){.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{flex-flow:column wrap;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{flex:0 1}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{flex:1;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{flex:0 0 20em;min-width:20em}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.portal-bar{margin-top:-1px}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header"><b>Software</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects" style="white-space:nowrap;">sister projects</span></a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/21px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Software" class="extiw" title="c:Software">Media</a></b> from Commons</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/21px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/32px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/42px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Category:Software" class="extiw" title="n:Category:Software">News</a></b> from Wikinews</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/16px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/24px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/32px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Software" class="extiw" title="q:Software">Quotations</a></b> from Wikiquote</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/19px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/29px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/38px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Shelf:Computer_software" class="extiw" title="b:Shelf:Computer software">Textbooks</a></b> from Wikibooks</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/21px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/32px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/42px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Software" class="extiw" title="v:Software">Resources</a></b> from Wikiversity</span></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7397#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Software"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4055382-6">Germany</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Computer software"><a 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