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class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Computational semantics</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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style="width:19.0em"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#ccccff;border-bottom:#fafafa solid 1px;"><a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">Semantics</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;font-size:105%;"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formal_semantics_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal semantics (linguistics)">Linguistic</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Formal_semantics_(logic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal semantics (logic)">Logical</a></li></ul></div></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Subfields</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Computational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexical_semantics" title="Lexical semantics">Lexical</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lexis_(linguistics)" title="Lexis (linguistics)">lexis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lexicology" title="Lexicology">lexicology</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_semantics" title="Statistical semantics">Statistical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_semantics" title="Structural semantics">Structural</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Topics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_analysis_(linguistics)" title="Semantic analysis (linguistics)">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compositionality" class="mw-redirect" title="Compositionality">Compositionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Context_(language_use)" class="mw-redirect" title="Context (language use)">Context (language use)</a></li> <li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prototype_theory" title="Prototype theory">Prototype theory</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Force_dynamics" title="Force dynamics">Force dynamics</a></li></ul></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_feature" title="Semantic feature">Semantic feature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_gap" title="Semantic gap">Semantic gap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_descriptions" title="Theory of descriptions">Theory of descriptions</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Analysis</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latent_semantic_analysis" title="Latent semantic analysis">Latent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_analysis_(computational)" title="Semantic analysis (computational)">Computational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_analysis_(machine_learning)" title="Semantic analysis (machine learning)">Machine-learning</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Applications</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_file_system" title="Semantic file system">Semantic file system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_desktop" title="Semantic desktop">Semantic desktop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_matching" title="Semantic matching">Semantic matching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_parsing" title="Semantic parsing">Semantic parsing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_similarity" title="Semantic similarity">Semantic similarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_query" title="Semantic query">Semantic query</a></li> <li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_Web" title="Semantic Web">Semantic Web</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_wiki" title="Semantic wiki">Semantic wiki</a></li></ul></div></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;font-size:105%;"> <a href="/wiki/Semantics_(computer_science)" title="Semantics (computer science)">Semantics of<br />programming languages</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Types</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_semantics" title="Action semantics">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algebraic_semantics_(computer_science)" title="Algebraic semantics (computer science)">Algebraic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiomatic_semantics" title="Axiomatic semantics">Axiomatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Categorical_logic" title="Categorical logic">Categorical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concurrency_semantics" title="Concurrency semantics">Concurrency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denotational_semantics" title="Denotational semantics">Denotational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_semantics" title="Game semantics">Game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operational_semantics" title="Operational semantics">Operational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predicate_transformer_semantics" title="Predicate transformer semantics">Predicate transformational</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Theory</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_interpretation" title="Abstract interpretation">Abstract interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_semantic_graph" title="Abstract semantic graph">Abstract semantic graph</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="background:#ddddff"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Semantics" title="Template:Semantics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Semantics" title="Template talk:Semantics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Semantics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Semantics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Computational semantics</b> is the study of how to automate the process of constructing and reasoning with <a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">meaning representations</a> of <a href="/wiki/Natural_language" title="Natural language">natural language</a> expressions.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It consequently plays an important role in <a href="/wiki/Natural_language_processing" title="Natural language processing">natural-language processing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Computational_linguistics" title="Computational linguistics">computational linguistics</a>. </p><p>Some traditional topics of interest are: <a href="/wiki/Semantic_analysis_(linguistics)" title="Semantic analysis (linguistics)">construction of meaning representations</a>, semantic <a href="/wiki/Underspecification" title="Underspecification">underspecification</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anaphora_(linguistics)" title="Anaphora (linguistics)">anaphora</a> resolution,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Presupposition" title="Presupposition">presupposition</a> projection, and <a href="/wiki/Quantifier_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantifier (linguistics)">quantifier</a> scope resolution. Methods employed usually draw from <a href="/wiki/Formal_semantics_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal semantics (linguistics)">formal semantics</a> or <a href="/wiki/Statistical_semantics" title="Statistical semantics">statistical semantics</a>. Computational semantics has points of contact with the areas of <a href="/wiki/Lexical_semantics" title="Lexical semantics">lexical semantics</a> (<a href="/wiki/Word-sense_disambiguation" title="Word-sense disambiguation">word-sense disambiguation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Semantic_role_labeling" title="Semantic role labeling">semantic role labeling</a>), discourse semantics, <a href="/wiki/Knowledge_representation" class="mw-redirect" title="Knowledge representation">knowledge representation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Automated_reasoning" title="Automated reasoning">automated reasoning</a> (in particular, <a href="/wiki/Automated_theorem_proving" title="Automated theorem proving">automated theorem proving</a>). Since 1999 there has been an <a href="/wiki/Association_for_Computational_Linguistics" title="Association for Computational Linguistics">ACL</a> special interest group on computational semantics, SIGSEM. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computational_semantics&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_representation_theory" title="Discourse representation theory">Discourse representation theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_semantics_(natural_language)" title="Formal semantics (natural language)">Formal semantics (natural language)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimal_recursion_semantics" title="Minimal recursion semantics">Minimal recursion semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural-language_understanding" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural-language understanding">Natural-language understanding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_compression" title="Semantic compression">Semantic compression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_parsing" title="Semantic parsing">Semantic parsing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_Web" title="Semantic Web">Semantic Web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SemEval" title="SemEval">SemEval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WordNet" title="WordNet">WordNet</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computational_semantics&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Blackburn, P., and Bos, J. (2005), <i>Representation and Inference for Natural Language: A First Course in Computational Semantics</i>, CSLI Publications. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57586-496-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-57586-496-7">1-57586-496-7</a>.</li> <li>Bunt, H., and Muskens, R. (1999), <i>Computing Meaning, Volume 1</i>, Kluwer Publishing, Dordrecht. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4020-0290-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-4020-0290-4">1-4020-0290-4</a>.</li> <li>Bunt, H., Muskens, R., and Thijsse, E. (2001), <i>Computing Meaning, Volume 2</i>, Kluwer Publishing, Dordrecht. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4020-0175-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-4020-0175-4">1-4020-0175-4</a>.</li> <li>Copestake, A., Flickinger, D. P., Sag, I. A., & Pollard, C. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120717034844/http://lingo.stanford.edu/sag/papers/copestake.pdf">Minimal Recursion Semantics. An introduction</a>. In Research on Language and Computation. 3:281–332.</li> <li>Eijck, J. van, and C. Unger (2010): Computational Semantics with Functional Programming. Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-75760-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-75760-7">978-0-521-75760-7</a></li> <li>Wilks, Y., and <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Charniak" title="Eugene Charniak">Charniak, E.</a> (1976), <i>Computational Semantics: An Introduction to Artificial Intelligence and Natural Language Understanding</i>, North-Holland, Amsterdam. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-444-11110-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-444-11110-7">0-444-11110-7</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computational_semantics&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Blackburn, Patrick, and Johan Bos. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/499187.pdf">Computational semantics</a>." Theoria: An International Journal for Theory, History and Foundations of Science (2003): 27–45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Basile, Valerio, et al. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22meaning+representation%22+%22computational+semantics%22+%22underspecification%22+%22anaphora%22+%22scope+resolution%22&btnG=&hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C47#">Developing a large semantically annotated corpus</a>." LREC 2012, Eighth International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation. 2012.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computational_semantics&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sigsem.org/">Special Interest Group on Computational Semantics (SIGSEM)</a> of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130222210222/http://let.uvt.nl/research/ti/sigsem/iwcs/">IWCS</a> - International Workshop on Computational Semantics (endorsed by SIGSEM)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070119150136/http://staff.science.uva.nl/%7Emdr/ICoS/">ICoS</a> - Inference in Computational Semantics (endorsed by SIGSEM)</li></ul> <p><br /> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1012311289">.mw-parser-output .asbox{position:relative;overflow:hidden}.mw-parser-output .asbox table{background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .asbox p{margin:0}.mw-parser-output .asbox p+p{margin-top:0.25em}.mw-parser-output .asbox-body{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output .asbox-note{font-size:smaller}.mw-parser-output .asbox .navbar{position:absolute;top:-0.75em;right:1em;display:none}</style><div role="note" class="metadata plainlinks asbox stub"><table role="presentation"><tbody><tr class="noresize"><td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:LampFlowchart.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Stub icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/LampFlowchart.svg/22px-LampFlowchart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/LampFlowchart.svg/33px-LampFlowchart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/LampFlowchart.svg/44px-LampFlowchart.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="324" data-file-height="442" /></a></span></td><td><p class="asbox-body">This <a href="/wiki/Computational_linguistics" title="Computational linguistics">computational linguistics</a>-related article is a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Stub" title="Wikipedia:Stub">stub</a>. 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