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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Homonymy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Homonymy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Homonymy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Polysemy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Polysemy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Polysemy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Polysemy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Semantic_networks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Semantic_networks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Semantic networks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Semantic_networks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Semantic_fields" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Semantic_fields"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Semantic fields</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Semantic_fields-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Semantic fields subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Semantic_fields-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-How_lexical_items_map_onto_concepts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#How_lexical_items_map_onto_concepts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>How lexical items map onto concepts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-How_lexical_items_map_onto_concepts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-How_lexical_items_map_onto_events" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#How_lexical_items_map_onto_events"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>How lexical items map onto events</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-How_lexical_items_map_onto_events-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syntactic_basis_of_event_structure:_a_brief_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syntactic_basis_of_event_structure:_a_brief_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Syntactic basis of event structure: a brief history</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Syntactic_basis_of_event_structure:_a_brief_history-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Syntactic basis of event structure: a brief history subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Syntactic_basis_of_event_structure:_a_brief_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Generative_semantics_in_the_1960s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Generative_semantics_in_the_1960s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Generative semantics in the 1960s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Generative_semantics_in_the_1960s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lexicalist_theories_in_the_1980s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lexicalist_theories_in_the_1980s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Lexicalist theories in the 1980s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lexicalist_theories_in_the_1980s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Micro-syntactic_theories:_1990s_to_the_present" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Micro-syntactic_theories:_1990s_to_the_present"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Micro-syntactic theories: 1990s to the present</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Micro-syntactic_theories:_1990s_to_the_present-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hale_&_Keyser_1990" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hale_&_Keyser_1990"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>Hale & Keyser 1990</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hale_&_Keyser_1990-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Halle_&_Marantz_1993" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Halle_&_Marantz_1993"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.2</span> <span>Halle & Marantz 1993</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Halle_&_Marantz_1993-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ramchand_2008" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ramchand_2008"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.3</span> <span>Ramchand 2008</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ramchand_2008-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classification_of_event_types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification_of_event_types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Classification of event types</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Classification_of_event_types-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Classification of event types subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Classification_of_event_types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Intransitive_verbs:_unaccusative_versus_unergative" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intransitive_verbs:_unaccusative_versus_unergative"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Intransitive verbs: unaccusative versus unergative</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intransitive_verbs:_unaccusative_versus_unergative-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transitivity_alternations:_the_inchoative/causative_alternation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transitivity_alternations:_the_inchoative/causative_alternation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Transitivity alternations: the inchoative/causative alternation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transitivity_alternations:_the_inchoative/causative_alternation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Marked_inchoatives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marked_inchoatives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>Marked inchoatives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marked_inchoatives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marked_causatives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marked_causatives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.2</span> <span>Marked causatives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marked_causatives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ditransitive_verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ditransitive_verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Ditransitive verbs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ditransitive_verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Kayne's_1981_unambiguous_path_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kayne's_1981_unambiguous_path_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.1</span> <span>Kayne's 1981 unambiguous path analysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kayne's_1981_unambiguous_path_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Larson's_1988_"VP-shell"_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Larson's_1988_"VP-shell"_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.2</span> <span>Larson's 1988 "VP-shell" analysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Larson's_1988_"VP-shell"_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Beck_&_Johnson's_2004_double_object_construction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beck_&_Johnson's_2004_double_object_construction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.3</span> <span>Beck & Johnson's 2004 double object construction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Beck_&_Johnson's_2004_double_object_construction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span 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Available in 16 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-16" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">16 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الدلاليات المعجمية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الدلاليات المعجمية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="আভিধানিক বাগর্থবিজ্ঞান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আভিধানিক বাগর্থবিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Лексикална семантика – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Лексикална семантика" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexikalische_Semantik" title="Lexikalische Semantik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Lexikalische Semantik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D9%88%D8%A7%DA%98%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="معناشناسی واژگانی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="معناشناسی واژگانی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantika_leksikal" title="Semantika leksikal – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Semantika leksikal" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantica_lessicale" title="Semantica lessicale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Semantica lessicale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94_%D7%9C%D7%A7%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%AA" title="סמנטיקה לקסיקלית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="סמנטיקה לקסיקלית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantik_leksikal" title="Semantik leksikal – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Semantik leksikal" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woordsemantiek" title="Woordsemantiek – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Woordsemantiek" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E5%BD%99%E6%84%8F%E5%91%B3%E8%AB%96" title="語彙意味論 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="語彙意味論" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%95%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%A4_%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%A5-%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8" title="ਕੋਸ਼ਗਤ ਅਰਥ-ਵਿਗਿਆਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਕੋਸ਼ਗਤ ਅਰਥ-ਵਿਗਿਆਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Лексическая семантика – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Лексическая семантика" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Лексична семантика – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Лексична семантика" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A9%9E%E5%BD%99%E8%AA%9E%E7%BE%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="詞彙語義學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="詞彙語義學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AF%8D%E6%B1%87%E8%AF%AD%E4%B9%89%E5%AD%A6" title="词汇语义学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="词汇语义学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" 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articles">Index</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">General linguistics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">Diachronic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexicography" title="Lexicography">Lexicography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">Morphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">Phonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">Pragmatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">Semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">Syntax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntax%E2%80%93semantics_interface" title="Syntax–semantics interface">Syntax–semantics interface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_typology" title="Linguistic typology">Typology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Applied linguistics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">Acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_linguistics" title="Anthropological linguistics">Anthropological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_linguistics" title="Applied linguistics">Applied</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_linguistics" title="Computational linguistics">Computational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversation_analysis" title="Conversation analysis">Conversation analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corpus_linguistics" title="Corpus linguistics">Corpus linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_analysis" title="Discourse analysis">Discourse analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_distance" title="Linguistic distance">Distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_documentation" title="Language documentation">Documentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography_of_communication" title="Ethnography of communication">Ethnography of communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomethodology" title="Ethnomethodology">Ethnomethodology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_linguistics" title="Forensic linguistics">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_linguistics" title="History of linguistics">History of linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlinguistics" title="Interlinguistics">Interlinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurolinguistics" title="Neurolinguistics">Neurolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">Philology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonetics" title="Phonetics">Phonetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psycholinguistics" title="Psycholinguistics">Psycholinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">Sociolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Text_linguistics" title="Text linguistics">Text</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translation_studies" title="Translation studies">Translating</a> and <a href="/wiki/Language_interpretation" title="Language interpretation">interpreting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing systems</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Theoretical frameworks</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(linguistics)" title="Formalism (linguistics)">Formalist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phrase_structure_grammar" title="Phrase structure grammar">Constituency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependency_grammar" title="Dependency grammar">Dependency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributionalism" title="Distributionalism">Distributionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_grammar" title="Generative grammar">Generative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossematics" title="Glossematics">Glossematics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_linguistics" title="Functional linguistics">Functional</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_grammar" title="Cognitive grammar">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_grammar" title="Construction grammar">Construction grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_discourse_grammar" title="Functional discourse grammar">Functional discourse grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammaticalization" title="Grammaticalization">Grammaticalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interactional_linguistics" title="Interactional linguistics">Interactional linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_linguistic_circle" title="Prague linguistic circle">Prague circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemic_functional_linguistics" title="Systemic functional linguistics">Systemic functional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usage-based_models_of_language" title="Usage-based models of language">Usage-based</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_linguistics" title="Structural linguistics">Structuralism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy_of_syntax" title="Autonomy of syntax">Autonomy of syntax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_compositionality" title="Principle of compositionality">Compositionality</a></li> <li><a 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//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Linguistics" title="Portal:Linguistics">Portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Linguistics" title="Template:Linguistics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Linguistics" title="Template talk:Linguistics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Linguistics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Linguistics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Subfield of linguistic semantics</div> <p><b>Lexical semantics</b> (also known as <b>lexicosemantics</b>), as a subfield of <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistic</a> <a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">semantics</a>, is the study of word meanings.<sup id="cite_ref-Pustejovsky2005_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pustejovsky2005-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Taylor2017_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor2017-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It includes the study of how words structure their meaning, how they act in <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Principle_of_compositionality" title="Principle of compositionality">compositionality</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Pustejovsky2005_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pustejovsky2005-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the relationships between the distinct senses and uses of a word.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor2017_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor2017-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The units of analysis in lexical semantics are lexical units which include not only words but also sub-words or sub-units such as <a href="/wiki/Affix" title="Affix">affixes</a> and even <a href="/wiki/Compound_word" class="mw-redirect" title="Compound word">compound words</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phrase" title="Phrase">phrases</a>. Lexical units include the catalogue of words in a language, the <a href="/wiki/Lexicon" title="Lexicon">lexicon</a>. Lexical semantics looks at how the meaning of the lexical units correlates with the structure of the language or <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a>. This is referred to as <a href="/wiki/Syntax-semantics_interface" class="mw-redirect" title="Syntax-semantics interface">syntax-semantics interface</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The study of lexical semantics concerns: </p> <ul><li>the classification and decomposition of lexical items</li> <li>the differences and similarities in lexical semantic structure cross-linguistically</li> <li>the relationship of lexical meaning to <a href="/wiki/Sentence_(linguistics)" title="Sentence (linguistics)">sentence</a> meaning and <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a>.</li></ul> <p>Lexical units, also referred to as syntactic atoms, can be independent such as in the case of root words or parts of compound words or they require association with other units, as prefixes and suffixes do. The former are termed <a href="/wiki/Free_morpheme" class="mw-redirect" title="Free morpheme">free morphemes</a> and the latter <a href="/wiki/Bound_morpheme" class="mw-redirect" title="Bound morpheme">bound morphemes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They fall into a narrow range of meanings (<a href="/wiki/Semantic_field" title="Semantic field">semantic fields</a>) and can combine with each other to generate new denotations. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_semantics" title="Cognitive semantics">Cognitive semantics</a> is the linguistic paradigm/framework that since the 1980s has generated the most studies in lexical semantics, introducing innovations like <a href="/wiki/Prototype_theory" title="Prototype theory">prototype theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conceptual_metaphor" title="Conceptual metaphor">conceptual metaphors</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Frame_semantics_(linguistics)" title="Frame semantics (linguistics)">frame semantics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Lexical_relations">Lexical relations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lexical_semantics&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Lexical relations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Lexical items contain information about category (lexical and syntactic), form and meaning. The semantics related to these categories then relate to each lexical item in the <a href="/wiki/Lexicon" title="Lexicon">lexicon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Glossary_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Glossary-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lexical items can also be semantically classified based on whether their meanings are derived from single lexical units or from their surrounding environment. </p><p>Lexical items participate in regular patterns of association with each other. Some relations between lexical items include <a href="/wiki/Hyponymy_and_hypernymy" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyponymy and hypernymy">hyponymy, hypernymy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Synonym" title="Synonym">synonymy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Antonym" class="mw-redirect" title="Antonym">antonymy</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Homonym" title="Homonym">homonymy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Glossary_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Glossary-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hyponymy_and_hypernymy">Hyponymy and hypernymy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lexical_semantics&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Hyponymy and hypernymy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Hyponymy_and_hypernymy" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyponymy and hypernymy">Hyponymy and hypernymy</a> refer to a relationship between a general term and the more specific terms that fall under the category of the general term. </p><p>For example, the colors <i>red</i>, <i>green</i>, <i>blue</i> and <i>yellow</i> are hyponyms. They fall under the general term of <i>color</i>, which is the hypernym. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Colortaxonomy.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Colortaxonomy.png/220px-Colortaxonomy.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="82" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Colortaxonomy.png/330px-Colortaxonomy.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Colortaxonomy.png/440px-Colortaxonomy.png 2x" data-file-width="618" data-file-height="230" /></a><figcaption>Taxonomy showing the hypernym "color"</figcaption></figure> <table> <tbody><tr> <td> <pre><i>Color (hypernym) → red, green, yellow, blue (hyponyms)</i> </pre> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Hyponyms and hypernyms can be described by using a <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(general)" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxonomy (general)">taxonomy</a>, as seen in the example. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Synonym">Synonym</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lexical_semantics&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Synonym"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Synonym" title="Synonym">Synonym</a> refers to words that are pronounced and spelled differently but contain the same meaning. </p> <table> <tbody><tr> <td> <pre><i>Happy, joyful, glad</i><sup id="cite_ref-Glossary_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Glossary-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </pre> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Antonym">Antonym</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lexical_semantics&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Antonym"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Antonym" class="mw-redirect" title="Antonym">Antonym</a> refers to words that are related by having the opposite meanings to each other. There are three types of antonyms: <a href="/wiki/Opposite_(semantics)#Gradable_antonyms" title="Opposite (semantics)">graded antonyms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Opposite_(semantics)#Complementary_antonyms" title="Opposite (semantics)">complementary antonyms</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Converse_(semantics)" title="Converse (semantics)">relational antonyms</a>. </p> <table> <tbody><tr> <td> <pre><i>Sleep, awake</i><sup id="cite_ref-Glossary_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Glossary-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>long, short</i> </pre> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Homonymy">Homonymy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lexical_semantics&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Homonymy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Homonymy" class="mw-redirect" title="Homonymy">Homonymy</a> refers to the relationship between words that are spelled or pronounced the same way but hold different meanings. </p> <table> <tbody><tr> <td> <pre><i>bank (of river)</i> <i>bank (financial institution)</i> </pre> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Polysemy">Polysemy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lexical_semantics&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Polysemy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Polysemy" title="Polysemy">Polysemy</a> refers to a word having two or more related meanings. </p> <table> <tbody><tr> <td> <pre><i>bright (shining)</i> <i>bright (intelligent)</i> </pre> </td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Semantic_Net.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Semantic_Net.svg/220px-Semantic_Net.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Semantic_Net.svg/330px-Semantic_Net.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Semantic_Net.svg/440px-Semantic_Net.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="305" data-file-height="190" /></a><figcaption>An example of a semantic network</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Semantic_networks">Semantic networks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lexical_semantics&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Semantic networks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Lexical semantics also explores whether the meaning of a lexical unit is established by looking at its neighbourhood in the <a href="/wiki/Semantic_network" title="Semantic network">semantic network</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (words it occurs with in natural sentences), or whether the meaning is already locally contained in the lexical unit. </p><p>In English, <a href="/wiki/WordNet" title="WordNet">WordNet</a> is an example of a semantic network. It contains English words that are grouped into <a href="/wiki/Synonym_Ring" class="mw-redirect" title="Synonym Ring">synsets</a>. Some semantic relations between these synsets are <a href="/wiki/Meronymy" class="mw-redirect" title="Meronymy">meronymy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hyponymy" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyponymy">hyponymy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Synonymy" class="mw-redirect" title="Synonymy">synonymy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Antonymy" class="mw-redirect" title="Antonymy">antonymy</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Semantic_fields">Semantic fields</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lexical_semantics&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Semantic fields"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="How_lexical_items_map_onto_concepts">How lexical items map onto concepts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lexical_semantics&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: How lexical items map onto concepts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>First proposed by Trier in the 1930s,<sup id="cite_ref-famer1999_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-famer1999-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Semantic_field" title="Semantic field">semantic field</a> theory proposes that a group of words with interrelated meanings can be categorized under a larger conceptual domain. This entire entity is thereby known as a semantic field. The words <i>boil</i>, <i>bake</i>, <i>fry</i>, and <i>roast</i>, for example, would fall under the larger semantic category of <i>cooking</i>. Semantic field theory asserts that lexical meaning cannot be fully understood by looking at a word in isolation, but by looking at a group of semantically related words.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Semantic relations can refer to any relationship in meaning between <a href="/wiki/Lexeme" title="Lexeme">lexemes</a>, including synonymy <i>(big</i> and <i>large),</i> antonymy <i>(big</i> and <i>small),</i> hypernymy and hyponymy <i>(rose</i> and <i>flower),</i> converseness <i>(buy</i> and <i>sell),</i> and incompatibility. Semantic field theory does not have concrete guidelines that determine the extent of semantic relations between lexemes. The abstract validity of the theory is a subject of debate.<sup id="cite_ref-famer1999_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-famer1999-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Knowing the meaning of a lexical item therefore means knowing the semantic entailments the word brings with it. However, it is also possible to understand only one word of a semantic field without understanding other related words. Take, for example, a taxonomy of plants and animals: it is possible to understand the words <i>rose</i> and <i>rabbit</i> without knowing what a <i>marigold</i> or a <i>muskrat</i> is. This is applicable to colors as well, such as understanding the word <i>red</i> without knowing the meaning of <i>scarlet,</i> but understanding <i>scarlet</i> without knowing the meaning of <i>red</i> may be less likely. A semantic field can thus be very large or very small, depending on the level of contrast being made between lexical items. While cat and dog both fall under the larger semantic field of animal, including the breed of dog, like <i>German shepherd,</i> would require contrasts between other breeds of dog (e.g. <i>corgi</i>, or <i>poodle</i>), thus expanding the semantic field further.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="How_lexical_items_map_onto_events">How lexical items map onto events</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lexical_semantics&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: How lexical items map onto events"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Event structure is defined as the semantic relation of a verb and its syntactic properties.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Event structure has three primary components:<sup id="cite_ref-Pustejovsky_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pustejovsky-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>primitive event type of the lexical item</li> <li>event composition rules</li> <li>mapping rules to lexical structure</li></ul> <p>Verbs can belong to one of three types: states, processes, or transitions. </p> <table> <tbody><tr> <td> <pre><i>(1) a. The door is <b>closed</b>.</i><sup id="cite_ref-Pustejovsky_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pustejovsky-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i> b. The door <b>closed</b>.</i> <i> c. John <b>closed</b> the door.</i> </pre> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>(1a) defines the state of the door being closed; there is no opposition in this <a href="/wiki/Predicate_(grammar)" title="Predicate (grammar)">predicate</a>. (1b) and (1c) both have predicates showing transitions of the door going from being implicitly <i>open</i> to <i>closed</i>. (1b) gives the <a href="/wiki/Intransitive_verb" title="Intransitive verb">intransitive</a> use of the verb close, with no explicit mention of the causer, but (1c) makes explicit mention of the <a href="/wiki/Agent_(grammar)" title="Agent (grammar)">agent</a> involved in the action. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Syntactic_basis_of_event_structure:_a_brief_history">Syntactic basis of event structure: a brief history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lexical_semantics&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Syntactic basis of event structure: a brief history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Generative_semantics_in_the_1960s">Generative semantics in the 1960s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lexical_semantics&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Generative semantics in the 1960s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The analysis of these different lexical units had a decisive role in the field of "<a href="/wiki/Generative_linguistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative linguistics">generative linguistics</a>" during the 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-WILEY_Blackwell_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WILEY_Blackwell-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term <i>generative</i> was proposed by Noam Chomsky in his book <a href="/wiki/Syntactic_Structures" title="Syntactic Structures">Syntactic Structures</a> published in 1957. The term <i>generative linguistics</i> was based on Chomsky's <a href="/wiki/Generative_grammar" title="Generative grammar">generative grammar</a>, a linguistic theory that states systematic sets of rules (<a href="/wiki/X%27_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="X' theory">X' theory</a>) can predict grammatical phrases within a natural language.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Generative Linguistics is also known as Government-Binding Theory. Generative linguists of the 1960s, including <a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ernst_von_Glasersfeld" title="Ernst von Glasersfeld">Ernst von Glasersfeld</a>, believed semantic relations between <a href="/wiki/Transitive_verbs" class="mw-redirect" title="Transitive verbs">transitive verbs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Intransitive_verbs" class="mw-redirect" title="Intransitive verbs">intransitive verbs</a> were tied to their independent syntactic organization.<sup id="cite_ref-WILEY_Blackwell_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WILEY_Blackwell-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This meant that they saw a simple verb phrase as encompassing a more complex syntactic structure.<sup id="cite_ref-WILEY_Blackwell_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WILEY_Blackwell-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lexicalist_theories_in_the_1980s">Lexicalist theories in the 1980s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lexical_semantics&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Lexicalist theories in the 1980s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Lexicalist theories became popular during the 1980s, and emphasized that a word's internal structure was a question of <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphology</a> and not of <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lexicalist theories emphasized that complex words (resulting from compounding and derivation of <a href="/wiki/Affixes" class="mw-redirect" title="Affixes">affixes</a>) have lexical entries that are derived from morphology, rather than resulting from overlapping syntactic and phonological properties, as Generative Linguistics predicts. The distinction between Generative Linguistics and Lexicalist theories can be illustrated by considering the transformation of the word <i>destroy</i> to <i>destruction</i>: </p> <ul><li><b>Generative Linguistics theory</b>: states the transformation of <i>destroy</i> → <i>destruction</i> as the nominal, <i>nom</i> + <i>destroy,</i> combined with <a href="/wiki/Phonological_rule" title="Phonological rule">phonological rules</a> that produce the output <i>destruction</i>. Views this transformation as independent of the morphology.</li> <li><b>Lexicalist theory</b>: sees <i>destroy</i> and <i>destruction</i> as having idiosyncratic lexical entries based on their differences in morphology. Argues that each morpheme contributes specific meaning. States that the formation of the complex word <i>destruction</i> is accounted for by a set of <i>Lexical Rules,</i> which are different and independent from syntactic rules.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Lexical_entry" class="mw-redirect" title="Lexical entry">lexical entry</a> lists the basic properties of either the whole word, or the individual properties of the morphemes that make up the word itself. The properties of <a href="/wiki/Lexical_item" title="Lexical item">lexical items</a> include their category selection <i>c-selection</i>, selectional properties <i>s-selection</i>, (also known as semantic selection),<sup id="cite_ref-WILEY_Blackwell_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WILEY_Blackwell-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> phonological properties, and features. The properties of lexical items are idiosyncratic, unpredictable, and contain specific information about the lexical items that they describe.<sup id="cite_ref-WILEY_Blackwell_13-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WILEY_Blackwell-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The following is an example of a lexical entry for the verb <i>put</i>: </p> <table> <tbody><tr> <td> <pre><i>put:</i> V DP<sub><i>agent</i></sub> DP<sub><i>experiencer</i></sub>/PP<sub><i>locative</i></sub> </pre> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Lexicalist theories state that a word's meaning is derived from its morphology or a speaker's lexicon, and not its syntax. The degree of morphology's influence on overall grammar remains controversial.<sup id="cite_ref-WILEY_Blackwell_13-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WILEY_Blackwell-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Currently, the linguists that perceive one engine driving both morphological items and syntactic items are in the majority. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Micro-syntactic_theories:_1990s_to_the_present">Micro-syntactic theories: 1990s to the present</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lexical_semantics&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Micro-syntactic theories: 1990s to the present"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By the early 1990s, Chomsky's <a href="/wiki/Minimalist_program" title="Minimalist program">minimalist framework</a> on language structure led to sophisticated probing techniques for investigating languages.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These probing techniques analyzed negative data over <a href="/wiki/Prescriptive_grammar" class="mw-redirect" title="Prescriptive grammar">prescriptive grammars</a>, and because of Chomsky's proposed Extended Projection Principle in 1986, probing techniques showed where specifiers of a sentence had moved to in order to fulfill the EPP. This allowed syntacticians to hypothesize that lexical items with complex syntactic features (such as <a href="/wiki/Ditransitive_verb" title="Ditransitive verb">ditransitive</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inchoative_verb" title="Inchoative verb">inchoative</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Causative_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Causative verb">causative</a> verbs), could select their own specifier element within a <a href="/wiki/Concrete_syntax_tree" class="mw-redirect" title="Concrete syntax tree">syntax tree</a> construction. (For more on probing techniques, see Suci, G., Gammon, P., & Gamlin, P. (1979)). </p><p>This brought the focus back on the <a href="/wiki/Syntax-lexical_semantics_interface" class="mw-redirect" title="Syntax-lexical semantics interface">syntax-lexical semantics interface</a>; however, syntacticians still sought to understand the relationship between complex verbs and their related syntactic structure, and to what degree the syntax was projected from the lexicon, as the Lexicalist theories argued. </p><p>In the mid 1990s, linguists <a href="/wiki/Heidi_Harley" title="Heidi Harley">Heidi Harley</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Jay_Keyser" title="Samuel Jay Keyser">Samuel Jay Keyser</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_L._Hale" title="Kenneth L. Hale">Kenneth Hale</a> addressed some of the implications posed by complex verbs and a lexically-derived syntax. Their proposals indicated that the predicates CAUSE and BECOME, referred to as subunits within a Verb Phrase, acted as a lexical semantic template.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Predicates</i> are verbs and state or affirm something about the subject of the sentence or the argument of the sentence. For example, the predicates <i>went</i> and <i>is here</i> below affirm the argument of the subject and the state of the subject respectively. </p> <table> <tbody><tr> <td> <pre><i>Lucy went home.</i> <i>The parcel is here.</i> </pre> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The subunits of Verb Phrases led to the Argument Structure Hypothesis and Verb Phrase Hypothesis, both outlined below.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The recursion found under the "umbrella" Verb Phrase, the VP Shell, accommodated binary-branching theory; another critical topic during the 1990s.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Current theory recognizes the predicate in Specifier position of a tree in inchoative/<a href="/wiki/Anticausative_verb" title="Anticausative verb">anticausative</a> verbs (intransitive), or causative verbs (transitive) is what selects the <a href="/wiki/Theta_role" title="Theta role">theta role</a> conjoined with a particular verb.<sup id="cite_ref-WILEY_Blackwell_13-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WILEY_Blackwell-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hale_&_Keyser_1990"><span id="Hale_.26_Keyser_1990"></span>Hale & Keyser 1990</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lexical_semantics&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Hale & Keyser 1990"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SyntacticTreeputHaleandKeyser.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/55/SyntacticTreeputHaleandKeyser.png/220px-SyntacticTreeputHaleandKeyser.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/5/55/SyntacticTreeputHaleandKeyser.png 1.5x" data-file-width="261" data-file-height="316" /></a><figcaption>Hale and Keyser 1990 structure</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_L._Hale" title="Kenneth L. Hale">Kenneth Hale</a> and <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Jay_Keyser" title="Samuel Jay Keyser">Samuel Jay Keyser</a> introduced their thesis on lexical argument structure during the early 1990s.<sup id="cite_ref-Hale_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hale-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They argue that a predicate's argument structure is represented in the syntax, and that the syntactic representation of the predicate is a lexical projection of its arguments. Thus, the structure of a predicate is strictly a lexical representation, where each phrasal head projects its argument onto a phrasal level within the syntax tree. The selection of this phrasal head is based on Chomsky's Empty Category Principle. This lexical projection of the predicate's argument onto the syntactic structure is the foundation for the Argument Structure Hypothesis.<sup id="cite_ref-Hale_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hale-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This idea coincides with Chomsky's <a href="/wiki/Projection_Principle" class="mw-redirect" title="Projection Principle">Projection Principle</a>, because it forces a VP to be selected locally and be selected by a Tense Phrase (TP). </p><p>Based on the interaction between lexical properties, locality, and the properties of the EPP (where a phrasal head selects another phrasal element locally), Hale and Keyser make the claim that the Specifier position or a complement are the only two semantic relations that project a predicate's argument. In 2003, Hale and Keyser put forward this hypothesis and argued that a lexical unit must have one or the other, Specifier or Complement, but cannot have both.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Halle_&_Marantz_1993"><span id="Halle_.26_Marantz_1993"></span>Halle & Marantz 1993</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lexical_semantics&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Halle & Marantz 1993"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Distributed_morphology" title="Distributed morphology">Distributed morphology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Distributedmorphtree.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/Distributedmorphtree.png" decoding="async" width="160" height="136" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="136" /></a><figcaption>Halle & Marantz 1993 structure</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Morris_Halle" title="Morris Halle">Morris Halle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alec_Marantz" title="Alec Marantz">Alec Marantz</a> introduced the notion of <a href="/wiki/Distributed_morphology" title="Distributed morphology">distributed morphology</a> in 1993.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This theory views the syntactic structure of words as a result of morphology and semantics, instead of the morpho-semantic interface being predicted by the syntax. Essentially, the idea that under the Extended Projection Principle there is a local boundary under which a special meaning occurs. This meaning can only occur if a head-projecting morpheme is present within the local domain of the syntactic structure.<sup id="cite_ref-Marantz_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marantz-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The following is an example of the tree structure proposed by distributed morphology for the sentence <i>"John's destroying the city"</i>. <i>Destroy</i> is the root, V-1 represents verbalization, and D represents nominalization.<sup id="cite_ref-Marantz_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marantz-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ramchand_2008">Ramchand 2008</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lexical_semantics&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Ramchand 2008"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In her 2008 book, <i>Verb Meaning and The Lexicon: A First-Phase Syntax</i>, linguist <a href="/wiki/Gillian_Ramchand" title="Gillian Ramchand">Gillian Ramchand</a> acknowledges the roles of lexical entries in the selection of complex verbs and their arguments.<sup id="cite_ref-Ramchand_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ramchand-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 'First-Phase' syntax proposes that event structure and event participants are directly represented in the syntax by means of <a href="/wiki/Branching_(linguistics)" title="Branching (linguistics)">binary branching</a>. This branching ensures that the Specifier is the consistently subject, even when investigating the projection of a complex verb's lexical entry and its corresponding syntactic construction. This generalization is also present in Ramchand's theory that the complement of a head for a complex verb phrase must co-describe the verb's event. </p><p>Ramchand also introduced the concept of Homomorphic Unity, which refers to the structural synchronization between the head of a complex verb phrase and its complement. According to Ramchand, Homomorphic Unity is "when two event descriptors are syntactically Merged, the structure of the complement must unify with the structure of the head."<sup id="cite_ref-Ramchand_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ramchand-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification_of_event_types">Classification of event types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lexical_semantics&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Classification of event types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intransitive_verbs:_unaccusative_versus_unergative">Intransitive verbs: unaccusative versus unergative</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lexical_semantics&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Intransitive verbs: unaccusative versus unergative"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:208px;max-width:208px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:102px;max-width:102px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Unaccusativeexample.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Unaccusativeexample.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="141" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="71" data-file-height="100" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Underlying tree structure for (2a)</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:102px;max-width:102px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Unergativeexample.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Unergativeexample.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="143" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="95" data-file-height="136" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Underlying tree structure for (2b)</div></div></div></div></div> <p>The unaccusative hypothesis was put forward by David Perlmutter in 1987, and describes how two classes of intransitive verbs have two different syntactic structures. These are <a href="/wiki/Unaccusative_verb" title="Unaccusative verb">unaccusative verbs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Unergative_verb" title="Unergative verb">unergative verbs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lappin_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lappin-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These classes of verbs are defined by Perlmutter only in syntactic terms. They have the following structures underlyingly: </p> <ul><li>unaccusative verb: __ [<sub>VP</sub> V NP]<sup id="cite_ref-Lappin_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lappin-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>unergative verb: NP [<sub>VP</sub> V]</li></ul> <p>The following is an example from English: </p> <table> <tbody><tr> <td> <pre>(2) <b>Unaccusative</b> a. <i>Mary fell.</i><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <b>Unergative</b> b. <i>Mary worked.</i> </pre> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In (2a) the verb underlyingly takes a direct object, while in (2b) the verb underlyingly takes a subject. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transitivity_alternations:_the_inchoative/causative_alternation"><span id="Transitivity_alternations:_the_inchoative.2Fcausative_alternation"></span>Transitivity alternations: the inchoative/causative alternation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lexical_semantics&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Transitivity alternations: the inchoative/causative alternation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Causative_alternation" class="mw-redirect" title="Causative alternation">Causative alternation</a></div> <p>The change-of-state property of Verb Phrases (VP) is a significant observation for the syntax of lexical semantics because it provides evidence that subunits are embedded in the VP structure, and that the meaning of the entire VP is influenced by this internal grammatical structure. (For example, the VP <i>the vase broke</i> carries a change-of-state meaning of the vase becoming broken, and thus has a silent BECOME subunit within its underlying structure.) There are two types of change-of-state predicates: <a href="/wiki/Inchoative" class="mw-redirect" title="Inchoative">inchoative</a> and <a href="/wiki/Causative" title="Causative">causative</a>. </p><p>Inchoative verbs are <a href="/wiki/Intransitive_verb" title="Intransitive verb">intransitive</a>, meaning that they occur without a direct object, and these verbs express that their subject has undergone a certain change of state. Inchoative verbs are also known as <a href="/wiki/Anticausative" class="mw-redirect" title="Anticausative">anticausative</a> verbs.<sup id="cite_ref-An_Overview_of_Lexical_Semantics_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-An_Overview_of_Lexical_Semantics-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Causative verbs are transitive, meaning that they occur with a direct object, and they express that the subject causes a change of state in the object. </p><p>Linguist <a href="/wiki/Martin_Haspelmath" title="Martin Haspelmath">Martin Haspelmath</a> classifies inchoative/causative verb pairs under three main categories: causative, anticausative, and non-directed alternations.<sup id="cite_ref-Haspelmath1_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haspelmath1-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Non-directed alternations are further subdivided into labile, equipollent, and suppletive alternations. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:328px;max-width:328px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:162px;max-width:162px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vasebreak.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Vasebreak.png/160px-Vasebreak.png" decoding="async" width="160" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Vasebreak.png 1.5x" data-file-width="165" data-file-height="208" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Underlying tree structure for (3a)</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:162px;max-width:162px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Johnbrokevase.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Johnbrokevase.png/160px-Johnbrokevase.png" decoding="async" width="160" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Johnbrokevase.png 1.5x" data-file-width="235" data-file-height="280" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Underlying tree structure for (3b)</div></div></div></div></div> <p><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> tends to favour <a href="/wiki/Ambitransitive_verb" title="Ambitransitive verb">labile alternations</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> meaning that the same verb is used in the inchoative and causative forms.<sup id="cite_ref-Haspelmath1_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haspelmath1-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This can be seen in the following example: <i>broke</i> is an intransitive inchoative verb in (3a) and a transitive causative verb in (3b). </p> <table> <tbody><tr> <td> <pre>(3) <b>English</b><sup id="cite_ref-An_Overview_of_Lexical_Semantics_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-An_Overview_of_Lexical_Semantics-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a. <i>The vase <b>broke</b>.</i> b. <i>John <b>broke</b> the vase</i>. </pre> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>As seen in the underlying tree structure for (3a), the silent subunit BECOME is embedded within the Verb Phrase (VP), resulting in the inchoative change-of-state meaning (y become z). In the underlying tree structure for (3b), the silent subunits CAUS and BECOME are both embedded within the VP, resulting in the causative change-of-state meaning (x cause y become z).<sup id="cite_ref-WILEY_Blackwell_13-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WILEY_Blackwell-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>English change of state verbs are often de-adjectival, meaning that they are derived from adjectives. We can see this in the following example: </p> <table> <tbody><tr> <td> <pre>(4) a. <i>The knot is loose.</i><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> b. <i>The knot loosened.</i> c. <i>Sandy loosened the knot.</i> </pre> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In example (4a) we start with a stative intransitive adjective, and derive (4b) where we see an intransitive inchoative verb. In (4c) we see a transitive causative verb. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Marked_inchoatives">Marked inchoatives</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lexical_semantics&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Marked inchoatives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some languages (e.g., <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>), have multiple morphological classes of inchoative verbs.<sup id="cite_ref-Schafer_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schafer-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Generally speaking, these languages separate their inchoative verbs into three classes: verbs that are obligatorily unmarked (they are not marked with a <a href="/wiki/Reflexive_pronoun" title="Reflexive pronoun">reflexive pronoun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clitic" title="Clitic">clitic</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Affix" title="Affix">affix</a>), verbs that are optionally marked, and verbs that are obligatorily marked. The causative verbs in these languages remain unmarked. <a href="/wiki/Martin_Haspelmath" title="Martin Haspelmath">Haspelmath</a> refers to this as the <a href="/wiki/Anticausative" class="mw-redirect" title="Anticausative">anticausative</a> alternation. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:348px;max-width:348px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:172px;max-width:172px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Zerbrach.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Zerbrach.png/170px-Zerbrach.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Zerbrach.png 1.5x" data-file-width="171" data-file-height="208" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Underlying tree structure for (4a)</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:172px;max-width:172px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hanszerbrach.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Hanszerbrach.png/170px-Hanszerbrach.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Hanszerbrach.png 1.5x" data-file-width="244" data-file-height="280" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Underlying tree structure for (4b)</div></div></div></div></div> <p>For example, inchoative verbs in <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> are classified into three morphological classes. <i>Class A</i> verbs necessarily form inchoatives with the reflexive pronoun <i><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">sich</i></span></i>, <i>Class B</i> verbs form inchoatives necessarily without the reflexive pronoun, and <i>Class C</i> verbs form inchoatives optionally with or without the reflexive pronoun. In example (5), the verb <i><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">zerbrach</i></span></i> is an unmarked inchoative verb from <i>Class B</i>, which also remains unmarked in its causative form.<sup id="cite_ref-Schafer_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schafer-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><b>German</b><sup id="cite_ref-Schafer_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schafer-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1209690778">.mw-parser-output .interlinear .bold{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .interlinear .smallcaps{text-transform:uppercase;font-size:smaller}</style><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(5) a.</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="de" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Die</p><p style="margin: 0px;">the</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="de" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Vase</p><p style="margin: 0px;">vase</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="de" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>zerbrach</b>.</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>broke</b></p></div><p style="display: none;">Die Vase <b>zerbrach</b>.</p><p style="display: none;">the vase <b>broke</b></p><p style="clear: left;">'The vase broke.'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em"><span style="visibility:hidden">(5)</span> b.</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="de" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Hans</p><p style="margin: 0px;">John</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="de" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>zerbrach</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>broke</b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="de" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">die</p><p style="margin: 0px;">the</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="de" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Vase.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">vase</p></div><p style="display: none;">Hans <b>zerbrach</b> die Vase.</p><p style="display: none;">John <b>broke</b> the vase</p><p style="clear: left;">'John broke the vase.'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:348px;max-width:348px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:172px;max-width:172px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Offnete.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Offnete.png/170px-Offnete.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Offnete.png 1.5x" data-file-width="182" data-file-height="208" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Underlying tree structure for (5a)</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:172px;max-width:172px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hansoffnete.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Hansoffnete.png/170px-Hansoffnete.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Hansoffnete.png 1.5x" data-file-width="225" data-file-height="280" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Underlying tree structure for (5b)</div></div></div></div></div> <p>In contrast, the verb <i>öffnete</i> is a <i>Class A</i> verb which necessarily takes the reflexive pronoun <i>sich</i> in its inchoative form, but remains unmarked in its causative form. </p> <dl><dd><b>German</b><sup id="cite_ref-Schafer_31-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schafer-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(6) a.</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="de" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Die</p><p style="margin: 0px;">the</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="de" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Tür</p><p style="margin: 0px;">door</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="de" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">öffnete</p><p style="margin: 0px;">opened</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="de" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>sich</b>.</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b><abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="reflexive" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">REFL</abbr></b></p></div><p style="display: none;">Die Tür öffnete <b>sich</b>.</p><p style="display: none;">the door opened <b>REFL</b></p><p style="clear: left;">'The door opened.'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em"><span style="visibility:hidden">(6)</span> b.</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="de" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Hans</p><p style="margin: 0px;">John</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="de" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>öffnete</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">opened</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="de" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">die</p><p style="margin: 0px;">the</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="de" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Tür.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">door</p></div><p style="display: none;">Hans <b>öffnete</b> die Tür.</p><p style="display: none;">John opened the door</p><p style="clear: left;">'John opened the door.'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>There has been some debate as to whether the different classes of inchoative verbs are purely based in morphology, or whether the differentiation is derived from the lexical-semantic properties of each individual verb. While this debate is still unresolved in languages such as <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>, it has been suggested by linguist Florian Schäfer that there are semantic differences between marked and unmarked inchoatives in <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>. Specifically, that only unmarked inchoative verbs allow an unintentional causer reading (meaning that they can take on an "<i>x unintentionally caused y</i>" reading).<sup id="cite_ref-Schafer_31-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schafer-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Marked_causatives">Marked causatives</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lexical_semantics&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Marked causatives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:388px;max-width:388px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:192px;max-width:192px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Angbata.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Angbata.png" decoding="async" width="190" height="225" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="176" data-file-height="208" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Underlying tree structure for (7a)</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:192px;max-width:192px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sirosa2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Sirosa2.png/190px-Sirosa2.png" decoding="async" width="190" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Sirosa2.png 1.5x" data-file-width="266" data-file-height="280" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Underlying tree structure for (7b)</div></div></div></div></div> <p>Causative morphemes are present in the verbs of many languages (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Tagalog_language" title="Tagalog language">Tagalog</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malagasy_language" title="Malagasy language">Malagasy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a>, etc.), usually appearing in the form of an affix on the verb.<sup id="cite_ref-An_Overview_of_Lexical_Semantics_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-An_Overview_of_Lexical_Semantics-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This can be seen in the following examples from <a href="/wiki/Tagalog_language" title="Tagalog language">Tagalog</a>, where the causative prefix <i>pag-</i> (realized here as <i>nag</i>) attaches to the verb <i>tumba</i> to derive a causative transitive verb in (7b), but the prefix does not appear in the inchoative intransitive verb in (7a). <a href="/wiki/Martin_Haspelmath" title="Martin Haspelmath">Haspelmath</a> refers to this as the <a href="/wiki/Causative" title="Causative">causative</a> alternation. </p> <dl><dd><b>Tagalog</b><sup id="cite_ref-An_Overview_of_Lexical_Semantics_27-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-An_Overview_of_Lexical_Semantics-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(7) a.</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tl" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Tumumba</p><p style="margin: 0px;">fell</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tl" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ang</p><p style="margin: 0px;">the</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tl" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">bata.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">child</p></div><p style="display: none;">Tumumba ang bata.</p><p style="display: none;">fell the child</p><p style="clear: left;">'The child fell.'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em"><span style="visibility:hidden">(7)</span> b.</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tl" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>Nag</b>tumba</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="causative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CAUS</abbr></b>-fall</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tl" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ng</p><p style="margin: 0px;">of</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tl" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">bata</p><p style="margin: 0px;">child</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tl" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">si</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="determiner" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DET</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tl" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Rosa.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Rosa</p></div><p style="display: none;"><b>Nag</b>tumba ng bata si Rosa.</p><p style="display: none;"><b>CAUS</b>-fall of child DET Rosa</p><p style="clear: left;">'Rosa knocked the child down.'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ditransitive_verbs">Ditransitive verbs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lexical_semantics&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Ditransitive verbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kayne's_1981_unambiguous_path_analysis"><span id="Kayne.27s_1981_unambiguous_path_analysis"></span>Kayne's 1981 unambiguous path analysis</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lexical_semantics&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Kayne's 1981 unambiguous path analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:228px;max-width:228px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:112px;max-width:112px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Unambiguouspathstree.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Unambiguouspathstree.png" decoding="async" width="110" height="153" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="72" data-file-height="100" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Tree diagram (8a)</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:112px;max-width:112px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Unambiguouspathtree.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Unambiguouspathtree.png/110px-Unambiguouspathtree.png" decoding="async" width="110" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Unambiguouspathtree.png 1.5x" data-file-width="155" data-file-height="136" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Tree diagram (8b)</div></div></div></div></div> <p>Richard Kayne proposed the idea of unambiguous paths as an alternative to c-commanding relationships, which is the type of structure seen in examples (8). The idea of unambiguous paths stated that an antecedent and an anaphor should be connected via an unambiguous path. This means that the line connecting an antecedent and an anaphor cannot be broken by another argument.<sup id="cite_ref-Kayne_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kayne-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When applied to ditransitive verbs, this hypothesis introduces the structure in diagram (8a). In this tree structure it can be seen that the same path can be traced from either DP to the verb. Tree diagram (7b) illustrates this structure with an example from English. This analysis was a step toward binary branching trees, which was a theoretical change that was furthered by Larson's VP-shell analysis.<sup id="cite_ref-Larson_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Larson-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Larson's_1988_"VP-shell"_analysis"><span id="Larson.27s_1988_.22VP-shell.22_analysis"></span>Larson's 1988 "VP-shell" analysis</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lexical_semantics&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Larson's 1988 "VP-shell" analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:348px;max-width:348px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:172px;max-width:172px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:LexicalSemanticsDOCtree.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/LexicalSemanticsDOCtree.png/170px-LexicalSemanticsDOCtree.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/LexicalSemanticsDOCtree.png 1.5x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="244" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Tree diagram for (9a)</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:172px;max-width:172px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lexicalsemantics7btree.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Lexicalsemantics7btree.png/170px-Lexicalsemantics7btree.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Lexicalsemantics7btree.png 1.5x" data-file-width="208" data-file-height="244" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Tree diagram for (9b)</div></div></div></div></div> <p>Larson posited his Single Complement Hypothesis in which he stated that every complement is introduced with one verb. The Double Object Construction presented in 1988 gave clear evidence of a hierarchical structure using asymmetrical binary branching.<sup id="cite_ref-Larson_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Larson-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sentences with double objects occur with ditransitive verbs, as we can see in the following example: </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vpshelltree.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Vpshelltree.png/220px-Vpshelltree.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Vpshelltree.png 1.5x" data-file-width="257" data-file-height="208" /></a><figcaption>Larson's proposed binary-branching VP-shell structure for (9)</figcaption></figure> <table> <tbody><tr> <td> </td> <td> <pre>(9) a. <i>John sent Mary a package.</i><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> b. <i>John sent a package to Mary.</i> </pre> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>It appears as if the verb <i>send</i> has two objects, or complements (arguments): both <i>Mary</i>, the recipient and <i>parcel</i>, the theme. The argument structure of ditransitive verb phrases is complex and has undergone different structural hypothesis. </p><p>The original structural hypothesis was that of ternary branching seen in (9a) and (9b), but following from Kayne's 1981 analysis, Larson maintained that each complement is introduced by a verb.<sup id="cite_ref-Kayne_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kayne-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Larson_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Larson-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Their hypothesis shows that there is a lower verb embedded within a VP shell that combines with an upper verb (can be invisible), thus creating a VP shell (as seen in the tree diagram to the right). Most current theories no longer allow the ternary tree structure of (9a) and (9b), so the theme and the goal/recipient are seen in a hierarchical relationship within a <a href="/wiki/Branching_(linguistics)#Binary_vs._n-ary_branching" title="Branching (linguistics)">binary branching</a> structure.<sup id="cite_ref-Bruening_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bruening-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following are examples of Larson's tests to show that the hierarchical (superior) order of any two objects aligns with a linear order, so that the second is governed (c-commanded) by the first.<sup id="cite_ref-Larson_33-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Larson-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is in keeping with X'Bar Theory of Phrase Structure Grammar, with Larson's tree structure using the empty Verb to which the V is raised. </p><p>Reflexives and reciprocals (anaphors) show this relationship in which they must be c-commanded by their antecedents, such that the (10a) is grammatical but (10b) is not: </p> <table> <tbody><tr> <td> <pre>(10) a. <i>I showed Mary herself.</i><sup id="cite_ref-Larson_33-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Larson-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> b. <i>*I showed herself Mary.</i> </pre> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A pronoun must have a quantifier as its antecedent: </p> <table> <tbody><tr> <td> <pre>(11) a. <i> I gave every worker his paycheck.</i><sup id="cite_ref-Larson_33-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Larson-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> b. <i>*I gave its owner every paycheck.</i> </pre> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Question words follow this order: </p> <table> <tbody><tr> <td> <pre>(12) a. <i>Who did you give which paycheck?</i><sup id="cite_ref-Larson_33-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Larson-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> b. <i>*Which paycheck did you give who?</i> </pre> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The effect of negative polarity means that "any" must have a negative quantifier as an antecedent: </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Larsoncausative.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Larsoncausative.png/220px-Larsoncausative.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Larsoncausative.png 1.5x" data-file-width="270" data-file-height="208" /></a><figcaption>General tree diagram for Larson's proposed underlying structure of a sentence with causative meaning</figcaption></figure> <table> <tbody><tr> <td> <pre>(13) a. <i>I showed no one anything.</i><sup id="cite_ref-Larson_33-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Larson-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> b. <i>*I showed anyone nothing.</i> </pre> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>These tests with ditransitive verbs that confirm c-command also confirm the presence of underlying or invisible causative verbs. In ditransitive verbs such as <i>give someone something</i>, <i>send someone something</i>, <i>show someone something</i> etc. there is an underlying causative meaning that is represented in the underlying structure. As seen in example in (9a) above, <i>John sent Mary a package</i>, there is the underlying meaning that 'John "caused" Mary to have a package'. </p><p>Larson proposed that both sentences in (9a) and (9b) share the same underlying structure and the difference on the surface lies in that the double object construction "John sent Mary a package" is derived by transformation from a NP plus PP construction "John sent a package to Mary". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Beck_&_Johnson's_2004_double_object_construction"><span id="Beck_.26_Johnson.27s_2004_double_object_construction"></span>Beck & Johnson's 2004 double object construction</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lexical_semantics&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Beck & Johnson's 2004 double object construction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Beck and Johnson, however, give evidence that the two underlying structures are not the same.<sup id="cite_ref-beck_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-beck-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In so doing, they also give further evidence of the presence of two VPs where the verb attaches to a causative verb. In examples (14a) and (b), each of the double object constructions are alternated with NP + PP constructions. </p> <table> <tbody><tr> <td> <pre>(14) a. <i>Satoshi sent Tubingen the Damron Guide.</i><sup id="cite_ref-beck_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-beck-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> b. <i>Satoshi sent the Damron Guide to Tübingen</i>. </pre> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Beck and Johnson show that the object in (15a) has a different relation to the motion verb as it is not able to carry the meaning of HAVING which the possessor (9a) and (15a) can. In (15a), Satoshi is an animate possessor and so is caused to HAVE kisimen. The PP <i>for Satoshi</i> in (15b) is of a benefactive nature and does not necessarily carry this meaning of HAVE either. </p> <table> <tbody><tr> <td> <pre>(15) a. <i>Thilo cooked Satoshi kisimen.</i><sup id="cite_ref-beck_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-beck-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> b. <i>Thilo cooked kisimen for Satoshi</i>. </pre> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The underlying structures are therefore not the same. The differences lie in the semantics and the syntax of the sentences, in contrast to the transformational theory of Larson. Further evidence for the structural existence of VP shells with an invisible verbal unit is given in the application of the adjunct or modifier "again". Sentence (16) is ambiguous and looking into the two different meanings reveals a difference in structure. </p> <table> <tbody><tr> <td> <pre>(16) <i>Sally opened the door again</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-beck_36-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-beck-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </pre> </td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:308px;max-width:308px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Larson3.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Larson3.png/150px-Larson3.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Larson3.png 1.5x" data-file-width="215" data-file-height="244" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Underlying tree structure for (17a)</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Larson1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Larson1.png/150px-Larson1.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/Larson1.png 1.5x" data-file-width="215" data-file-height="244" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Underlying tree structure for (17b)</div></div></div></div></div> <p>However, in (17a), it is clear that it was Sally who repeated the action of opening the door. In (17b), the event is in the door being opened and Sally may or may not have opened it previously. To render these two different meanings, "again" attaches to VPs in two different places, and thus describes two events with a purely structural change. </p> <table> <tbody><tr> <td> <pre>(17) a. <i>Sally was so kind that she went out of her way to open the door</i> <i>once again.</i><sup id="cite_ref-beck_36-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-beck-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> b. <i>The doors had just been shut to keep out the bugs but Sally opened</i> <i>the door again</i>. </pre> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lexical_semantics&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output 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title="Polysemy">Polysemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_primes" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantic primes">Semantic primes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_satiation" title="Semantic satiation">Semantic satiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SemEval" title="SemEval">SemEval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thematic_relation" title="Thematic relation">Thematic role</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Troponymy" title="Troponymy">Troponymy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Word_sense" title="Word sense">Word sense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Word-sense_disambiguation" title="Word-sense disambiguation">Word-sense disambiguation</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lexical_semantics&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style 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class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Pustejovsky2005-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pustejovsky2005_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pustejovsky2005_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Pustejovsky, J. (2005) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cxYGQfiD_1oC&pg=PT11380">Lexical Semantics: Overview</a></i> in Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, second edition, Volumes 1-14</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Taylor2017-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Taylor2017_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Taylor2017_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Taylor, J. (2017) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-handbook-of-cognitive-linguistics/lexical-semantics/798AB6901B9AD5B0AC42C94A52EC8ECF/core-reader">Lexical Semantics</a></i>. In B. Dancygier (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics (Cambridge Handbooks in Language and Linguistics, pp. 246-261). 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Linguistic+Inquiry&rft.atitle=Ditransitive+Asymmetries+and+a+Theory+of+Idiom+Formation&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=519-562&rft.date=2010-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2FLING_a_00012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A57567192%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Bruening&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALexical+semantics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-beck-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-beck_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-beck_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-beck_36-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-beck_36-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-beck_36-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSigridJohnson2004" class="citation journal cs1">Sigrid, Beck; Johnson, Kyle (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://people.umass.edu/partee/docs/Beck_and_Johnson_2004.pdf">"Double Objects Again"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Linguistic Inquiry</i>. <b>35</b> (1): 97–124. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2F002438904322793356">10.1162/002438904322793356</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18749803">18749803</a>.</cite><span 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hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_learner%27s_dictionary" title="Advanced learner's dictionary">Advanced learner's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anagram_dictionary" title="Anagram dictionary">Anagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bilingual_dictionary" title="Bilingual dictionary">Bilingual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biographical_dictionary" title="Biographical dictionary">Biographical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptual_dictionary" title="Conceptual dictionary">Conceptual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defining_vocabulary" title="Defining vocabulary">Defining vocabulary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_dictionary" title="Electronic dictionary">Electronic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedic_dictionary" title="Encyclopedic dictionary">Encyclopedic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etymological_dictionary" title="Etymological dictionary">Etymological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explanatory_dictionary" title="Explanatory dictionary">Explanatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_dictionary" title="Historical dictionary">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idiom_dictionary" title="Idiom dictionary">Idiom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language-for-specific-purposes_dictionary" title="Language-for-specific-purposes dictionary">Language-for-specific-purposes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine-readable_dictionary" title="Machine-readable dictionary">Machine-readable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_dictionary" title="Medical dictionary">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monolingual_learner%27s_dictionary" title="Monolingual learner's dictionary">Monolingual learner's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-field_dictionary" title="Multi-field dictionary">Multi-field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picture_dictionary" title="Picture dictionary">Picture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_dictionary" title="Reverse dictionary">Reverse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhyming_dictionary" title="Rhyming dictionary">Rhyming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rime_dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Rime dictionary">Rime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-field_dictionary" title="Single-field dictionary">Single-field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specialized_dictionary" title="Specialized dictionary">Specialized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spelling#Standards_and_conventions" title="Spelling">Spelling dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sub-field_dictionary" title="Sub-field dictionary">Sub-field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_dictionary" title="Visual dictionary">Visual</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_scientific_vocabulary" title="International scientific vocabulary">International scientific vocabulary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lexicographers" title="List of lexicographers">List of lexicographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_online_dictionaries" title="List of online dictionaries">List of online dictionaries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Linguistics" title="Portal:Linguistics">Linguistics portal</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Formal_semantics_(natural_language)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Formal_semantics" title="Template:Formal semantics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Formal_semantics" title="Template talk:Formal semantics"><abbr title="Discuss this 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(semantics)">Extension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalized_quantifier" title="Generalized quantifier">Generalized quantifier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intension" title="Intension">Intension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_form_(linguistics)" title="Logical form (linguistics)">Logical form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presupposition" title="Presupposition">Presupposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reference" title="Reference">Reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scope_(formal_semantics)" title="Scope (formal semantics)">Scope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_act" title="Speech act">Speech act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntax%E2%80%93semantics_interface" title="Syntax–semantics interface">Syntax–semantics interface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth-conditional_semantics" title="Truth-conditional semantics">Truth conditions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anaphora_(linguistics)" title="Anaphora (linguistics)">Anaphora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">Ambiguity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binding_(linguistics)" title="Binding (linguistics)">Binding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conditional_sentence" title="Conditional sentence">Conditionals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Definiteness" title="Definiteness">Definiteness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disjunction" class="mw-redirect" title="Disjunction">Disjunction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidentiality" title="Evidentiality">Evidentiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Focus_(linguistics)" title="Focus (linguistics)">Focus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indexicality" title="Indexicality">Indexicality</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Lexical semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_modality" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic modality">Modality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negation" title="Negation">Negation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propositional_attitudes" class="mw-redirect" title="Propositional attitudes">Propositional attitudes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tense%E2%80%93aspect%E2%80%93mood" title="Tense–aspect–mood">Tense–aspect–mood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantifier_(logic)" title="Quantifier (logic)">Quantification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vagueness" title="Vagueness">Vagueness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Phenomena</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antecedent-contained_deletion" title="Antecedent-contained deletion">Antecedent-contained deletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cataphora" title="Cataphora">Cataphora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coercion_(linguistics)" title="Coercion (linguistics)">Coercion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservativity" title="Conservativity">Conservativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterfactuals" class="mw-redirect" title="Counterfactuals">Counterfactuals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crossover_effects" title="Crossover effects">Crossover effects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cumulativity_(linguistics)" title="Cumulativity (linguistics)">Cumulativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_dicto_and_de_re" title="De dicto and de re">De dicto and de re</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_se" title="De se">De se</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontic_modality" title="Deontic modality">Deontic modality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_relation" title="Discourse relation">Discourse relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donkey_anaphora" class="mw-redirect" title="Donkey anaphora">Donkey anaphora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_modality" title="Epistemic modality">Epistemic modality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exhaustivity" title="Exhaustivity">Exhaustivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faultless_disagreement" title="Faultless disagreement">Faultless disagreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_choice_inference" title="Free choice inference">Free choice inferences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Givenness" title="Givenness">Givenness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homogeneity_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Homogeneity (linguistics)">Homogeneity (linguistics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurford_disjunction" title="Hurford disjunction">Hurford disjunction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inalienable_possession" title="Inalienable possession">Inalienable possession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Intersective modification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logophoricity" title="Logophoricity">Logophoricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirativity" title="Mirativity">Mirativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modal_subordination" title="Modal subordination">Modal subordination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opaque_context" title="Opaque context">Opaque contexts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performative_utterance" title="Performative utterance">Performatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polarity_item" title="Polarity item">Polarity items</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privative_adjective" title="Privative adjective">Privative adjectives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantificational_variability_effect" title="Quantificational variability effect">Quantificational variability effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Responsive_predicate" title="Responsive predicate">Responsive predicate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rising_declarative" title="Rising declarative">Rising declaratives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scalar_implicature" title="Scalar implicature">Scalar implicature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sloppy_identity" title="Sloppy identity">Sloppy identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsective_modifier" title="Subsective modifier">Subsective modification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subtrigging" title="Subtrigging">Subtrigging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telicity" title="Telicity">Telicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperature_paradox" title="Temperature paradox">Temperature paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veridicality" title="Veridicality">Veridicality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formalism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formal systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_semantics" title="Alternative semantics">Alternative semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Categorial_grammar" title="Categorial grammar">Categorial grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combinatory_categorial_grammar" title="Combinatory categorial grammar">Combinatory categorial grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_representation_theory" title="Discourse representation theory">Discourse representation theory (DRT)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_semantics" title="Dynamic semantics">Dynamic semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_grammar" title="Generative grammar">Generative grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glue_semantics" title="Glue semantics">Glue semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisitive_semantics" title="Inquisitive semantics">Inquisitive semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensional_logic" title="Intensional logic">Intensional logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambda_calculus" title="Lambda calculus">Lambda calculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mereology" title="Mereology">Mereology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montague_grammar" title="Montague grammar">Montague grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segmented_discourse_representation_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Segmented discourse representation theory">Segmented discourse representation theory (SDRT)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Situation_semantics" title="Situation semantics">Situation semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supervaluationism" title="Supervaluationism">Supervaluationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_theory" title="Type theory">Type theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_theory_with_records" title="Type theory with records">TTR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy_of_syntax" title="Autonomy of syntax">Autonomy of syntax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Context_set" class="mw-redirect" title="Context set">Context set</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuation" title="Continuation">Continuation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversational_scoreboard" title="Conversational scoreboard">Conversational scoreboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downward_entailing" title="Downward entailing">Downward entailing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existential_closure" title="Existential closure">Existential closure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Function_application" title="Function application">Function application</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_postulate" title="Meaning postulate">Meaning postulate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monad_(functional_programming)" title="Monad (functional programming)">Monads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plural_quantification" title="Plural quantification">Plural quantification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possible_world" title="Possible world">Possible world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantifier_raising" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantifier raising">Quantifier raising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantization_(linguistics)" title="Quantization (linguistics)">Quantization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Question_under_discussion" title="Question under discussion">Question under discussion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_parsing" title="Semantic parsing">Semantic parsing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squiggle_operator" title="Squiggle operator">Squiggle operator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strawson_entailment" title="Strawson entailment">Strawson entailment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strict_conditional" title="Strict conditional">Strict conditional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_shifter" title="Type shifter">Type shifter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_grinder" title="Universal grinder">Universal grinder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_semantics" title="Cognitive semantics">Cognitive semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_semantics" title="Computational semantics">Computational semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributional_semantics" title="Distributional semantics">Distributional semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_grammar" title="Formal grammar">Formal grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inferentialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Inferentialism">Inferentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic_translation" title="Logic translation">Logic translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics_wars" title="Linguistics wars">Linguistics wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">Pragmatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics_of_logic" title="Semantics of logic">Semantics of logic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lexical_semantics&oldid=1250619958">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lexical_semantics&oldid=1250619958</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lexical_semantics" title="Category:Lexical 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