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</div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Types subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fission_weapons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fission_weapons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Fission weapons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fission_weapons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fusion_weapons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fusion_weapons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Fusion weapons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fusion_weapons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Other types</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tactical_nuclear_weapons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tactical_nuclear_weapons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Tactical nuclear weapons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tactical_nuclear_weapons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Weapons_delivery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Weapons_delivery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Weapons delivery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Weapons_delivery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nuclear_strategy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nuclear_strategy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Nuclear strategy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nuclear_strategy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Governance,_control,_and_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Governance,_control,_and_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Governance, control, and law</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Governance,_control,_and_law-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Governance, control, and law subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Governance,_control,_and_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Disarmament" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disarmament"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Disarmament</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disarmament-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_Nations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Nations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>United Nations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Nations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Controversy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Controversy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Controversy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Controversy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Controversy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Controversy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Ethics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_nuclear_weapons_accidents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_nuclear_weapons_accidents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Notable nuclear weapons accidents</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_nuclear_weapons_accidents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nuclear_testing_and_fallout" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nuclear_testing_and_fallout"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Nuclear testing and fallout</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nuclear_testing_and_fallout-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_of_nuclear_explosions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_of_nuclear_explosions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Effects of nuclear explosions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Effects_of_nuclear_explosions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Effects of nuclear explosions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Effects_of_nuclear_explosions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Effects_of_nuclear_explosions_on_human_health" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_of_nuclear_explosions_on_human_health"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Effects of nuclear explosions on human health</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_of_nuclear_explosions_on_human_health-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_of_nuclear_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_of_nuclear_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Effects of nuclear war</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_of_nuclear_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_opposition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_opposition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Public opposition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_opposition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Costs_and_technology_spin-offs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Costs_and_technology_spin-offs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Costs and technology spin-offs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Costs_and_technology_spin-offs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-weapons_uses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-weapons_uses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Non-weapons uses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-weapons_uses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_of_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>History of development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Nuclear weapon</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 127 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-127" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">127 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernwapen" title="Kernwapen – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Kernwapen" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernwaffe" title="Kernwaffe – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Kernwaffe" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AD_%D9%86%D9%88%D9%88%D9%8A" title="سلاح نووي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="سلاح نووي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arma_nucleyar" title="Arma nucleyar – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Arma nucleyar" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arma_nuclear" title="Arma nuclear – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Arma nuclear" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mboka_oipur%C3%BAva_tumingue%27a_mbaretekue" title="Mboka oipurúva tumingue'a mbaretekue – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Mboka oipurúva tumingue'a mbaretekue" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BCv%C9%99_silah%C4%B1" title="Nüvə silahı – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Nüvə silahı" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DA%A9%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%AF%DA%A9_%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A8%D9%88" title="چکیردک بومبو – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="چکیردک بومبو" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A3%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0" title="পারমাণবিক অস্ত্র – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="পারমাণবিক অস্ত্র" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/He%CC%8Dk-ch%C3%BA_b%C3%BA-kh%C3%AC" title="He̍k-chú bú-khì – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="He̍k-chú bú-khì" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE_%D2%A1%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B" title="Ядро ҡоралы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Ядро ҡоралы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D0%B7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B7%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%8F" title="Ядзерная зброя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Ядзерная зброя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D0%B7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B7%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%8F" title="Ядзерная зброя – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Ядзерная зброя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8A%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Ядрено оръжие – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Ядрено оръжие" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuklearno_oru%C5%BEje" title="Nuklearno oružje – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Nuklearno oružje" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arm_nukleel" title="Arm nukleel – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Arm nukleel" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%B7%D1%8D%D0%B1%D1%81%D1%8D%D0%B3" title="Атомой зэбсэг – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Атомой зэбсэг" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arma_nuclear" title="Arma nuclear – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Arma nuclear" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%B0p%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D1%85%C4%95%C3%A7%D0%BF%C4%83%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Нуклонсаpла хĕçпăшал – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Нуклонсаpла хĕçпăшал" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jadern%C3%A1_zbra%C5%88" title="Jaderná zbraň – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Jaderná zbraň" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zvombo_zveShomwe" title="Zvombo zveShomwe – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Zvombo zveShomwe" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arf_niwclear" title="Arf niwclear – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Arf niwclear" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernev%C3%A5ben" title="Kernevåben – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kernevåben" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernwaffe" title="Kernwaffe – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kernwaffe" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nv mw-list-item"><a href="https://nv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%81eetsoh_bee%CA%BCeld%C7%AB%C7%ABhtsoh_bee%CA%BCal%C4%AF%CC%81%C4%AF%CC%81h" title="Łeetsoh beeʼeldǫǫhtsoh beeʼalį́į́h – Navajo" lang="nv" hreflang="nv" data-title="Łeetsoh beeʼeldǫǫhtsoh beeʼalį́į́h" data-language-autonym="Diné bizaad" data-language-local-name="Navajo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Diné bizaad</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuumarelv" title="Tuumarelv – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Tuumarelv" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%85%CF%81%CE%B7%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CF%8C%CF%80%CE%BB%CE%BF" title="Πυρηνικό όπλο – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πυρηνικό όπλο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arma_nuclear" title="Arma nuclear – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Arma nuclear" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuklea_armilo" title="Nuklea armilo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Nuklea armilo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arma_nuklear" title="Arma nuklear – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Arma nuklear" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF%E2%80%8C%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D9%87%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C" title="جنگ‌افزار هسته‌ای – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جنگ‌افزار هسته‌ای" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parmanu_hathiyaar" title="Parmanu hathiyaar – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Parmanu hathiyaar" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arme_nucl%C3%A9aire" title="Arme nucléaire – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Arme nucléaire" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kearnwapen" title="Kearnwapen – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Kearnwapen" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airm_n%C3%BAicl%C3%A9acha" title="Airm núicléacha – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Airm núicléacha" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arma_nuclear" title="Arma nuclear – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Arma nuclear" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A0%B8%E6%AD%A6%E5%99%A8" title="核武器 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="核武器" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gom mw-list-item"><a href="https://gom.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%AC" title="अणुबॉंब – Goan Konkani" lang="gom" hreflang="gom" data-title="अणुबॉंब" data-language-autonym="गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni" data-language-local-name="Goan Konkani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%B5%EB%AC%B4%EA%B8%B0" title="핵무기 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="핵무기" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makaman_nukiliya" title="Makaman nukiliya – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Makaman nukiliya" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%AB%D5%BB%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%A6%D5%A5%D5%B6%D6%84" title="Միջուկային զենք – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Միջուկային զենք" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%AE" title="परमाणु बम – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="परमाणु बम" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuklearno_oru%C5%BEje" title="Nuklearno oružje – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Nuklearno oružje" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nukleal_armo" title="Nukleal armo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Nukleal armo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senjata_nuklir" title="Senjata nuklir – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Senjata nuklir" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arma_nuclear" title="Arma nuclear – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Arma nuclear" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kjarnorkuvopn" title="Kjarnorkuvopn – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Kjarnorkuvopn" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arma_nucleare" title="Arma nucleare – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Arma nucleare" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A0%D7%A9%D7%A7_%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99" title="נשק גרעיני – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="נשק גרעיני" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaman_nuklir" title="Gaman nuklir – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Gaman nuklir" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AA%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A3%E0%B3%81_%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ಪರಮಾಣು ಶಸ್ತ್ರಾಸ್ತ್ರ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಪರಮಾಣು ಶಸ್ತ್ರಾಸ್ತ್ರ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%97%E1%83%95%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A6%E1%83%98" title="ბირთვული იარაღი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ბირთვული იარაღი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D2%9B%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%83" title="Ядролық қару – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ядролық қару" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bomu_la_nyuklia" title="Bomu la nyuklia – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Bomu la nyuklia" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arm_nikl%C3%A9y%C3%A8r" title="Arm nikléyèr – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Arm nikléyèr" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87eka_nukleer%C3%AE" title="Çeka nukleerî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Çeka nukleerî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%BA_%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Ядролук курал – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Ядролук курал" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%AD%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%B8%E0%BA%94%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%B4%E0%BA%A7%E0%BB%80%E0%BA%84%E0%BA%A5%E0%BA%8D" title="ອາວຸດນິວເຄລຍ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ອາວຸດນິວເຄລຍ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arma_nuclearia" title="Arma nuclearia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Arma nuclearia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodoliero%C4%8Di" title="Kodolieroči – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Kodolieroči" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomwaff" title="Atomwaff – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Atomwaff" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branduolinis_ginklas" title="Branduolinis ginklas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Branduolinis ginklas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Cdinsodavehkeh" title="Üdinsodavehkeh – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Üdinsodavehkeh" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Livvinkarjala</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arma_nuclear" title="Arma nuclear – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Arma nuclear" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nukle%C3%A1ris_fegyver" title="Nukleáris fegyver – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Nukleáris fegyver" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%88%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B6%D1%98%D0%B5" title="Јадрено оружје – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Јадрено оружје" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%86%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A7%E0%B4%82" title="ആണവായുധം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ആണവായുധം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arma_nukleari" title="Arma nukleari – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Arma nukleari" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="अण्वस्त्र – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="अण्वस्त्र" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%97%E1%83%95%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%AF%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="ბირთვული ანჯარი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ბირთვული ანჯარი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AD_%D9%86%D9%88%D9%88%D9%89" title="سلاح نووى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="سلاح نووى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senjata_nuklear" title="Senjata nuklear – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Senjata nuklear" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bom_atom" title="Bom atom – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Bom atom" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D3%A9%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%B7%D1%8D%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%8D%D0%B3" title="Цөмийн зэвсэг – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Цөмийн зэвсэг" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%8F%E1%80%AF%E1%80%99%E1%80%BC%E1%80%B0_%E1%80%9C%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%94%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA" title="အဏုမြူ လက်နက် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အဏုမြူ လက်နက်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernwapen" title="Kernwapen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Kernwapen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%AE" title="परमाणु बम – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="परमाणु बम" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%83" title="आणविक ल्वाभः – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="आणविक ल्वाभः" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A0%B8%E5%85%B5%E5%99%A8" title="核兵器 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="核兵器" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D3%80%D0%BE%D1%8C%D1%8A%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B7" title="ХӀоьънан герз – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="ХӀоьънан герз" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kjernefysiske_v%C3%A5pen" title="Kjernefysiske våpen – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kjernefysiske våpen" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomv%C3%A5pen" title="Atomvåpen – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Atomvåpen" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arma_nucleara" title="Arma nucleara – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Arma nucleara" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yadro_quroli" title="Yadro quroli – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Yadro quroli" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%8A%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%AC%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%AC" title="ਨਿਊਕਲੀ ਬੰਬ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਨਿਊਕਲੀ ਬੰਬ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pfl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pfl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernwaffe" title="Kernwaffe – Palatine German" lang="pfl" hreflang="pfl" data-title="Kernwaffe" data-language-autonym="Pälzisch" data-language-local-name="Palatine German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Pälzisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%B9%D9%85_%D8%A8%D9%85%D8%A8" title="ایٹم بمب – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ایٹم بمب" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%94%E1%80%BB%E1%80%B0%E1%80%B8%E1%80%80%E1%80%9C%E1%80%AE%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9A%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8%E1%80%85%E1%80%B0%E1%80%81%E1%80%BD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA" title="နျူးကလီးယားစူခွုမ် – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="နျူးကလီးယားစူခွုမ်" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%8A_%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%84%DB%90" title="هستوي وسلې – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="هستوي وسلې" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyuuklier_wepan" title="Nyuuklier wepan – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Nyuuklier wepan" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karnwapen" title="Karnwapen – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Karnwapen" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bro%C5%84_j%C4%85drowa" title="Broń jądrowa – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Broń jądrowa" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bomba_nuclear" title="Bomba nuclear – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Bomba nuclear" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arm%C4%83_nuclear%C4%83" title="Armă nucleară – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Armă nucleară" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C3%B1uku_huk%27i_ay%C3%B1i" title="Iñuku huk'i ayñi – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Iñuku huk'i ayñi" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Ядерное оружие – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Ядерное оружие" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="अण्वस्त्रम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="अण्वस्त्रम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A4%C3%A4denwoape" title="Käädenwoape – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Käädenwoape" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arma_b%C3%ABrthamore" title="Arma bërthamore – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Arma bërthamore" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%82%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%A7%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9A_%E0%B6%85%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92" title="න්‍යෂ්ටික අවි – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="න්‍යෂ්ටික අවි" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Nuclear weapon" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%BD%D9%85_%D8%A8%D9%85" title="ائٽم بم – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ائٽم بم" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jadrov%C3%A1_zbra%C5%88" title="Jadrová zbraň – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Jadrová zbraň" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jedrsko_oro%C5%BEje" title="Jedrsko orožje – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Jedrsko orožje" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%95%DA%A9%DB%8C_%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%88%DA%A9%DB%8C" title="چەکی ناوکی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="چەکی ناوکی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B6%D1%98%D0%B5" title="Нуклеарно оружје – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Нуклеарно оружје" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuklearno_oru%C5%BEje" title="Nuklearno oružje – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Nuklearno oružje" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakarang_nuklir" title="Pakarang nuklir – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Pakarang nuklir" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ydinase" title="Ydinase – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ydinase" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A4rnvapen" title="Kärnvapen – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kärnvapen" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandatang_nukleyar" title="Sandatang nukleyar – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Sandatang nukleyar" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%86%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D" title="அணுக்கரு ஆயுதங்கள் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அணுக்கரு ஆயுதங்கள்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC-%D1%82%D3%A9%D1%88_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B" title="Атом-төш коралы – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Атом-төш 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class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/30px-Sound-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/40px-Sound-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="96" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_weapons&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear weapons">Nuclear weapons</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Explosive weapon that utilizes nuclear reactions</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Atom bomb", "A-bomb", and "Nuke" redirect here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Atom_bomb_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Atom bomb (disambiguation)">Atom bomb (disambiguation)</a>, <a href="/wiki/A-bomb_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="A-bomb (disambiguation)">A-bomb (disambiguation)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nuke_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Nuke (disambiguation)">Nuke (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Nuclear_weapon" title="Special:EditPage/Nuclear weapon">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Nuclear+weapon%22">"Nuclear weapon"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Nuclear+weapon%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Nuclear+weapon%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Nuclear+weapon%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Nuclear+weapon%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Nuclear+weapon%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Missile_and_Space_Gallery_overview_at_the_USAF_National_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Missile_and_Space_Gallery_overview_at_the_USAF_National_Museum.jpg/220px-Missile_and_Space_Gallery_overview_at_the_USAF_National_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Missile_and_Space_Gallery_overview_at_the_USAF_National_Museum.jpg/330px-Missile_and_Space_Gallery_overview_at_the_USAF_National_Museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Missile_and_Space_Gallery_overview_at_the_USAF_National_Museum.jpg/440px-Missile_and_Space_Gallery_overview_at_the_USAF_National_Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>An assortment of American nuclear <a href="/wiki/Intercontinental_ballistic_missile" title="Intercontinental ballistic missile">intercontinental ballistic missiles</a> at the <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_the_United_States_Air_Force" title="National Museum of the United States Air Force">National Museum of the United States Air Force</a>. <b>Clockwise from top left:</b> <a href="/wiki/PGM-17_Thor" title="PGM-17 Thor">PGM-17 Thor</a>, <a href="/wiki/LGM-25C_Titan_II" title="LGM-25C Titan II">LGM-25C Titan II</a>, <a href="/wiki/HGM-25A_Titan_I" title="HGM-25A Titan I">HGM-25A Titan I</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thor-Agena" title="Thor-Agena">Thor-Agena</a>, <a href="/wiki/LGM-30G_Minuteman_III" class="mw-redirect" title="LGM-30G Minuteman III">LGM-30G Minuteman III</a>, <a href="/wiki/LGM-118_Peacekeeper" title="LGM-118 Peacekeeper">LGM-118 Peacekeeper</a>, LGM-30A/B/F Minuteman I or II, <a href="/wiki/PGM-19_Jupiter" title="PGM-19 Jupiter">PGM-19 Jupiter</a></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="width:;"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nuclear weapons</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-default-size mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Little_boy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photograph of a mock-up of the Little Boy nuclear weapon dropped on Hiroshima, Japan, in August 1945." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Little_boy.jpg/170px-Little_boy.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Little_boy.jpg/255px-Little_boy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Little_boy.jpg/340px-Little_boy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2860" data-file-height="1812" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#eee;"> Background</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_explosion" title="Nuclear explosion">Nuclear explosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nuclear_weapons" title="History of nuclear weapons">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">Warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_design" title="Nuclear weapon design">Design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_testing" title="Nuclear weapons testing">Testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_delivery" title="Nuclear weapons delivery">Delivery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_yield" title="Nuclear weapon yield">Yield</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_nuclear_explosions" title="Effects of nuclear explosions">Effects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_labor_issues" title="Nuclear labor issues">Workers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_ethics" title="Nuclear ethics">Ethics</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons" title="List of nuclear weapons">Arsenals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_utilization_target_selection" title="Nuclear utilization target selection">Target selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_arms_race" title="Nuclear arms race">Arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_blackmail" title="Nuclear blackmail">Blackmail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_espionage" title="Nuclear espionage">Espionage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_proliferation" title="Nuclear proliferation">Proliferation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_disarmament" title="Nuclear disarmament">Disarmament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_terrorism" title="Nuclear terrorism">Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_umbrella" title="Nuclear umbrella">Umbrella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement" title="Anti-nuclear movement">Opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_winter" title="Nuclear winter">Winter</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#eee;"> <a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_nuclear_weapons" title="List of states with nuclear weapons">Nuclear-armed states</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <dl><dd><i><a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Non-Proliferation_of_Nuclear_Weapons" title="Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons">NPT</a> recognized</i><br /><a href="/wiki/United_States_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="United States and weapons of mass destruction">United States</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Russia_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Russia and weapons of mass destruction">Russia</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Nuclear weapons of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/France_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="France and weapons of mass destruction">France</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/China_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="China and weapons of mass destruction">China</a></dd></dl> <dl><dd><i>Others</i><br /><a href="/wiki/India_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="India and weapons of mass destruction">India</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_and_Israel" title="Nuclear weapons and Israel">Israel</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(undeclared)</span></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Pakistan_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction">Pakistan</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/North_Korea_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="North Korea and weapons of mass destruction">North Korea</a></dd></dl> <dl><dd><i>Former</i><br /><a href="/wiki/South_Africa_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="South Africa and weapons of mass destruction">South Africa</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_nuclear_weapons#Former_Soviet_Republics" title="List of states with nuclear weapons">Belarus </a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Kazakhstan and weapons of mass destruction">Kazakhstan</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_and_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear weapons and Ukraine">Ukraine</a></dd></dl></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nuclear_weapons" title="Template:Nuclear weapons"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nuclear_weapons" title="Template talk:Nuclear weapons"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear_weapons" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear weapons"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Weapon_of_mass_destruction" title="Weapon of mass destruction">Weapons of mass destruction</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:WMD_world_map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/WMD_world_map.svg/220px-WMD_world_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/WMD_world_map.svg/330px-WMD_world_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/WMD_world_map.svg/440px-WMD_world_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1297" data-file-height="601" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:lightsteelblue;"> By type</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_agent" title="Biological agent">Biological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_weapon" title="Chemical weapon">Chemical</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiological_warfare" title="Radiological warfare">Radiological</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:lightsteelblue;"> <a href="/wiki/List_of_weapons_of_mass_destruction_by_country" title="List of weapons of mass destruction by country">By country</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albania_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Albania and weapons of mass destruction">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algeria_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Algeria and weapons of mass destruction">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argentina_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Argentina and weapons of mass destruction">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australia_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Australia and weapons of mass destruction">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazil_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Brazil and weapons of mass destruction">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgaria_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Bulgaria and weapons of mass destruction">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canada_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Canada and weapons of mass destruction">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="China and weapons of mass destruction">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Egypt and weapons of mass destruction">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="France and weapons of mass destruction">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Germany and weapons of mass destruction">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="India and weapons of mass destruction">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Iran and weapons of mass destruction">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Iraq and weapons of mass destruction">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Israel and weapons of mass destruction">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_nuclear_weapons_program" title="Italian nuclear weapons program">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Japan and weapons of mass destruction">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Kazakhstan and weapons of mass destruction">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libya_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Libya and weapons of mass destruction">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexico_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Mexico and weapons of mass destruction">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myanmar_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Myanmar and weapons of mass destruction">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Netherlands_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Netherlands and weapons of mass destruction">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Korea_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="North Korea and weapons of mass destruction">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistan_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippines_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Philippines and weapons of mass destruction">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poland_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Poland and weapons of mass destruction">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodesia_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Rhodesia and weapons of mass destruction">Rhodesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romania_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Romania and weapons of mass destruction">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Russia and weapons of mass destruction">Russia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Soviet_biological_weapons_program" title="Soviet biological weapons program">Soviet Union</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Saudi Arabia and weapons of mass destruction">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Africa_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="South Africa and weapons of mass destruction">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Korea_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="South Korea and weapons of mass destruction">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Islero" title="Project Islero">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweden_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Sweden and weapons of mass destruction">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switzerland_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Switzerland and weapons of mass destruction">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syria_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Syria and weapons of mass destruction">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Taiwan and weapons of mass destruction">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukraine_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Ukraine and weapons of mass destruction">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="United Kingdom and weapons of mass destruction">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="United States and weapons of mass destruction">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslavia_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Yugoslavia and weapons of mass destruction">Yugoslavia</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:lightsteelblue;"> Proliferation</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_weapon_proliferation" title="Chemical weapon proliferation">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_proliferation" title="Nuclear proliferation">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_missiles_by_country" title="List of missiles by country">Missiles</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:lightsteelblue;"> Treaties</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_weapons_of_mass_destruction_treaties" title="List of weapons of mass destruction treaties">List of treaties</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_parties_to_weapons_of_mass_destruction_treaties" title="List of parties to weapons of mass destruction treaties">treaty parties</a>)</li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:2px solid lightsteelblue;padding:0.2em 0.1em 0.35em;border-bottom:2px solid lightsteelblue;"> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Category:Weapons of mass destruction">Category</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Template:Weapons of mass destruction"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Template talk:Weapons of mass destruction"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Weapons of mass destruction"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A <b>nuclear weapon</b><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is an <a href="/wiki/Explosive_device" title="Explosive device">explosive device</a> that derives its destructive force from <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reaction" title="Nuclear reaction">nuclear reactions</a>, either <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">fission</a> (fission bomb) or a combination of fission and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">fusion</a> reactions (<a href="/wiki/Thermonuclear_weapon" title="Thermonuclear weapon">thermonuclear bomb</a>), producing a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_explosion" title="Nuclear explosion">nuclear explosion</a>. Both bomb types release large quantities of <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a> from relatively small amounts of <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Trinity_(nuclear_test)" title="Trinity (nuclear test)">first test</a> of a fission ("atomic") bomb released an amount of energy approximately equal to 20,000 <a href="/wiki/TNT_equivalent" title="TNT equivalent">tons of TNT</a> (84 <a href="/wiki/Terajoule" class="mw-redirect" title="Terajoule">TJ</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Magazines1945_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Magazines1945-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first thermonuclear ("hydrogen") bomb <a href="/wiki/Ivy_Mike" title="Ivy Mike">test</a> released energy approximately equal to 10 million tons of TNT (42 PJ). Nuclear bombs have had <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_yield" title="Nuclear weapon yield">yields</a> between 10 tons TNT (the <a href="/wiki/W54" title="W54">W54</a>) and 50 megatons for the <a href="/wiki/Tsar_Bomba" title="Tsar Bomba">Tsar Bomba</a> (see <a href="/wiki/TNT_equivalent" title="TNT equivalent">TNT equivalent</a>). A thermonuclear weapon weighing as little as 600 pounds (270 kg) can release energy equal to more than 1.2 megatonnes of TNT (5.0 PJ).<sup id="cite_ref-nukearc_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nukearc-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A nuclear device no larger than a <a href="/wiki/Bomb" title="Bomb">conventional bomb</a> can devastate an entire city by blast, fire, and <a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">radiation</a>. Since they are <a href="/wiki/Weapons_of_mass_destruction" class="mw-redirect" title="Weapons of mass destruction">weapons of mass destruction</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_proliferation" title="Nuclear proliferation">proliferation of nuclear weapons</a> is a focus of <a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">international relations</a> policy. Nuclear weapons have been deployed twice in <a href="/wiki/War" title="War">war</a>, both by the United States <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">against the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a> in 1945 during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Testing_and_deployment">Testing and deployment</h2></div> <p>Nuclear weapons have only twice been used in warfare, both times by the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> against <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japan</a> at the end of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. On August 6, 1945, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces" title="United States Army Air Forces">United States Army Air Forces</a> (USAAF) detonated a <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a> gun-type <a href="/wiki/Fission_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Fission bomb">fission bomb</a> nicknamed "<a href="/wiki/Little_Boy" title="Little Boy">Little Boy</a>" over the Japanese city of <a href="/wiki/Hiroshima" title="Hiroshima">Hiroshima</a>; three days later, on August 9, the USAAF<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> detonated a <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a> implosion-type fission bomb nicknamed "<a href="/wiki/Fat_Man" title="Fat Man">Fat Man</a>" over the Japanese city of <a href="/wiki/Nagasaki" title="Nagasaki">Nagasaki</a>. These bombings caused injuries that resulted in the deaths of approximately 200,000 <a href="/wiki/Civilian" title="Civilian">civilians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Military_personnel" title="Military personnel">military personnel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ethics of these bombings and their role in <a href="/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">Japan's surrender</a> are to this day, still <a href="/wiki/Debate_over_the_atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Debate over the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">subjects of debate</a>. </p><p>Since the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a>, nuclear weapons have been detonated over 2,000 times for <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_testing" title="Nuclear weapons testing">testing</a> and demonstration. Only <a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_nuclear_weapons" title="List of states with nuclear weapons">a few nations</a> possess such weapons or are suspected of seeking them. The only countries known to have detonated nuclear weapons—and acknowledge possessing them—are (chronologically by date of first test) the <a href="/wiki/United_States_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="United States and weapons of mass destruction">United States</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> (succeeded as a nuclear power by <a href="/wiki/Russia_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Russia and weapons of mass destruction">Russia</a>), the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="United Kingdom and weapons of mass destruction">United Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/France_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="France and weapons of mass destruction">France</a>, <a href="/wiki/China_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="China and weapons of mass destruction">China</a>, <a href="/wiki/India_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="India and weapons of mass destruction">India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pakistan_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction">Pakistan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/North_Korea_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="North Korea and weapons of mass destruction">North Korea</a>. <a href="/wiki/Israel_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Israel and weapons of mass destruction">Israel</a> is believed to possess nuclear weapons, though, in a <a href="/wiki/Policy_of_deliberate_ambiguity" title="Policy of deliberate ambiguity">policy of deliberate ambiguity</a>, it does not acknowledge having them. <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Belarus" title="Belarus">Belarus</a> are <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_sharing" title="Nuclear sharing">nuclear weapons sharing</a> states.<sup id="cite_ref-nuclearweapons1_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nuclearweapons1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> is the only country to have <a href="/wiki/South_Africa_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="South Africa and weapons of mass destruction">independently developed</a> and then <a href="/wiki/South_Africa_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction#Dismantling" title="South Africa and weapons of mass destruction">renounced and dismantled</a> its nuclear weapons.<sup id="cite_ref-Nuclear_Threat_Initiatives,_South_Africa_(NTI_South_Africa)_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nuclear_Threat_Initiatives,_South_Africa_(NTI_South_Africa)-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Non-Proliferation_of_Nuclear_Weapons" title="Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons">Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons</a> aims to reduce the spread of nuclear weapons, but there are different views of its effectiveness.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_design" title="Nuclear weapon design">Nuclear weapon design</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trinity_shot_color.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Trinity_shot_color.jpg/220px-Trinity_shot_color.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Trinity_shot_color.jpg/330px-Trinity_shot_color.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Trinity_shot_color.jpg/440px-Trinity_shot_color.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2426" data-file-height="2790" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Trinity_(nuclear_test)" title="Trinity (nuclear test)">Trinity test</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> was the first detonation of a nuclear weapon, which led <a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">J. Robert Oppenheimer</a> to recall verses from the <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> scripture <i><a href="/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" title="Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavad Gita</a></i>: "If the radiance of a thousand suns were to burst at once into the sky, that would be like the splendor of the mighty one "... "I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJungk1958201_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJungk1958201-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oppenheimer_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Oppenheimer_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Oppenheimer_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="320" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Oppenheimer_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Oppenheimer_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Oppenheimer_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Oppenheimer_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1698" data-file-height="2471" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">J. Robert Oppenheimer</a>, principal leader of the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a>, often referred to as the "father of the atomic bomb".</figcaption></figure> <p>There are two basic types of nuclear weapons: those that derive the majority of their energy from <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a> reactions alone, and those that use fission reactions to begin <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">nuclear fusion</a> reactions that produce a large amount of the total energy output.<sup id="cite_ref-Inc.1954_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Inc.1954-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fission_weapons">Fission weapons</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fission_bomb_assembly_methods.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Fission_bomb_assembly_methods.svg/310px-Fission_bomb_assembly_methods.svg.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="338" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Fission_bomb_assembly_methods.svg/465px-Fission_bomb_assembly_methods.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Fission_bomb_assembly_methods.svg/620px-Fission_bomb_assembly_methods.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>The two basic <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">fission</a> weapon designs</figcaption></figure> <p>All existing nuclear weapons derive some of their explosive energy from nuclear fission reactions. Weapons whose explosive output is exclusively from fission reactions are commonly referred to as <b>atomic bombs</b> or <b>atom bombs</b> (abbreviated as <b>A-bombs</b>). This has long been noted as something of a <a href="/wiki/Misnomer" title="Misnomer">misnomer</a>, as their energy comes from the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">nucleus</a> of the atom, just as it does with fusion weapons. </p><p>In fission weapons, a mass of <a href="/wiki/Fissile_material" title="Fissile material">fissile material</a> (<a href="/wiki/Enriched_uranium" title="Enriched uranium">enriched uranium</a> or <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a>) is forced into <a href="/wiki/Critical_mass" title="Critical mass">supercriticality</a>—allowing an <a href="/wiki/Exponential_growth" title="Exponential growth">exponential growth</a> of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chain_reaction" title="Nuclear chain reaction">nuclear chain reactions</a>—either by shooting one piece of sub-critical material into another (the "gun" method) or by compression of a sub-critical sphere or cylinder of fissile material using chemically fueled <a href="/wiki/Explosive_lens" title="Explosive lens">explosive lenses</a>. The latter approach, the "implosion" method, is more sophisticated and more efficient (smaller, less massive, and requiring less of the expensive fissile fuel) than the former. </p><p>A major challenge in all nuclear weapon designs is to ensure that a significant fraction of the fuel is consumed before the weapon destroys itself. The amount of energy released by fission bombs can range from the equivalent of just under a ton to upwards of 500,000 tons (500 <a href="/wiki/Kiloton" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiloton">kilotons</a>) of <a href="/wiki/Trinitrotoluene" class="mw-redirect" title="Trinitrotoluene">TNT</a> (4.2 to 2.1<span style="margin:0 .15em 0 .25em">×</span>10<sup>6</sup> GJ).<sup id="cite_ref-Hansen_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hansen-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>All fission reactions generate <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission_product" title="Nuclear fission product">fission products</a>, the remains of the split atomic nuclei. Many fission products are either highly <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radioactive</a> (but short-lived) or moderately radioactive (but long-lived), and as such, they are a serious form of <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">radioactive contamination</a>. Fission products are the principal radioactive component of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">nuclear fallout</a>. Another source of radioactivity is the burst of free neutrons produced by the weapon. When they collide with other nuclei in the surrounding material, the neutrons transmute those nuclei into other isotopes, altering their stability and making them radioactive. </p><p>The most commonly used fissile materials for nuclear weapons applications have been <a href="/wiki/Uranium-235" title="Uranium-235">uranium-235</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-239" title="Plutonium-239">plutonium-239</a>. Less commonly used has been <a href="/wiki/Uranium-233" title="Uranium-233">uranium-233</a>. <a href="/wiki/Neptunium-237" class="mw-redirect" title="Neptunium-237">Neptunium-237</a> and some isotopes of <a href="/wiki/Americium" title="Americium">americium</a> may be usable for nuclear explosives as well, but it is not clear that this has ever been implemented, and their plausible use in nuclear weapons is a matter of dispute.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fusion_weapons">Fusion weapons</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Thermonuclear_weapon" title="Thermonuclear weapon">Thermonuclear weapon</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Teller-Ulam_device_3D.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Teller-Ulam_device_3D.svg/220px-Teller-Ulam_device_3D.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="397" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Teller-Ulam_device_3D.svg/330px-Teller-Ulam_device_3D.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Teller-Ulam_device_3D.svg/440px-Teller-Ulam_device_3D.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="349" data-file-height="630" /></a><figcaption>The basics of the <a href="/wiki/Teller%E2%80%93Ulam_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Teller–Ulam design">Teller–Ulam design</a> for a hydrogen bomb: a fission bomb uses radiation to compress and heat a separate section of fusion fuel.</figcaption></figure> <p>The other basic type of nuclear weapon produces a large proportion of its energy in nuclear fusion reactions. Such fusion weapons are generally referred to as <b><a href="/wiki/Thermonuclear_weapon" title="Thermonuclear weapon">thermonuclear weapons</a></b> or more colloquially as <b>hydrogen bombs</b> (abbreviated as <b>H-bombs</b>), as they rely on fusion reactions between isotopes of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> (<a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">tritium</a>). All such weapons derive a significant portion of their energy from fission reactions used to "trigger" fusion reactions, and fusion reactions can themselves trigger additional fission reactions.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Only six countries—the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, and <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>—have conducted thermonuclear weapon tests. Whether India has detonated a "true" multi-staged <a href="/wiki/Thermonuclear_weapon" title="Thermonuclear weapon">thermonuclear weapon</a> is controversial.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a> claims to have tested a fusion weapon as of January 2016<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_weapon&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, though this claim is disputed.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thermonuclear weapons are considered much more difficult to successfully design and execute than primitive fission weapons. Almost all of the nuclear weapons deployed today use the thermonuclear design because it results in an explosion hundreds of times stronger than that of a fission bomb of similar weight.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Thermonuclear bombs work by using the energy of a fission bomb to compress and heat fusion fuel. In the <a href="/wiki/Teller-Ulam_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Teller-Ulam design">Teller-Ulam design</a>, which accounts for all multi-megaton yield hydrogen bombs, this is accomplished by placing a fission bomb and fusion fuel (<a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">tritium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Lithium_deuteride" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithium deuteride">lithium deuteride</a>) in proximity within a special, radiation-reflecting container. When the fission bomb is detonated, <a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">gamma rays</a> and <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-rays</a> emitted first compress the fusion fuel, then heat it to thermonuclear temperatures. The ensuing fusion reaction creates enormous numbers of high-speed <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutrons</a>, which can then induce fission in materials not normally prone to it, such as <a href="/wiki/Depleted_uranium" title="Depleted uranium">depleted uranium</a>. Each of these components is known as a "stage", with the fission bomb as the "primary" and the fusion capsule as the "secondary". In large, megaton-range hydrogen bombs, about half of the yield comes from the final fissioning of depleted uranium.<sup id="cite_ref-Hansen_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hansen-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Virtually all thermonuclear weapons deployed today use the "two-stage" design described to the right, but it is possible to add additional fusion stages—each stage igniting a larger amount of fusion fuel in the next stage. This technique can be used to construct thermonuclear weapons of arbitrarily large yield. This is in contrast to fission bombs, which are limited in their explosive power due to <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_criticality_safety" title="Nuclear criticality safety">criticality</a> danger (premature nuclear chain reaction caused by too-large amounts of pre-assembled fissile fuel). The largest nuclear weapon ever detonated, the <a href="/wiki/Tsar_Bomba" title="Tsar Bomba">Tsar Bomba</a> of the USSR, which released an energy equivalent of over 50 megatons of TNT (210 PJ), was a three-stage weapon. Most thermonuclear weapons are considerably smaller than this, due to practical constraints from missile warhead space and weight requirements.<sup id="cite_ref-Sublette_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sublette-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the early 1950s the <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Livermore_National_Laboratory" title="Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory">Livermore Laboratory</a> in the United States had plans for the testing of two massive bombs, Gnomon and <a href="/wiki/Sundial_(weapon)" title="Sundial (weapon)">Sundial</a>, 1 gigaton of TNT and 10 gigatons of TNT respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Edward_Teller_(1958)-LLNL.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Edward_Teller_%281958%29-LLNL.jpg/170px-Edward_Teller_%281958%29-LLNL.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Edward_Teller_%281958%29-LLNL.jpg/255px-Edward_Teller_%281958%29-LLNL.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Edward_Teller_%281958%29-LLNL.jpg/340px-Edward_Teller_%281958%29-LLNL.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1339" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a>, often referred to as the "father of the hydrogen bomb"</figcaption></figure> <p>Fusion reactions do not create fission products, and thus contribute far less to the creation of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">nuclear fallout</a> than fission reactions, but because all <a href="/wiki/Thermonuclear_weapon" title="Thermonuclear weapon">thermonuclear weapons</a> contain at least one <a href="/wiki/Fission_barrier" title="Fission barrier">fission</a> stage, and many high-yield thermonuclear devices have a final fission stage, thermonuclear weapons can generate at least as much nuclear fallout as fission-only weapons. Furthermore, high yield thermonuclear explosions (most dangerously ground bursts) have the force to lift radioactive debris upwards past the <a href="/wiki/Tropopause" title="Tropopause">tropopause</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Stratosphere" title="Stratosphere">stratosphere</a>, where the calm non-turbulent winds permit the debris to travel great distances from the burst, eventually settling and unpredictably contaminating areas far removed from the target of the explosion. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_types">Other types</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Boosted_fission_weapon" title="Boosted fission weapon">Boosted fission weapon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neutron_bomb" title="Neutron bomb">Neutron bomb</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radiological_warfare" title="Radiological warfare">Radiological warfare</a>, <a href="/wiki/Induced_gamma_emission" title="Induced gamma emission">Induced gamma emission</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Antimatter_weapon" title="Antimatter weapon">Antimatter weapon</a></div> <p>There are other types of nuclear weapons as well. For example, a <a href="/wiki/Boosted_fission_weapon" title="Boosted fission weapon">boosted fission weapon</a> is a fission bomb that increases its explosive yield through a small number of fusion reactions, but it is not a fusion bomb. In the boosted bomb, the neutrons produced by the fusion reactions serve primarily to increase the efficiency of the fission bomb. There are two types of boosted fission bomb: internally boosted, in which a deuterium-tritium mixture is injected into the bomb core, and externally boosted, in which concentric shells of lithium-deuteride and depleted uranium are layered on the outside of the fission bomb core. The external method of boosting enabled the <a href="/wiki/USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="USSR">USSR</a> to field the first partially thermonuclear weapons, but it is now obsolete because it demands a spherical bomb geometry, which was adequate during the 1950s arms race when bomber aircraft were the only available delivery vehicles. </p><p>The detonation of any nuclear weapon is accompanied by a blast of <a href="/wiki/Neutron_radiation" title="Neutron radiation">neutron radiation</a>. Surrounding a nuclear weapon with suitable materials (such as <a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">cobalt</a> or <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a>) creates a weapon known as a <a href="/wiki/Salted_bomb" title="Salted bomb">salted bomb</a>. This device can produce exceptionally large quantities of long-lived <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">radioactive contamination</a>. It has been conjectured that such a device could serve as a "doomsday weapon" because such a large quantity of radioactivities with half-lives of decades, lifted into the stratosphere where winds would distribute it around the globe, would make all life on the planet extinct. </p><p>In connection with the <a href="/wiki/Strategic_Defense_Initiative" title="Strategic Defense Initiative">Strategic Defense Initiative</a>, research into the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_pumped_laser" title="Nuclear pumped laser">nuclear pumped laser</a> was conducted under the DOD program <a href="/wiki/Project_Excalibur" title="Project Excalibur">Project Excalibur</a> but this did not result in a working weapon. The concept involves the tapping of the energy of an exploding nuclear bomb to power a single-shot laser that is directed at a distant target. </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Starfish_Prime" title="Starfish Prime">Starfish Prime</a> high-altitude nuclear test in 1962, an unexpected effect was produced which is called a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_electromagnetic_pulse" title="Nuclear electromagnetic pulse">nuclear electromagnetic pulse</a>. This is an intense flash of electromagnetic energy produced by a rain of high-energy electrons which in turn are produced by a nuclear bomb's gamma rays. This flash of energy can permanently destroy or disrupt electronic equipment if insufficiently shielded. It has been proposed to use this effect to disable an enemy's military and civilian infrastructure as an adjunct to other nuclear or conventional military operations. By itself it could as well be useful to terrorists for crippling a nation's economic electronics-based infrastructure. Because the effect is most effectively produced by high altitude nuclear detonations (by military weapons delivered by air, though ground bursts also produce EMP effects over a localized area), it can produce damage to electronics over a wide, even continental, geographical area.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Research has been done into the possibility of <a href="/wiki/Pure_fusion_weapon" title="Pure fusion weapon">pure fusion bombs</a>: nuclear weapons that consist of fusion reactions without requiring a fission bomb to initiate them. Such a device might provide a simpler path to thermonuclear weapons than one that required the development of fission weapons first, and pure fusion weapons would create significantly less nuclear fallout than other thermonuclear weapons because they would not disperse fission products. In 1998, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy" title="United States Department of Energy">United States Department of Energy</a> divulged that the United States had, "...made a substantial investment" in the past to develop pure fusion weapons, but that, "The U.S. does not have and is not developing a pure fusion weapon", and that, "No credible design for a pure fusion weapon resulted from the DOE investment".<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_isomers" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear isomers">Nuclear isomers</a> provide a possible pathway to fissionless fusion bombs. These are naturally occurring <a href="/wiki/Isotopes" class="mw-redirect" title="Isotopes">isotopes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_hafnium" title="Isotopes of hafnium"><sup>178m2</sup>Hf</a> being a prominent example) which exist in an elevated energy state. Mechanisms to release this energy as bursts of gamma radiation (as in the <a href="/wiki/Hafnium_controversy" title="Hafnium controversy">hafnium controversy</a>) have been proposed as possible triggers for conventional thermonuclear reactions. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Antimatter" title="Antimatter">Antimatter</a>, which consists of <a href="/wiki/Particles" class="mw-redirect" title="Particles">particles</a> resembling ordinary <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</a> particles in most of their properties but having opposite <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">electric charge</a>, has been considered as a trigger mechanism for nuclear weapons.<sup id="cite_ref-arxiv.org_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-arxiv.org-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A major obstacle is the difficulty of producing antimatter in large enough quantities, and there is no evidence that it is feasible beyond the military domain.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the U.S. Air Force funded studies of the physics of antimatter in the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, and began considering its possible use in weapons, not just as a trigger, but as the explosive itself.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A fourth generation nuclear weapon design<sup id="cite_ref-arxiv.org_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-arxiv.org-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is related to, and relies upon, the same principle as <a href="/wiki/Antimatter-catalyzed_nuclear_pulse_propulsion" title="Antimatter-catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion">antimatter-catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most variation in <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_design" title="Nuclear weapon design">nuclear weapon design</a> is for the purpose of achieving <a href="/wiki/Dial-a-yield" class="mw-redirect" title="Dial-a-yield">different yields for different situations</a>, and in manipulating design elements to attempt to minimize weapon size,<sup id="cite_ref-Hansen_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hansen-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fratricide" title="Nuclear fratricide">radiation hardness</a> or requirements for special materials, especially fissile fuel or tritium. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tactical_nuclear_weapons">Tactical nuclear weapons</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ChemicalExercise2018-01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/ChemicalExercise2018-01.jpg/220px-ChemicalExercise2018-01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/ChemicalExercise2018-01.jpg/330px-ChemicalExercise2018-01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/ChemicalExercise2018-01.jpg/440px-ChemicalExercise2018-01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4272" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption>Soviet <a href="/wiki/OTR-21_Tochka" title="OTR-21 Tochka">OTR-21 Tochka</a> missile. Capable of firing a 100-kiloton nuclear warhead a distance of 185 km</figcaption></figure> <p>Some nuclear weapons are designed for special purposes; most of these are for non-strategic (decisively war-winning) purposes and are referred to as <a href="/wiki/Tactical_nuclear_weapon" title="Tactical nuclear weapon">tactical nuclear weapons</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Neutron_bomb" title="Neutron bomb">neutron bomb</a> purportedly conceived by <a href="/wiki/Samuel_T._Cohen" title="Samuel T. Cohen">Sam Cohen</a> is a thermonuclear weapon that yields a relatively small explosion but a relatively large amount of neutron <a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">radiation</a>. Such a weapon could, according to tacticians, be used to cause massive biological casualties while leaving inanimate infrastructure mostly intact and creating minimal fallout. Because high energy neutrons are capable of penetrating dense matter, such as tank armor, neutron warheads were procured in the 1980s (though not deployed in Europe) for use as tactical payloads for US Army artillery shells (200 mm <a href="/wiki/W79_Artillery-Fired_Atomic_Projectile" title="W79 Artillery-Fired Atomic Projectile">W79</a> and 155 mm <a href="/wiki/W82" title="W82">W82</a>) and <a href="/wiki/MGM-52_Lance" title="MGM-52 Lance">short range missile</a> forces. Soviet authorities announced similar intentions for neutron warhead deployment in Europe; indeed, they claimed to have originally invented the neutron bomb, but their deployment on USSR tactical nuclear forces is unverifiable.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>A type of nuclear explosive most suitable for use by ground special forces was the <a href="/wiki/Special_Atomic_Demolition_Munition" title="Special Atomic Demolition Munition">Special Atomic Demolition Munition</a>, or SADM, sometimes popularly known as a <a href="/wiki/Suitcase_nuclear_device" title="Suitcase nuclear device">suitcase nuke</a>. This is a nuclear bomb that is man-portable, or at least truck-portable, and though of a relatively small yield (one or two kilotons) is sufficient to destroy important tactical targets such as bridges, dams, tunnels, important military or commercial installations, etc. either behind enemy lines or pre-emptively on friendly territory soon to be overtaken by invading enemy forces. These weapons require plutonium fuel and are particularly "dirty". They also demand especially stringent security precautions in their storage and deployment.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Small "tactical" nuclear weapons were deployed for use as antiaircraft weapons. Examples include the USAF <a href="/wiki/AIR-2_Genie" title="AIR-2 Genie">AIR-2 Genie</a>, the <a href="/wiki/AIM-26_Falcon" title="AIM-26 Falcon">AIM-26 Falcon</a> and US Army <a href="/wiki/Nike_Hercules" title="Nike Hercules">Nike Hercules</a>. Missile interceptors such as the <a href="/wiki/Sprint_(missile)" title="Sprint (missile)">Sprint</a> and the <a href="/wiki/LIM-49_Spartan" title="LIM-49 Spartan">Spartan</a> also used small nuclear warheads (optimized to produce neutron or X-ray flux) but were for use against enemy strategic warheads.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Other small, or tactical, nuclear weapons were deployed by naval forces for use primarily as <a href="/wiki/Antisubmarine" class="mw-redirect" title="Antisubmarine">antisubmarine</a> weapons. These included nuclear <a href="/wiki/Depth_charge" title="Depth charge">depth bombs</a> or nuclear armed torpedoes. Nuclear mines for use on land or at sea are also possibilities.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Weapons_delivery">Weapons delivery</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_delivery" title="Nuclear weapons delivery">Nuclear weapons delivery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_triad" title="Nuclear triad">Nuclear triad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Strategic_bomber" title="Strategic bomber">Strategic bomber</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intercontinental_ballistic_missile" title="Intercontinental ballistic missile">Intercontinental ballistic missile</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Submarine-launched_ballistic_missile" title="Submarine-launched ballistic missile">Submarine-launched ballistic missile</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fat_man.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Fat_man.jpg/220px-Fat_man.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Fat_man.jpg/330px-Fat_man.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Fat_man.jpg/440px-Fat_man.jpg 2x" data-file-width="717" data-file-height="476" /></a><figcaption>The first nuclear weapons were <a href="/wiki/Gravity_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravity bomb">gravity bombs</a>, such as this "<a href="/wiki/Fat_Man" title="Fat Man">Fat Man</a>" weapon dropped on <a href="/wiki/Nagasaki,_Nagasaki" class="mw-redirect" title="Nagasaki, Nagasaki">Nagasaki</a>, Japan. They were large and could only be delivered by <a href="/wiki/Heavy_bomber" title="Heavy bomber">heavy bomber</a> aircraft</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dnepr_rocket_lift-off_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Dnepr_rocket_lift-off_1.jpg/170px-Dnepr_rocket_lift-off_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Dnepr_rocket_lift-off_1.jpg/255px-Dnepr_rocket_lift-off_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Dnepr_rocket_lift-off_1.jpg/340px-Dnepr_rocket_lift-off_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="590" data-file-height="785" /></a><figcaption>A demilitarized, <a href="/wiki/Dnepr_(rocket)" title="Dnepr (rocket)">commercial launch</a> of the Russian <a href="/wiki/Strategic_Rocket_Forces" title="Strategic Rocket Forces">Strategic Rocket Forces</a> R-36 <a href="/wiki/ICBM" class="mw-redirect" title="ICBM">ICBM</a>; also known by the NATO reporting name: <a href="/wiki/SS-18_Satan" class="mw-redirect" title="SS-18 Satan">SS-18 Satan</a>. Upon its first fielding in the late 1960s, the SS-18 remains the single highest <a href="/wiki/Throw_weight" class="mw-redirect" title="Throw weight">throw weight</a> missile delivery system ever built.</figcaption></figure> <p>The system used to <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_delivery" title="Nuclear weapons delivery">deliver</a> a nuclear weapon to its target is an important factor affecting both <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_design" title="Nuclear weapon design">nuclear weapon design</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">nuclear strategy</a>. The design, development, and maintenance of delivery systems are among the most expensive parts of a nuclear weapons program; they account, for example, for 57% of the financial resources spent by the United States on nuclear weapons projects since 1940.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The simplest method for delivering a nuclear weapon is a <a href="/wiki/Gravity_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravity bomb">gravity bomb</a> dropped from <a href="/wiki/Aircraft" title="Aircraft">aircraft</a>; this was the method used by the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">United States against Japan</a> in 1945. This method places few restrictions on the size of the weapon. It does, however, limit attack range, response time to an impending attack, and the number of weapons that a country can field at the same time. With miniaturization, nuclear bombs can be delivered by both <a href="/wiki/Strategic_bomber" title="Strategic bomber">strategic bombers</a> and tactical <a href="/wiki/Fighter-bomber" title="Fighter-bomber">fighter-bombers</a>. This method is the primary means of nuclear weapons delivery; the majority of U.S. nuclear warheads, for example, are free-fall gravity bombs, namely the <a href="/wiki/B61_nuclear_bomb" title="B61 nuclear bomb">B61</a>, which is being improved upon to this day.<sup id="cite_ref-Hansen_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hansen-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The text near this tag is dated. (June 2013)">needs update</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trident_C-4_montage.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Trident_C-4_montage.jpg/220px-Trident_C-4_montage.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Trident_C-4_montage.jpg/330px-Trident_C-4_montage.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Trident_C-4_montage.jpg/440px-Trident_C-4_montage.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2284" data-file-height="1826" /></a><figcaption>Montage of an inert test of a United States <a href="/wiki/Trident_missile" class="mw-redirect" title="Trident missile">Trident</a> <a href="/wiki/SLBM" class="mw-redirect" title="SLBM">SLBM</a> (submarine launched ballistic missile), from submerged to the <a href="/wiki/Missile_defense#Terminal_phase" title="Missile defense">terminal</a>, or re-entry phase, of the <a href="/wiki/Multiple_independently_targetable_reentry_vehicle" title="Multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle">multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Preferable from a strategic point of view is a nuclear weapon mounted on a <a href="/wiki/Missile" title="Missile">missile</a>, which can use a <a href="/wiki/Ballistics" title="Ballistics">ballistic</a> trajectory to deliver the warhead over the horizon. Although even short-range missiles allow for a faster and less vulnerable attack, the development of long-range <a href="/wiki/Intercontinental_ballistic_missile" title="Intercontinental ballistic missile">intercontinental ballistic missiles</a> (ICBMs) and <a href="/wiki/Submarine-launched_ballistic_missile" title="Submarine-launched ballistic missile">submarine-launched ballistic missiles</a> (SLBMs) has given some nations the ability to plausibly deliver missiles anywhere on the globe with a high likelihood of success. </p><p>More advanced systems, such as <a href="/wiki/Multiple_independently_targetable_reentry_vehicle" title="Multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle">multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles</a> (MIRVs), can launch multiple warheads at different targets from one missile, reducing the chance of a successful <a href="/wiki/Missile_defense" title="Missile defense">missile defense</a>. Today, missiles are most common among systems designed for delivery of nuclear weapons. Making a warhead small enough to fit onto a missile, though, can be difficult.<sup id="cite_ref-Hansen_13-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hansen-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Tactical_weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Tactical weapons">Tactical weapons</a> have involved the most variety of delivery types, including not only gravity bombs and missiles but also <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_artillery" title="Nuclear artillery">artillery</a> shells, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_land_mine" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear land mine">land mines</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_depth_charge" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear depth charge">nuclear depth charges</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_torpedo" title="Nuclear torpedo">torpedoes</a> for <a href="/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare" title="Anti-submarine warfare">anti-submarine warfare</a>. An atomic <a href="/wiki/Mortar_(weapon)" title="Mortar (weapon)">mortar</a> has been tested by the United States. Small, two-man portable tactical weapons (somewhat misleadingly referred to as <a href="/wiki/Suitcase_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Suitcase bomb">suitcase bombs</a>), such as the <a href="/wiki/Special_Atomic_Demolition_Munition" title="Special Atomic Demolition Munition">Special Atomic Demolition Munition</a>, have been developed, although the difficulty of combining sufficient yield with portability limits their military utility.<sup id="cite_ref-Hansen_13-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hansen-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nuclear_strategy">Nuclear strategy</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_strategy" title="Nuclear strategy">Nuclear strategy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deterrence_theory" title="Deterrence theory">Deterrence theory</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Pre-emptive_nuclear_strike" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-emptive nuclear strike">Pre-emptive nuclear strike</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_peace" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear peace">Nuclear peace</a>, <a href="/wiki/Essentials_of_Post%E2%80%93Cold_War_Deterrence" title="Essentials of Post–Cold War Deterrence">Essentials of Post–Cold War Deterrence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Single_Integrated_Operational_Plan" title="Single Integrated Operational Plan">Single Integrated Operational Plan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">Nuclear warfare</a>, and <a href="/wiki/On_Thermonuclear_War" title="On Thermonuclear War">On Thermonuclear War</a></div> <p>Nuclear warfare strategy is a set of policies that deal with preventing or fighting a nuclear war. The policy of trying to prevent an attack by a nuclear weapon from another country by threatening nuclear retaliation is known as the strategy of <a href="/wiki/Deterrence_theory" title="Deterrence theory">nuclear deterrence</a>. The goal in deterrence is to always maintain a second strike capability (the ability of a country to respond to a nuclear attack with one of its own) and potentially to strive for <a href="/wiki/Pre-emptive_nuclear_strike" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-emptive nuclear strike">first strike</a> status (the ability to destroy an enemy's nuclear forces before they could retaliate). During the Cold War, policy and military theorists considered the sorts of policies that might prevent a nuclear attack, and they developed <a href="/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">game theory</a> models that could lead to stable deterrence conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-Handel2012_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Handel2012-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:W87_MX_Missile_schematic.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/W87_MX_Missile_schematic.jpg/220px-W87_MX_Missile_schematic.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/W87_MX_Missile_schematic.jpg/330px-W87_MX_Missile_schematic.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/W87_MX_Missile_schematic.jpg/440px-W87_MX_Missile_schematic.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="662" /></a><figcaption>The now decommissioned United States' <a href="/wiki/LG-118A_Peacekeeper" class="mw-redirect" title="LG-118A Peacekeeper">Peacekeeper missile</a> was an <a href="/wiki/ICBM" class="mw-redirect" title="ICBM">ICBM</a> developed to replace the <a href="/wiki/Minuteman_missile" class="mw-redirect" title="Minuteman missile">Minuteman missile</a> in the late 1980s. Each missile, like the <a href="/wiki/Throw_weight" class="mw-redirect" title="Throw weight">heavier lift</a> Russian <a href="/wiki/SS-18_Satan" class="mw-redirect" title="SS-18 Satan">SS-18 Satan</a>, could contain up to ten nuclear warheads (shown in red), each of which could be aimed at a different target. A factor in the development of <a href="/wiki/MIRV" class="mw-redirect" title="MIRV">MIRVs</a> was to make complete <a href="/wiki/Missile_defense" title="Missile defense">missile defense</a> difficult for an enemy country.</figcaption></figure> <p>Different forms of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_delivery" title="Nuclear weapons delivery">nuclear weapons delivery</a> (see above) allow for different types of nuclear strategies. The goals of any strategy are generally to make it difficult for an enemy to launch a pre-emptive strike against the weapon system and difficult to defend against the delivery of the weapon during a potential conflict. This can mean keeping weapon locations hidden, such as deploying them on <a href="/wiki/Submarine" title="Submarine">submarines</a> or land mobile <a href="/wiki/Transporter_erector_launcher" title="Transporter erector launcher">transporter erector launchers</a> whose locations are difficult to track, or it can mean protecting weapons by burying them in hardened <a href="/wiki/Missile_silo" class="mw-redirect" title="Missile silo">missile silo</a> bunkers. Other components of nuclear strategies included using missile defenses to destroy the missiles before they land or implementing <a href="/wiki/Civil_defense" title="Civil defense">civil defense</a> measures using early-warning systems to evacuate citizens to safe areas before an attack. </p><p>Weapons designed to threaten large populations or to deter attacks are known as <i><a href="/wiki/Strategic_nuclear_weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Strategic nuclear weapons">strategic weapons</a>.</i> Nuclear weapons for use on a <a href="/wiki/Battle" title="Battle">battlefield</a> in military situations are called <i><a href="/wiki/Tactical_nuclear_weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Tactical nuclear weapons">tactical weapons</a>.</i> </p><p>Critics of nuclear war strategy often suggest that a nuclear war between two nations would result in mutual annihilation. From this point of view, the significance of nuclear weapons is to deter war because any nuclear war would escalate out of mutual distrust and fear, resulting in <a href="/wiki/Mutually_assured_destruction" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutually assured destruction">mutually assured destruction</a>. This threat of national, if not global, destruction has been a strong motivation for anti-nuclear weapons activism. </p><p>Critics from the peace movement and within the military establishment<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> have questioned the usefulness of such weapons in the current military climate. According to an <a href="/wiki/International_Court_of_Justice_advisory_opinion_on_the_Legality_of_the_Threat_or_Use_of_Nuclear_Weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="International Court of Justice advisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons">advisory opinion</a> issued by the <a href="/wiki/International_Court_of_Justice" title="International Court of Justice">International Court of Justice</a> in 1996, the use of (or threat of use of) such weapons would generally be contrary to the rules of international law applicable in armed conflict, but the court did not reach an opinion as to whether or not the threat or use would be lawful in specific extreme circumstances such as if the survival of the state were at stake. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:180326-N-UK333-189_(41145118741).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/180326-N-UK333-189_%2841145118741%29.jpg/220px-180326-N-UK333-189_%2841145118741%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/180326-N-UK333-189_%2841145118741%29.jpg/330px-180326-N-UK333-189_%2841145118741%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/180326-N-UK333-189_%2841145118741%29.jpg/440px-180326-N-UK333-189_%2841145118741%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3600" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ballistic_missile_submarine" title="Ballistic missile submarine">Ballistic missile submarines</a> have been of great strategic importance for the United States, Russia, and other nuclear powers since they entered service in the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, as they can hide from <a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance_satellite" title="Reconnaissance satellite">reconnaissance satellites</a> and fire their nuclear weapons with virtual impunity.</figcaption></figure> <p>Another <a href="/wiki/Deterrence_theory" title="Deterrence theory">deterrence</a> position is that <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_proliferation" title="Nuclear proliferation">nuclear proliferation</a> can be desirable. In this case, it is argued that, unlike conventional weapons, nuclear weapons deter all-out war between states, and they succeeded in doing this during the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> between the U.S. and the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the late 1950s and early 1960s, Gen. <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Marie_Gallois" title="Pierre Marie Gallois">Pierre Marie Gallois</a> of France, an adviser to <a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">Charles de Gaulle</a>, argued in books like <i>The Balance of Terror: Strategy for the Nuclear Age</i> (1961) that mere possession of a nuclear arsenal was enough to ensure deterrence, and thus concluded that the spread of nuclear weapons could increase <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_peace" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear peace">international stability</a>. Some prominent <a href="/wiki/Neorealism_(international_relations)" title="Neorealism (international relations)">neo-realist</a> scholars, such as <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Waltz" title="Kenneth Waltz">Kenneth Waltz</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Mearsheimer" title="John Mearsheimer">John Mearsheimer</a>, have argued, along the lines of Gallois, that some forms of nuclear proliferation would decrease the likelihood of <a href="/wiki/Total_war" title="Total war">total war</a>, especially in troubled regions of the world where there exists a single nuclear-weapon state. Aside from the public opinion that opposes proliferation in any form, there are two schools of thought on the matter: those, like Mearsheimer, who favored selective proliferation,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Waltz, who was somewhat more non-<a href="/wiki/Interventionism_(politics)" title="Interventionism (politics)">interventionist</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-waltz_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-waltz-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Interest in proliferation and the <a href="/wiki/Stability-instability_paradox" class="mw-redirect" title="Stability-instability paradox">stability-instability paradox</a> that it generates continues to this day, with ongoing debate about indigenous Japanese and <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korean</a> nuclear deterrent against <a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The threat of potentially suicidal terrorists possessing nuclear weapons (a form of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_terrorism" title="Nuclear terrorism">nuclear terrorism</a>) complicates the decision process. The prospect of <a href="/wiki/Mutually_assured_destruction" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutually assured destruction">mutually assured destruction</a> might not deter an enemy who expects to die in the confrontation. Further, if the initial act is from a stateless <a href="/wiki/Terrorist" class="mw-redirect" title="Terrorist">terrorist</a> instead of a sovereign nation, there might not be a nation or specific target to retaliate against. It has been argued, especially after the <a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11, 2001, attacks</a>, that this complication calls for a new nuclear strategy, one that is distinct from that which gave relative stability during the Cold War.<sup id="cite_ref-feldman_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-feldman-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since 1996, the United States has had a policy of allowing the targeting of its nuclear weapons at terrorists armed with <a href="/wiki/Weapons_of_mass_destruction" class="mw-redirect" title="Weapons of mass destruction">weapons of mass destruction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Minuteman_III_launches_from_Vandenberg_(2425138).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Minuteman_III_launches_from_Vandenberg_%282425138%29.jpg/220px-Minuteman_III_launches_from_Vandenberg_%282425138%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Minuteman_III_launches_from_Vandenberg_%282425138%29.jpg/330px-Minuteman_III_launches_from_Vandenberg_%282425138%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Minuteman_III_launches_from_Vandenberg_%282425138%29.jpg/440px-Minuteman_III_launches_from_Vandenberg_%282425138%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7360" data-file-height="4912" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/LGM-30_Minuteman" title="LGM-30 Minuteman">Minuteman III</a> ICBM test launch from <a href="/wiki/Vandenberg_Air_Force_Base" class="mw-redirect" title="Vandenberg Air Force Base">Vandenberg Air Force Base</a>, United States. <a href="/wiki/Multiple_independently_targetable_reentry_vehicle" title="Multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle">MIRVed</a> land-based <a href="/wiki/ICBM" class="mw-redirect" title="ICBM">ICBMs</a> are considered destabilizing because they tend to put a premium on <a href="/wiki/First_strike_(nuclear_strategy)" title="First strike (nuclear strategy)">striking first</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Robert_Gallucci" title="Robert Gallucci">Robert Gallucci</a> argues that although traditional deterrence is not an effective approach toward terrorist groups bent on causing a nuclear catastrophe, Gallucci believes that "the United States should instead consider a policy of expanded deterrence, which focuses not solely on the would-be nuclear terrorists but on those states that may deliberately transfer or inadvertently leak nuclear weapons and materials to them. By threatening retaliation against those states, the United States may be able to deter that which it cannot physically prevent.".<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Graham_Allison" title="Graham Allison">Graham Allison</a> makes a similar case, arguing that the key to expanded deterrence is coming up with ways of tracing nuclear material to the country that forged the fissile material. "After a nuclear bomb detonates, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_forensics" title="Nuclear forensics">nuclear forensics</a> cops would collect debris samples and send them to a laboratory for radiological analysis. By identifying unique attributes of the fissile material, including its impurities and contaminants, one could trace the path back to its origin."<sup id="cite_ref-Allison_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allison-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The process is analogous to identifying a criminal by fingerprints. "The goal would be twofold: first, to deter leaders of nuclear states from selling weapons to terrorists by holding them accountable for any use of their weapons; second, to give leaders every incentive to tightly secure their nuclear weapons and materials."<sup id="cite_ref-Allison_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allison-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to the Pentagon's June 2019 "<a href="/wiki/Doctrine_for_Joint_Nuclear_Operations" title="Doctrine for Joint Nuclear Operations">Doctrine for Joint Nuclear Operations</a>" of the Joint Chiefs of Staffs website Publication, "Integration of nuclear weapons employment with conventional and special operations forces is essential to the success of any mission or operation."<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Governance,_control,_and_law"><span id="Governance.2C_control.2C_and_law"></span>Governance, control, and law</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Non-Proliferation_of_Nuclear_Weapons" title="Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons">Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Strategic_Arms_Limitation_Talks" title="Strategic Arms Limitation Talks">Strategic Arms Limitation Talks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intermediate-Range_Nuclear_Forces_Treaty" title="Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty">Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty</a>, <a href="/wiki/START_I" title="START I">START I</a>, <a href="/wiki/START_II" title="START II">START II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Strategic_Offensive_Reductions_Treaty" title="Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty">Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Comprehensive_Nuclear-Test-Ban_Treaty" title="Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty">Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lahore_Declaration" title="Lahore Declaration">Lahore Declaration</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_START" title="New START">New START</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Prohibition_of_Nuclear_Weapons" title="Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons">Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement" title="Anti-nuclear movement">Anti-nuclear movement</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_IAEA.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Flag_of_IAEA.svg/220px-Flag_of_IAEA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Flag_of_IAEA.svg/330px-Flag_of_IAEA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Flag_of_IAEA.svg/440px-Flag_of_IAEA.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agency" title="International Atomic Energy Agency">International Atomic Energy Agency</a> was created in 1957 to encourage peaceful development of nuclear technology while providing international safeguards against nuclear proliferation.</figcaption></figure> <p>Because they are weapons of mass destruction, the proliferation and possible use of nuclear weapons are important issues in international relations and diplomacy. In most countries, the use of nuclear force can only be authorized by the <a href="/wiki/Head_of_government" title="Head of government">head of government</a> or <a href="/wiki/Head_of_state" title="Head of state">head of state</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite controls and regulations governing nuclear weapons, there is an inherent danger of "accidents, mistakes, false alarms, blackmail, theft, and sabotage".<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the late 1940s, lack of mutual trust prevented the United States and the Soviet Union from making progress on arms control agreements. The <a href="/wiki/Russell%E2%80%93Einstein_Manifesto" title="Russell–Einstein Manifesto">Russell–Einstein Manifesto</a> was issued in <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> on July 9, 1955, by <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a> in the midst of the Cold War. It highlighted the dangers posed by nuclear weapons and called for world leaders to seek peaceful resolutions to international conflict. The signatories included eleven pre-eminent intellectuals and scientists, including <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>, who signed it just days before his death on April 18, 1955. A few days after the release, philanthropist <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_S._Eaton" title="Cyrus S. Eaton">Cyrus S. Eaton</a> offered to sponsor a conference—called for in the manifesto—in <a href="/wiki/Pugwash,_Nova_Scotia" title="Pugwash, Nova Scotia">Pugwash, Nova Scotia</a>, Eaton's birthplace. This conference was to be the first of the <a href="/wiki/Pugwash_Conferences_on_Science_and_World_Affairs" title="Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs">Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs</a>, held in July 1957. </p><p>By the 1960s, steps were taken to limit both the proliferation of nuclear weapons to other countries and the environmental effects of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear testing">nuclear testing</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Partial_Nuclear_Test_Ban_Treaty" title="Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty">Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty</a> (1963) restricted all nuclear testing to <a href="/wiki/Underground_nuclear_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Underground nuclear testing">underground nuclear testing</a>, to prevent contamination from nuclear fallout, whereas the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Non-Proliferation_of_Nuclear_Weapons" title="Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons">Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons</a> (1968) attempted to place restrictions on the types of activities signatories could participate in, with the goal of allowing the transference of non-military <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_technology" title="Nuclear technology">nuclear technology</a> to member countries without fear of proliferation. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Treaty_on_the_Prohibition_of_Nuclear_Weapons.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Treaty_on_the_Prohibition_of_Nuclear_Weapons.svg/220px-Treaty_on_the_Prohibition_of_Nuclear_Weapons.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Treaty_on_the_Prohibition_of_Nuclear_Weapons.svg/330px-Treaty_on_the_Prohibition_of_Nuclear_Weapons.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Treaty_on_the_Prohibition_of_Nuclear_Weapons.svg/440px-Treaty_on_the_Prohibition_of_Nuclear_Weapons.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3799" data-file-height="1927" /></a><figcaption>UN vote on adoption of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Prohibition_of_Nuclear_Weapons" title="Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons">Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons</a> on July 7, 2017<br /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend" style="text-align:left;"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#008cff; color:black; -webkit-column-break-inside: avoid;"> </span> Yes</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend" style="text-align:left;"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff0000; color:black; -webkit-column-break-inside: avoid;"> </span> No</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend" style="text-align:left;"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#c0c0c0; color:black; -webkit-column-break-inside: avoid;"> </span> Did not vote</div></figcaption></figure> <p>In 1957, the <a href="/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agency" title="International Atomic Energy Agency">International Atomic Energy Agency</a> (IAEA) was established under the mandate of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> to encourage development of peaceful applications of nuclear technology, provide international safeguards against its misuse, and facilitate the application of safety measures in its use. In 1996, many nations signed the <a href="/wiki/Comprehensive_Nuclear-Test-Ban_Treaty" title="Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty">Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-status_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-status-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which prohibits all testing of nuclear weapons. A testing ban imposes a significant hindrance to nuclear arms development by any complying country.<sup id="cite_ref-Richelson_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richelson-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Treaty requires the ratification by 44 specific states before it can go into force; as of 2012<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_weapon&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, the ratification of eight of these states is still required.<sup id="cite_ref-status_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-status-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Additional treaties and agreements have governed nuclear weapons stockpiles between the countries with the two largest stockpiles, the United States and the Soviet Union, and later between the United States and Russia. These include treaties such as <a href="/wiki/SALT_II" class="mw-redirect" title="SALT II">SALT II</a> (never ratified), <a href="/wiki/START_I" title="START I">START I</a> (expired), <a href="/wiki/Intermediate-Range_Nuclear_Forces_Treaty" title="Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty">INF</a>, <a href="/wiki/START_II" title="START II">START II</a> (never in effect), <a href="/wiki/SORT" class="mw-redirect" title="SORT">SORT</a>, and <a href="/wiki/New_START" title="New START">New START</a>, as well as non-binding agreements such as <a href="/wiki/SALT_I" class="mw-redirect" title="SALT I">SALT I</a> and the Presidential Nuclear Initiatives<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of 1991. Even when they did not enter into force, these agreements helped limit and later reduce the numbers and types of nuclear weapons between the United States and the Soviet Union/Russia. </p><p> Nuclear weapons have also been opposed by agreements between countries. Many nations have been declared <a href="/wiki/Nuclear-Weapon-Free_Zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone">Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zones</a>, areas where nuclear weapons production and deployment are prohibited, through the use of treaties. The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tlatelolco" title="Treaty of Tlatelolco">Treaty of Tlatelolco</a> (1967) prohibited any production or deployment of nuclear weapons in <a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin America</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Pelindaba" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Pelindaba">Treaty of Pelindaba</a> (1964) prohibits nuclear weapons in many African countries. As recently as 2006 a <a href="/wiki/Central_Asian_Nuclear_Weapon_Free_Zone" title="Central Asian Nuclear Weapon Free Zone">Central Asian Nuclear Weapon Free Zone</a> was established among the former Soviet republics of Central Asia prohibiting nuclear weapons. </p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuke-world-map-2024.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Nuke-world-map-2024.png/220px-Nuke-world-map-2024.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Nuke-world-map-2024.png/330px-Nuke-world-map-2024.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Nuke-world-map-2024.png/440px-Nuke-world-map-2024.png 2x" data-file-width="1473" data-file-height="840" /></a><figcaption> The number of nuclear warheads by country in 2024, based on an estimation by the <a href="/wiki/Federation_of_American_Scientists" title="Federation of American Scientists">Federation of American Scientists</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1996, the <a href="/wiki/International_Court_of_Justice" title="International Court of Justice">International Court of Justice</a>, the highest court of the United Nations, issued an Advisory Opinion concerned with the "<a href="/wiki/International_Court_of_Justice_advisory_opinion_on_the_Legality_of_the_Threat_or_Use_of_Nuclear_Weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="International Court of Justice advisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons">Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons</a>". The court ruled that the use or threat of use of nuclear weapons would violate various articles of <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">international law</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Conventions" title="Geneva Conventions">Geneva Conventions</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Hague_Conventions_(1899_and_1907)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907)">Hague Conventions</a>, the <a href="/wiki/UN_Charter" class="mw-redirect" title="UN Charter">UN Charter</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a>. Given the unique, destructive characteristics of nuclear weapons, the <a href="/wiki/International_Committee_of_the_Red_Cross" title="International Committee of the Red Cross">International Committee of the Red Cross</a> calls on States to ensure that these weapons are never used, irrespective of whether they consider them lawful or not.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Additionally, there have been other, specific actions meant to discourage countries from developing nuclear arms. In the wake of the tests by India and Pakistan in 1998, economic sanctions were (temporarily) levied against both countries, though neither were signatories with the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. One of the stated <i><a href="/wiki/Casus_belli" title="Casus belli">casus belli</a></i> for the initiation of the 2003 <a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a> was an accusation by the United States that Iraq was actively pursuing nuclear arms (though this was soon discovered <a href="/wiki/Niger_uranium_forgeries" title="Niger uranium forgeries">not to be the case</a> as the program had been discontinued). In 1981, Israel had <a href="/wiki/Operation_Opera" title="Operation Opera">bombed a nuclear reactor</a> being constructed in <a href="/wiki/Osirak" class="mw-redirect" title="Osirak">Osirak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, in what it called an attempt to halt Iraq's previous nuclear arms ambitions; in 2007, Israel <a href="/wiki/Operation_Orchard" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Orchard">bombed another reactor</a> being constructed in <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>. </p><p>In 2013, <a href="/wiki/Mark_Diesendorf" title="Mark Diesendorf">Mark Diesendorf</a> said that governments of France, India, North Korea, Pakistan, UK, and South Africa have used nuclear power or research reactors to assist nuclear weapons development or to contribute to their supplies of nuclear explosives from military reactors.<sup id="cite_ref-diesrev_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-diesrev-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2017, 122 countries mainly in the <a href="/wiki/Global_South" class="mw-redirect" title="Global South">Global South</a> voted in favor of adopting the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Prohibition_of_Nuclear_Weapons" title="Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons">Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons</a>, which eventually entered into force in 2021.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Doomsday_Clock" title="Doomsday Clock">Doomsday Clock</a> measures the likelihood of a human-made <a href="/wiki/Global_catastrophic_risk" title="Global catastrophic risk">global catastrophe</a> and is published annually by the <a href="/wiki/Bulletin_of_the_Atomic_Scientists" title="Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists">Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists</a>. The two years with the highest likelihood had previously been 1953, when the Clock was set to two minutes until midnight after the U.S. and the Soviet Union began testing hydrogen bombs, and 2018, following the failure of world leaders to address tensions relating to nuclear weapons and climate change issues.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2023, following the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_threats_during_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear threats during the Russian invasion of Ukraine">escalation of nuclear threats</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a>, the doomsday clock was set to 90 seconds, the highest likelihood of global catastrophe since the existence of the Doomsday Clock.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As of 2024, Russia has intensified nuclear threats in Ukraine and is reportedly planning to place nuclear weapons in orbit, breaching the 1967 Outer Space Treaty. China is significantly expanding its nuclear arsenal, with projections of over 1,000 warheads by 2030 and up to 1,500 by 2035. North Korea is progressing in intercontinental ballistic missile tests and has a mutual-defense treaty with Russia, exchanging artillery for possible missile technology. Iran is currently viewed as a nuclear "threshold" state.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disarmament">Disarmament</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_disarmament" title="Nuclear disarmament">Nuclear disarmament</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For statistics on possession and deployment, see <a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_nuclear_weapons" title="List of states with nuclear weapons">List of states with nuclear weapons</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_and_USSR_nuclear_stockpiles.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/US_and_USSR_nuclear_stockpiles.svg/220px-US_and_USSR_nuclear_stockpiles.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/US_and_USSR_nuclear_stockpiles.svg/330px-US_and_USSR_nuclear_stockpiles.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/US_and_USSR_nuclear_stockpiles.svg/440px-US_and_USSR_nuclear_stockpiles.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="435" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="USSR">USSR</a> and United States nuclear weapon stockpiles throughout the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> until 2015, with a precipitous drop in total numbers following the end of the Cold War in 1991.</figcaption></figure> <p>Nuclear disarmament refers to both the act of reducing or eliminating nuclear weapons and to the end state of a nuclear-free world, in which nuclear weapons are eliminated. </p><p>Beginning with the 1963 <a href="/wiki/Partial_Test_Ban_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Partial Test Ban Treaty">Partial Test Ban Treaty</a> and continuing through the 1996 <a href="/wiki/Comprehensive_Nuclear-Test-Ban_Treaty" title="Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty">Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty</a>, there have been many treaties to limit or reduce nuclear weapons testing and stockpiles. The 1968 <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Non-Proliferation_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty">Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty</a> has as one of its explicit conditions that all signatories must "pursue negotiations in good faith" towards the long-term goal of "complete disarmament". The nuclear-weapon states have largely treated that aspect of the agreement as "decorative" and without force.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Only one country—South Africa—has ever fully renounced nuclear weapons they had independently developed. The former Soviet republics of <a href="/wiki/Belarus" title="Belarus">Belarus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a> returned Soviet nuclear arms stationed in their countries to Russia after the <a href="/wiki/Collapse_of_the_USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Collapse of the USSR">collapse of the USSR</a>. </p><p>Proponents of nuclear disarmament say that it would lessen the probability of nuclear war, especially accidentally. Critics of nuclear disarmament say that it would undermine the present <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_peace" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear peace">nuclear peace</a> and deterrence and would lead to increased global instability. Various American elder statesmen,<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who were in office during the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> period, have been advocating the elimination of nuclear weapons. These officials include <a href="/wiki/Henry_Kissinger" title="Henry Kissinger">Henry Kissinger</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Shultz" title="George Shultz">George Shultz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sam_Nunn" title="Sam Nunn">Sam Nunn</a>, and <a href="/wiki/William_J._Perry" title="William J. Perry">William Perry</a>. In January 2010, <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_M._Krauss" class="mw-redirect" title="Lawrence M. Krauss">Lawrence M. Krauss</a> stated that "no issue carries more importance to the long-term health and security of humanity than the effort to reduce, and perhaps one day, rid the world of nuclear weapons".<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SS-24_silo_destruction.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/SS-24_silo_destruction.jpg/220px-SS-24_silo_destruction.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/SS-24_silo_destruction.jpg/330px-SS-24_silo_destruction.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/SS-24_silo_destruction.jpg 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="288" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukrainian</a> workers use equipment provided by the U.S. <a href="/wiki/Defense_Threat_Reduction_Agency" title="Defense Threat Reduction Agency">Defense Threat Reduction Agency</a> to dismantle a Soviet-era missile silo. After the end of the Cold War, Ukraine and the other non-Russian, post-Soviet republics relinquished Soviet nuclear stockpiles to Russia.</figcaption></figure> <p>In January 1986, Soviet leader <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a> publicly proposed a three-stage program for abolishing the world's nuclear weapons by the end of the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the years after the end of the Cold War, there have been numerous campaigns to urge the abolition of nuclear weapons, such as that organized by the <a href="/wiki/Global_Zero_(campaign)" title="Global Zero (campaign)">Global Zero</a> movement, and the goal of a "world without nuclear weapons" was advocated by United States President <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> in an April 2009 speech in <a href="/wiki/Prague" title="Prague">Prague</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/CNN" title="CNN">CNN</a> poll from April 2010 indicated that the American public was nearly evenly split on the issue.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some analysts have argued that nuclear weapons have made the world relatively safer, with peace through <a href="/wiki/Deterrence_theory" title="Deterrence theory">deterrence</a> and through the <a href="/wiki/Stability%E2%80%93instability_paradox" title="Stability–instability paradox">stability–instability paradox</a>, including in south Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Waltz" title="Kenneth Waltz">Kenneth Waltz</a> has argued that nuclear weapons have helped keep an uneasy peace, and further nuclear weapon proliferation might even help avoid the large scale conventional wars that were so common before their invention at the end of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-waltz_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-waltz-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But former Secretary <a href="/wiki/Henry_Kissinger" title="Henry Kissinger">Henry Kissinger</a> says there is a new danger, which cannot be addressed by deterrence: "The classical notion of deterrence was that there was some consequences before which aggressors and evildoers would recoil. In a world of suicide bombers, that calculation doesn't operate in any comparable way".<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/George_Shultz" title="George Shultz">George Shultz</a> has said, "If you think of the people who are doing suicide attacks, and people like that get a nuclear weapon, they are almost by definition not deterrable".<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As of early 2019, more than 90% of world's 13,865 nuclear weapons were owned by Russia and the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_Nations">United Nations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Office_for_Disarmament_Affairs" title="United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs">United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs</a></div> <p>The UN Office for Disarmament Affairs (UNODA) is a department of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Secretariat" title="United Nations Secretariat">United Nations Secretariat</a> established in January 1998 as part of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Secretary-General" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Secretary-General">United Nations Secretary-General</a> <a href="/wiki/Kofi_Annan" title="Kofi Annan">Kofi Annan</a>'s plan to reform the UN as presented in his report to the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly" title="United Nations General Assembly">General Assembly</a> in July 1997.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Its goal is to promote nuclear disarmament and <a href="/wiki/Non-proliferation" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-proliferation">non-proliferation</a> and the strengthening of the disarmament regimes in respect to other weapons of mass destruction, <a href="/wiki/Chemical_weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical weapons">chemical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biological_weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological weapons">biological weapons</a>. It also promotes disarmament efforts in the area of <a href="/wiki/Conventional_weapon" title="Conventional weapon">conventional weapons</a>, especially <a href="/wiki/Land_mine" title="Land mine">land mines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Small_arms" class="mw-redirect" title="Small arms">small arms</a>, which are often the weapons of choice in contemporary conflicts. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Controversy">Controversy</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_debate" title="Nuclear weapons debate">Nuclear weapons debate</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_anti-nuclear_movement" title="History of the anti-nuclear movement">History of the anti-nuclear movement</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethics">Ethics</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_ethics" title="Nuclear ethics">Nuclear ethics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anti-nuclear_weapons_protest,_UK_1980.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Anti-nuclear_weapons_protest%2C_UK_1980.JPG/220px-Anti-nuclear_weapons_protest%2C_UK_1980.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Anti-nuclear_weapons_protest%2C_UK_1980.JPG/330px-Anti-nuclear_weapons_protest%2C_UK_1980.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Anti-nuclear_weapons_protest%2C_UK_1980.JPG/440px-Anti-nuclear_weapons_protest%2C_UK_1980.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2544" data-file-height="1696" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_disarmament" title="Nuclear disarmament">Anti-nuclear weapons</a> protest march in Oxford, 1980</figcaption></figure> <p>Even before the first nuclear weapons had been developed, scientists involved with the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> were divided over the use of the weapon. The role of the two atomic bombings of the country in <a href="/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">Japan's surrender</a> and the U.S.'s <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethical</a> justification for them has been the subject of scholarly and popular debate for decades. The question of whether nations should have nuclear weapons, or test them, has been continually and nearly universally controversial.<sup id="cite_ref-brown_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notable_nuclear_weapons_accidents">Notable nuclear weapons accidents</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents" title="Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents">Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_military_nuclear_accidents" title="List of military nuclear accidents">List of military nuclear accidents</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_close_calls" class="mw-redirect" title="List of nuclear close calls">List of nuclear close calls</a></div> <ul><li>August 21, 1945: While conducting experiments on a plutonium-gallium core at <a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_National_Laboratory" title="Los Alamos National Laboratory">Los Alamos National Laboratory</a>, physicist <a href="/wiki/Harry_Daghlian" title="Harry Daghlian">Harry Daghlian</a> received a lethal dose of radiation when an error caused it to enter <a href="/wiki/Prompt_criticality" title="Prompt criticality">prompt criticality</a>. He died 25 days later, on September 15, 1945, from <a href="/wiki/Acute_radiation_syndrome" title="Acute radiation syndrome">radiation poisoning</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>May 21, 1946: While conducting further experiments on the same core at Los Alamos National Laboratory, physicist <a href="/wiki/Louis_Slotin" title="Louis Slotin">Louis Slotin</a> accidentally caused the core to become briefly <a href="/wiki/Critical_mass" title="Critical mass">supercritical</a>. He received a lethal dose of <a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">gamma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neutron_radiation" title="Neutron radiation">neutron radiation</a>, and died nine days later on May 30, 1946. After the death of Daghlian and Slotin, the mass became known as the "<a href="/wiki/Demon_core" title="Demon core">demon core</a>". It was ultimately used to construct a bomb for use on the Nevada Test Range.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>February 13, 1950: a <a href="/wiki/1950_British_Columbia_B-36_crash" title="1950 British Columbia B-36 crash">Convair B-36B crashed</a> in northern <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a> after jettisoning a <a href="/wiki/Mark_4_nuclear_bomb" title="Mark 4 nuclear bomb">Mark IV</a> atomic bomb. This was the first such <a href="/wiki/United_States_military_nuclear_incident_terminology" title="United States military nuclear incident terminology">nuclear weapon loss</a> in history. The accident was designated a "<a href="/wiki/Broken_Arrow_(nuclear)" class="mw-redirect" title="Broken Arrow (nuclear)">Broken Arrow</a>"—an accident involving a nuclear weapon, but which does not present a risk of war. Experts believe that up to 50 nuclear weapons were lost during the Cold War.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>May 22, 1957: a 42,000-pound (19,000 kg) <a href="/wiki/Mark_17_nuclear_bomb" title="Mark 17 nuclear bomb">Mark-17 hydrogen bomb</a> accidentally fell from a bomber near Albuquerque, New Mexico. The detonation of the device's conventional explosives destroyed it on impact and formed a crater 25 feet (7.6 m) in diameter on land owned by the <a href="/wiki/University_of_New_Mexico" title="University of New Mexico">University of New Mexico</a>. According to a researcher at the Natural Resources Defense Council, it was one of the most powerful bombs made to date.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>June 7, 1960: the <a href="/wiki/1960_Fort_Dix_IM-99_accident" class="mw-redirect" title="1960 Fort Dix IM-99 accident">1960 Fort Dix IM-99 accident</a> destroyed a <a href="/wiki/Boeing_CIM-10_Bomarc" class="mw-redirect" title="Boeing CIM-10 Bomarc">Boeing CIM-10 Bomarc</a> nuclear missile and shelter and contaminated the <a href="/wiki/BOMARC_Missile_Accident_Site" class="mw-redirect" title="BOMARC Missile Accident Site">BOMARC Missile Accident Site</a> in New Jersey.</li> <li>January 24, 1961: the <a href="/wiki/1961_Goldsboro_B-52_crash" title="1961 Goldsboro B-52 crash">1961 Goldsboro B-52 crash</a> occurred near <a href="/wiki/Goldsboro,_North_Carolina" title="Goldsboro, North Carolina">Goldsboro, North Carolina</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Boeing_B-52_Stratofortress" title="Boeing B-52 Stratofortress">Boeing B-52 Stratofortress</a> carrying two <a href="/wiki/Mark_39_nuclear_bomb" title="Mark 39 nuclear bomb">Mark 39 nuclear bombs</a> broke up in mid-air, dropping its nuclear payload in the process.<sup id="cite_ref-BOAS_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BOAS-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1965_Philippine_Sea_A-4_crash" class="mw-redirect" title="1965 Philippine Sea A-4 crash">1965 Philippine Sea A-4 crash</a>, where a <a href="/wiki/Douglas_A-4_Skyhawk" title="Douglas A-4 Skyhawk">Skyhawk</a> attack aircraft with a nuclear weapon fell into the sea.<sup id="cite_ref-CruiseReport_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CruiseReport-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The pilot, the aircraft, and the <a href="/wiki/B43_nuclear_bomb" title="B43 nuclear bomb">B43 nuclear bomb</a> were never recovered.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was not until 1989 that <a href="/wiki/The_Pentagon" title="The Pentagon">the Pentagon</a> revealed the loss of the one-megaton bomb.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>January 17, 1966: the <a href="/wiki/1966_Palomares_B-52_crash" class="mw-redirect" title="1966 Palomares B-52 crash">1966 Palomares B-52 crash</a> occurred when a <a href="/wiki/B-52_Stratofortress" class="mw-redirect" title="B-52 Stratofortress">B-52G bomber</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">USAF</a> collided with a <a href="/wiki/KC-135_Stratotanker" class="mw-redirect" title="KC-135 Stratotanker">KC-135 tanker</a> during <a href="/wiki/Aerial_refueling" title="Aerial refueling">mid-air refuelling</a> off the coast of <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>. The KC-135 was completely destroyed when its fuel load ignited, killing all four crew members. The B-52G broke apart, killing three of the seven crew members aboard.<sup id="cite_ref-hayes_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hayes-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of the four <a href="/wiki/B28_nuclear_bomb" title="B28 nuclear bomb">Mk28</a> type <a href="/wiki/Teller%E2%80%93Ulam_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Teller–Ulam design">hydrogen bombs</a> the B-52G carried,<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> three were found on land near <a href="/wiki/Almer%C3%ADa" title="Almería">Almería</a>, Spain. The non-nuclear explosives in two of the weapons detonated upon impact with the ground, resulting in the contamination of a 2-square-kilometer (490-acre) (0.78 square mile) area by <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radioactive</a> <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a>. The fourth, which fell into the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a>, was recovered intact after a 2<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span>-month-long search.<sup id="cite_ref-long_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-long-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>January 21, 1968: the <a href="/wiki/1968_Thule_Air_Base_B-52_crash" title="1968 Thule Air Base B-52 crash">1968 Thule Air Base B-52 crash</a> involved a <a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">United States Air Force</a> (USAF) <a href="/wiki/B-52_Stratofortress" class="mw-redirect" title="B-52 Stratofortress">B-52 bomber</a>. The aircraft was carrying four <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen bomb">hydrogen bombs</a> when a cabin fire forced the crew to abandon the aircraft. Six crew members ejected safely, but one who did not have an <a href="/wiki/Ejection_seat" title="Ejection seat">ejection seat</a> was killed while trying to bail out. The bomber crashed onto <a href="/wiki/Sea_ice" title="Sea ice">sea ice</a> in <a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a>, causing the nuclear payload to rupture and disperse, which resulted in widespread <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">radioactive contamination</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the bombs remains lost.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>September 18–19, 1980: the <a href="/wiki/1980_Damascus_Titan_missile_explosion" title="1980 Damascus Titan missile explosion">Damascus Accident</a> occurred in Damascus, Arkansas, where a <a href="/wiki/Titan_Missile_Museum" title="Titan Missile Museum">Titan Missile</a> equipped with a nuclear warhead exploded. The accident was caused by a maintenance man who dropped a socket from a socket wrench down an 80-foot (24 m) shaft, puncturing a fuel tank on the rocket. Leaking fuel resulted in a <a href="/wiki/Hypergolic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypergolic">hypergolic</a> fuel explosion, jettisoning the <a href="/wiki/W-53_warhead" class="mw-redirect" title="W-53 warhead">W-53 warhead</a> beyond the launch site.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nuclear_testing_and_fallout">Nuclear testing and fallout</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">Nuclear fallout</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Downwinders" title="Downwinders">Downwinders</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rael_Nuclear_use_locations_world_map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Rael_Nuclear_use_locations_world_map.png/500px-Rael_Nuclear_use_locations_world_map.png" decoding="async" width="500" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Rael_Nuclear_use_locations_world_map.png/750px-Rael_Nuclear_use_locations_world_map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Rael_Nuclear_use_locations_world_map.png/1000px-Rael_Nuclear_use_locations_world_map.png 2x" data-file-width="1425" data-file-height="625" /></a><figcaption>Over 2,000 nuclear tests have been conducted in over a dozen different sites around the world. Red Russia/Soviet Union, blue France, light blue United States, violet Britain, yellow China, orange India, brown Pakistan, green North Korea and light green (territories exposed to nuclear bombs). The Black dot indicates the location of the <a href="/wiki/Vela_incident" title="Vela incident">Vela incident</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Atomic_test_seen_from_Las_Vegas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Atomic_test_seen_from_Las_Vegas.jpg/220px-Atomic_test_seen_from_Las_Vegas.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Atomic_test_seen_from_Las_Vegas.jpg/330px-Atomic_test_seen_from_Las_Vegas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Atomic_test_seen_from_Las_Vegas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="284" /></a><figcaption>This view of downtown <a href="/wiki/Las_Vegas" title="Las Vegas">Las Vegas</a> shows a <a href="/wiki/Mushroom_cloud" title="Mushroom cloud">mushroom cloud</a> in the background. Scenes such as this were typical during the 1950s. From 1951 to 1962 the government conducted 100 atmospheric tests at the nearby <a href="/wiki/Nevada_Test_Site" title="Nevada Test Site">Nevada Test Site</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Over 500 atmospheric nuclear weapons tests were conducted at various sites around the world from 1945 to 1980. <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_fallout" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactive fallout">Radioactive fallout</a> from nuclear weapons testing was first drawn to public attention in 1954 when the <a href="/wiki/Castle_Bravo" title="Castle Bravo">Castle Bravo</a> hydrogen bomb test at the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Proving_Grounds" title="Pacific Proving Grounds">Pacific Proving Grounds</a> contaminated the crew and catch of the Japanese fishing boat <i><a href="/wiki/Daigo_Fukury%C5%AB_Maru" title="Daigo Fukuryū Maru">Lucky Dragon</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-rudig2_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rudig2-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the fishermen died in Japan seven months later, and the fear of contaminated <a href="/wiki/Tuna" title="Tuna">tuna</a> led to a temporary boycotting of the popular staple in Japan. The incident caused widespread concern around the world, especially regarding the effects of nuclear fallout and atmospheric <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear testing">nuclear testing</a>, and "provided a decisive impetus for the emergence of the anti-nuclear weapons movement in many countries".<sup id="cite_ref-rudig2_85-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rudig2-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As public awareness and concern mounted over the possible health hazards associated with exposure to the nuclear fallout, various studies were done to assess the extent of the hazard. A <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a>/ <a href="/wiki/National_Cancer_Institute" title="National Cancer Institute">National Cancer Institute</a> study claims that fallout from atmospheric nuclear tests would lead to perhaps 11,000 excess deaths among people alive during atmospheric testing in the United States from all forms of cancer, including leukemia, from 1951 to well into the 21st century.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of March 2009<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_weapon&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, the U.S. is the only nation that compensates nuclear test victims. Since the <a href="/wiki/Radiation_Exposure_Compensation_Act" title="Radiation Exposure Compensation Act">Radiation Exposure Compensation Act</a> of 1990, more than $1.38 billion in compensation has been approved. The money is going to people who took part in the tests, notably at the <a href="/wiki/Nevada_Test_Site" title="Nevada Test Site">Nevada Test Site</a>, and to others exposed to the radiation.<sup id="cite_ref-compo_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-compo-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition, leakage of byproducts of nuclear weapon production into groundwater has been an ongoing issue, particularly at the <a href="/wiki/Hanford_site" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanford site">Hanford site</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hanford_Ref_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanford_Ref-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects_of_nuclear_explosions">Effects of nuclear explosions</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_nuclear_explosions" title="Effects of nuclear explosions">Effects of nuclear explosions</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects_of_nuclear_explosions_on_human_health">Effects of nuclear explosions on human health</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_nuclear_explosions_on_human_health" title="Effects of nuclear explosions on human health">Effects of nuclear explosions on human health</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sumiteru_Taniguchi_back.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Sumiteru_Taniguchi_back.jpg/220px-Sumiteru_Taniguchi_back.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Sumiteru_Taniguchi_back.jpg/330px-Sumiteru_Taniguchi_back.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Sumiteru_Taniguchi_back.jpg/440px-Sumiteru_Taniguchi_back.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="290" /></a><figcaption>A photograph of <a href="/wiki/Sumiteru_Taniguchi" title="Sumiteru Taniguchi">Sumiteru Taniguchi</a>'s back injuries taken in January 1946 by a U.S. Marine photographer</figcaption></figure> <p>Some scientists estimate that a nuclear war with 100 Hiroshima-size nuclear explosions on cities could cost the lives of tens of millions of people from long-term climatic effects alone. The climatology hypothesis is that <i>if</i> each city <a href="/wiki/Firestorm" title="Firestorm">firestorms</a>, a great deal of soot could be thrown up into the atmosphere which could blanket the earth, cutting out sunlight for years on end, causing the disruption of food chains, in what is termed a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_winter" title="Nuclear winter">nuclear winter</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>People near the Hiroshima explosion and who managed to survive the explosion subsequently suffered a variety of horrible medical effects. Some of these effects are still present to this day:<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Initial stage—the first 1–9 weeks, in which are the greatest number of deaths, with 90% due to thermal injury or blast effects and 10% due to super-lethal <a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">radiation</a> exposure.</li> <li>Intermediate stage—from 10 to 12 weeks. The deaths in this period are from <a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing radiation</a> in the median lethal range – <a href="/wiki/LD50" class="mw-redirect" title="LD50">LD50</a></li> <li>Late period—lasting from 13 to 20 weeks. This period has some improvement in survivors' condition.</li> <li>Delayed period—from 20+ weeks. Characterized by numerous complications, mostly related to healing of thermal and mechanical injuries, and if the individual was exposed to a few hundred to a thousand <a href="/wiki/Millisievert" class="mw-redirect" title="Millisievert">millisieverts</a> of radiation, it is coupled with infertility, sub-fertility and blood disorders. Furthermore, ionizing radiation above a dose of around 50–100 millisievert exposure has been shown to statistically begin increasing one's chance of dying of cancer sometime in their lifetime over the normal unexposed rate of ~25%, in the long term, a heightened rate of cancer, proportional to the dose received, would begin to be observed after ~5+ years, with lesser problems such as eye <a href="/wiki/Cataract" title="Cataract">cataracts</a> and other more minor effects in other organs and tissue also being observed over the long term.</li></ul> <p>Fallout exposure—depending on if further afield individuals <a href="/wiki/Shelter_in_place" class="mw-redirect" title="Shelter in place">shelter in place</a> or evacuate perpendicular to the direction of the wind, and therefore avoid contact with the fallout plume, and stay there for the days and weeks after the nuclear explosion, their exposure to fallout, and therefore their total dose, will vary. With those who do shelter in place, and or evacuate, experiencing a total dose that would be negligible in comparison to someone who just went about their life as normal.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Staying indoors until after the most hazardous fallout <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotope</a>, <a href="/wiki/I-131" class="mw-redirect" title="I-131">I-131</a> decays away to 0.1% of its initial quantity after ten <a href="/wiki/Half-live" class="mw-redirect" title="Half-live">half-lifes</a>—which is represented by 80 days in <a href="/wiki/I-131" class="mw-redirect" title="I-131">I-131s</a> case, would make the difference between likely contracting <a href="/wiki/Thyroid_cancer" title="Thyroid cancer">Thyroid cancer</a> or escaping completely from this substance depending on the actions of the individual.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects_of_nuclear_war">Effects of nuclear war</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_holocaust" title="Nuclear holocaust">Nuclear holocaust</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doomsday_Clock" title="Doomsday Clock">Doomsday Clock</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doomsday_device" title="Doomsday device">Doomsday device</a>, <a href="/wiki/World_War_III" title="World War III">World War III</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_famine" title="Nuclear famine">Nuclear famine</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Castle_Bravo_007.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Castle_Bravo_007.jpg/220px-Castle_Bravo_007.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Castle_Bravo_007.jpg/330px-Castle_Bravo_007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Castle_Bravo_007.jpg/440px-Castle_Bravo_007.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="560" /></a><figcaption>Mushroom cloud from the explosion of <a href="/wiki/Castle_Bravo" title="Castle Bravo">Castle Bravo</a>, the largest nuclear weapon detonated by the U.S., in 1954</figcaption></figure> <p>Nuclear war could yield unprecedented human death tolls and <a href="/wiki/Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">habitat destruction</a>. Detonating large numbers of nuclear weapons would have an immediate, short term and long-term effects on the climate, potentially causing cold weather known as a "<a href="/wiki/Nuclear_winter" title="Nuclear winter">nuclear winter</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-newstudy-2022_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-newstudy-2022-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1982, <a href="/wiki/Brian_Martin_(social_scientist)" title="Brian Martin (social scientist)">Brian Martin</a> estimated that a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_arms_race" title="Nuclear arms race">US–Soviet nuclear exchange</a> might kill 400–450 million directly, mostly in the United States, Europe and Russia, and maybe several hundred million more through follow-up consequences in those same areas.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many scholars have posited that a global thermonuclear war with Cold War-era stockpiles, or even with the current smaller stockpiles, may lead to the <a href="/wiki/Human_extinction" title="Human extinction">extinction of the human race</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War</i> believe that nuclear war could indirectly contribute to human extinction via secondary effects, including environmental consequences, <a href="/wiki/Societal_collapse" title="Societal collapse">societal breakdown</a>, and economic collapse. It has been estimated that a relatively small-scale nuclear exchange between <a href="/wiki/India%E2%80%93Pakistan_relations" title="India–Pakistan relations">India and Pakistan</a> involving 100 <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Hiroshima</a> yield (15 kilotons) weapons, could cause a nuclear winter and kill more than a billion people.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to a peer-reviewed study published in the journal <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_Food" title="Nature Food">Nature Food</a></i> in August 2022, a full-scale nuclear war between the U.S. and Russia would directly kill 360 million people and more than 5 billion people would die from <a href="/wiki/Starvation" title="Starvation">starvation</a>. More than 2 billion people could die from a smaller-scale nuclear war between India and Pakistan.<sup id="cite_ref-newstudy-2022_98-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-newstudy-2022-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_opposition">Public opposition</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_disarmament" title="Nuclear disarmament">Nuclear disarmament</a> and <a href="/wiki/International_Day_against_Nuclear_Tests" title="International Day against Nuclear Tests">International Day against Nuclear Tests</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Massale_vredesdemonstratie_in_Bonn_tegen_de_modernisering_van_kernwapens_in_West,_Bestanddeelnr_253-8611.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Massale_vredesdemonstratie_in_Bonn_tegen_de_modernisering_van_kernwapens_in_West%2C_Bestanddeelnr_253-8611.jpg/220px-Massale_vredesdemonstratie_in_Bonn_tegen_de_modernisering_van_kernwapens_in_West%2C_Bestanddeelnr_253-8611.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Massale_vredesdemonstratie_in_Bonn_tegen_de_modernisering_van_kernwapens_in_West%2C_Bestanddeelnr_253-8611.jpg/330px-Massale_vredesdemonstratie_in_Bonn_tegen_de_modernisering_van_kernwapens_in_West%2C_Bestanddeelnr_253-8611.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Massale_vredesdemonstratie_in_Bonn_tegen_de_modernisering_van_kernwapens_in_West%2C_Bestanddeelnr_253-8611.jpg/440px-Massale_vredesdemonstratie_in_Bonn_tegen_de_modernisering_van_kernwapens_in_West%2C_Bestanddeelnr_253-8611.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3686" data-file-height="2439" /></a><figcaption>Protest in Bonn against the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_arms_race" title="Nuclear arms race">nuclear arms race</a> between the U.S./NATO and the Warsaw Pact, 1981</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Essais_nucleaires_manif.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Essais_nucleaires_manif.jpg/220px-Essais_nucleaires_manif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Essais_nucleaires_manif.jpg/330px-Essais_nucleaires_manif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Essais_nucleaires_manif.jpg/440px-Essais_nucleaires_manif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3486" data-file-height="1695" /></a><figcaption>Demonstration against nuclear testing in <a href="/wiki/Lyon" title="Lyon">Lyon</a>, France, in the 1980s.</figcaption></figure> <p>Peace movements emerged in Japan and in 1954 they converged to form a unified "<a href="/wiki/Japan_Council_against_Atomic_and_Hydrogen_Bombs" title="Japan Council against Atomic and Hydrogen Bombs">Japan Council against Atomic and Hydrogen Bombs</a>." Japanese opposition to nuclear weapons tests in the Pacific Ocean was widespread, and "an estimated 35 million signatures were collected on petitions calling for bans on nuclear weapons".<sup id="cite_ref-falkj_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-falkj-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the United Kingdom, the <a href="/wiki/Aldermaston_Marches" title="Aldermaston Marches">Aldermaston Marches</a> organised by the <a href="/wiki/Campaign_for_Nuclear_Disarmament" title="Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament">Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament</a> (CND) took place at <a href="/wiki/Easter" title="Easter">Easter</a> 1958, when, according to the CND, several thousand people marched for four days from <a href="/wiki/Trafalgar_Square" title="Trafalgar Square">Trafalgar Square</a>, London, to the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_Weapons_Establishment" title="Atomic Weapons Establishment">Atomic Weapons Research Establishment</a> close to <a href="/wiki/Aldermaston" title="Aldermaston">Aldermaston</a> in <a href="/wiki/Berkshire" title="Berkshire">Berkshire</a>, England, to demonstrate their opposition to nuclear weapons.<sup id="cite_ref-CND_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CND-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-GuardianUnlimited:1958_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GuardianUnlimited:1958-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Aldermaston marches continued into the late 1960s when tens of thousands of people took part in the four-day marches.<sup id="cite_ref-falkj_104-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-falkj-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1959, a letter in the <i>Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists</i> was the start of a successful campaign to stop the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="United States Atomic Energy Commission">Atomic Energy Commission</a> dumping <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">radioactive waste</a> in the sea 19 kilometres from <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1962, <a href="/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling">Linus Pauling</a> won the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Nobel Peace Prize</a> for his work to stop the atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons, and the "Ban the Bomb" movement spread.<sup id="cite_ref-brown_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1963, many countries ratified the <a href="/wiki/Partial_Test_Ban_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Partial Test Ban Treaty">Partial Test Ban Treaty</a> prohibiting atmospheric nuclear testing. Radioactive fallout became less of an issue and the anti-nuclear weapons movement went into decline for some years.<sup id="cite_ref-rudig2_85-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rudig2-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A resurgence of interest occurred amid European and American <a href="/wiki/Radiophobia" title="Radiophobia">fears of nuclear war</a> in the 1980s.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Costs_and_technology_spin-offs">Costs and technology spin-offs</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Global Positioning System</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_delivery" title="Nuclear weapons delivery">Nuclear weapons delivery</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_hardware" title="History of computing hardware">History of computing hardware</a>, <a href="/wiki/ENIAC" title="ENIAC">ENIAC</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Swords_to_ploughshares" title="Swords to ploughshares">Swords to ploughshares</a></div> <p>According to an audit by the <a href="/wiki/Brookings_Institution" title="Brookings Institution">Brookings Institution</a>, between 1940 and 1996, the U.S. spent $11.3 trillion in present-day terms<sup id="cite_ref-inflation-US_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-inflation-US-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> on nuclear weapons programs. 57% of which was spent on building <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_delivery" title="Nuclear weapons delivery">nuclear weapons delivery</a> systems. 6.3% of the total$, 709 billion in present-day terms, was spent on <a href="/wiki/Environmental_remediation" title="Environmental remediation">environmental remediation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_waste_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear waste management">nuclear waste management</a>, for example cleaning up the <a href="/wiki/Hanford_site" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanford site">Hanford site</a>, and 7% of the total$, 795 billion was spent on making nuclear weapons themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Non-weapons_uses">Non-weapons uses</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Peaceful_nuclear_explosion" title="Peaceful nuclear explosion">Peaceful nuclear explosion</a></div> <p>Peaceful nuclear explosions are <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_explosion" title="Nuclear explosion">nuclear explosions</a> conducted for non-military purposes, such as activities related to <a href="/wiki/Economic_development" title="Economic development">economic development</a> including the creation of <a href="/wiki/Canal" title="Canal">canals</a>. During the 1960s and 1970s, both the United States and the Soviet Union conducted a number of PNEs.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The United States created plans for several uses of PNEs, including <a href="/wiki/Project_Plowshare" title="Project Plowshare">Operation Plowshare</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Six of the explosions by the Soviet Union are considered to have been of an applied nature, not just tests. </p><p>The United States and the Soviet Union later halted their programs. Definitions and limits are covered in the Peaceful Nuclear Explosions Treaty of 1976.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The stalled <a href="/wiki/Comprehensive_Nuclear-Test-Ban_Treaty" title="Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty">Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty</a> of 1996 would prohibit all nuclear explosions, regardless of whether they are for peaceful purposes or not.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_development">History of development</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_nuclear_weapons" title="History of nuclear weapons">History of nuclear weapons</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Soviet_atomic_bomb_project" title="Soviet atomic bomb project">Soviet atomic bomb project</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Teller%E2%80%93Ulam_design" title="History of the Teller–Ulam design">History of the Teller–Ulam design</a></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/History_of_nuclear_weapons#Background" title="History of nuclear weapons">History of nuclear weapons § Background</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_nuclear_weapons&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuclear_fission.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Nuclear_fission.svg/220px-Nuclear_fission.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="343" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Nuclear_fission.svg/330px-Nuclear_fission.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Nuclear_fission.svg/440px-Nuclear_fission.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="309" data-file-height="482" /></a><figcaption>In <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a>, the nucleus of a fissile atom (in this case, <a href="/wiki/Enriched_uranium" title="Enriched uranium">enriched uranium</a>) absorbs a thermal neutron, becomes unstable and splits into two new atoms, releasing some energy and between one and three new neutrons, which can perpetuate the process.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the first decades of the 20th century, <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> was revolutionized with developments in the understanding of the nature of <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a> including the discoveries in <a href="/wiki/Atomic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic theory">atomic theory</a> by <a href="/wiki/John_Dalton" title="John Dalton">John Dalton</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around the turn of the 20th century, it was discovered by <a href="/wiki/Hans_Geiger" title="Hans Geiger">Hans Geiger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Marsden" title="Ernest Marsden">Ernest Marsden</a> and then <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a>, that atoms had a highly dense, very small, charged central core called an atomic nucleus. In 1898, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Curie" title="Pierre Curie">Pierre</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Marie Curie</a> discovered that <a href="/wiki/Uraninite" title="Uraninite">pitchblende</a>, an ore of <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a>, contained a substance—which they named <a href="/wiki/Radium" title="Radium">radium</a>—that emitted large amounts of <a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">radiation</a>. Ernest Rutherford and <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Soddy" title="Frederick Soddy">Frederick Soddy</a> identified that atoms were breaking down and turning into different elements. Hopes were raised among scientists and laymen that the elements around us could contain tremendous amounts of unseen energy, waiting to be harnessed. </p><p>In Paris in 1934, <a href="/wiki/Ir%C3%A8ne_Joliot-Curie" title="Irène Joliot-Curie">Irène</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Joliot-Curie" title="Frédéric Joliot-Curie">Frédéric Joliot-Curie</a> discovered that <a href="/wiki/Artificial_radioactivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial radioactivity">artificial radioactivity</a> could be induced in stable elements by bombarding them with <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">alpha particles</a>; in Italy <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a> reported similar results when bombarding uranium with neutrons. </p><p>In December 1938, <a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn" title="Otto Hahn">Otto Hahn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Strassmann" title="Fritz Strassmann">Fritz Strassmann</a> reported that they had detected the element <a href="/wiki/Barium" title="Barium">barium</a> after bombarding uranium with neutrons. <a href="/wiki/Lise_Meitner" title="Lise Meitner">Lise Meitner</a> and <a href="/wiki/Otto_Robert_Frisch" title="Otto Robert Frisch">Otto Robert Frisch</a> correctly interpreted these results as being due to the splitting of the uranium atom. Frisch confirmed this experimentally on January 13, 1939.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhodes1986263,_268_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes1986263,_268-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They gave the process the name "fission" because of its similarity to the <a href="/wiki/Fission_(biology)" title="Fission (biology)">splitting of a cell</a> into two new cells. Even before it was published, news of Meitner's and Frisch's interpretation crossed the Atlantic.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhodes1986268_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes1986268-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In their second publication on nuclear fission in February 1939, Hahn and Strassmann predicted the existence and liberation of additional neutrons during the fission process, opening up the possibility of a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chain_reaction" title="Nuclear chain reaction">nuclear chain reaction</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leo_Szilard.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Leo_Szilard.jpg/170px-Leo_Szilard.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Leo_Szilard.jpg/255px-Leo_Szilard.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Leo_Szilard.jpg/340px-Leo_Szilard.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1642" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Leo_Szilard" title="Leo Szilard">Leo Szilard</a>, pictured in about 1960, invented the electron microscope, linear accelerator, cyclotron, nuclear chain reaction and patented the nuclear reactor</figcaption></figure> <p>After learning about the German fission in 1939, <a href="/wiki/Leo_Szilard" title="Leo Szilard">Leo Szilard</a> concluded that <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a> would be the element which can realize his 1933 idea about nuclear chain reaction.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Uranium appears in nature primarily in two isotopes: <a href="/wiki/Uranium-238" title="Uranium-238">uranium-238</a> and <a href="/wiki/Uranium-235" title="Uranium-235">uranium-235</a>. When the nucleus of uranium-235 absorbs a neutron, it undergoes nuclear fission, releasing energy and, on average, 2.5 neutrons. Because uranium-235 releases more neutrons than it absorbs, it can support a chain reaction and so is described as <a href="/wiki/Fissile" class="mw-redirect" title="Fissile">fissile</a>. Uranium-238, on the other hand, is not fissile as it does not normally undergo fission when it absorbs a neutron. </p><p>By the start of the war in September 1939, many scientists likely to be persecuted by the Nazis had already escaped. Physicists on both sides were well aware of the possibility of utilizing nuclear fission as a weapon, but no one was quite sure how it could be engineered. In August 1939, concerned that Germany might have <a href="/wiki/German_nuclear_weapons_program" class="mw-redirect" title="German nuclear weapons program">its own project</a> to develop fission-based weapons, <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> signed <a href="/wiki/Einstein%E2%80%93Szil%C3%A1rd_letter" class="mw-redirect" title="Einstein–Szilárd letter">a letter</a> to U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt warning him of the threat.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhodes1986305–312_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes1986305–312-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Roosevelt responded by setting up the <a href="/wiki/Uranium_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Uranium Committee">Uranium Committee</a> under <a href="/wiki/Lyman_James_Briggs" title="Lyman James Briggs">Lyman James Briggs</a> but, with little initial funding ($6,000), progress was slow. It was not until the U.S. entered the war in December 1941 that Washington decided to commit the necessary resources to a top-secret high priority bomb project.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Organized research first began in Britain and Canada as part of the <a href="/wiki/Tube_Alloys" title="Tube Alloys">Tube Alloys</a> project: the world's first nuclear weapons project. The <a href="/wiki/Maud_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Maud Committee">Maud Committee</a> was set up following the work of Frisch and <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Peierls" title="Rudolf Peierls">Rudolf Peierls</a> who calculated uranium-235's critical mass and found it to be much smaller than previously thought which meant that a deliverable bomb should be possible.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the February 1940 <a href="/wiki/Frisch%E2%80%93Peierls_memorandum" title="Frisch–Peierls memorandum">Frisch–Peierls memorandum</a> they stated that: "The energy liberated in the explosion of such a super-bomb...will, for an instant, produce a temperature comparable to that of the interior of the sun. The blast from such an explosion would destroy life in a wide area. The size of this area is difficult to estimate, but it will probably cover the centre of a big city." </p><p><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Sengier" title="Edgar Sengier">Edgar Sengier</a>, a director of <a href="/wiki/Shinkolobwe" title="Shinkolobwe">Shinkolobwe Mine</a> in the Congo which produced by far the highest quality uranium ore in the world, had become aware of uranium's possible use in a bomb. In late 1940, fearing that it might be seized by the Germans, he shipped the mine's entire stockpile of ore to a warehouse in New York.<sup id="cite_ref-History_of_nuclear_weapons_Groves1983_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-History_of_nuclear_weapons_Groves1983-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HD.4G.053_(10540204545).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/HD.4G.053_%2810540204545%29.jpg/220px-HD.4G.053_%2810540204545%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/HD.4G.053_%2810540204545%29.jpg/330px-HD.4G.053_%2810540204545%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/HD.4G.053_%2810540204545%29.jpg/440px-HD.4G.053_%2810540204545%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5573" data-file-height="4389" /></a><figcaption>The final iteration of the <i>Gadget</i> nuclear device prior to its successful test on July 16, 1945, the culmination of the United States' 3-year <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a>'s research and development of nuclear weapons</figcaption></figure> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cobalt_bomb" title="Cobalt bomb">Cobalt bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_bomb_(phrase)" title="Cosmic bomb (phrase)">Cosmic bomb (phrase)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirty_bomb" title="Dirty bomb">Dirty bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Day_for_the_Total_Elimination_of_Nuclear_Weapons" title="International Day for the Total Elimination of Nuclear Weapons">International Day for the Total Elimination of Nuclear Weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_global_issues" title="List of global issues">List of global issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons" title="List of nuclear weapons">List of nuclear weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_nuclear_weapons" title="List of states with nuclear weapons">List of states with nuclear weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nth_Country_Experiment" title="Nth Country Experiment">Nth Country Experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_blackout" title="Nuclear blackout">Nuclear blackout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_bunker_buster" title="Nuclear bunker buster">Nuclear bunker buster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Nuclear weapons of the United Kingdom">Nuclear weapons of the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_in_popular_culture" title="Nuclear weapons in popular culture">Nuclear weapons in popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_of_the_United_States" title="Nuclear weapons of the United States">Nuclear weapons of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OPANAL" title="OPANAL">OPANAL</a> (Agency for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Non-Nuclear_Principles" title="Three Non-Nuclear Principles">Three Non-Nuclear Principles</a> of Japan</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3></div> <dl><dt>Explanatory Notes</dt></dl> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">also known as an <b>atom bomb</b>, <b>atomic bomb</b>, <b>nuclear bomb</b>, or <b>nuclear warhead</b>, and colloquially as an <b>A-bomb</b> or <b>nuke</b></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See also <a href="/wiki/Mordechai_Vanunu" title="Mordechai Vanunu">Mordechai Vanunu</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In the United States, the President and the Secretary of Defense, acting as the <a href="/wiki/National_Command_Authority_(United_States)" title="National Command Authority (United States)">National Command Authority</a>, must <i>jointly</i> authorize the use of nuclear weapons.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <dl><dt>Citations</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Magazines1945-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Magazines1945_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hN8DAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA18">"Atomic Power for War and Peace"</a>. <i>Popular Mechanics</i>. Hearst Magazines. October 1945. pp. 18–19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Popular+Mechanics&rft.atitle=Atomic+Power+for+War+and+Peace&rft.pages=18-19&rft.date=1945-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhN8DAAAAMBAJ%26pg%3DPA18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+weapon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nukearc-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nukearc_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSublette2020" class="citation web cs1">Sublette, Carey (June 12, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Weapons/Allbombs.html">"Complete List of All U.S. Nuclear Weapons"</a>. <i>Nuclear weapon archive</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 18,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Nuclear+weapon+archive&rft.atitle=Complete+List+of+All+U.S.+Nuclear+Weapons&rft.date=2020-06-12&rft.aulast=Sublette&rft.aufirst=Carey&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnuclearweaponarchive.org%2FUsa%2FWeapons%2FAllbombs.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+weapon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.afhistory.af.mil/FAQs/Fact-Sheets/Article/458967/the-u-s-army-air-forces-in-world-war-ii/https://www.afhistory.af.mil/FAQs/Fact-Sheets/Article/458967/the-u-s-army-air-forces-in-world-war-ii/">"The U S Army Air Forces in World War II"</a>. <i>Air Force Historical Support Division</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 27,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Air+Force+Historical+Support+Division&rft.atitle=The+U+S+Army+Air+Forces+in+World+War+II&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.afhistory.af.mil%2FFAQs%2FFact-Sheets%2FArticle%2F458967%2Fthe-u-s-army-air-forces-in-world-war-ii%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.afhistory.af.mil%2FFAQs%2FFact-Sheets%2FArticle%2F458967%2Fthe-u-s-army-air-forces-in-world-war-ii%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+weapon" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged April 2024">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070919143939/http://www.rerf.or.jp/general/qa_e/qa1.html">"Frequently Asked Questions #1"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Radiation_Effects_Research_Foundation" title="Radiation Effects Research Foundation">Radiation Effects Research Foundation</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rerf.or.jp/general/qa_e/qa1.html">the original</a> on September 19, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 18,</span> 2007</span>. <q>total number of deaths is not known precisely ... acute (within two to four months) deaths ... Hiroshima ... 90,000–166,000 ... 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Fas.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130102173724/http://www.fas.org/programs/ssp/nukes/nuclearweapons/nukestatus.html">Archived</a> from the original on January 2, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 29,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Federation+of+American+Scientists%3A+Status+of+World+Nuclear+Forces&rft.pub=Fas.org&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffas.org%2Fprograms%2Fssp%2Fnukes%2Fnuclearweapons%2Fnukestatus.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+weapon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fas.org/nuke/guide/israel/nuke/index.html">"Nuclear Weapons – Israel"</a>. Fas.org. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 15,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nuclear+Weapons+%E2%80%93+Israel&rft.pub=Fas.org&rft.date=2007-01-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffas.org%2Fnuke%2Fguide%2Fisrael%2Fnuke%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+weapon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nuclear_Threat_Initiatives,_South_Africa_(NTI_South_Africa)-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nuclear_Threat_Initiatives,_South_Africa_(NTI_South_Africa)_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFExecutive_release" class="citation web cs1">Executive release. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120928185925/http://www.nti.org/country-profiles/south-africa/nuclear/">"South African nuclear bomb"</a>. <i>Nuclear Threat Initiatives</i>. 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PDF. 2,600 pages, Sunnyvale, California, Chuklea Publications, 1995, 2007. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9791915-0-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9791915-0-3">978-0-9791915-0-3</a> (2nd Ed.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlbrightKramer2005" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Albright" title="David Albright">Albright, David</a>; Kramer, Kimberly (August 22, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://isis-online.org/uploads/isis-reports/documents/np_237_and_americium.pdf">"Neptunium 237 and Americium: World Inventories and Proliferation Concerns"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Science_and_International_Security" title="Institute for Science and International Security">Institute for Science and International Security</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120103234833/http://isis-online.org/uploads/isis-reports/documents/np_237_and_americium.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on January 3, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 13,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Neptunium+237+and+Americium%3A+World+Inventories+and+Proliferation+Concerns&rft.pub=Institute+for+Science+and+International+Security&rft.date=2005-08-22&rft.aulast=Albright&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Kramer%2C+Kimberly&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fisis-online.org%2Fuploads%2Fisis-reports%2Fdocuments%2Fnp_237_and_americium.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+weapon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carey Sublette, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Nwfaq/Nfaq4-5.html#Nfaq4.5.2">Nuclear Weapons Frequently Asked Questions: 4.5.2 "Dirty" and "Clean" Weapons</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303170957/http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Nwfaq/Nfaq4-5.html">Archived</a> March 3, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, accessed May 10, 2011.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">On India's alleged hydrogen bomb test, see Carey Sublette, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaRealYields.html">What Are the Real Yields of India's Test?</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110927013551/http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaRealYields.html">Archived</a> September 27, 2011, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcKirdy2016" class="citation web cs1">McKirdy, Euan (January 6, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cnn.com/2016/01/05/asia/north-korea-seismic-event/">"North Korea announces it conducted nuclear test"</a>. <i>CNN</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160107193043/http://www.cnn.com/2016/01/05/asia/north-korea-seismic-event/">Archived</a> from the original on January 7, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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"Fourth Generation Nuclear Weapons: Military effectiveness and collateral effects". <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0510071">physics/0510071</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=preprint&rft.jtitle=arXiv&rft.atitle=Fourth+Generation+Nuclear+Weapons%3A+Military+effectiveness+and+collateral+effects&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fphysics%2F0510071&rft.aulast=Gsponer&rft.aufirst=Andre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+weapon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nextbigfuture.com/2015/09/details-on-antimatter-triggered-fusion.html">"Details on antimatter triggered fusion bombs"</a>. <i>NextBigFuture.com</i>. 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Sfgate.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120609101650/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=%2Fc%2Fa%2F2004%2F10%2F04%2FMNGM393GPK1.DTL">Archived</a> from the original on June 9, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 30,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Air+Force+pursuing+antimatter+weapons%3A+Program+was+touted+publicly%2C+then+came+official+gag+order&rft.date=2004-10-04&rft.au=Keay+Davidson&rft.au=Chronicle+Science+Writer&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsfgate.com%2Fcgi-bin%2Farticle.cgi%3Ffile%3D%2Fc%2Fa%2F2004%2F10%2F04%2FMNGM393GPK1.DTL&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+weapon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/News/INESAPTR1.html">"Fourth Generation Nuclear Weapons"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160323010905/http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/News/INESAPTR1.html">Archived</a> from the original on March 23, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 24,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Fourth+Generation+Nuclear+Weapons&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnuclearweaponarchive.org%2FNews%2FINESAPTR1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+weapon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephen I. Schwartz, ed., <i>Atomic Audit: The Costs and Consequences of U.S. Nuclear Weapons Since 1940.</i> Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1998. 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Handel (November 12, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gp0rBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA85"><i>War, Strategy and Intelligence</i></a>. Routledge. pp. 85–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-28624-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-28624-7"><bdi>978-1-136-28624-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170331214605/https://books.google.com/books?id=Gp0rBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA85">Archived</a> from the original on March 31, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War%2C+Strategy+and+Intelligence&rft.pages=85-&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012-11-12&rft.isbn=978-1-136-28624-7&rft.au=Michael+I.+Handel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGp0rBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA85&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+weapon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCreveld2000" class="citation book cs1">Creveld, Martin Van (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofm00town">"Technology and War II:Postmodern War?"</a>. 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New York: Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofm00town/page/349">349</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-285373-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-285373-8"><bdi>978-0-19-285373-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Technology+and+War+II%3APostmodern+War%3F&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+History+of+Modern+War&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=349&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-19-285373-8&rft.aulast=Creveld&rft.aufirst=Martin+Van&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foxfordhistoryofm00town&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+weapon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMearsheimer2006" class="citation journal cs1">Mearsheimer, John (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130501181414/http://johnmearsheimer.uchicago.edu/pdfs/A0020.pdf">"Conversations in International Relations: Interview with John J. Mearsheimer (Part I)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>International Relations</i>. <b>20</b> (1): 105–123. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0047117806060939">10.1177/0047117806060939</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0047-1178">0047-1178</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:220788933">220788933</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jonmearsheimer.uchicago.edu/pdfs/A0020.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on May 1, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 23,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Relations&rft.atitle=Conversations+in+International+Relations%3A+Interview+with+John+J.+Mearsheimer+%28Part+I%29&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=105-123&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A220788933%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0047-1178&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0047117806060939&rft.aulast=Mearsheimer&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjonmearsheimer.uchicago.edu%2Fpdfs%2FA0020.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+weapon" class="Z3988"></span> See page 116</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kenneth Waltz, "More May Be Better", in Scott Sagan and Kenneth Waltz, eds., <i>The Spread of Nuclear Weapons</i> (New York: Norton, 1995).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-waltz-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-waltz_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-waltz_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kenneth Waltz, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/waltz1.htm">"The Spread of Nuclear Weapons: More May Better"</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101201053554/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/waltz1.htm">Archived</a> December 1, 2010, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i>Adelphi Papers</i>, no. 171 (London: International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1981).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pubs/display.cfm?pubID=1327">"Should We Let the Bomb Spread? Edited by Mr. Henry D. Sokolski. Strategic studies institute. November 2016"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161123214604/http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pubs/display.cfm?pubID=1327">Archived</a> from the original on November 23, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Should+We+Let+the+Bomb+Spread%3F+Edited+by+Mr.+Henry+D.+Sokolski.+Strategic+studies+institute.+November+2016&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil%2Fpubs%2Fdisplay.cfm%3FpubID%3D1327&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+weapon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-feldman-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-feldman_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, for example: Feldman, Noah. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/29/magazine/29islam.html">Islam, Terror and the Second Nuclear Age</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160219172015/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/29/magazine/29islam.html">Archived</a> February 19, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", <i>New York Times Magazine</i> (October 29, 2006).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Daniel Plesch & Stephen Young, "Senseless policy", <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sgsAAAAAMBAJ">Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150919025137/https://books.google.com/books?id=sgsAAAAAMBAJ&printsec=frontcover">Archived</a> September 19, 2015, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>, November/December 1998, page 4. Fetched from URL on April 18, 2011.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGallucci2006" class="citation journal cs1">Gallucci, Robert (September 2006). "Averting Nuclear Catastrophe: Contemplating Extreme Responses to U.S. Vulnerability". <i>Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science</i>. <b>607</b>: 51–58. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0002716206290457">10.1177/0002716206290457</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:68857650">68857650</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+the+American+Academy+of+Political+and+Social+Science&rft.atitle=Averting+Nuclear+Catastrophe%3A+Contemplating+Extreme+Responses+to+U.S.+Vulnerability&rft.volume=607&rft.pages=51-58&rft.date=2006-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0002716206290457&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A68857650%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Gallucci&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+weapon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Allison-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Allison_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Allison_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllison2009" class="citation news cs1">Allison, Graham (March 13, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130513111324/http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/2009/03/13/how-to-keep-the-bomb-from-terrorists.html">"How to Keep the Bomb From Terrorist s"</a>. <i>Newsweek</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/2009/03/13/how-to-keep-the-bomb-from-terrorists.html">the original</a> on May 13, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 28,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Newsweek&rft.atitle=How+to+Keep+the+Bomb+From+Terrorist+s&rft.date=2009-03-13&rft.aulast=Allison&rft.aufirst=Graham&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thedailybeast.com%2Fnewsweek%2F2009%2F03%2F13%2Fhow-to-keep-the-bomb-from-terrorists.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+weapon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vice.com/en_ca/article/mb84db/the-pentagon-revealed-its-nuclear-war-strategy-and-its-terrifying">"The Pentagon Revealed Its Nuclear War Strategy and It's Terrifying"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Vice_(magazine)" title="Vice (magazine)">Vice</a></i>. June 21, 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191207063100/https://www.vice.com/en_ca/article/mb84db/the-pentagon-revealed-its-nuclear-war-strategy-and-its-terrifying">Archived</a> from the original on December 7, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 9,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Vice&rft.atitle=The+Pentagon+Revealed+Its+Nuclear+War+Strategy+and+It%27s+Terrifying&rft.date=2019-06-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vice.com%2Fen_ca%2Farticle%2Fmb84db%2Fthe-pentagon-revealed-its-nuclear-war-strategy-and-its-terrifying&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+weapon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jun/19/nuclear-weapons-pentagon-us-military-doctrine">"Nuclear weapons: experts alarmed by new Pentagon 'war-fighting' doctrine"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. June 19, 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190619222056/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jun/19/nuclear-weapons-pentagon-us-military-doctrine">Archived</a> from the original on June 19, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 9,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Nuclear+weapons%3A+experts+alarmed+by+new+Pentagon+%27war-fighting%27+doctrine&rft.date=2019-06-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2019%2Fjun%2F19%2Fnuclear-weapons-pentagon-us-military-doctrine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+weapon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Eric_Schlosser" title="Eric Schlosser">Eric Schlosser</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bos.sagepub.com/content/71/6/11.full">Today's nuclear dilemma</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160101090600/http://bos.sagepub.com/content/71/6/11.full">Archived</a> January 1, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Bulletin_of_the_Atomic_Scientists" title="Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists">Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists</a></i>, November/December 2015, vol. 71 no. 6, 11–17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-status-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-status_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-status_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization (2010). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ctbto.org/the-treaty/status-of-signature-and-ratification">Status of Signature and Ratification</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110406151906/http://www.ctbto.org/the-treaty/status-of-signature-and-ratification/">Archived</a> April 6, 2011, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>". Accessed May 27, 2010. Of the "Annex 2" states whose ratification of the CTBT is required before it enters into force, China, Egypt, Iran, Israel, and the United States have signed but not ratified the Treaty. India, North Korea, and Pakistan have not signed the Treaty.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Richelson-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Richelson_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richelson, Jeffrey. <i>Spying on the bomb: American nuclear intelligence from Nazi Germany to Iran and North Korea.</i> New York: Norton, 2006.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/pniglance">The Presidential Nuclear Initiatives (PNIs) on Tactical Nuclear Weapons At a Glance</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110119164340/http://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/pniglance">Archived</a> January 19, 2011, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Fact Sheet, Arms Control Association.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icrc.org/web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/htmlall/section_ihl_nuclear_weapons">Nuclear weapons and international humanitarian law</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100421062555/http://www.icrc.org/web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/htmlall/section_ihl_nuclear_weapons">Archived</a> April 21, 2010, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> International Committee of the Red Cross</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-diesrev-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-diesrev_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMark_Diesendorf2013" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mark_Diesendorf" title="Mark Diesendorf">Mark Diesendorf</a> (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130927163154/http://www.ies.unsw.edu.au/sites/all/files/MD%20BookReview_EnergyPolicy2013.pdf">"Book review: Contesting the future of nuclear power"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Energy Policy</i>. 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(July 2013)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Nuclear_weapon#Dubious" title="Talk:Nuclear weapon">discuss</a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.icanw.org/history_of_the_tpnw">"History of the TPNW"</a>. <i>ICAN</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230605172312/https://www.icanw.org/history_of_the_tpnw">Archived</a> from the original on June 5, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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August 27, 1986. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140910195156/http://articles.latimes.com/1986-08-27/news/mn-14421_1_hydrogen-bomb">Archived</a> from the original on September 10, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 31,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&rft.atitle=Accident+Revealed+After+29+Years%3A+H-Bomb+Fell+Near+Albuquerque+in+1957&rft.date=1986-08-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.latimes.com%2Farchives%2Fla-xpm-1986-08-27-mn-14421-story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+weapon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BOAS-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BOAS_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarry_Schneider1975" class="citation magazine cs1">Barry Schneider (May 1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dQsAAAAAMBAJ">"Big Bangs from Little Bombs"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Bulletin_of_the_Atomic_Scientists" title="Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists">Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists</a></i>. p. 28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 13,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+Atomic+Scientists&rft.atitle=Big+Bangs+from+Little+Bombs&rft.pages=28&rft.date=1975-05&rft.au=Barry+Schneider&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdQsAAAAAMBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+weapon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CruiseReport-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CruiseReport_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040907220034/http://www.history.navy.mil/download/cv-deploy-vietnam.htm">"Ticonderoga Cruise Reports"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.navy.mil/download/cv-deploy-vietnam.htm">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(Navy.mil weblist of Aug 2003 compilation from cruise reports)</span> on September 7, 2004<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 20,</span> 2012</span>. <q>The National Archives hold<i>[s]</i> deck logs for aircraft carriers for the Vietnam Conflict.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ticonderoga+Cruise+Reports&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.navy.mil%2Fdownload%2Fcv-deploy-vietnam.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+weapon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.atomicarchive.com/Almanac/Brokenarrows_static.shtml">Broken Arrows</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130901064320/http://www.atomicarchive.com/Almanac/Brokenarrows_static.shtml">Archived</a> September 1, 2013, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> at www.atomicarchive.com. Accessed August 24, 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1">"U.S. Confirms '65 Loss of H-Bomb Near Japanese Islands". <i><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Reuters" title="Reuters">Reuters</a>. May 9, 1989. p. A–27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=U.S.+Confirms+%2765+Loss+of+H-Bomb+Near+Japanese+Islands&rft.pages=A-27&rft.date=1989-05-09&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+weapon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hayes-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hayes_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHayes2007" class="citation news cs1">Hayes, Ron (January 17, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110616223334/http://www.palmbeachpost.com/localnews/content/local_news/epaper/2007/01/17/m1a_Hbomb_0117.html?cxtype=rss&cxsvc=7&cxcat=17">"H-bomb incident crippled pilot's career"</a>. <i>Palm Beach Post</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.palmbeachpost.com/localnews/content/local_news/epaper/2007/01/17/m1a_Hbomb_0117.html?cxtype=rss&cxsvc=7&cxcat=17">the original</a> on June 16, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 24,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Palm+Beach+Post&rft.atitle=H-bomb+incident+crippled+pilot%27s+career&rft.date=2007-01-17&rft.aulast=Hayes&rft.aufirst=Ron&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.palmbeachpost.com%2Flocalnews%2Fcontent%2Flocal_news%2Fepaper%2F2007%2F01%2F17%2Fm1a_Hbomb_0117.html%3Fcxtype%3Drss%26cxsvc%3D7%26cxcat%3D17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+weapon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaydew1997" class="citation book cs1">Maydew, Randall C. (1997). <i>America's Lost H-Bomb: Palomares, Spain, 1966</i>. Sunflower University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89745-214-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89745-214-4"><bdi>978-0-89745-214-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=America%27s+Lost+H-Bomb%3A+Palomares%2C+Spain%2C+1966&rft.pub=Sunflower+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-89745-214-4&rft.aulast=Maydew&rft.aufirst=Randall+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+weapon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-long-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-long_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLong2008" class="citation news cs1">Long, Tony (January 17, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2008/01/dayintech_0117">"Jan. 17, 1966: H-Bombs Rain Down on a Spanish Fishing Village"</a>. WIRED. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081203112702/http://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2008/01/dayintech_0117">Archived</a> from the original on December 3, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 16,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Jan.+17%2C+1966%3A+H-Bombs+Rain+Down+on+a+Spanish+Fishing+Village&rft.date=2008-01-17&rft.aulast=Long&rft.aufirst=Tony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2Fscience%2Fdiscoveries%2Fnews%2F2008%2F01%2Fdayintech_0117&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+weapon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.spiegel.de/international/world/a-nuclear-needle-in-a-haystack-the-cold-war-s-missing-atom-bombs-a-590513.html">"The Cold War's Missing Atom Bombs"</a>. <i>Der Spiegel</i>. November 14, 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190627105727/https://www.spiegel.de/international/world/a-nuclear-needle-in-a-haystack-the-cold-war-s-missing-atom-bombs-a-590513.html">Archived</a> from the original on June 27, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 20,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Der+Spiegel&rft.atitle=The+Cold+War%27s+Missing+Atom+Bombs&rft.date=2008-11-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.spiegel.de%2Finternational%2Fworld%2Fa-nuclear-needle-in-a-haystack-the-cold-war-s-missing-atom-bombs-a-590513.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+weapon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/greenland/3439318/US-left-nuclear-weapon-under-ice-in-Greenland.html">"US left nuclear weapon under ice in Greenland"</a></span>. <i>The Daily Telegraph</i>. November 11, 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/greenland/3439318/US-left-nuclear-weapon-under-ice-in-Greenland.html">Archived</a> from the original on January 10, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Daily+Telegraph&rft.atitle=US+left+nuclear+weapon+under+ice+in+Greenland&rft.date=2008-11-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworldnews%2Feurope%2Fgreenland%2F3439318%2FUS-left-nuclear-weapon-under-ice-in-Greenland.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+weapon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchlosser2013" class="citation book cs1">Schlosser, Eric (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/commandcontrol00eric/page/48">"Command and Control: Nuclear Weapons, the Damascus Accident, and the Illusion of Safety"</a>. <i>Physics Today</i>. Vol. 67. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/commandcontrol00eric/page/48">48–50</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014PhT....67d..48W">2014PhT....67d..48W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2FPT.3.2350">10.1063/PT.3.2350</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59420-227-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59420-227-8"><bdi>978-1-59420-227-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Command+and+Control%3A+Nuclear+Weapons%2C+the+Damascus+Accident%2C+and+the+Illusion+of+Safety&rft.btitle=Physics+Today&rft.pages=48-50&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2FPT.3.2350&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014PhT....67d..48W&rft.isbn=978-1-59420-227-8&rft.aulast=Schlosser&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcommandcontrol00eric%2Fpage%2F48&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+weapon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChrist" class="citation web cs1">Christ, Mark K. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopediaofarkansas.net/encyclopedia/entry-detail.aspx?entryID=2543">"Titan II Missile Explosion"</a>. <i>The Encyclopedia of Arkansas History & Culture</i>. Arkansas Historic Preservation Program. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140912135526/http://www.encyclopediaofarkansas.net/encyclopedia/entry-detail.aspx?entryID=2543">Archived</a> from the original on September 12, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 31,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Arkansas+History+%26+Culture&rft.atitle=Titan+II+Missile+Explosion&rft.aulast=Christ&rft.aufirst=Mark+K.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopediaofarkansas.net%2Fencyclopedia%2Fentry-detail.aspx%3FentryID%3D2543&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+weapon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStumpf2000" class="citation book cs1">Stumpf, David K. (2000). Christ, Mark K.; Slater, Cathryn H. (eds.). <i>"We Can Neither Confirm Nor Deny" Sentinels of History: Refelections on Arkansas Properties on the National Register of Historic Places</i>. Fayetteville, Arkansas: University of Arkansas Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%22We+Can+Neither+Confirm+Nor+Deny%22+Sentinels+of+History%3A+Refelections+on+Arkansas+Properties+on+the+National+Register+of+Historic+Places&rft.place=Fayetteville%2C+Arkansas&rft.pub=University+of+Arkansas+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Stumpf&rft.aufirst=David+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+weapon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-rudig2-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-rudig2_85-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rudig2_85-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rudig2_85-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRudig1990" class="citation book cs1">Rudig, Wolfgang (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZXwfAQAAIAAJ"><i>Anti-nuclear Movements: A World Survey of Opposition to Nuclear Energy</i></a>. Longman. pp. 54–55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0582902695" title="Special:BookSources/978-0582902695"><bdi>978-0582902695</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Anti-nuclear+Movements%3A+A+World+Survey+of+Opposition+to+Nuclear+Energy&rft.pages=54-55&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0582902695&rft.aulast=Rudig&rft.aufirst=Wolfgang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZXwfAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+weapon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/radiation/fallout/">"Report on the Health Consequences to the American Population from Nuclear Weapons Tests Conducted by the United States and Other Nations"</a>. CDC. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131204164348/http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/radiation/fallout/">Archived</a> from the original on December 4, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 7,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Report+on+the+Health+Consequences+to+the+American+Population+from+Nuclear+Weapons+Tests+Conducted+by+the+United+States+and+Other+Nations&rft.pub=CDC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fnceh%2Fradiation%2Ffallout%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+weapon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCommittee_to_Review_the_CDC-NCI_Feasibility_Study_of_the_Health_Consequences_Nuclear_Weapons_Tests,_National_Research_Council2003" class="citation book cs1">Committee to Review the CDC-NCI Feasibility Study of the Health Consequences Nuclear Weapons Tests, National Research Council (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140907210530/http://books.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=10621"><i>Exposure of the American Population to Radioactive Fallout from Nuclear Weapons Tests</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17226%2F10621">10.17226/10621</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-08713-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-309-08713-1"><bdi>978-0-309-08713-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25057651">25057651</a>. 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At about 2 days (49 hours-7X7) the activity will have decreased to 1% of the 1-hour value</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Fallout+Radiation.com&rft.atitle=Decay+Information&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.falloutradiation.com%2Fjohnwayne7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+weapon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131126220402/http://www3.nd.edu/~nsl/Lectures/phys205/pdf/Nuclear_Warfare_9.pdf">"Nuclear Warfare"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. p. 22. 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Cnduk.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040617103503/http://www.cnduk.org/pages/binfo/hist.html">Archived</a> from the original on June 17, 2004<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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April 5, 1958. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061008112515/http://century.guardian.co.uk/1950-1959/Story/0,,105488,00.html">Archived</a> from the original on October 8, 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Guardian+Unlimited&rft.atitle=Early+defections+in+march+to+Aldermaston&rft.date=1958-04-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcentury.guardian.co.uk%2F1950-1959%2FStory%2F0%2C%2C105488%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+weapon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jim Falk (1982). <i>Global Fission: The Battle Over Nuclear Power</i>, Oxford University Press, p. 93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jim Falk (1982). <i>Global Fission: The Battle Over Nuclear Power</i>, Oxford University Press, p. 98.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Spencer Weart, <i>Nuclear Fear: A History of Images</i> (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1988), chapters 16 and 19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-inflation-US-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-inflation-US_110-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">1634–1699: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCusker1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_J._McCusker" title="John J. 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A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/American_Antiquarian_Society" title="American Antiquarian Society">American Antiquarian Society</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+Much+Is+That+in+Real+Money%3F+A+Historical+Price+Index+for+Use+as+a+Deflator+of+Money+Values+in+the+Economy+of+the+United+States&rft.pub=American+Antiquarian+Society&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=McCusker&rft.aufirst=J.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanantiquarian.org%2Fproceedings%2F44517778.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+weapon" class="Z3988"></span> 1800–present: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFederal_Reserve_Bank_of_Minneapolis" class="citation web cs1">Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.minneapolisfed.org/about-us/monetary-policy/inflation-calculator/consumer-price-index-1800-">"Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 14,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscienceandglobalsecurity.org%2Farchive%2Fsgs07nordyke.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+weapon" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osti.gov/opennet/reports/plowshar.pdf">"Archived copy"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240403165317/https://www.osti.gov/opennet/reports/plowshar.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on April 3, 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Ford: "Message to the Senate Transmitting United States-Soviet Treaty and Protocol on the Limitation of Underground Nuclear Explosions", July 29, 1976"</a>. <i>The American Presidency Project</i>. University of California – Santa Barbara. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=6245">the original</a> on March 3, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 22,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+American+Presidency+Project&rft.atitle=Gerald+R.+Ford%3A+%22Message+to+the+Senate+Transmitting+United+States-Soviet+Treaty+and+Protocol+on+the+Limitation+of+Underground+Nuclear+Explosions%22%2C+July+29%2C+1976&rft.aulast=Peters&rft.aufirst=Gerhard&rft.au=Woolley%2C+John+T&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.presidency.ucsb.edu%2Fws%2F%3Fpid%3D6245&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+weapon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161228205543/http://ctbto.org/the-treaty/status-of-signature-and-ratification">"Status of Signature and Ratification"</a>. <i>ctbto dot org</i>. 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(2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EpRmDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA33"><i>Nuclear Fusion and Fission</i></a>. Great Discoveries in Science. Cavendish Square Publishing, LLC. p. 33. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-502-61949-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-502-61949-5"><bdi>978-1-502-61949-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nuclear+Fusion+and+Fission&rft.series=Great+Discoveries+in+Science&rft.pages=33&rft.pub=Cavendish+Square+Publishing%2C+LLC&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-502-61949-5&rft.aulast=Young-Brown&rft.aufirst=F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEpRmDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA33&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+weapon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes1986263,_268-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhodes1986263,_268_118-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRhodes1986">Rhodes 1986</a>, pp. 263, 268.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFRhodes1986 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes1986268-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhodes1986268_119-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRhodes1986">Rhodes 1986</a>, p. 268.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFRhodes1986 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.atomicarchive.com/resources/biographies/szilard.html">"Leo Szilard | Biographies"</a>. <i>www.atomicarchive.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.atomicarchive.com&rft.atitle=Leo+Szilard+%26%23124%3B+Biographies&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.atomicarchive.com%2Fresources%2Fbiographies%2Fszilard.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+weapon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes1986305–312-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhodes1986305–312_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRhodes1986">Rhodes 1986</a>, pp. 305–312.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFRhodes1986 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerrera2006" class="citation book cs1">Herrera, Geoffrey Lucas (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZdpUWNZ01QcC&pg=PA179"><i>Technology and International Transformation: The Railroad, the Atom Bomb, and the Politics of Technological Change</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/SUNY_Press" title="SUNY Press">SUNY Press</a>. pp. 179–80. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-6868-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-6868-5"><bdi>978-0-7914-6868-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Technology+and+International+Transformation%3A+The+Railroad%2C+the+Atom+Bomb%2C+and+the+Politics+of+Technological+Change&rft.pages=179-80&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-6868-5&rft.aulast=Herrera&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey+Lucas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZdpUWNZ01QcC%26pg%3DPA179&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+weapon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaucht2012" class="citation book cs1">Laucht, Christoph (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PY7W5vNFJU0C&pg=PT31"><i>Elemental Germans: Klaus Fuchs, Rudolf Peierls and the Making of British Nuclear Culture 1939–59</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Palgrave_Macmillan" title="Palgrave Macmillan">Palgrave Macmillan</a>. pp. 31–33. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-22295-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-137-22295-4"><bdi>978-1-137-22295-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Elemental+Germans%3A+Klaus+Fuchs%2C+Rudolf+Peierls+and+the+Making+of+British+Nuclear+Culture+1939%E2%80%9359&rft.pages=31-33&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-137-22295-4&rft.aulast=Laucht&rft.aufirst=Christoph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPY7W5vNFJU0C%26pg%3DPT31&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+weapon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-History_of_nuclear_weapons_Groves1983-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-History_of_nuclear_weapons_Groves1983_124-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGroves1983" class="citation book cs1">Groves, Leslie R. (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4l0ypFOUrbIC&pg=PA33"><i>Now It Can Be Told: The Story of the Manhattan Project</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Da_Capo_Press" title="Da Capo Press">Da Capo Press</a>. p. 33. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-786-74822-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-786-74822-8"><bdi>978-0-786-74822-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Now+It+Can+Be+Told%3A+The+Story+of+the+Manhattan+Project&rft.pages=33&rft.pub=Da+Capo+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-786-74822-8&rft.aulast=Groves&rft.aufirst=Leslie+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4l0ypFOUrbIC%26pg%3DPA33&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+weapon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_books_about_nuclear_issues" title="List of books about nuclear issues">List of books about nuclear issues</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Bethe, Hans Albrecht</a>. <i>The Road from Los Alamos</i>. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1991. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-671-74012-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-671-74012-1">0-671-74012-1</a></li> <li>DeVolpi, Alexander, Minkov, Vladimir E., Simonenko, Vadim A., and Stanford, George S. <i>Nuclear Shadowboxing: Contemporary Threats from Cold War Weaponry</i>. Fidlar Doubleday, 2004 (Two volumes, both accessible on Google Book Search) (Content of both volumes is now available in the 2009 trilogy by Alexander DeVolpi: <i>Nuclear Insights: The Cold War Legacy</i>)</li> <li>Glasstone, Samuel and Dolan, Philip J. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050204002118/http://www.cddc.vt.edu/host/atomic/nukeffct/">The Effects of Nuclear Weapons (third edition).</a></i> Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1977. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090227073933/http://www.princeton.edu/~globsec/publications/effects/effects.shtml">Available online (PDF).</a></li> <li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/doctrine/dod/fm8-9/1toc.htm">NATO Handbook on the Medical Aspects of NBC Defensive Operations (Part I – Nuclear)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150408021307/http://fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/doctrine/dod/fm8-9/1toc.htm">Archived</a> April 8, 2015, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>. Departments of the Army, Navy, and Air Force: Washington, D.C., 1996</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuck_Hansen" title="Chuck Hansen">Hansen, Chuck</a>. <i>U.S. Nuclear Weapons: The Secret History.</i> Arlington, TX: Aerofax, 1988</li> <li>Hansen, Chuck, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uscoldwar.com/">Swords of Armageddon: U.S. nuclear weapons development since 1945</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161230020259/http://www.uscoldwar.com/">Archived</a> December 30, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>" (CD-ROM & download available). PDF. 2,600 pages, Sunnyvale, California, Chucklea Publications, 1995, 2007. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9791915-0-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9791915-0-3">978-0-9791915-0-3</a> (2nd Ed.)</li> <li>Holloway, David. <i>Stalin and the Bomb</i>. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-06056-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-06056-4">0-300-06056-4</a></li> <li>The Manhattan Engineer District, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.atomicarchive.com/Docs/MED/index.shtml">The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120204055504/http://www.atomicarchive.com/Docs/MED/index.shtml">Archived</a> February 4, 2012, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>" (1946)</li> <li><span class="languageicon">(in French)</span> Jean-Hugues Oppel, <i>Réveillez le président</i>, Éditions Payot et rivages, 2007 (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7436-1630-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-7436-1630-4">978-2-7436-1630-4</a>). The book is a fiction about the <a href="/wiki/Force_de_Frappe" class="mw-redirect" title="Force de Frappe">nuclear weapons</a> of France; the book also contains about ten chapters on true historical incidents involving nuclear weapons and strategy.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_DeWolf_Smyth" title="Henry DeWolf Smyth">Smyth, Henry DeWolf</a>. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.atomicarchive.com/Docs/SmythReport/index.shtml">Atomic Energy for Military Purposes.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170421015824/http://www.atomicarchive.com/Docs/SmythReport/index.shtml">Archived</a> April 21, 2017, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i> Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1945. (<a href="/wiki/Smyth_Report" title="Smyth Report">Smyth Report</a> – the first declassified report by the US government on nuclear weapons)</li> <li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150418011842/http://fas.org/nuke/intro/nuke/7906/index.html">The Effects of Nuclear War</a></i>. Office of Technology Assessment, May 1979.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rhodes" title="Richard Rhodes">Rhodes, Richard</a>. <i>Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb</i>. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-82414-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-684-82414-0">0-684-82414-0</a></li> <li>Rhodes, Richard. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Making_of_the_Atomic_Bomb" title="The Making of the Atomic Bomb">The Making of the Atomic Bomb</a></i>. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1986 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-81378-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-684-81378-5">0-684-81378-5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Shultz" title="George Shultz">Shultz, George P.</a> and Goodby, James E. <i>The War that Must Never be Fought</i>, Hoover Press, 2015, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8179-1845-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8179-1845-3">978-0-8179-1845-3</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spencer_Weart" class="mw-redirect" title="Spencer Weart">Weart, Spencer R.</a> <i>Nuclear Fear: A History of Images</i>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1988. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-62836-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-62836-5">0-674-62836-5</a></li> <li>Weart, Spencer R. <i>The Rise of Nuclear Fear</i>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2012. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-05233-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-05233-1">0-674-05233-1</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Nuclear weapon</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Nuclear+weapon">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Nuclear+weapon&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laura_Grego" title="Laura Grego">Laura Grego</a> and David Wright, "Broken Shield: Missiles designed to destroy incoming nuclear warheads fail frequently in tests and could increase global risk of mass destruction", <i><a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a></i>, vol. 320, no. no. 6 (June 2019), pp. 62–67. "Current U.S. <a href="/wiki/Missile_defense" title="Missile defense">missile defense</a> plans are being driven largely by <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fear" title="Fear">fear</a>. Missile defenses will not allow us to escape our vulnerability to nuclear weapons. Instead large-scale developments will create barriers to taking real steps toward <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_disarmament" title="Nuclear disarmament">reducing nuclear risks</a>—by blocking further cuts in nuclear arsenals and potentially spurring new deployments." (p. 67.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_T._Klare" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael T. Klare">Michael T. Klare</a>, "Missile Mania: The death of the <a href="/wiki/INF_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="INF Treaty">INF [Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces] Treaty</a> [of 1987] has escalated the arms race", <i><a href="/wiki/The_Nation" title="The Nation">The Nation</a></i>, vol. 309, no. 6 (September 23, 2019), p. 4.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_J._Moniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Ernest J. Moniz">Moniz, Ernest J.</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sam_Nunn" title="Sam Nunn">Sam Nunn</a>, "The Return of Doomsday: The New Nuclear Arms Race – and How Washington and Moscow Can Stop It", <i><a href="/wiki/Foreign_Affairs" title="Foreign Affairs">Foreign Affairs</a></i>, vol. 98, no. 5 (September / October 2019), pp. 150–161. Former <a href="/wiki/U.S._Secretary_of_Energy" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Secretary of Energy">U.S. Secretary of Energy</a> <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Moniz" title="Ernest Moniz">Ernest Moniz</a> and former <a href="/wiki/U.S._Senator" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Senator">U.S. Senator</a> <a href="/wiki/Sam_Nunn" title="Sam Nunn">Sam Nunn</a> write that "the old [strategic] equilibrium" between the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> has been "destabilized" by "clashing national interests, insufficient dialogue, eroding arms control structures, advanced missile systems, and new <a href="/wiki/Cyberweapon" title="Cyberweapon">cyberweapons</a>... Unless Washington and Moscow confront these problems now, a major international conflict or nuclear escalation is disturbingly plausible—perhaps even likely." (p. 161.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Powers" title="Thomas Powers">Thomas Powers</a>, "The Nuclear Worrier" (review of <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Ellsberg" title="Daniel Ellsberg">Daniel Ellsberg</a>, <i>The Doomsday Machine: Confessions of a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear War">Nuclear War</a> Planner</i>, New York, Bloomsbury, 2017, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781608196708" title="Special:BookSources/9781608196708">9781608196708</a>, 420 pp.), <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a></i>, vol. LXV, no. 1 (January 18, 2018), pp. 13–15.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Schlosser" title="Eric Schlosser">Eric Schlosser</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Command_and_Control:_Nuclear_Weapons,_the_Damascus_Accident,_and_the_Illusion_of_Safety" class="mw-redirect" title="Command and Control: Nuclear Weapons, the Damascus Accident, and the Illusion of Safety">Command and Control: Nuclear Weapons, the Damascus Accident, and the Illusion of Safety</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Penguin Press">Penguin Press</a>, 2013, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1594202273" title="Special:BookSources/1594202273">1594202273</a>. The book became the basis for a 2-hour 2017 <a href="/wiki/PBS" title="PBS">PBS</a> <a href="/wiki/American_Experience" title="American Experience">American Experience</a> episode, likewise titled "Command and Control". Nuclear weapons continue to be equally hazardous to their owners as to their potential targets. Under the 1970 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Non-Proliferation_of_Nuclear_Weapons" title="Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons">Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear-weapon_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear-weapon states">nuclear-weapon states</a> are obliged to work toward the elimination of nuclear weapons.</li> <li>Tom Stevenson, "A Tiny Sun" (review of <a href="/wiki/Fred_Kaplan_(journalist)" title="Fred Kaplan (journalist)">Fred Kaplan</a>, <i>The Bomb: Presidents, Generals, and the Secret History of Nuclear War</i>, Simon and Schuster, 2021, 384 pp.; and Keir A. Lieber and Daryl G. Press, <i>The Myth of the Nuclear Revolution: Power Politics in the Atomic Age</i>, Cornell, 2020, 180 pp.), <i><a href="/wiki/London_Review_of_Books" title="London Review of Books">London Review of Books</a></i>, vol. 44, no. 4 (24 February 2022), pp. 29–32. "Nuclear strategists systematically underestimate the chances of nuclear accident... [T]here have been too many close calls for accidental use to be discounted." (p. 32.)</li> <li>David Wright and Cameron Tracy, "Over-hyped: Physics dictates that <a href="/wiki/Hypersonic_weapon" title="Hypersonic weapon">hypersonic weapons</a> cannot live up to the grand promises made on their behalf", <i><a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a></i>, vol. 325, no. 2 (August 2021), pp. 64–71. "Failure to fully assess [the potential benefits and costs of hypersonic weapons] is a recipe for wasteful spending and increased global risk." 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class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:United_States_nuclear_devices" title="Template:United States nuclear devices"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:United_States_nuclear_devices" title="Template talk:United States nuclear devices"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:United_States_nuclear_devices" title="Special:EditPage/Template:United States nuclear devices"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_States_nuclear_devices" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons#United_States" title="List of nuclear weapons">United States nuclear devices</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Fission<br />(including<br />boosted)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em"><a href="/wiki/Unguided_bomb" title="Unguided bomb">Gravity bombs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Little_Boy" title="Little Boy">Little Boy</a> (Mark 1)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thin_Man_(nuclear_bomb)" title="Thin Man (nuclear bomb)">Thin Man</a> (Mark 2)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fat_Man" title="Fat Man">Fat Man</a> (Mark 3)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_4_nuclear_bomb" title="Mark 4 nuclear bomb">Mark 4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_5_nuclear_bomb" title="Mark 5 nuclear bomb">Mark 5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_6_nuclear_bomb" title="Mark 6 nuclear bomb">Mark 6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_7_nuclear_bomb" title="Mark 7 nuclear bomb">Mark 7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_8_nuclear_bomb" title="Mark 8 nuclear bomb">Mark 8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_10_nuclear_bomb" title="Mark 10 nuclear bomb">Mark 10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_11_nuclear_bomb" title="Mark 11 nuclear bomb">Mark 11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_12_nuclear_bomb" title="Mark 12 nuclear bomb">Mark 12</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_13_nuclear_bomb" title="Mark 13 nuclear bomb">Mark 13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_18_nuclear_bomb" title="Mark 18 nuclear bomb">Mark 18</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_13_nuclear_bomb#Mark_20" title="Mark 13 nuclear bomb">Mark 20</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mk_105_Hotpoint" title="Mk 105 Hotpoint">Mk 105</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B57_nuclear_bomb" title="B57 nuclear bomb">B57</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em">Warheads</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mark_4_nuclear_bomb" title="Mark 4 nuclear bomb">W4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_5_nuclear_bomb" title="Mark 5 nuclear bomb">W5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_7_nuclear_bomb" title="Mark 7 nuclear bomb">W7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_8_nuclear_bomb" title="Mark 8 nuclear bomb">W8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_12_nuclear_bomb" title="Mark 12 nuclear bomb">W12</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_13_nuclear_bomb" title="Mark 13 nuclear bomb">W13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W25_(nuclear_warhead)" title="W25 (nuclear warhead)">W25</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W30_(nuclear_warhead)" title="W30 (nuclear warhead)">W30</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W31" title="W31">W31</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W34_(nuclear_warhead)" title="W34 (nuclear warhead)">W34</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W31" title="W31">W37</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W40_(nuclear_warhead)" title="W40 (nuclear warhead)">W40</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W42_(nuclear_warhead)" title="W42 (nuclear warhead)">W42</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RUR-5_ASROC#W44_nuclear_depth_charge" title="RUR-5 ASROC">W44</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W45_(nuclear_warhead)" title="W45 (nuclear warhead)">W45</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W54" title="W54">XW-51</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W54" title="W54">W54</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W54" title="W54">W72</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W76" title="W76">W76-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W81" title="W81">W81</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em">Depth bombs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mark_90_nuclear_bomb" title="Mark 90 nuclear bomb">Mark 90</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mk_101_Lulu" title="Mk 101 Lulu">Mk 101</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mk_105_Hotpoint" title="Mk 105 Hotpoint">Mk 105</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B57_nuclear_bomb" title="B57 nuclear bomb">B57</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em">Artillery</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/W9_(nuclear_warhead)" title="W9 (nuclear warhead)">W9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W19_(nuclear_artillery_shell)" title="W19 (nuclear artillery shell)">W19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W19_(nuclear_artillery_shell)" title="W19 (nuclear artillery shell)">W23</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W33_(nuclear_warhead)" title="W33 (nuclear warhead)">W33</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W48" title="W48">W48</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W54" title="W54">W54</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W74_(nuclear_warhead)" title="W74 (nuclear warhead)">W74</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W74_(nuclear_warhead)" title="W74 (nuclear warhead)">W75</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W79_Artillery-Fired_Atomic_Projectile" title="W79 Artillery-Fired Atomic Projectile">W79</a>-1</li> <li><a href="/wiki/W82" title="W82">W82</a>-1</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em"><a href="/wiki/Atomic_demolition_munition" title="Atomic demolition munition">Atomic demolition<br />munitions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mark_6_nuclear_bomb#XM1_Atomic_Demolition_Munition" title="Mark 6 nuclear bomb">XM1 ADM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_7_nuclear_bomb#T2_Atomic_Demolition_Munition" title="Mark 7 nuclear bomb">T2 ADM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T-4_Atomic_Demolition_Munition" title="T-4 Atomic Demolition Munition">T4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medium_Atomic_Demolition_Munition" title="Medium Atomic Demolition Munition">Medium Atomic Demolition Munition</a> (MADM)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Atomic_Demolition_Munition" title="Special Atomic Demolition Munition">Special Atomic Demolition Munition</a> (SADM)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tactical_Atomic_Demolition_Munition" class="mw-redirect" title="Tactical Atomic Demolition Munition">Tactical Atomic Demolition Munition</a> (TADM)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Thermonuclear_weapon" title="Thermonuclear weapon">Thermonuclear</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em">Gravity bombs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mark_14_nuclear_bomb" title="Mark 14 nuclear bomb">Mark 14</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_15_nuclear_bomb" title="Mark 15 nuclear bomb">Mark 15</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_16_nuclear_bomb" title="Mark 16 nuclear bomb">TX16</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_17_nuclear_bomb" title="Mark 17 nuclear bomb">Mark 17</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_21_nuclear_bomb" title="Mark 21 nuclear bomb">Mark 21</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_22_nuclear_bomb" title="Mark 22 nuclear bomb">TX22</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_24_nuclear_bomb" title="Mark 24 nuclear bomb">Mark 24</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_26_nuclear_bomb" title="Mark 26 nuclear bomb">Mark 26</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_27_nuclear_bomb" title="Mark 27 nuclear bomb">Mark 27</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B28_nuclear_bomb" title="B28 nuclear bomb">B28</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_36_nuclear_bomb" title="Mark 36 nuclear bomb">Mark 36</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_39_nuclear_bomb" title="Mark 39 nuclear bomb">Mark 39</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B41_nuclear_bomb" title="B41 nuclear bomb">B41</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B43_nuclear_bomb" title="B43 nuclear bomb">B43</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B46_nuclear_bomb" title="B46 nuclear bomb">TX46</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B53_nuclear_bomb" title="B53 nuclear bomb">B53</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B61_nuclear_bomb" title="B61 nuclear bomb">B61</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B77_nuclear_bomb" title="B77 nuclear bomb">B77</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B83_nuclear_bomb" title="B83 nuclear bomb">B83</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B90_nuclear_bomb" title="B90 nuclear bomb">B90</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em">Depth bombs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B90_nuclear_bomb" title="B90 nuclear bomb">B90</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em">Warheads</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mark_15_nuclear_bomb" title="Mark 15 nuclear bomb">W15</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_27_nuclear_bomb" title="Mark 27 nuclear bomb">W27</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B28_nuclear_bomb" title="B28 nuclear bomb">W28</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W29_(nuclear_warhead)" class="mw-redirect" title="W29 (nuclear warhead)">TX29</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XW-35" title="XW-35">XW-35</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W38_(nuclear_warhead)" title="W38 (nuclear warhead)">W38</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_39_nuclear_bomb" title="Mark 39 nuclear bomb">W39</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B41_nuclear_bomb" title="B41 nuclear bomb">W41</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B46_nuclear_bomb" title="B46 nuclear bomb">XW-46</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W47" title="W47">W47</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W49" title="W49">W49</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W50_(nuclear_warhead)" title="W50 (nuclear warhead)">W50</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W52_(nuclear_warhead)" title="W52 (nuclear warhead)">W52</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B53_nuclear_bomb" title="B53 nuclear bomb">W53</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W55_(nuclear_warhead)" title="W55 (nuclear warhead)">W55</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W56" title="W56">W56</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W58" title="W58">W58</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W59" title="W59">W59</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W60_(nuclear_warhead)" title="W60 (nuclear warhead)">W60</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B61_nuclear_bomb#W61_Earth_Penetrator_Warhead" title="B61 nuclear bomb">W61</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W62" title="W62">W62</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W63_(nuclear_warhead)" title="W63 (nuclear warhead)">W63</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W64_(nuclear_warhead)" title="W64 (nuclear warhead)">W64</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W67_(nuclear_warhead)" title="W67 (nuclear warhead)">W67</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W68" title="W68">W68</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W69" title="W69">W69</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W70" title="W70">W70</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W71" title="W71">W71</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W73_(nuclear_warhead)" title="W73 (nuclear warhead)">W73</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W76" title="W76">W76</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W78" title="W78">W78</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W80_(nuclear_warhead)" title="W80 (nuclear warhead)">W80</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W84" title="W84">W84</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W85_(nuclear_warhead)" title="W85 (nuclear warhead)">W85</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W86" title="W86">W86</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W87" title="W87">W87</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W88" title="W88">W88</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W89" title="W89">W89</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W91" title="W91">W91</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reliable_Replacement_Warhead" title="Reliable Replacement Warhead">Reliable Replacement Warhead</a> (RRW)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/W93" title="W93">W93</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neutron_bomb" title="Neutron bomb">Enhanced<br />radiation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em">Warheads</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/W63_(nuclear_warhead)" title="W63 (nuclear warhead)">W63</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W64_(nuclear_warhead)" title="W64 (nuclear warhead)">W64</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W65_(nuclear_warhead)" title="W65 (nuclear warhead)">W65</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W66_(nuclear_warhead)" title="W66 (nuclear warhead)">W66</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W70" title="W70">W70</a>-3</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em">Artillery</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/W79_Artillery-Fired_Atomic_Projectile" title="W79 Artillery-Fired Atomic Projectile">W79</a>-0</li> <li><a href="/wiki/W82" title="W82">W82</a>-0</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primary stages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robin_(nuclear_primary)" title="Robin (nuclear primary)">Robin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swan_(nuclear_primary)" title="Swan (nuclear primary)">Swan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Python_(nuclear_primary)" title="Python (nuclear primary)">Python</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsetse_(nuclear_primary)" title="Tsetse (nuclear primary)">Tsetse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinglet_(nuclear_primary)" title="Kinglet (nuclear primary)">Kinglet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starling_(nuclear_primary)" title="Starling (nuclear primary)">Starling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Experimental</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trinity_(nuclear_test)" title="Trinity (nuclear test)">Gadget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivy_Mike" title="Ivy Mike">Sausage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RACER_IV" title="RACER IV">RACER IV</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="French_nuclear_armament" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:French_nuclear_missiles" title="Template:French nuclear missiles"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:French_nuclear_missiles" title="Template talk:French nuclear missiles"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:French_nuclear_missiles" title="Special:EditPage/Template:French nuclear missiles"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="French_nuclear_armament" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Force_de_dissuasion" title="Force de dissuasion">French nuclear armament</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Strategic missiles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M1_(missile)" title="M1 (missile)">missile M1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M2_(missile)" title="M2 (missile)">missile M2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M20_(missile)" title="M20 (missile)">missile M20</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SSBS_S1" title="SSBS S1">missile S1 </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S2_(missile)" title="S2 (missile)">missile S2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S3_(missile)" title="S3 (missile)">missile S3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M4_(missile)" title="M4 (missile)">missile M4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M45_(missile)" title="M45 (missile)">missile M45</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M5_(missile)" class="mw-redirect" title="M5 (missile)">missile M5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M51_(missile)" title="M51 (missile)">missile M51</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-strategic missiles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pluton_(missile)" title="Pluton (missile)">Pluton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Had%C3%A8s" title="Hadès">Hadès</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air-sol_moyenne_port%C3%A9e" title="Air-sol moyenne portée">ASMP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air-sol_moyenne_port%C3%A9e" title="Air-sol moyenne portée">ASMP-A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASN4G" title="ASN4G">ASN4G</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nuclear warheads</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AN-11_bomb" title="AN-11 bomb">AN-11 bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AN-22_bomb" title="AN-22 bomb">AN-22 bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AN-52_bomb" title="AN-52 bomb">AN-52 bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MR_31" title="MR 31">MR 31</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MR_41" title="MR 41">MR 41</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=MR_50_CTC&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MR 50 CTC (page does not exist)">MR 50 CTC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AN_51" title="AN 51">AN 51 CTC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AN_52" class="mw-redirect" title="AN 52">AN 52 CTC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TN_60" title="TN 60">TN 60</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TN_61" title="TN 61">TN 61</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TN_70" title="TN 70">TN 70</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TN_71" title="TN 71">TN 71</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TN_75" title="TN 75">TN 75</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=TN_76_(missile)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="TN 76 (missile) (page does not exist)">TN 76</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TN_80" title="TN 80">TN 80</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TN_81" title="TN 81">TN 81</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TN_90" title="TN 90">TN 90</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TNA_(Airborne_nuclear_warhead)" title="TNA (Airborne nuclear warhead)">TNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%AAte_nucl%C3%A9aire_oc%C3%A9anique" title="Tête nucléaire océanique">TNO</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related subjects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Strike_Force_(France)" class="mw-redirect" title="Strike Force (France)">French nuclear deterrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forces_a%C3%A9riennes_strat%C3%A9giques" class="mw-redirect" title="Forces aériennes stratégiques">FAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Force_oc%C3%A9anique_strat%C3%A9gique" class="mw-redirect" title="Force océanique stratégique">FOST</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="France and weapons of mass destruction">France and weapons of mass destruction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Strategic_nuclear_weapon_systems_of_the_United_Kingdom" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Strategic_nuclear_weapon_systems_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Template:Strategic nuclear weapon systems of the United Kingdom"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Strategic_nuclear_weapon_systems_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Template talk:Strategic nuclear weapon systems of the United Kingdom"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Strategic_nuclear_weapon_systems_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Strategic nuclear weapon systems of the United Kingdom"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Strategic_nuclear_weapon_systems_of_the_United_Kingdom" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Strategic nuclear weapon systems of the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_strategic_nuclear_weapon_systems_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Timeline of strategic nuclear weapon systems of the United Kingdom">Timeline</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/V_bomber" title="V bomber">V bomber force</a><br />(1955–1993)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Aircraft</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vickers_Valiant" title="Vickers Valiant">Vickers Valiant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avro_Vulcan" title="Avro Vulcan">Avro Vulcan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Handley_Page_Victor" title="Handley Page Victor">Handley Page Victor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">missiles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_Steel_(missile)" title="Blue Steel (missile)">Blue Steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GAM-87_Skybolt" title="GAM-87 Skybolt">Skybolt</a> (cancelled)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">bomb casings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_Danube_(nuclear_weapon)" title="Blue Danube (nuclear weapon)">Blue Danube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Beard_(nuclear_weapon)" title="Red Beard (nuclear weapon)">Red Beard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_Sun_(nuclear_weapon)" title="Yellow Sun (nuclear weapon)">Yellow Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WE.177" title="WE.177">WE.177</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">warheads</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_Danube_(nuclear_weapon)" title="Blue Danube (nuclear weapon)">Mk.1 atom bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violet_Club" title="Violet Club">Violet Club</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orange_Herald" title="Orange Herald">Orange Herald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Bamboo" class="mw-redirect" title="Green Bamboo">Green Bamboo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Grass_(nuclear_warhead)" class="mw-redirect" title="Green Grass (nuclear warhead)">Green Grass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Snow" title="Red Snow">Red Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WE.177" title="WE.177">WE.177</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Blue_Streak_(missile)" title="Blue Streak (missile)">Blue Streak</a><br />(1960, cancelled)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">launch site</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile Test Centre, <a href="/wiki/RAF_Spadeadam" title="RAF Spadeadam">RAF Spadeadam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">warheads</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_Snow" title="Red Snow">Ulysses</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Polaris_(UK_nuclear_programme)" title="Polaris (UK nuclear programme)">Polaris</a><br />(1968–1996)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Launch platform</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Resolution-class_submarine" title="Resolution-class submarine"><i>Resolution</i>-class submarine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">missiles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/UGM-27_Polaris" title="UGM-27 Polaris">Polaris A3T and A3TK</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">warheads</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ET.317" title="ET.317">ET.317</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chevaline" title="Chevaline">Chevaline upgrade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Trident_(UK_nuclear_programme)" title="Trident (UK nuclear programme)">Trident</a><br />(1994–present)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">launch platforms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vanguard-class_submarine" title="Vanguard-class submarine"><i>Vanguard</i>-class submarine</a> (1994–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dreadnought-class_submarine" title="Dreadnought-class submarine"><i>Dreadnought</i>-class submarine</a> (replacement)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">missile</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/UGM-133_Trident_II" title="UGM-133 Trident II">Trident II D5</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other cancelled projects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_Water_(missile)" title="Blue Water (missile)">Blue Water missile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_Peacock" title="Blue Peacock">Blue Peacock nuclear landmine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>part of the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Nuclear weapons of the United Kingdom">Nuclear weapons of the United Kingdom</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Nuclear_technology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist ｜ above = * [[Outline of nuclear technology|Outline]] mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nuclear_technology" title="Template:Nuclear technology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nuclear_technology" title="Template talk:Nuclear technology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear_technology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear technology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nuclear_technology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_technology" title="Nuclear technology">Nuclear technology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chemistry" title="Nuclear chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_engineering" title="Nuclear engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">Atomic nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">Fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">Fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">Radiation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bremsstrahlung" title="Bremsstrahlung">braking</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel" title="Nuclear fuel">Fuel</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">Tritium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">Deuterium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helium-3" title="Helium-3">Helium-3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertile_material" title="Fertile material">Fertile material</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fissile_material" title="Fissile material">Fissile material</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isotope_separation" title="Isotope separation">Isotope separation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_material" title="Nuclear material">Nuclear material</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">Uranium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enriched_uranium" title="Enriched uranium">enriched</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depleted_uranium" title="Depleted uranium">depleted</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">Plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">Thorium</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">Neutron</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_activation" title="Neutron activation">Activation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture" title="Neutron capture">Capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_poison" title="Neutron poison">Poison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_cross_section" title="Neutron cross section">Cross section</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_generator" title="Neutron generator">Generator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_radiation" title="Neutron radiation">Radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_reflector" title="Neutron reflector">Reflector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_temperature" title="Neutron temperature">Temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal neutron">Thermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fast_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast neutron">Fast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron#Fusion_neutrons" title="Neutron">Fusion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Power</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_by_country" title="Nuclear power by country">by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant" title="Nuclear power plant">Power plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_nuclear_power_plants" title="Economics of nuclear power plants">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents" title="Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents">Accidents and incidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_policy" title="Nuclear energy policy">Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusion_power" title="Fusion power">Fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator" title="Radioisotope thermoelectric generator">Radioisotope thermoelectric (RTG)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multi-mission_radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator" title="Multi-mission radioisotope thermoelectric generator">MMRTG</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_propulsion" title="Nuclear propulsion">Propulsion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_thermal_rocket" title="Nuclear thermal rocket">rocket</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_safety_and_security" title="Nuclear safety and security">Safety and security</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_meltdown" title="Nuclear meltdown">Nuclear meltdown</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_medicine" title="Nuclear medicine">Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">Imaging</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autoradiograph" title="Autoradiograph">Autoradiograph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RadBall" title="RadBall">RadBall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scintigraphy" title="Scintigraphy">Scintigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-photon_emission_computed_tomography" title="Single-photon emission computed tomography">Single-photon emission (SPECT)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positron_emission_tomography" title="Positron emission tomography">Positron-emission tomography (PET)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">Therapy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fast_neutron_therapy" title="Fast neutron therapy">Fast-neutron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture_therapy_of_cancer" title="Neutron capture therapy of cancer">Neutron capture therapy of cancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Targeted_alpha-particle_therapy" title="Targeted alpha-particle therapy">Targeted alpha-particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton_therapy" title="Proton therapy">Proton-beam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomotherapy" title="Tomotherapy">Tomotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brachytherapy" title="Brachytherapy">Brachytherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiosurgery" title="Radiosurgery">Radiosurgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiopharmacology" title="Radiopharmacology">Radiopharmacology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Irradiation" title="Irradiation">Processing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_gardening" title="Atomic gardening">Atomic gardening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron-beam_processing" title="Electron-beam processing">Electron-beam processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_irradiation" title="Food irradiation">Food irradiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemstone_irradiation" title="Gemstone irradiation">Gemstone irradiation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Weapons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_arms_race" title="Nuclear arms race">Arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_delivery" title="Nuclear weapons delivery">Delivery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_design" title="Nuclear weapon design">Design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_disarmament" title="Nuclear disarmament">Disarmament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_ethics" title="Nuclear ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_explosion" title="Nuclear explosion">Explosion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_nuclear_explosions" title="Effects of nuclear explosions">effects</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nuclear_weapons" title="History of nuclear weapons">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_proliferation" title="Nuclear proliferation">Proliferation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_testing" title="Nuclear weapons testing">Testing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/High-altitude_nuclear_explosion" title="High-altitude nuclear explosion">high-altitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_nuclear_weapons_testing" title="Underground nuclear weapons testing">underground</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">Warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_yield" title="Nuclear weapon yield">Yield</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/TNT_equivalent" title="TNT equivalent">TNTe</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_nuclear_weapons" title="List of states with nuclear weapons">States with nuclear weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_nuclear_weapons_stockpiles_and_nuclear_tests_by_country" title="Historical nuclear weapons stockpiles and nuclear tests by country">Historical stockpiles and tests</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests" title="List of nuclear weapons tests">Tests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="List of nuclear weapons tests of the United States">Tests in the United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_weapons_of_mass_destruction_treaties" title="List of weapons of mass destruction treaties">WMD treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear-weapon-free_zone" title="Nuclear-weapon-free zone">Weapon-free zones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons" title="List of nuclear weapons">Weapons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">Waste</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;">Products</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actinide" title="Actinide">Actinide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reprocessed_uranium" title="Reprocessed uranium">Reprocessed uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactor-grade_plutonium" title="Reactor-grade plutonium">Reactor-grade plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minor_actinide" title="Minor actinide">Minor actinide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Activation_product" title="Activation product">Activation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission_product" title="Nuclear fission product">Fission</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Long-lived_fission_product" title="Long-lived fission product">LLFP</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actinide_chemistry" title="Actinide chemistry">Actinide chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;">Disposal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel_cycle" title="Nuclear fuel cycle">Fuel cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-level_waste" title="High-level waste">High-level (HLW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-level_waste" title="Low-level waste">Low-level (LLW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_decommissioning" title="Nuclear decommissioning">Nuclear decommissioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_geological_repository" title="Deep geological repository">Repository</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessing" title="Nuclear reprocessing">Reprocessing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spent_nuclear_fuel" title="Spent nuclear fuel">Spent fuel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spent_fuel_pool" title="Spent fuel pool">pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_cask_storage" title="Dry cask storage">cask</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation" title="Nuclear transmutation">Transmutation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Debate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_debate" title="Nuclear power debate">Nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_debate" title="Nuclear weapons debate">Nuclear weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_Ribbon_Commission_on_America%27s_Nuclear_Future" title="Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future">Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement" title="Anti-nuclear movement">Anti-nuclear movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_mining_debate" title="Uranium mining debate">Uranium mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_phase-out" title="Nuclear power phase-out">Nuclear power phase-out</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Nuclear_reactors" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">Nuclear reactors</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Fission" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor#Fission" title="Nuclear reactor">Fission</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div style="float: left;"><b><a href="/wiki/Neutron_moderator" title="Neutron moderator">Moderator</a></b></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Light-water_reactor" title="Light-water reactor">Light water</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aqueous_homogeneous_reactor" title="Aqueous homogeneous reactor">Aqueous homogeneous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boiling_water_reactor" title="Boiling water reactor">Boiling</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/GE_BWR" title="GE BWR">BWR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_boiling_water_reactor" title="Advanced boiling water reactor">ABWR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Simplified_Boiling_Water_Reactor" title="Economic Simplified Boiling Water Reactor">ESBWR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerena_boiling_water_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Kerena boiling water reactor">Kerena</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_nuclear_fission_reactor" title="Natural nuclear fission reactor">Natural fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor" title="Pressurized water reactor">Pressurized</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AP1000" title="AP1000">AP1000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/APR-1400" title="APR-1400">APR-1400</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/APR%2B" class="mw-redirect" title="APR+">APR+</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/APWR" class="mw-redirect" title="APWR">APWR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ATMEA1" class="mw-redirect" title="ATMEA1">ATMEA1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CAP1400" title="CAP1400">CAP1400</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CPR-1000" title="CPR-1000">CPR-1000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EPR_(nuclear_reactor)" title="EPR (nuclear reactor)">EPR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hualong_One" title="Hualong One">HPR-1000</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ACPR1000" class="mw-redirect" title="ACPR1000">ACPR1000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ACP1000" class="mw-redirect" title="ACP1000">ACP1000</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VVER" title="VVER">VVER</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPWR-900" title="IPWR-900">IPWR-900</a></li> <li>many others</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercritical_water_reactor" title="Supercritical water reactor">Supercritical (SCWR)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Heavy-water_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy-water reactor">Heavy water</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><span class="nobold">by <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor_coolant" title="Nuclear reactor coolant">coolant</a></span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;;background:whitesmoke;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Deuterium_oxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Deuterium oxide">D<sub>2</sub>O</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pressurized_heavy-water_reactor" title="Pressurized heavy-water reactor">Pressurized</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CANDU_reactor" title="CANDU reactor">CANDU</a> <ul><li>CANDU 6</li> <li>CANDU 9</li> <li>EC6</li> <li>AFCR</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ACR-1000" class="mw-redirect" title="ACR-1000">ACR-1000</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolinas%E2%80%93Virginia_Tube_Reactor" title="Carolinas–Virginia Tube Reactor">CVTR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPHWR" title="IPHWR">IPHWR</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IPHWR-220" title="IPHWR-220">IPHWR-220</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPHWR#IPHWR-540" title="IPHWR">IPHWR-540</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPHWR-700" title="IPHWR-700">IPHWR-700</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Argentina" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Argentina">PHWR KWU</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=MZFR&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MZFR (page does not exist)">MZFR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%85gestaverket" class="mw-redirect" title="Ågestaverket">R3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R4_nuclear_reactor" title="R4 nuclear reactor">R4 Marviken</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/H2O" class="mw-redirect" title="H2O">H<sub>2</sub>O</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=HWLWR&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="HWLWR (page does not exist)">HWLWR</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fugen_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Fugen Nuclear Power Plant">ATR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gentilly_Nuclear_Generating_Station#Gentilly-1" title="Gentilly Nuclear Generating Station">HW BLWR 250</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steam-generating_heavy_water_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Steam-generating heavy water reactor">Steam-generating (SGHWR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_heavy-water_reactor" title="Advanced heavy-water reactor">AHWR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">Organic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/WR-1" title="WR-1">WR-1</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO<sub>2</sub></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=HWGCR&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="HWGCR (page does not exist)">HWGCR</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brennilis_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Brennilis Nuclear Power Plant">EL-4</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kernkraftwerk_Niederaichbach&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kernkraftwerk Niederaichbach (page does not exist)">KKN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KS_150" title="KS 150">KS 150</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucens_reactor" title="Lucens reactor">Lucens</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Graphite-moderated_reactor" title="Graphite-moderated reactor">Graphite</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><span class="nobold">by <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor_coolant" title="Nuclear reactor coolant">coolant</a></span></span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Water</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="H2O" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/H2O" class="mw-redirect" title="H2O">H<sub>2</sub>O</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Obninsk_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant">AM-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beloyarsk_Nuclear_Power_Station#Early_reactors" title="Beloyarsk Nuclear Power Station">AMB-X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EGP-6" title="EGP-6">EGP-6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RBMK" title="RBMK">RBMK</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Gas-cooled_reactor" title="Gas-cooled reactor">Gas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO<sub>2</sub></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/UNGG_reactor" title="UNGG reactor"><i>Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz</i> (UNGG)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnox" title="Magnox">Magnox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_Gas-cooled_Reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Advanced Gas-cooled Reactor">Advanced gas-cooled (AGR)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">He</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_turbine_modular_helium_reactor" title="Gas turbine modular helium reactor">GTMHR</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=MHR-T&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MHR-T (page does not exist)">MHR-T</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UHTREX" title="UHTREX">UHTREX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Very-high-temperature_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Very-high-temperature reactor">VHTR (HTGR)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pebble-bed_reactor" title="Pebble-bed reactor">PBR (PBMR)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AVR_reactor" title="AVR reactor">AVR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HTR-10" title="HTR-10">HTR-10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HTR-PM" title="HTR-PM">HTR-PM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/THTR-300" title="THTR-300">THTR-300</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prismatic_block_reactor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Prismatic block reactor (page does not exist)">PMR</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Molten_salt_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Molten salt reactor">Molten-salt</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Fluorides" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/FLiBe" title="FLiBe">Fluorides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fuji_Molten_Salt_Reactor" title="Fuji Molten Salt Reactor">Fuji MSR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid_fluoride_thorium_reactor" title="Liquid fluoride thorium reactor">Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molten-Salt_Reactor_Experiment" title="Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment">Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integral_Molten_Salt_Reactor" title="Integral Molten Salt Reactor">Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TMSR-500" class="mw-redirect" title="TMSR-500">TMSR-500</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TMSR-LF1" title="TMSR-LF1">TMSR-LF1</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">None<br /><span class="nobold">(<a href="/wiki/Fast-neutron_reactor" title="Fast-neutron reactor">fast-neutron</a>)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fast_breeder_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast breeder reactor">Breeder (FBR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integral_fast_reactor" title="Integral fast reactor">Integral (IFR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid_metal_cooled_reactor" title="Liquid metal cooled reactor">Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small,_sealed,_transportable,_autonomous_reactor" title="Small, sealed, transportable, autonomous reactor">Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traveling_wave_reactor" title="Traveling wave reactor">Traveling-wave (TWR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_Multiplier_Module" title="Energy Multiplier Module">Energy Multiplier Module (EM2)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reduced_moderation_water_reactor" title="Reduced moderation water reactor">Reduced-moderation (RMWR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fast_Breeder_Test_Reactor" title="Fast Breeder Test Reactor">Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_fluid_reactor" title="Dual fluid reactor">Dual fluid reactor (DFR)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Generation_IV_reactor" title="Generation IV reactor">Generation IV</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sodium-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Sodium-cooled fast reactor">Sodium (SFR)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BN-350_reactor" title="BN-350 reactor">BN-350</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BN-600_reactor" title="BN-600 reactor">BN-600</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BN-800_reactor" title="BN-800 reactor">BN-800</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BN-1200_reactor" title="BN-1200 reactor">BN-1200</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CFR-600" title="CFR-600">CFR-600</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ph%C3%A9nix" title="Phénix">Phénix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superph%C3%A9nix" title="Superphénix">Superphénix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prototype_Fast_Breeder_Reactor" title="Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor">PFBR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FBR-600" title="FBR-600">FBR-600</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Experimental_Fast_Reactor" title="China Experimental Fast Reactor">CEFR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dounreay#Prototype_Fast_Reactor_(PFR)" title="Dounreay">PFR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PRISM_(reactor)" title="PRISM (reactor)">PRISM</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Lead-cooled fast reactor">Lead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Gas-cooled fast reactor">Helium gas (GFR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stable_salt_reactor" title="Stable salt reactor">Stable Salt Reactor (SSR)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organic_nuclear_reactor" title="Organic nuclear reactor">Organic nuclear reactor</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arbus-reactor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arbus-reactor (page does not exist)">Arbus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piqua_Nuclear_Generating_Station" title="Piqua Nuclear Generating Station">Piqua</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_Nuclear_Propulsion" title="Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion">Aircraft Reactor Experiment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Fusion" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor#Fusion_reactors" title="Nuclear reactor">Fusion</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>by <a href="/wiki/Thermonuclear_fusion#Confinement" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermonuclear fusion">confinement</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_confinement_fusion" title="Magnetic confinement fusion">Magnetic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Field-reversed_configuration" title="Field-reversed configuration">Field-reversed configuration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levitated_dipole" title="Levitated dipole">Levitated dipole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reversed_field_pinch" title="Reversed field pinch">Reversed field pinch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spheromak" title="Spheromak">Spheromak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellarator" title="Stellarator">Stellarator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokamak" title="Tokamak">Tokamak</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Inertial_confinement_fusion" title="Inertial confinement fusion">Inertial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bubble_fusion" title="Bubble fusion">Bubble <span style="font-size:85%;">(acoustic)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusor" title="Fusor">Fusor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inertial_electrostatic_confinement" title="Inertial electrostatic confinement">electrostatic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inertial_confinement_fusion" title="Inertial confinement fusion">Laser-driven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetized_target_fusion" title="Magnetized target fusion">Magnetized-target</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z-pinch" title="Z-pinch">Z-pinch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dense_plasma_focus" title="Dense plasma focus">Dense plasma focus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migma" title="Migma">Migma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muon-catalyzed_fusion" title="Muon-catalyzed fusion">Muon-catalyzed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polywell" title="Polywell">Polywell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyroelectric_fusion" title="Pyroelectric fusion">Pyroelectric</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/32px-Radioactive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/48px-Radioactive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/64px-Radioactive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="446" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Nuclear_technology" title="Portal:Nuclear technology">Nuclear technology portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Nuclear_technology" title="Category:Nuclear technology">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents" title="Template:Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents" title="Template talk:Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nuclear_and_radioactive_disasters,_former_facilities,_tests_and_test_sites" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_nuclear_disasters_and_radioactive_incidents" title="Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents">Nuclear and radioactive disasters, former facilities, tests and test sites</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_nuclear_disasters_and_radioactive_incidents" title="Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents">Lists of <br /> disasters <br /> and <br /> incidents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crimes_involving_radioactive_substances" title="Crimes involving radioactive substances">Crimes involving radioactive substances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticality_accident#Incidents" title="Criticality accident">Criticality accidents and incidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_meltdown#Nuclear_meltdown_events" title="Nuclear meltdown">Nuclear meltdown accidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_nuclear_accidents" title="List of military nuclear accidents">Military nuclear accidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents" title="Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents">Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_by_death_toll" title="List of nuclear and radiation accidents by death toll">Nuclear and radiation accidents by death toll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_and_radiation_fatalities_by_country" title="List of nuclear and radiation fatalities by country">Nuclear and radiation fatalities by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests" title="List of nuclear weapons tests">Nuclear weapons tests</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests_of_China" title="List of nuclear weapons tests of China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests_of_France" title="List of nuclear weapons tests of France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests_of_India" title="List of nuclear weapons tests of India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests_of_North_Korea" title="List of nuclear weapons tests of North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagai-I" title="Chagai-I">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Africa_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction#Testing_the_first_device" title="South Africa and weapons of mass destruction">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of nuclear weapons tests of the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_of_the_United_Kingdom#Nuclear_tests" title="Nuclear weapons of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_tests_in_Australia" title="Nuclear weapons tests in Australia">in Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_nuclear_testing_in_the_United_States" title="British nuclear testing in the United States">in the United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_nuclear_weapons_tests" title="List of United States nuclear weapons tests">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sunken_nuclear_submarines" title="List of sunken nuclear submarines">Sunken nuclear submarines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_orphan_source_incidents" title="List of orphan source incidents">List of orphan source incidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_power_accidents_by_country" title="List of nuclear power accidents by country">Nuclear power accidents by country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Individual <br /> accidents <br /> and sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>2019 <a href="/wiki/Nyonoksa_radiation_accident" title="Nyonoksa radiation accident">Nyonoksa radiation accident</a></li> <li>2011 <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_nuclear_accident" title="Fukushima nuclear accident">Fukushima nuclear accident</a></li> <li>2001 <a href="/wiki/Instituto_Oncol%C3%B3gico_Nacional#Accident" title="Instituto Oncológico Nacional">Instituto Oncológico Nacional#Accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1996_San_Juan_de_Dios_radiotherapy_accident" title="1996 San Juan de Dios radiotherapy accident">1996 San Juan de Dios radiotherapy accident</a></li> <li>1990 <a href="/wiki/Clinic_of_Zaragoza_radiotherapy_accident" title="Clinic of Zaragoza radiotherapy accident">Clinic of Zaragoza radiotherapy accident</a></li> <li>1987 <a href="/wiki/Goi%C3%A2nia_accident" title="Goiânia accident">Goiânia accident</a></li> <li>1986 <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_the_Chernobyl_disaster" title="Effects of the Chernobyl disaster">Effects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chernobyl-related_articles" title="List of Chernobyl-related articles">Related articles</a></li></ul></li> <li>1985 <a href="/wiki/Soviet_submarine_K-431" title="Soviet submarine K-431">Chazhma Bay nuclear accident</a></li> <li>1985–1987 <a href="/wiki/Therac-25" title="Therac-25">Therac-25</a> accident</li> <li>1982 <a href="/wiki/Andreev_Bay_nuclear_accident" title="Andreev Bay nuclear accident">Andreev Bay nuclear accident</a></li> <li>1980 <a href="/wiki/Kramatorsk_radiological_accident" title="Kramatorsk radiological accident">Kramatorsk radiological accident</a></li> <li>1979 <a href="/wiki/Three_Mile_Island_accident" title="Three Mile Island accident">Three Mile Island accident</a> and <a href="/wiki/Three_Mile_Island_accident_health_effects" title="Three Mile Island accident health effects">Three Mile Island accident health effects</a></li> <li>1969 <a href="/wiki/Lucens_reactor" title="Lucens reactor">Lucens reactor</a></li> <li>1962 <a href="/wiki/Johnston_Atoll#National_nuclear_weapon_test_site_1958-1963#Failures" title="Johnston Atoll"> Thor missile launch failures at Johnston Atoll</a> under <a href="/wiki/Operation_Fishbowl" title="Operation Fishbowl">Operation Fishbowl</a></li> <li>1962 <a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a></li> <li>1961 <a href="/wiki/Soviet_submarine_K-19#Nuclear_accident" title="Soviet submarine K-19">K-19 nuclear accident</a></li> <li>1961 <a href="/wiki/SL-1" title="SL-1">SL-1</a> nuclear meltdown</li> <li>1957 <a href="/wiki/Kyshtym_disaster" title="Kyshtym disaster">Kyshtym disaster</a></li> <li>1957 <a href="/wiki/Windscale_fire" title="Windscale fire">Windscale fire</a></li> <li>1957 <a href="/wiki/Operation_Plumbbob" title="Operation Plumbbob">Operation Plumbbob</a></li> <li>1954 <a href="/wiki/Totskoye_nuclear_exercise" title="Totskoye nuclear exercise">Totskoye nuclear exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bikini_Atoll" title="Bikini Atoll">Bikini Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanford_Site" title="Hanford Site">Hanford Site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination_from_the_Rocky_Flats_Plant" title="Radioactive contamination from the Rocky Flats Plant">Rocky Flats Plant</a></li> <li>1945 <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related <br /> topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Nuclear_Event_Scale" title="International Nuclear Event Scale">International Nuclear Event Scale (INES)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulnerability_of_nuclear_plants_to_attack" title="Vulnerability of nuclear plants to attack">Vulnerability of nuclear plants to attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_books_about_nuclear_issues" title="List of books about nuclear issues">Books about nuclear issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_about_nuclear_issues" title="List of films about nuclear issues">Films about nuclear issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-war_movement" title="Anti-war movement">Anti-war movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bikini_Atoll" title="Bikini Atoll">Bikini Atoll</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bulletin_of_the_Atomic_Scientists" title="Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists">Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_anti-nuclear_movement" title="History of the anti-nuclear movement">History of the anti-nuclear movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Day_against_Nuclear_Tests" title="International Day against Nuclear Tests">International Day against Nuclear Tests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_close_calls" title="Nuclear close calls">Nuclear close calls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear-Free_Future_Award" title="Nuclear-Free Future Award">Nuclear-Free Future Award</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear-free_zone" title="Nuclear-free zone">Nuclear-free zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_debate" title="Nuclear power debate">Nuclear power debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_phase-out" title="Nuclear power phase-out">Nuclear power phase-out</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_debate" title="Nuclear weapons debate">Nuclear weapons debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_peace_activists" title="List of peace activists">Peace activists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_movement" title="Peace movement">Peace movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_camp" title="Peace camp">Peace camp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell%E2%80%93Einstein_Manifesto" title="Russell–Einstein Manifesto">Russell–Einstein Manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smiling_Sun" title="Smiling Sun">Smiling Sun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td 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