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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Methods</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Methods-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Methods subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Biotic_pollination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biotic_pollination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Biotic pollination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biotic_pollination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abiotic_pollination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abiotic_pollination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Abiotic pollination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abiotic_pollination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-By_wind" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_wind"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>By wind</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-By_wind-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-By_water" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_water"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>By water</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-By_water-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-By_rain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_rain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.3</span> <span>By rain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-By_rain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Switching_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Switching_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.4</span> <span>Switching methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Switching_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mechanism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mechanism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Mechanism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mechanism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coevolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coevolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Coevolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coevolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_agriculture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_agriculture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>In agriculture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-In_agriculture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle In agriculture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-In_agriculture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Improving_pollination_in_areas_with_suboptimal_bee_densities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Improving_pollination_in_areas_with_suboptimal_bee_densities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Improving pollination in areas with suboptimal bee densities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Improving_pollination_in_areas_with_suboptimal_bee_densities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Environmental_impacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environmental_impacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Environmental impacts</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Environmental_impacts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Environmental impacts subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Environmental_impacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Examples_of_affected_pollinators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples_of_affected_pollinators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Examples of affected pollinators</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Examples_of_affected_pollinators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Food_security_and_pollinator_decline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Food_security_and_pollinator_decline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Food security and pollinator decline</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Food_security_and_pollinator_decline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plant–pollinator_networks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plant–pollinator_networks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Plant–pollinator networks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plant–pollinator_networks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economics_of_commercial_honeybee_pollination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economics_of_commercial_honeybee_pollination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Economics of commercial honeybee pollination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economics_of_commercial_honeybee_pollination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Pollination</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 72 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-72" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">72 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bestuiwing" title="Bestuiwing – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Bestuiwing" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A3%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1" title="تأبير – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تأبير" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polinizaci%C3%B3n" title="Polinización – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Polinización" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polinizaci%C3%B3n" title="Polinización – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Polinización" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tozlanma" title="Tozlanma – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Tozlanma" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%A8" title="পরাগায়ন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="পরাগায়ন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%BA%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BA%D3%99%D0%BB%D3%99%D0%BD%D0%B5%D2%AF" title="Һеркәләнеү – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Һеркәләнеү" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BF%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Апыленне – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Апыленне" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Опрашване – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Опрашване" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opra%C5%A1ivanje" title="Oprašivanje – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Oprašivanje" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pol%C2%B7linitzaci%C3%B3" title="Pol·linització – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Pol·linització" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opylen%C3%AD" title="Opylení – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Opylení" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best%C3%B8vning" title="Bestøvning – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Bestøvning" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best%C3%A4ubung" title="Bestäubung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Bestäubung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tolmlemine" title="Tolmlemine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Tolmlemine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CF%80%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%B7" title="Επικονίαση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Επικονίαση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polinizaci%C3%B3n" title="Polinización – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Polinización" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polenado" title="Polenado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Polenado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polinizazio" title="Polinizazio – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Polinizazio" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="گرده‌افشانی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="گرده‌افشانی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollinisation" title="Pollinisation – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Pollinisation" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pailni%C3%BA" title="Pailniú – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Pailniú" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polinizaci%C3%B3n" title="Polinización – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Polinización" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%BD%83%EA%B0%80%EB%A3%A8%EB%B0%9B%EC%9D%B4" title="꽃가루받이 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="꽃가루받이" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%93%D5%B8%D5%B7%D5%B8%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Փոշոտում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Փոշոտում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%A3" title="परागण – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="परागण" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opra%C5%A1ivanje" title="Oprašivanje – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Oprašivanje" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penyerbukan" title="Penyerbukan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Penyerbukan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impollinazione" title="Impollinazione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Impollinazione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%90%D7%91%D7%A7%D7%94" title="האבקה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="האבקה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%A6%A0%EA%A6%AE%EA%A6%B8%EA%A6%82%EA%A6%A7%EA%A6%B8%EA%A6%A7%EA%A6%B8%EA%A6%8F%EA%A7%80" title="ꦠꦮꦸꦂꦧꦸꦧꦸꦏ꧀ – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="ꦠꦮꦸꦂꦧꦸꦧꦸꦏ꧀" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ენტომოფილია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ენტომოფილია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0%D2%A3%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83" title="Тозаңдану – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Тозаңдану" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polinizasyon" title="Polinizasyon – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Polinizasyon" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B0%D2%A3%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%88%D1%83%D1%83" title="Чаңдашуу – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Чаңдашуу" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apputeksn%C4%93%C5%A1ana" title="Apputeksnēšana – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Apputeksnēšana" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apdulkinimas" title="Apdulkinimas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Apdulkinimas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megporz%C3%A1s" title="Megporzás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Megporzás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%97%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%82" title="പരാഗണം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="പരാഗണം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3" title="परागीकरण – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="परागीकरण" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pendebungaan" title="Pendebungaan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pendebungaan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bestuiving" title="Bestuiving – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Bestuiving" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%97%E7%B2%89" title="受粉 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="受粉" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollinering" title="Pollinering – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Pollinering" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollinering" title="Pollinering – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Pollinering" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habareessuu(Pollination)" title="Habareessuu(Pollination) – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Habareessuu(Pollination)" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Changlanish" title="Changlanish – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Changlanish" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C" title="بی بنائی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="بی بنائی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zapylenie" title="Zapylenie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Zapylenie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poliniza%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Polinização – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Polinização" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polenizare" title="Polenizare – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Polenizare" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sisachay" title="Sisachay – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Sisachay" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BF%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Опыление – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Опыление" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollination" title="Pollination – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Pollination" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opra%C5%A1evanje" title="Opraševanje – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Opraševanje" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%95%DA%95%DB%8C%D9%86" title="پەڕین – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="پەڕین" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opra%C5%A1ivanje" title="Oprašivanje – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Oprašivanje" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opra%C5%A1ivanje" title="Oprašivanje – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Oprašivanje" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%B6lytys" title="Pölytys – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Pölytys" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollinering" title="Pollinering – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Pollinering" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pambubulo" title="Pambubulo – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Pambubulo" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%88" title="மகரந்தச் சேர்க்கை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மகரந்தச் சேர்க்கை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afarer" title="Afarer – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Afarer" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AA%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%97%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%AA%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%81" title="పరాగసంపర్కము – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="పరాగసంపర్కము" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%B4%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%B2%D3%A3" title="Гардолудшавӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Гардолудшавӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tozla%C5%9Fma" title="Tozlaşma – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Tozlaşma" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Запилення – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Запилення" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B1%DA%AF%DB%8C" title="زیرگی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="زیرگی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%A5_ph%E1%BA%A5n" title="Thụ phấn – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Thụ phấn" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%A0%E7%B2%89" title="传粉 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="传粉" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%82%B3%E7%B2%89" title="傳粉 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="傳粉" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%A0%E7%B2%89" title="传粉 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="传粉" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q134624#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Pollination_Diagram.svg/280px-Pollination_Diagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Pollination_Diagram.svg/420px-Pollination_Diagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Pollination_Diagram.svg/560px-Pollination_Diagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="250" /></a><figcaption>Diagram illustrating the process of pollination</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bee_carpenter_with_pollen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Bee_carpenter_with_pollen.jpg/280px-Bee_carpenter_with_pollen.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Bee_carpenter_with_pollen.jpg/420px-Bee_carpenter_with_pollen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Bee_carpenter_with_pollen.jpg/560px-Bee_carpenter_with_pollen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>Female <a href="/wiki/Carpenter_bee" title="Carpenter bee">carpenter bee</a> with pollen collected from a <a href="/wiki/Night-blooming_cereus" title="Night-blooming cereus">night-blooming cereus</a></figcaption></figure><p><b>Pollination</b> is the transfer of <a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">pollen</a> from an <a href="/wiki/Anther" class="mw-redirect" title="Anther">anther</a> of a plant to the <a href="/wiki/Stigma_(botany)" title="Stigma (botany)">stigma</a> of a plant, later enabling <a href="/wiki/Fertilisation" title="Fertilisation">fertilisation</a> and the production of <a href="/wiki/Seed" title="Seed">seeds</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pollinating agents can be animals such as insects, for example beetles or butterflies; birds, and bats; water; wind; and even plants themselves. Pollinating animals travel from plant to plant carrying pollen on their bodies in a vital interaction that allows the transfer of genetic material critical to the reproductive system of most flowering plants.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When <a href="/wiki/Self-pollination" title="Self-pollination">self-pollination</a> occurs within a closed flower. Pollination often occurs within a species. When pollination occurs between species, it can produce <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_(biology)" title="Hybrid (biology)">hybrid</a> offspring in nature and in <a href="/wiki/Plant_breeding" title="Plant breeding">plant breeding</a> work. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Angiosperm" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiosperm">angiosperms</a>, after the pollen grain (<a href="/wiki/Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">gametophyte</a>) has landed on the <a href="/wiki/Stigma_(botany)" title="Stigma (botany)">stigma</a>, it germinates and develops a <a href="/wiki/Pollen_tube" title="Pollen tube">pollen tube</a> which grows down the <a href="/wiki/Style_(botany)" title="Style (botany)">style</a> until it reaches an <a href="/wiki/Ovary_(botany)" title="Ovary (botany)">ovary</a>. Its two <a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">gametes</a> travel down the tube to where the gametophyte(s) containing the female gametes are held within the <a href="/wiki/Carpel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpel">carpel</a>. After entering an ovule through the <a href="/wiki/Micropyle_(botany)" class="mw-redirect" title="Micropyle (botany)">micropyle</a>, one male nucleus fuses with the <a href="/wiki/Polar_body" title="Polar body">polar bodies</a> to produce the <a href="/wiki/Endosperm" title="Endosperm">endosperm</a> <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">tissues</a>, while the other fuses with the <a href="/wiki/Egg_cell" title="Egg cell">egg cell</a> to produce the <a href="/wiki/Embryo" title="Embryo">embryo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Maus_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maus-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hence the term: "<a href="/wiki/Double_fertilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Double fertilisation">double fertilisation</a>". This process would result in the production of a seed, made of both nutritious tissues and embryo. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">gymnosperms</a>, the ovule is not contained in a carpel, but exposed on the surface of a dedicated support organ, such as the scale of a cone, so that the penetration of carpel tissue is unnecessary. Details of the process vary according to the <a href="/wiki/Division_(botany)" class="mw-redirect" title="Division (botany)">division</a> of gymnosperms in question. Two main modes of fertilisation are found in gymnosperms: <a href="/wiki/Cycad" title="Cycad">cycads</a> and <i><a href="/wiki/Ginkgo" title="Ginkgo">Ginkgo</a></i> have motile sperm that swim directly to the egg inside the ovule, whereas <a href="/wiki/Conifer" title="Conifer">conifers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gnetophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnetophyte">gnetophytes</a> have sperm that are unable to swim but are conveyed to the egg along a pollen tube. </p><p>The study of pollination spans many disciplines, such as <a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">botany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">horticulture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Entomology" title="Entomology">entomology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">ecology</a>. The pollination process as an interaction between flower and <a href="/wiki/Pollinator" title="Pollinator">pollen vector</a> was first addressed in the 18th century by <a href="/wiki/Christian_Konrad_Sprengel" title="Christian Konrad Sprengel">Christian Konrad Sprengel</a>. It is important in horticulture and <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>, because <a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">fruiting</a> is dependent on fertilisation: the result of pollination. The study of pollination by insects is known as <i><a href="/wiki/Anthecology" title="Anthecology">anthecology</a></i>. There are also studies in <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a> that look at the positives and negatives of pollination, focused on bees, and how the process affects the pollinators themselves. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Process_of_pollination">Process of pollination</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollination&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Process of pollination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pollen_grains_observed_in_aeroplankton_of_South_Europe.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Pollen_grains_observed_in_aeroplankton_of_South_Europe.png/330px-Pollen_grains_observed_in_aeroplankton_of_South_Europe.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="332" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Pollen_grains_observed_in_aeroplankton_of_South_Europe.png/495px-Pollen_grains_observed_in_aeroplankton_of_South_Europe.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Pollen_grains_observed_in_aeroplankton_of_South_Europe.png/660px-Pollen_grains_observed_in_aeroplankton_of_South_Europe.png 2x" data-file-width="867" data-file-height="872" /></a><figcaption> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Pollen grains observed in <a href="/wiki/Aeroplankton" title="Aeroplankton">aeroplankton</a><br />of South Europe<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pollinated_Tomato_Pistil.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Pollinated_Tomato_Pistil.jpg/220px-Pollinated_Tomato_Pistil.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="362" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Pollinated_Tomato_Pistil.jpg/330px-Pollinated_Tomato_Pistil.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Pollinated_Tomato_Pistil.jpg/440px-Pollinated_Tomato_Pistil.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="3946" /></a><figcaption>Decolorized aniline blue fluorescence image showing growing pollen tubes in a tomato pistil</figcaption></figure> <p>Pollen <a href="/wiki/Germination" title="Germination">germination</a> has three stages; hydration, activation and pollen tube emergence. The pollen grain is severely dehydrated so that its mass is reduced, enabling it to be more easily transported from flower to flower. Germination only takes place after rehydration, ensuring that premature germination does not take place in the anther. Hydration allows the plasma membrane of the pollen grain to reform into its normal bilayer organization providing an effective osmotic membrane. Activation involves the development of <a href="/wiki/Actin" title="Actin">actin</a> filaments throughout the cytoplasm of the cell, which eventually become concentrated at the point from which the pollen tube will emerge. Hydration and activation continue as the pollen tube begins to grow.<sup id="cite_ref-Raghavan_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Raghavan-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In conifers, the reproductive structures are borne on cones. The cones are either pollen cones (male) or ovulate cones (female), but some species are <a href="/wiki/Monoecious" class="mw-redirect" title="Monoecious">monoecious</a> and others <a href="/wiki/Dioecious" class="mw-redirect" title="Dioecious">dioecious</a>. A pollen cone contains hundreds of microsporangia carried on (or borne on) reproductive structures called sporophylls. Spore mother cells in the microsporangia divide by <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a> to form haploid microspores that develop further by two mitotic divisions into immature male gametophytes (pollen grains). The four resulting cells consist of a large tube cell that forms the <a href="/wiki/Pollen_tube" title="Pollen tube">pollen tube</a>, a generative cell that will produce two sperm by <a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">mitosis</a>, and two prothallial cells that degenerate. These cells comprise a very reduced <a href="/wiki/Microgametophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Microgametophyte">microgametophyte</a>, that is contained within the resistant. </p><p>The pollen grains are dispersed by the wind to the female, ovulate cone that is made up of many overlapping scales (sporophylls, and thus megasporophylls), each protecting two ovules, each of which consists of a megasporangium (the nucellus) wrapped in two layers of tissue, the integument and the cupule, that were derived from highly modified branches of ancestral gymnosperms. When a pollen grain lands close enough to the tip of an ovule, it is drawn in through the micropyle ( a pore in the integuments covering the tip of the ovule) often by means of a drop of liquid known as a pollination drop. The pollen enters a pollen chamber close to the nucellus, and there it may wait for a year before it germinates and forms a pollen tube that grows through the wall of the megasporangium (=nucellus) where fertilisation takes place. During this time, the megaspore mother cell divides by meiosis to form four haploid cells, three of which degenerate. The surviving one develops as a megaspore and divides repeatedly to form an immature female gametophyte (egg sac). Two or three archegonia containing an egg then develop inside the gametophyte. Meanwhile, in the spring of the second year two sperm cells are produced by mitosis of the body cell of the male gametophyte. The pollen tube elongates and pierces and grows through the megasporangium wall and delivers the sperm cells to the female gametophyte inside. Fertilisation takes place when the nucleus of one of the sperm cells enters the egg cell in the megagametophyte's archegonium.<sup id="cite_ref-Runions_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Runions-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In flowering plants, the anthers of the flower produce microspores by meiosis. These undergo mitosis to form male gametophytes, each of which contains two haploid cells. Meanwhile, the ovules produce megaspores by meiosis, further division of these form the female gametophytes, which are very strongly reduced, each consisting only of a few cells, one of which is the egg. When a pollen grain adheres to the stigma of a carpel it germinates, developing a pollen tube that grows through the tissues of the style, entering the ovule through the micropyle. When the tube reaches the egg sac, two sperm cells pass through it into the female gametophyte and fertilisation takes place.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methods">Methods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollination&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pollination may be biotic or abiotic. Biotic pollination relies on living <a href="/wiki/Pollinator" title="Pollinator">pollinators</a> to move the <a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">pollen</a> from one flower to another. Abiotic pollination relies on wind, water or even rain. Adding natural habitat areas into farm systems generally improves pollination, as farms that are closer to natural habitat have higher crop yield because they are visited by more pollinators.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biotic_pollination">Biotic pollination</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollination&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Biotic pollination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hummingbird_in_ggp_7.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Hummingbird_in_ggp_7.jpg/220px-Hummingbird_in_ggp_7.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Hummingbird_in_ggp_7.jpg/330px-Hummingbird_in_ggp_7.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Hummingbird_in_ggp_7.jpg/440px-Hummingbird_in_ggp_7.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hummingbird" title="Hummingbird">Hummingbirds</a> typically feed on red flowers</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Melissodes_desponsa,_f,_face,_Maine,_Du_Clos_2015-12-01-17.37_(24469964305).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Melissodes_desponsa%2C_f%2C_face%2C_Maine%2C_Du_Clos_2015-12-01-17.37_%2824469964305%29.jpg/220px-Melissodes_desponsa%2C_f%2C_face%2C_Maine%2C_Du_Clos_2015-12-01-17.37_%2824469964305%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Melissodes_desponsa%2C_f%2C_face%2C_Maine%2C_Du_Clos_2015-12-01-17.37_%2824469964305%29.jpg/330px-Melissodes_desponsa%2C_f%2C_face%2C_Maine%2C_Du_Clos_2015-12-01-17.37_%2824469964305%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Melissodes_desponsa%2C_f%2C_face%2C_Maine%2C_Du_Clos_2015-12-01-17.37_%2824469964305%29.jpg/440px-Melissodes_desponsa%2C_f%2C_face%2C_Maine%2C_Du_Clos_2015-12-01-17.37_%2824469964305%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5698" data-file-height="3724" /></a><figcaption>A bee (<i><a href="/wiki/Melissodes_desponsus" title="Melissodes desponsus">Melissodes desponsus</a></i>) covered in pollen</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pollinator" title="Pollinator">Pollinator</a></div> <p>About 80% of <a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">angiosperms</a> rely on biotic pollination.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (also called pollen vectors): organisms that carry or move the pollen grains from the <a href="/wiki/Anther" class="mw-redirect" title="Anther">anther</a> of one flower to the receptive part of the carpel or pistil (stigma) of another.<sup id="cite_ref-crop_Type_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crop_Type-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between 100,000 and 200,000 species of animal act as pollinators of the world's 250,000 species of flowering plant.<sup id="cite_ref-Abrol_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abrol-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The majority of these pollinators are <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insects</a>, but about 1,500 species of birds and mammals visit flowers and may transfer pollen between them. Besides birds and bats which are the most frequent visitors, these include monkeys, lemurs, squirrels, rodents and possums.<sup id="cite_ref-Abrol_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abrol-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Entomophily" title="Entomophily">Entomophily</a>, pollination by <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insects</a>, often occurs on plants that have developed colored petals and a strong <a href="/wiki/Floral_scent" title="Floral scent">scent</a> to attract insects such as bees, wasps, and occasionally ants (<a href="/wiki/Hymenoptera" title="Hymenoptera">Hymenoptera</a>), <a href="/wiki/Beetle" title="Beetle">beetles</a> (<a href="/wiki/Coleoptera" class="mw-redirect" title="Coleoptera">Coleoptera</a>), moths and butterflies (<a href="/wiki/Lepidoptera" title="Lepidoptera">Lepidoptera</a>), and flies (<a href="/wiki/Diptera" class="mw-redirect" title="Diptera">Diptera</a>). The existence of insect pollination dates back to the <a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">dinosaur</a> era.<sup id="cite_ref-scie_Firs_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scie_Firs-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Insect pollinators such as <a href="/wiki/Honey_bee" title="Honey bee">honey bees</a> (<i>Apis</i> spp.),<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Bumblebee" title="Bumblebee">bumblebees</a> (<i>Bombus</i> spp.),<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Butterfly" title="Butterfly">butterflies</a> (e.g., <i>Thymelicus flavus</i>)<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have been observed to engage in <a href="/wiki/Flower_constancy" title="Flower constancy">flower constancy</a>, which means they are more likely to transfer pollen to other conspecific plants.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This can be beneficial for the pollinators, as flower constancy prevents the loss of pollen during interspecific flights and pollinators from clogging stigmas with pollen of other flower species. It also improves the probability that the pollinator will find productive flowers easily accessible and recognisable by familiar clues.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The primary insect pollinators are <a href="/wiki/Hymenoptera" title="Hymenoptera">hymenopterans</a>, mostly <a href="/wiki/Bee" title="Bee">bees</a>, but also including <a href="/wiki/Sawfly" title="Sawfly">sawflies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ant" title="Ant">ants</a>, and many species of wasps.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many flowers attract pollinators by odor. For example, <a href="/wiki/Orchid_bee" class="mw-redirect" title="Orchid bee">orchid bee</a> species such as <i><a href="/wiki/Euglossa_cordata" title="Euglossa cordata">Euglossa cordata</a></i> are attracted to orchids this way, and it has been suggested that some orchid species intoxicate bees during visits which can last up to 90 minutes.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in general, plants that rely on pollen vectors tend to be adapted to their particular type of vector, for example day-pollinated species tend to be brightly coloured and have little odor, but if they are pollinated largely by birds or specialist mammals, they tend to be larger and have larger nectar rewards than species that are strictly insect-pollinated. Night-blooming flowers have little color, but are often very aromatic. Plants with vertebrate pollinators also tend to spread their rewards over longer periods, having long flowering seasons; their specialist pollinators would be likely to starve if the pollination season were too short.<sup id="cite_ref-:Potts1995_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:Potts1995-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some flowers have specialized mechanisms to <a href="/wiki/Pollination_trap" title="Pollination trap">trap pollinators</a> to increase effectiveness,<sup id="cite_ref-:Potts1995_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:Potts1995-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> attach pollen to specific body parts (as happens in many orchid and <i><a href="/wiki/Asclepias" title="Asclepias">Asclepias</a></i> species<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), or require specialized behaviors or morphology in order to extract pollen or nectar. One such syndrome is "<a href="/wiki/Buzz_pollination" title="Buzz pollination">buzz pollination</a>" (or "sonication"), where a bee must vibrate at a certain frequency in order to cause pollen to be released from the <a href="/wiki/Anthers" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthers">anthers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Zoophily" title="Zoophily">zoophily</a>, pollination is performed by vertebrates such as <a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">birds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bat" title="Bat">bats</a>, particularly, <a href="/wiki/Hummingbird" title="Hummingbird">hummingbirds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sunbird" title="Sunbird">sunbirds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spiderhunter" title="Spiderhunter">spiderhunters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Honeyeater" title="Honeyeater">honeyeaters</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fruit_bat" class="mw-redirect" title="Fruit bat">fruit bats</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ornithophily" title="Ornithophily">Ornithophily</a> or bird pollination is the pollination of flowering plants by birds. <a href="/wiki/Chiropterophily" class="mw-redirect" title="Chiropterophily">Chiropterophily</a> or bat pollination is the pollination of flowering plants by bats. Plants adapted to use bats or moths as pollinators typically have white petals, strong <a href="/wiki/Floral_scent" title="Floral scent">scent</a> and flower at night, whereas plants that use birds as pollinators tend to produce copious nectar and have red petals.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bee_Leg_with_Pollen_Bulb.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Bee_Leg_with_Pollen_Bulb.jpg/220px-Bee_Leg_with_Pollen_Bulb.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Bee_Leg_with_Pollen_Bulb.jpg/330px-Bee_Leg_with_Pollen_Bulb.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Bee_Leg_with_Pollen_Bulb.jpg/440px-Bee_Leg_with_Pollen_Bulb.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1388" data-file-height="1040" /></a><figcaption>Hind leg of a honey bee with pollen pellet stuck on the pollen basket or corbicula. When the worker bee is collecting pollen, their legs make the transfer of pollen from the inner basitarsal combs to the outer pollen basket (shown in figure).</figcaption></figure> <p>Mammals are not generally thought of as pollinators, but some rodents, bats and marsupials are significant pollinators and some even specialise in such activities. In South Africa certain species of <i><a href="/wiki/Protea" title="Protea">Protea</a></i> (in particular <i>Protea humiflora</i>, <i>P. amplexicaulis</i>, <i>P. subulifolia</i>, <i>P. decurrens</i> and <i>P. cordata</i>) are adapted to pollination by rodents (particularly <a href="/wiki/Cape_Spiny_Mouse" class="mw-redirect" title="Cape Spiny Mouse">Cape Spiny Mouse</a>, <i>Acomys subspinosus</i>)<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Elephant_shrew" title="Elephant shrew">elephant shrews</a> (<i>Elephantulus</i> species).<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The flowers are borne near the ground, are yeasty smelling, not colourful, and sunbirds reject the nectar with its high <a href="/wiki/Xylose" title="Xylose">xylose</a> content. The mice apparently can digest the xylose and they eat large quantities of the pollen.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Australia pollination by flying, gliding and earthbound mammals has been demonstrated.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Reptile pollinators are known, but they form a minority in most ecological situations. They are most frequent and most ecologically significant in island systems, where insect and sometimes also bird populations may be unstable and less species-rich. Adaptation to a lack of animal food and of predation pressure, might therefore favour reptiles becoming more herbivorous and more inclined to feed on pollen and nectar.<sup id="cite_ref-OJMVA_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OJMVA-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most species of lizards in the families that seem to be significant in pollination seem to carry pollen only incidentally, especially the larger species such as <a href="/wiki/Varanidae" title="Varanidae">Varanidae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iguanidae" title="Iguanidae">Iguanidae</a>, but especially several species of the <a href="/wiki/Gekkonidae" title="Gekkonidae">Gekkonidae</a> are active pollinators, and so is at least one species of the <a href="/wiki/Lacertidae" title="Lacertidae">Lacertidae</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Podarcis_lilfordi" class="mw-redirect" title="Podarcis lilfordi">Podarcis lilfordi</a></i>, which pollinates various species, but in particular is the major pollinator of <i><a href="/wiki/Euphorbia_dendroides" title="Euphorbia dendroides">Euphorbia dendroides</a></i> on various Mediterranean islands.<sup id="cite_ref-GAH_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GAH-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Pollinator#Other_invertebrates" title="Pollinator">Pollinator § Other invertebrates</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pollinator&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> Experimental evidence has shown invertebrates (mostly small <a href="/wiki/Crustacean" title="Crustacean">crustaceans</a><sup id="cite_ref-Pollinator_:12_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pollinator_:12-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) acting as pollinators in underwater environments. Beds of <a href="/wiki/Seagrass" title="Seagrass">seagrass</a> have been shown to reproduce this way in the absence of currents. It is not yet known how important invertebrate pollinators might be for other species.<sup id="cite_ref-Pollinator_:02_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pollinator_:02-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later, <i><a href="/wiki/Idotea_balthica" title="Idotea balthica">Idotea balthica</a></i> was discovered to help <i><a href="/wiki/Gracilaria" title="Gracilaria">Gracilaria</a> gracilis</i> reproduce – the first known case of an animal helping <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a> reproduce.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abiotic_pollination">Abiotic pollination</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollination&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Abiotic pollination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Abiotic pollination uses nonliving methods such as wind and water to move pollen from one <a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">flower</a> to another. This allows the plant to spend energy directly on pollen rather than on attracting pollinators with flowers and <a href="/wiki/Nectar" title="Nectar">nectar</a>. Pollination by wind is more common amongst abiotic pollination. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="By_wind">By wind</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollination&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: By wind"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pollen_from_Dactylis_glomerata.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Cat grass (Dactylis glomerata) spreading pollen by wind" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Pollen_from_Dactylis_glomerata.jpg/220px-Pollen_from_Dactylis_glomerata.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Pollen_from_Dactylis_glomerata.jpg/330px-Pollen_from_Dactylis_glomerata.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Pollen_from_Dactylis_glomerata.jpg/440px-Pollen_from_Dactylis_glomerata.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2508" data-file-height="1672" /></a><figcaption>Cat grass (<i><a href="/wiki/Dactylis_glomerata" title="Dactylis glomerata">Dactylis glomerata</a></i>) spreading pollen by wind</figcaption></figure> <p>Some 98% of abiotic pollination is <a href="/wiki/Anemophily" title="Anemophily">anemophily</a>, i.e., pollination by wind. This probably arose from insect pollination (entomophily), most likely due to changes in the environment or the availability of pollinators.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The transfer of pollen is more efficient than previously thought; wind pollinated plants have developed to have specific heights, in addition to specific floral, <a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">stamen</a> and stigma positions that promote effective pollen dispersal and transfer.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="By_water">By water</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollination&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: By water"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pollination by water, <a href="/wiki/Hydrophily" title="Hydrophily">hydrophily</a>, uses water to transport pollen, sometimes as whole anthers; these can travel across the surface of the water to carry dry pollen from one flower to another.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <i><a href="/wiki/Vallisneria_spiralis" title="Vallisneria spiralis">Vallisneria spiralis</a></i>, an unopened male flower floats to the surface of the water, and, upon reaching the surface, opens up and the fertile anthers project forward. The female flower, also floating, has its stigma protected from the water, while its <a href="/wiki/Sepal" title="Sepal">sepals</a> are slightly depressed into the water, allowing the male flowers to tumble in.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="By_rain">By rain</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollination&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: By rain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rain pollination is used by a small percentage of plants. Heavy rain discourages insect pollination and damages unprotected flowers, but can itself disperse pollen of suitably adapted plants, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Ranunculus_flammula" title="Ranunculus flammula">Ranunculus flammula</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Narthecium_ossifragum" title="Narthecium ossifragum">Narthecium ossifragum</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Caltha_palustris" title="Caltha palustris">Caltha palustris</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-pollin_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pollin-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In these plants, excess rain drains allowing the floating pollen to come in contact with the stigma.<sup id="cite_ref-pollin_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pollin-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some orchids ombrophily occurs, and rain water splashes cause the anther cap to be removed, allowing for the pollen to be exposed. After exposure, raindrops causes the pollen to be shot upward, when the stipe pulls them back, and then fall into the cavity of the stigma. Thus, for the orchid <i><a href="/wiki/Acampe_rigida" title="Acampe rigida">Acampe rigida</a></i>, this allows the plant to self-pollinate, which is useful when biotic pollinators in the environment have decreased.<sup id="cite_ref-Fan2012_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fan2012-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Switching_methods">Switching methods</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollination&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Switching methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It is possible for a plant to have varying pollination methods, including both biotic and abiotic pollination. The orchid <i><a href="/wiki/Oeceoclades_maculata" title="Oeceoclades maculata">Oeceoclades maculata</a></i> uses both rain and butterflies, depending on its environmental conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mechanism"><span class="anchor" id="Mechanics"></span>Mechanism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollination&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Mechanism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diadasia_Bee_Straddles_Cactus_Flower_Carpels_close-up.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Diadasia_Bee_Straddles_Cactus_Flower_Carpels_close-up.jpg/170px-Diadasia_Bee_Straddles_Cactus_Flower_Carpels_close-up.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Diadasia_Bee_Straddles_Cactus_Flower_Carpels_close-up.jpg/255px-Diadasia_Bee_Straddles_Cactus_Flower_Carpels_close-up.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Diadasia_Bee_Straddles_Cactus_Flower_Carpels_close-up.jpg/340px-Diadasia_Bee_Straddles_Cactus_Flower_Carpels_close-up.jpg 2x" data-file-width="666" data-file-height="834" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Diadasia" title="Diadasia">Diadasia</a></i> bee straddles <a href="/wiki/Cactus" title="Cactus">cactus</a> <a href="/wiki/Carpels" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpels">carpels</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hymenoptera,_Vespidae,_Polistinae,_Mischocyttarus_rotundicollis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Hymenoptera%2C_Vespidae%2C_Polistinae%2C_Mischocyttarus_rotundicollis.jpg/220px-Hymenoptera%2C_Vespidae%2C_Polistinae%2C_Mischocyttarus_rotundicollis.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Hymenoptera%2C_Vespidae%2C_Polistinae%2C_Mischocyttarus_rotundicollis.jpg/330px-Hymenoptera%2C_Vespidae%2C_Polistinae%2C_Mischocyttarus_rotundicollis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Hymenoptera%2C_Vespidae%2C_Polistinae%2C_Mischocyttarus_rotundicollis.jpg/440px-Hymenoptera%2C_Vespidae%2C_Polistinae%2C_Mischocyttarus_rotundicollis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1295" data-file-height="1105" /></a><figcaption>The wasp <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mischocyttarus_rotundicollis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mischocyttarus rotundicollis (page does not exist)">Mischocyttarus rotundicollis</a></i> transporting pollen grains of <i><a href="/wiki/Schinus_terebinthifolius" class="mw-redirect" title="Schinus terebinthifolius">Schinus terebinthifolius</a></i> </figcaption></figure> <p>Pollination can be accomplished by <b>cross-pollination</b> or by <a href="/wiki/Self-pollination" title="Self-pollination">self-pollination</a>: </p> <ul><li>Cross-pollination, also called <i><a href="/wiki/Allogamy" title="Allogamy">allogamy</a></i>, occurs when pollen is delivered from the stamen of one flower to the stigma of a flower on another plant of the same species.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plants adapted for cross-pollination have several mechanisms to prevent self-pollination; the reproductive organs may be arranged in such a way that self-fertilisation is unlikely, or the stamens and carpels may mature at different times.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Self-pollination occurs when pollen from one flower pollinates the same flower or other flowers of the same individual.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is thought to have evolved under conditions when pollinators were not reliable vectors for pollen transport, and is most often seen in short-lived annual species and plants that colonize new locations.<sup id="cite_ref-Glover2007_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Glover2007-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Self-pollination may include <i>autogamy</i>, where pollen is transferred from anther (male part) to the stigma (female part) of the same flower; or <i>geitonogamy</i>, when pollen is transferred from anther of a flower to stigma of another flower on the same plant.<sup id="cite_ref-Class9_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Class9-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plants adapted to self-fertilize often have similar stamen and carpel lengths. Plants that can pollinate themselves and produce viable offspring are called self-fertile. Plants that cannot fertilize themselves are called self-sterile, a condition which mandates cross-pollination for the production of offspring.<sup id="cite_ref-Class9_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Class9-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cleistogamy" title="Cleistogamy">Cleistogamy</a></i>: is self-pollination that occurs before the flower opens. The pollen is released from the anther within the flower or the pollen on the anther grows a tube down the style to the ovules. It is a type of sexual breeding, in contrast to asexual systems such as apomixis. Some <i>cleistogamous</i> flowers never open, in contrast to <i><a href="/wiki/Chasmogamous" class="mw-redirect" title="Chasmogamous">chasmogamous</a></i> flowers that open and are then pollinated. Cleistogamous flowers are by necessity found on self-compatible or self-fertile plants.<sup id="cite_ref-CulleyJAN-07_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CulleyJAN-07-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although certain orchids and grasses are entirely cleistogamous, other plants resort to this strategy under adverse conditions. Often there may be a mixture of both cleistogamous and chasmogamous flowers, sometimes on different parts of the plant and sometimes in mixed inflorescences. The <a href="/wiki/Amphicarpaea_bracteata" title="Amphicarpaea bracteata">ground bean</a> produces cleistogamous flowers below ground, and mixed cleistogamous and chasmogamous flowers above.<sup id="cite_ref-Baskin_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baskin-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 153.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 151.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Geranium_incanum_9154s.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Geranium incanum, like most geraniums and pelargoniums, sheds its anthers, sometimes its stamens as well, as a barrier to self-pollination. This young flower is about to open its anthers, but has not yet fully developed its pistil."><img alt="Geranium incanum, like most geraniums and pelargoniums, sheds its anthers, sometimes its stamens as well, as a barrier to self-pollination. This young flower is about to open its anthers, but has not yet fully developed its pistil." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Geranium_incanum_9154s.jpg/227px-Geranium_incanum_9154s.jpg" decoding="async" width="152" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Geranium_incanum_9154s.jpg/341px-Geranium_incanum_9154s.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Geranium_incanum_9154s.jpg/454px-Geranium_incanum_9154s.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3289" data-file-height="2607" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i>Geranium incanum</i>, like most geraniums and pelargoniums, sheds its anthers, sometimes its stamens as well, as a barrier to self-pollination. This young flower is about to open its anthers, but has not yet fully developed its pistil.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 166px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 164px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Geranium_incanum_9159s.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The lower two of these Geranium incanum flowers have opened their anthers, but not yet their stigmas. Note the change of colour that signals to pollinators that they are ready for visits. The uppermost flower is somewhat more mature than the others and has already shed its stamens."><img alt="The lower two of these Geranium incanum flowers have opened their anthers, but not yet their stigmas. Note the change of colour that signals to pollinators that they are ready for visits. The uppermost flower is somewhat more mature than the others and has already shed its stamens." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Geranium_incanum_9159s.jpg/246px-Geranium_incanum_9159s.jpg" decoding="async" width="164" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Geranium_incanum_9159s.jpg/368px-Geranium_incanum_9159s.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Geranium_incanum_9159s.jpg/491px-Geranium_incanum_9159s.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2340" data-file-height="1716" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The lower two of these <i>Geranium incanum</i> flowers have opened their anthers, but not yet their stigmas. Note the change of colour that signals to pollinators that they are ready for visits. The uppermost flower is somewhat more mature than the others and has already shed its stamens.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 158px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 156px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Geranium_incanum_9156s.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="This Geranium incanum flower has shed its stamens, and deployed the tips of its pistil without accepting pollen from its own anthers. (It might of course still receive pollen from younger flowers on the same plant.)"><img alt="This Geranium incanum flower has shed its stamens, and deployed the tips of its pistil without accepting pollen from its own anthers. (It might of course still receive pollen from younger flowers on the same plant.)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Geranium_incanum_9156s.jpg/234px-Geranium_incanum_9156s.jpg" decoding="async" width="156" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Geranium_incanum_9156s.jpg/351px-Geranium_incanum_9156s.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Geranium_incanum_9156s.jpg/468px-Geranium_incanum_9156s.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2547" data-file-height="1958" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">This <i>Geranium incanum</i> flower has shed its stamens, and deployed the tips of its pistil without accepting pollen from its own anthers. (It might of course still receive pollen from younger flowers on the same plant.)</div> </li> </ul> <p>An estimated 48.7% of plant species are either <a href="/wiki/Dioecy#In_botany" title="Dioecy">dioecious</a> or <a href="/wiki/Self-incompatibility_in_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-incompatibility in plants">self-incompatible</a> obligate out-crossers.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid16817548_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid16817548-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is also estimated that about 42% of flowering plants have a mixed mating system in nature.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the most common kind of mixed mating system, individual plants produce a single type of flower and fruits may contain self-pollinated, out-crossed or a mixture of progeny types. </p><p>Pollination also requires consideration of <a href="/wiki/Pollenizer" title="Pollenizer">pollenizers</a>, the plants that serve as the pollen source for other plants. Some plants are <i><a href="/wiki/Self-compatibility_in_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-compatibility in plants">self-compatible</a></i> (<i>self-fertile</i>) and can pollinate and fertilize themselves. Other plants have chemical or physical barriers to <a href="/wiki/Self-pollination" title="Self-pollination">self-pollination</a>. </p><p>In agriculture and <a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">horticulture</a> pollination management, a good pollenizer is a plant that provides compatible, viable and plentiful pollen and blooms at the same time as the plant that is to be pollinated or has pollen that can be stored and used when needed to pollinate the desired flowers. <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_(biology)" title="Hybrid (biology)">Hybridization</a> is effective pollination between flowers of different <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a>, or between different breeding lines or populations. see also <a href="/wiki/Heterosis" title="Heterosis">Heterosis</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Peach" title="Peach">Peaches</a> are considered self-fertile because a commercial crop can be produced without cross-pollination, though cross-pollination usually gives a better crop. Apples are considered <a href="/wiki/Self-incompatibility_in_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-incompatibility in plants">self-incompatible</a>, because a commercial crop must be cross-pollinated. Many commercial fruit tree varieties are <a href="/wiki/Grafting" title="Grafting">grafted</a> <a href="/wiki/Cloning" title="Cloning">clones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetically</a> identical. An orchard block of apples of one variety is genetically a single plant. Many growers now consider this a mistake. One means of correcting this mistake is to graft a limb of an appropriate pollenizer (generally a variety of <a href="/wiki/Crabapple" class="mw-redirect" title="Crabapple">crabapple</a>) every six trees or so.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Coevolution">Coevolution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollination&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Coevolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pollination_syndrome" title="Pollination syndrome">Pollination syndrome</a></div> <p>The first fossil record for <a href="/wiki/Abiotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Abiotic">abiotic</a> pollination is from <a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">fern</a>-like plants in the late <a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">Carboniferous</a> period. <a href="/wiki/Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">Gymnosperms</a> show evidence for biotic pollination as early as the <a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">Triassic</a> period. Many fossilized pollen grains show characteristics similar to the biotically dispersed pollen today. Furthermore, the gut contents, wing structures, and mouthpart <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphology</a> of fossilized <a href="/wiki/Coleoptera" class="mw-redirect" title="Coleoptera">beetles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diptera" class="mw-redirect" title="Diptera">flies</a> suggest that they acted as early pollinators. The association between <a href="/wiki/Coleoptera" class="mw-redirect" title="Coleoptera">beetles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Angiosperm" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiosperm">angiosperms</a> during the early <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a> period led to parallel radiations of angiosperms and insects into the late Cretaceous. The evolution of nectaries in late Cretaceous flowers signals the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">mutualism</a> between <a href="/wiki/Hymenoptera" title="Hymenoptera">hymenopterans</a> and angiosperms. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Bee" title="Bee">Bees</a> provide a good example of the mutualism that exists between <a href="/wiki/Hymenoptera" title="Hymenoptera">hymenopterans</a> and angiosperms. Flowers provide bees with nectar (an energy source) and pollen (a source of protein). When bees go from flower to flower collecting pollen they are also depositing pollen grains onto the flowers, thus pollinating them. While pollen and nectar, in most cases, are the most notable reward attained from flowers, bees also visit flowers for other resources such as oil, fragrance, resin and even waxes.<sup id="cite_ref-Armbruster_ch._3_Evol._Plant-pollinator_relationships_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armbruster_ch._3_Evol._Plant-pollinator_relationships-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been estimated that bees originated with the origin or diversification of <a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">angiosperms</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cardinal_and_Danforth_2013_Bees_diversified_in_the_age_of_eudicots_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cardinal_and_Danforth_2013_Bees_diversified_in_the_age_of_eudicots-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, cases of <a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">coevolution</a> between bee species and flowering plants have been illustrated by specialized adaptations. For example, long legs are selected for in <i>Rediviva neliana</i>, a bee that collects oil from <i>Diascia capsularis</i>, which have long spur lengths that are selected for in order to deposit pollen on the oil-collecting bee, which in turn selects for even longer legs in <i>R. neliana</i> and again longer spur length in <i>D. capsularis</i> is selected for, thus, continually driving each other's evolution.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_agriculture">In agriculture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollination&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: In agriculture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_crop_plants_pollinated_by_bees" title="List of crop plants pollinated by bees">List of crop plants pollinated by bees</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pollinator-dependence.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Pollinator-dependence.png/220px-Pollinator-dependence.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Pollinator-dependence.png/330px-Pollinator-dependence.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Pollinator-dependence.png/440px-Pollinator-dependence.png 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="2253" /></a><figcaption>What crops are dependent on pollinators?</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bee_pollinating_a_rose.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Bee_pollinating_a_rose.jpg/220px-Bee_pollinating_a_rose.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Bee_pollinating_a_rose.jpg/330px-Bee_pollinating_a_rose.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Bee_pollinating_a_rose.jpg/440px-Bee_pollinating_a_rose.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>An <i><a href="/wiki/Andrena" title="Andrena">Andrena</a></i> bee gathers pollen from the <a href="/wiki/Stamens" class="mw-redirect" title="Stamens">stamens</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Rose" title="Rose">rose</a>. The female <a href="/wiki/Carpel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpel">carpel</a> structure appears rough and globular to the left.</figcaption></figure><p>The most essential staple food crops on the planet, like <a href="/wiki/Wheat" title="Wheat">wheat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rice" title="Rice">rice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soybean" title="Soybean">soybeans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sorghum" title="Sorghum">sorghum</a><sup id="cite_ref-FAOstats_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FAOstats-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are wind pollinated or self pollinating. When considering the top 15 crops contributing to the human diet globally in 2013, slightly over 10% of the total human diet of plant crops (211 out of 1916 kcal/person/day) is dependent upon insect pollination.<sup id="cite_ref-FAOstats_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FAOstats-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Pollination_management" title="Pollination management">Pollination management</a> is a branch of agriculture that seeks to protect and enhance present pollinators and often involves the culture and addition of pollinators in <a href="/wiki/Monoculture" title="Monoculture">monoculture</a> situations, such as commercial fruit <a href="/wiki/Orchard" title="Orchard">orchards</a>. The largest managed pollination event in the world is in <a href="/wiki/California_almond" class="mw-redirect" title="California almond">California almond</a> orchards, where nearly half (about one million <a href="/wiki/Beehive_(beekeeping)" class="mw-redirect" title="Beehive (beekeeping)">hives</a>) of the US <a href="/wiki/Honey_bee" title="Honey bee">honey bees</a> are trucked to the almond orchards each spring. <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Apple" title="Apple">apple</a> crop requires about 30,000 hives; <a href="/wiki/Maine" title="Maine">Maine</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Blueberry" title="Blueberry">blueberry</a> crop uses about 50,000 hives each year. The US solution to the pollinator shortage, so far, has been for commercial beekeepers to become pollination <a href="/wiki/Independent_contractor" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent contractor">contractors</a> and to migrate. Just as the <a href="/wiki/Combine_harvester" title="Combine harvester">combine harvesters</a> follow the <a href="/wiki/Wheat" title="Wheat">wheat</a> <a href="/wiki/Harvest" title="Harvest">harvest</a> from <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a> to <a href="/wiki/Manitoba" title="Manitoba">Manitoba</a>, beekeepers follow the bloom from south to north, to provide pollination for many different crops.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In America, bees are brought to commercial plantings of <a href="/wiki/Cucumber" title="Cucumber">cucumbers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Squash_(fruit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Squash (fruit)">squash</a>, <a href="/wiki/Melon" title="Melon">melons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Strawberry" title="Strawberry">strawberries</a>, and many other crops. Honey bees are not the only managed pollinators: a few other <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> of bees are also raised as pollinators. The <a href="/wiki/Alfalfa_leafcutter_bee" class="mw-redirect" title="Alfalfa leafcutter bee">alfalfa leafcutter bee</a> is an important pollinator for <a href="/wiki/Alfalfa" title="Alfalfa">alfalfa</a> <a href="/wiki/Seed" title="Seed">seed</a> in western United States and Canada. <a href="/wiki/Bumblebee" title="Bumblebee">Bumblebees</a> are increasingly raised and used extensively for <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse" title="Greenhouse">greenhouse</a> <a href="/wiki/Tomato" title="Tomato">tomatoes</a> and other crops. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">ecological</a> and financial importance of natural pollination by insects to <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agricultural</a> <a href="/wiki/Crops" class="mw-redirect" title="Crops">crops</a>, improving their quality and quantity, becomes more and more appreciated and has given rise to new financial opportunities. The vicinity of a <a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">forest</a> or wild <a href="/wiki/Grassland" title="Grassland">grasslands</a> with native pollinators near agricultural crops, such as apples, almonds or <a href="/wiki/Coffee" title="Coffee">coffee</a> can improve their yield by about 20%.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The benefits of native pollinators may result in forest owners demanding payment for their contribution in the improved crop results – a simple example of the economic value of ecological services. Farmers can also raise native crops in order to promote native bee pollinator species as shown with the native sweat bees <i><a href="/wiki/Lasioglossum_vierecki" title="Lasioglossum vierecki">L. vierecki</a></i> in Delaware<sup id="cite_ref-Farming_for_native_bees_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Farming_for_native_bees-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i><a href="/wiki/Lasioglossum_leucozonium" title="Lasioglossum leucozonium">L. leucozonium</a></i> in southwest Virginia.<sup id="cite_ref-An_Assessment_of_Non-Apis_Bees_as_Fruit_and_Vegetable_Crop_Pollinators_in_Southwest_Virginia_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-An_Assessment_of_Non-Apis_Bees_as_Fruit_and_Vegetable_Crop_Pollinators_in_Southwest_Virginia-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/American_Institute_of_Biological_Sciences" title="American Institute of Biological Sciences">American Institute of Biological Sciences</a> reports that native insect pollination saves the United States <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agricultural</a> economy nearly an estimated $3.1 billion annually through natural crop production;<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> pollination produces some $40 billion worth of products annually in the United States alone.<sup id="cite_ref-USFS_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USFS-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pollination of food crops has become an <a href="/wiki/Environmental_movement" title="Environmental movement">environmental issue</a>, due to two trends. The trend to <a href="/wiki/Monoculture" title="Monoculture">monoculture</a> means that greater concentrations of pollinators are needed at bloom time than ever before, yet the area is <a href="/wiki/Forage_(honeybee)" class="mw-redirect" title="Forage (honeybee)">forage</a> poor or even deadly to bees for the rest of the season. The other trend is the <a href="/wiki/Pollinator_decline" title="Pollinator decline">decline of pollinator populations</a>, due to <a href="/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide">pesticide</a> misuse and overuse, new diseases and <a href="/wiki/Parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasite">parasites</a> of bees, <a href="/wiki/Clearfelling" class="mw-redirect" title="Clearfelling">clearcut logging</a>, decline of beekeeping, <a href="/wiki/Suburb" title="Suburb">suburban</a> development, removal of <a href="/wiki/Hedge_(barrier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hedge (barrier)">hedges</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Habitat_(ecology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Habitat (ecology)">habitat</a> from <a href="/wiki/Farm" title="Farm">farms</a>, and public concern about bees. Widespread <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_aircraft" title="Agricultural aircraft">aerial spraying</a> for <a href="/wiki/Mosquito" title="Mosquito">mosquitoes</a> due to <a href="/wiki/West_Nile_fever" title="West Nile fever">West Nile</a> fears is causing an acceleration of the loss of pollinators. Changes in land use, harmful pesticides, and advancing climate change threaten wild pollinators, key insect species that increase yields of three-fourths of crop varieties and are critical to growing healthy foods. <sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In some situations, farmers or horticulturists may aim to restrict natural pollination to only permit breeding with the preferred individuals plants. This may be achieved through the use of <a href="/wiki/Pollination_bag" title="Pollination bag">pollination bags</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Improving_pollination_in_areas_with_suboptimal_bee_densities">Improving pollination in areas with suboptimal bee densities</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollination&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Improving pollination in areas with suboptimal bee densities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In some instances growers' demand for beehives far exceeds the available supply. The number of managed beehives in the US has steadily declined from close to 6 million after WWII, to less than 2.5 million today. In contrast, the area dedicated to growing bee-pollinated crops has grown over 300% in the same time period. Additionally, in the past five years there has been a decline in winter managed beehives, which has reached an unprecedented rate of colony losses at near 30%.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At present, there is an enormous demand for beehive rentals that cannot always be met. There is a clear need across the agricultural industry for a management tool to draw pollinators into cultivations and encourage them to preferentially visit and pollinate the flowering crop. By attracting pollinators like honey bees and increasing their foraging behavior, particularly in the center of large plots, we can increase grower returns and optimize yield from their plantings. ISCA Technologies,<sup id="cite_ref-ISCA_Technologies_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ISCA_Technologies-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from <a href="/wiki/Riverside,_California" title="Riverside, California">Riverside, California</a>, created a semiochemical formulation called SPLAT Bloom, that modifies the behavior of honey bees, inciting them to visit flowers in every portion of the field.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTPROMOTION" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTPROMOTION"><span title="Material appears to be promotional in nature. (June 2022)">promotion?</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Environmental_impacts">Environmental impacts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollination&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Environmental impacts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Loss of pollinators, also known as <a href="/wiki/Pollinator_decline" title="Pollinator decline">pollinator decline</a> (of which <a href="/wiki/Colony_collapse_disorder" title="Colony collapse disorder">colony collapse disorder</a> is perhaps the most well known) has been noticed in recent years. These loss of pollinators have caused a disturbance in early plant regeneration processes such as seed dispersal and pollination. Early processes of plant regeneration greatly depend on plant-animal interactions and because these interactions are interrupted, biodiversity and ecosystem functioning are threatened.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pollination by animals aids in the genetic variability and diversity within plants because it allows for out-crossing instead for self-crossing. Without this genetic diversity there would be a lack of traits for natural selection to act on for the survival of the plant species. <a href="/wiki/Seed_dispersal" title="Seed dispersal">Seed dispersal</a> is also important for plant fitness because it allows plants the ability to expand their populations. More than that, it permits plants to escape environments that have changed and have become difficult to reside in. All of these factors show the importance of pollinators for plants, which are a significant part of the foundation for a stable ecosystem. If only a few species of plants depended on Loss of pollinators is especially devastating because there are so many plant species rely on them. More than 87.5% of <a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">angiosperms</a>, over 75% of tropical tree species, and 30-40% of tree species in temperate regions depend on pollination and seed dispersal.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Factors that contribute to pollinator decline include <a href="/wiki/Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">habitat destruction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide">pesticide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">parasitism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Diseases">diseases</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The more destructive forms of human disturbances are land use changes such as fragmentation, selective logging, and the conversion to secondary forest habitat.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_68-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Defaunation" title="Defaunation">Defaunation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Frugivore" title="Frugivore">frugivores</a> is also an important driver.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These alterations are especially harmful due to the sensitivity of the pollination process of plants.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_68-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Research on tropical palms found that defaunation has caused a decline in seed dispersal, which causes a decrease in genetic variability in this species.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Habitat destruction such as fragmentation and selective logging remove areas that are most optimal for the different types of pollinators, which removes pollinators food resources, nesting sites, and leads to isolation of populations.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The effect of pesticides on pollinators has been debated because it is difficult to determine that a single pesticide is the cause as opposed to a mixture or other threats.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whether exposure alone causes damage, or if the duration and potency are also factors is unknown.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_71-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, <a href="/wiki/Insecticide" title="Insecticide">insecticides</a> have negative effects, as in the case of <a href="/wiki/Neonicotinoid" title="Neonicotinoid">neonicotinoids</a> that harm bee colonies. Many researchers believe it is the synergistic effects of these factors which are ultimately detrimental to pollinator populations.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the agriculture industry, climate change is causing a "pollinator crisis". This crisis is affecting the production of crops, and the relating costs, due to a decrease in pollination processes.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This disturbance can be phenological or spatial. In the first case, species that normally occur in similar seasons or time cycles, now have different responses to environmental changes and therefore no longer interact. For example, a tree may flower sooner than usual, while the pollinator may reproduce later in the year and therefore the two species no longer coincide in time. Spatial disturbances occur when two species that would normally share the same distribution now respond differently to climate change and are shifting to different regions.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Examples_of_affected_pollinators">Examples of affected pollinators</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollination&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Examples of affected pollinators"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The most known and understood pollinator, bees, have been used as the prime example of the decline in pollinators. Bees are essential in the pollination of agricultural crops and wild plants and are one of the main insects that perform this task.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Out of the bees species, the honey bee or <i><a href="/wiki/Western_honey_bee" title="Western honey bee">Apis mellifera</a></i> has been studied the most and in the United States, there has been a loss of 59% of colonies from 1947 to 2005.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The decrease in populations of the honey bee have been attributed to pesticides, genetically modified crops, fragmentation, parasites and diseases that have been introduced.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There has been a focus on neonicotinoids effects on honey bee populations. Neonicotinoids insecticides have been used due to its low mammalian toxicity, target specificity, low application rates, and broad spectrum activity. However, the insecticides are able to make its way throughout the plant, which includes the pollen and nectar. Due to this, it has been shown to effect on the nervous system and colony relations in the honey bee populations.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Butterfly" title="Butterfly">Butterflies</a> too have suffered due to these modifications. Butterflies are helpful ecological indicators since they are sensitive to changes within the environment like the season, altitude, and above all, <a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">human impact on the environment</a>. Butterfly populations were higher within the natural forest and were lower in open land. The reason for the difference in density is the fact that in open land the butterflies would be exposed to desiccation and predation. These open regions are caused by habitat destruction like logging for timber, livestock grazing, and firewood collection. Due to this destruction, butterfly species' diversity can decrease and it is known that there is a correlation in butterfly diversity and plant diversity.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Food_security_and_pollinator_decline">Food security and pollinator decline</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollination&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Food security and pollinator decline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Besides the imbalance of the ecosystem caused by the decline in pollinators, it may jeopardise <a href="/wiki/Food_security" title="Food security">food security</a>. Pollination is necessary for plants to continue their populations and 3/4 of the plant species that contribute to the world's food supply are plants that require pollinators.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Insect pollinators, like bees, are large contributors to crop production, over 200 billion dollars worth of crop species are pollinated by these insects.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_71-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pollinators are also essential because they improve crop quality and increase genetic diversity, which is necessary in producing fruit with nutritional value and various flavors.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Crops that do not depend on animals for pollination but on the wind or self-pollination, like corn and potatoes, have doubled in production and make up a large part of the human diet but do not provide the micronutrients that are needed.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The essential nutrients that are necessary in the human diet are present in plants that rely on animal pollinators.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There have been issues in vitamin and mineral deficiencies and it is believed that if pollinator populations continue to decrease these deficiencies will become even more prominent.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Plant–pollinator_networks"><span id="Plant.E2.80.93pollinator_networks"></span>Plant–pollinator networks</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollination&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Plant–pollinator networks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Pollination_network" title="Pollination network">Pollination network</a></div> <p>Wild pollinators often visit a large number of plant species and plants are visited by a large number of pollinator species. All these relations together form a network of interactions between plants and pollinators. Surprising similarities were found in the structure of networks consisting out of the interactions between plants and pollinators. This structure was found to be similar in very different ecosystems on different continents, consisting of entirely different species.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The structure of plant-pollinator networks may have large consequences for the way in which pollinator communities respond to increasingly harsh conditions. Mathematical models, examining the consequences of this network structure for the stability of pollinator communities suggest that the specific way in which plant-pollinator networks are organized minimizes competition between pollinators<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and may even lead to strong indirect facilitation between pollinators when conditions are harsh.<sup id="cite_ref-Lever_et_al_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lever_et_al-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This means that pollinator species together can survive under harsh conditions. But it also means that pollinator species collapse simultaneously when conditions pass a critical point. This simultaneous collapse occurs, because pollinator species depend on each other when surviving under difficult conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-Lever_et_al_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lever_et_al-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Such a community-wide collapse, involving many pollinator species, can occur suddenly when increasingly harsh conditions pass a critical point and recovery from such a collapse might not be easy. The improvement in conditions needed for pollinators to recover, could be substantially larger than the improvement needed to return to conditions at which the pollinator community collapsed.<sup id="cite_ref-Lever_et_al_83-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lever_et_al-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economics_of_commercial_honeybee_pollination">Economics of commercial honeybee pollination</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollination&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Economics of commercial honeybee pollination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:October18_finding_ferrier_fig01_450px.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/October18_finding_ferrier_fig01_450px.png/220px-October18_finding_ferrier_fig01_450px.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/October18_finding_ferrier_fig01_450px.png/330px-October18_finding_ferrier_fig01_450px.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/October18_finding_ferrier_fig01_450px.png/440px-October18_finding_ferrier_fig01_450px.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="405" /></a><figcaption>The graph shows the number of honeybee colonies in the U.S. from 1982 to 2015,</figcaption></figure> <p>While there are 200,000 - 350,000 different species of animals that help pollination, honeybees are responsible for majority of the pollination for consumed crops, providing between $235 and $577 US billion of benefits to global food production.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The western honey bee (<i>Apis mellifera</i> L.) provides highly valued pollination services for a wide variety of agricultural crops, and ranks as the most frequent single species of pollinator for crops worldwide.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the early 1900s, beekeepers in the United States started renting out their colonies to farmers to increase the farmer's crop yields, earning additional revenue from providing <a href="/wiki/Pollination_management" title="Pollination management">privatized pollination</a>. As of 2016, 41% of an average US beekeeper's revenue comes from providing such pollination service to farmers, making it the biggest proportion of their income, with the rest coming from sales of honey, beeswax, government subsidy, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is an example of how a <a href="/wiki/Externality" title="Externality">positive externality</a>, pollination of crops from beekeeping and honey-making, was successfully accounted for and incorporated into the overall market for agriculture. On top of assisting food production, pollination service provide beneficial <a href="/wiki/Spillover_(economics)" title="Spillover (economics)">spillovers</a> as bees <a href="/wiki/Germination" title="Germination">germinate</a> not only the crops, but also other plants around the area that they are set loose to pollinate, increasing <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> for the local <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystem</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is even further spillover as biodiversity increases ecosystem resistance for wildlife and crops.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to their role of pollination in crop production, commercial honeybees are considered to be livestock by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Agriculture" title="United States Department of Agriculture">US Department of Agriculture</a>. The impact of pollination varies by crop. For example, <a href="/wiki/Almond" title="Almond">almond</a> production in the United States, an $11 billion industry based almost exclusively in the state of California, is heavily dependent on imported honeybees for pollination of almond trees. Almond industry uses up to 82% of the services in the pollination market. Each February, around 60% of the all bee colonies in the US are moved to California's <a href="/wiki/Central_Valley_(California)" title="Central Valley (California)">Central Valley</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Over the past decade, beekeepers across the US have reported that the mortality rate of their bee colonies has stayed constant at about 30% every year, making the deaths an expected cost of business for the beekeepers. While the exact cause of this phenomenon is unknown, according to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Agriculture" title="United States Department of Agriculture">US Department of Agriculture</a> <a href="/wiki/Colony_collapse_disorder" title="Colony collapse disorder">Colony Collapse Disorder</a> Progress Report it can be traced to factors such as pollution, pesticides, and pathogens from evidences found in areas of the colonies affected and the colonies themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pollution and pesticides are detrimental to the health of the bees and their colonies as the bees' ability to pollinate and return to their colonies are great greatly compromised.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, California's Central Valley is determined by the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> as the location of country's worst <a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">air pollution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Almond pollinating bees, approximately 60% of the bees in the US as mentioned above, will be mixed with bees from thousands of other hives provided by different beekeepers, making them exponentially susceptible to diseases and <a href="/wiki/Varroa_destructor" title="Varroa destructor">mites</a> that any of them could be carrying.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_89-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The deaths do not stop at commercial honeybees as there is evidence of significant pathogen spillover to other pollinators including wild bumble bees, infecting up to 35-100% of wild bees within 2 km radius of commercial pollination.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The negative <a href="/wiki/Externality" title="Externality">externality</a> of private pollination services is the decline of biodiversity through the deaths of commercial and wild bees. </p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_almond_pollination_share.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/US_almond_pollination_share.png/220px-US_almond_pollination_share.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/US_almond_pollination_share.png/330px-US_almond_pollination_share.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/US_almond_pollination_share.png/440px-US_almond_pollination_share.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="346" /></a><figcaption>The graph shows the average dollar amount per colonies received by beekeepers depending on the pollinated crop.</figcaption></figure><p>Despite losing about a third of their workforce every year, beekeepers continue to rent out their bees to almond farms due to the high pay from the almond industry. In 2016, a colony rented out for almond pollination gave beekeepers an income of $165 per colony rented, around three times from average of other crops that use the pollination rental service.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, a recent study published in Oxford Academic's Journal of Economic <a href="/wiki/Entomology" title="Entomology">Entomology</a> found that once the costs for maintaining bees specifically for almond pollination, including <a href="/wiki/Overwintering" title="Overwintering">overwintering</a>, summer management, and the replacement dying bees are considered, almond pollination is barely or not profitable for average beekeepers.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollination&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Pollination_Initiative" title="Canadian Pollination Initiative">Canadian Pollination Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheating_(biology)" title="Cheating (biology)">Cheating (biology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_color_change" title="Floral color change">Floral color change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollinator-mediated_selection" title="Pollinator-mediated selection">Pollinator-mediated selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fruit_tree_pollination" title="Fruit tree pollination">Fruit tree pollination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand-pollination" title="Hand-pollination">Hand-pollination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Knuth" title="Paul Knuth">Paul Knuth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_M%C3%BCller_(German_botanist)" title="Hermann Müller (German botanist)">Hermann Müller (botanist)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproductive_morphology" title="Plant reproductive morphology">Plant reproductive morphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollen_DNA_barcoding" title="Pollen DNA barcoding">Pollen DNA barcoding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polli:Nation" title="Polli:Nation">Polli:Nation</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollination&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-03-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Life+in+San+Joaquin+valley%2C+the+place+with+the+worst+air+pollution+in+America&rft.date=2016-05-13&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft.aulast=Carroll&rft.aufirst=Rory&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fus-news%2F2016%2Fmay%2F13%2Fcalifornia-san-joaquin-valley-porterville-pollution-poverty&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APollination" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOtterstatterThomson2008" class="citation journal cs1">Otterstatter MC, Thomson JD (July 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2464710">"Does pathogen spillover from commercially reared bumble bees threaten wild pollinators?"</a>. <i>PLOS ONE</i>. <b>3</b> (7): e2771. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008PLoSO...3.2771O">2008PLoSO...3.2771O</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0002771">10.1371/journal.pone.0002771</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2464710">2464710</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18648661">18648661</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=Does+pathogen+spillover+from+commercially+reared+bumble+bees+threaten+wild+pollinators%3F&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=e2771&rft.date=2008-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2464710%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18648661&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0002771&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008PLoSO...3.2771O&rft.aulast=Otterstatter&rft.aufirst=MC&rft.au=Thomson%2C+JD&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2464710&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APollination" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/amber-waves/2018/july/driven-by-almonds-pollination-services-now-exceed-honey-as-a-source-of-beekeeper-revenue/">"USDA ERS - Driven by Almonds, Pollination Services Now Exceed Honey as a Source of Beekeeper Revenue"</a>. <i>www.ers.usda.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-03-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ers.usda.gov&rft.atitle=USDA+ERS+-+Driven+by+Almonds%2C+Pollination+Services+Now+Exceed+Honey+as+a+Source+of+Beekeeper+Revenue&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ers.usda.gov%2Famber-waves%2F2018%2Fjuly%2Fdriven-by-almonds-pollination-services-now-exceed-honey-as-a-source-of-beekeeper-revenue%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APollination" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDegrandi-HoffmanGrahamAhumadaSmart2019" class="citation journal cs1">Degrandi-Hoffman G, Graham H, Ahumada F, Smart M, Ziolkowski N (December 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjee%2Ftoz213">"The Economics of Honey Bee (Hymenoptera: Apidae) Management and Overwintering Strategies for Colonies Used to Pollinate Almonds"</a>. <i>Journal of Economic Entomology</i>. <b>112</b> (6): 2524–2533. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjee%2Ftoz213">10.1093/jee/toz213</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31504631">31504631</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Economic+Entomology&rft.atitle=The+Economics+of+Honey+Bee+%28Hymenoptera%3A+Apidae%29+Management+and+Overwintering+Strategies+for+Colonies+Used+to+Pollinate+Almonds&rft.volume=112&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=2524-2533&rft.date=2019-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjee%2Ftoz213&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31504631&rft.aulast=Degrandi-Hoffman&rft.aufirst=G&rft.au=Graham%2C+H&rft.au=Ahumada%2C+F&rft.au=Smart%2C+M&rft.au=Ziolkowski%2C+N&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fjee%252Ftoz213&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APollination" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollination&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrepetFriisNixon1991" class="citation journal cs1">Crepet WL, Friis EM, Nixon KC (1991). "Fossil evidence for the evolution of biotic pollination [and discussion]". <i>Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences</i>. <b>333</b> (1267): 187–195. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.1991.0067">10.1098/rstb.1991.0067</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions%3A+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=Fossil+evidence+for+the+evolution+of+biotic+pollination+%5Band+discussion%5D.&rft.volume=333&rft.issue=1267&rft.pages=187-195&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstb.1991.0067&rft.aulast=Crepet&rft.aufirst=WL&rft.au=Friis%2C+EM&rft.au=Nixon%2C+KC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APollination" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDafniKevanHusband2005" class="citation book cs1">Dafni A, Kevan PG, Husband BC (2005). <i>Practical Pollination Biology</i>. Enviroquest, Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9680123-0-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9680123-0-7"><bdi>978-0-9680123-0-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Practical+Pollination+Biology&rft.pub=Enviroquest%2C+Ltd.&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-9680123-0-7&rft.aulast=Dafni&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Kevan%2C+PG&rft.au=Husband%2C+BC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APollination" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLabandeiraKvacekMostovski2007" class="citation journal cs1">Labandeira CC, Kvacek J, Mostovski MB (2007). "Pollination drops, pollen and insect pollination of Mesozoic gymnosperms". <i><a href="/wiki/Taxon_(journal)" title="Taxon (journal)">Taxon</a></i>. <b>56</b> (3): 663–695. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F25065852">10.2307/25065852</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25065852">25065852</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Taxon&rft.atitle=Pollination+drops%2C+pollen+and+insect+pollination+of+Mesozoic+gymnosperms.&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=663-695&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F25065852&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25065852%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Labandeira&rft.aufirst=CC&rft.au=Kvacek%2C+J&rft.au=Mostovski%2C+MB&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APollination" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSihag1997" class="citation book cs1">Sihag RC (1997). <i>Pollination Biology: Basic and Applied Principles</i>. Hisar: Rajendra Scientific Publishers. p. 210.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pollination+Biology%3A+Basic+and+Applied+Principles.&rft.place=Hisar&rft.pages=210&rft.pub=Rajendra+Scientific+Publishers&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Sihag&rft.aufirst=RC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APollination" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollination&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalker2020" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Walker_(botanist)" title="Timothy Walker (botanist)">Walker, Timothy</a> (6 October 2020). <i>Pollination: The Enduring Relationship Between Plant and Pollinator</i>. Princeton University Press. pp. 1–224. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780691203751" title="Special:BookSources/9780691203751"><bdi>9780691203751</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pollination%3A+The+Enduring+Relationship+Between+Plant+and+Pollinator&rft.pages=1-224&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2020-10-06&rft.isbn=9780691203751&rft.aulast=Walker&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APollination" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pollination&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/pollination" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/pollination">pollination</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Pollination" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Pollination">Pollination</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nas-sites.org/pollinators/">Resources on Pollinators</a> from the <a href="/wiki/National_Academies" class="mw-redirect" title="National Academies">National Academies</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pollinator.com">The Pollination Home page</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hydroponicsonline.com/blog/hydroponic-pollination-blue-bottle-flies">Pollination in Hydroponics</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110224205808/http://www.cas.vanderbilt.edu/bioimages/pages/pollination.htm">Pollination syndromes images at bioimages.vanderbilt.edu</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pollination"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Pollination">"Pollination" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i> (11th ed.). 1911.</cite><span 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.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pollination" style="padding:3px"><table 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class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeobotany">Archaeobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobotany" title="Astrobotany">Astrobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryology" title="Bryology">Bryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnobotany" title="Ethnobotany">Ethnobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleobotany" title="Paleobotany">Paleobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytochemistry" title="Phytochemistry">Phytochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytogeography" title="Phytogeography">Phytogeography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geobotanical_prospecting" title="Geobotanical prospecting">Geobotany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">Plant anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">Plant ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_pathology" title="Plant pathology">Plant pathology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a> groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">Algae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeplastida" title="Archaeplastida">Archaeplastida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryophyte" title="Bryophyte">Bryophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-vascular_plant" title="Non-vascular plant">Non-vascular plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">Vascular plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">Fern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycophyte" title="Lycophyte">Lycophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spermatophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Spermatophyte">Spermatophytes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">Gymnosperm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">Angiosperm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">Plant anatomy</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_morphology" title="Plant morphology">Plant morphology</a><br /><span class="nobold">(<a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_plant_morphology" title="Glossary of plant morphology">glossary</a>)</span></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_cell" title="Plant cell">Plant cells</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cell_wall" title="Cell wall">Cell wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phragmoplast" title="Phragmoplast">Phragmoplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastid" title="Plastid">Plastid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmodesma" title="Plasmodesma">Plasmodesma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuole" title="Vacuole">Vacuole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">Tissues</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cork_cambium" title="Cork cambium">Cork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_tissue" title="Ground tissue">Ground tissue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leaf#Mesophyll" title="Leaf">Mesophyll</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meristem" title="Meristem">Meristem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_organ" title="Storage organ">Storage organs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_tissue" title="Vascular tissue">Vascular tissue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_bundle" title="Vascular bundle">Vascular bundle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">Wood</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%">Vegetative</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bulb" title="Bulb">Bulb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizoid" title="Rhizoid">Rhizoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizome" title="Rhizome">Rhizome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoot_(botany)" title="Shoot (botany)">Shoot</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bud" title="Bud">Bud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">Leaf</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cataphyll" title="Cataphyll">Cataphyll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petiole_(botany)" title="Petiole (botany)">Petiole</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sessility_(botany)" title="Sessility (botany)">Sessility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_stem" title="Plant stem">Stem</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproductive_morphology" title="Plant reproductive morphology">Reproductive</a><br />(incl. Flower)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archegonium" title="Archegonium">Archegonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antheridium" title="Antheridium">Antheridium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">Androecium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">Pollen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">Stamen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anther" class="mw-redirect" title="Anther">Anther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen#Morphology_and_terminology" title="Stamen">Filament</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staminode" title="Staminode">Staminode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapetum_(botany)" title="Tapetum (botany)">Tapetum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">Flower</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aestivation_(botany)" title="Aestivation (botany)">Aestivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ABC_model_of_flower_development" title="ABC model of flower development">Flower development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_diagram" title="Floral diagram">Floral diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_formula" title="Floral formula">Floral formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_symmetry" title="Floral symmetry">Floral symmetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whorl_(botany)" title="Whorl (botany)">Whorl</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">Fruit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fruit_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Fruit anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berry_(botany)" title="Berry (botany)">Berry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capsule_(fruit)" title="Capsule (fruit)">Capsule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nut_(fruit)" title="Nut (fruit)">Nut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrena" title="Pyrena">Pyrena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seed" title="Seed">Seed</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seed_dispersal" title="Seed dispersal">Dispersal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endosperm" title="Endosperm">Endosperm</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">Gametophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Column_(botany)" title="Column (botany)">Gynandrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynoecium" title="Gynoecium">Gynoecium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carpel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpel">Carpel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ovary_(botany)" title="Ovary (botany)">Ovary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Locule" title="Locule">Locule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovule" title="Ovule">Ovule</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stigma_(botany)" title="Stigma (botany)">Stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Style_(botany)" title="Style (botany)">Style</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypanthium" title="Hypanthium">Hypanthium (Floral cup)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflorescence" title="Inflorescence">Inflorescence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bract" title="Bract">Bract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedicel_(botany)" title="Pedicel (botany)">Pedicellate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raceme" title="Raceme">Raceme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbel" title="Umbel">Umbel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perianth" title="Perianth">Perianth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tepal" title="Tepal">Tepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petal" title="Petal">Petal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sepal" title="Sepal">Sepal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryo#Plant_embryos" title="Embryo">Plant embryo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Receptacle_(botany)" title="Receptacle (botany)">Receptacle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporophyll" title="Sporophyll">Sporophyll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporophyte" title="Sporophyte">Sporophyte</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%">Surface structures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_cuticle" title="Plant cuticle">Cuticle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicuticular_wax" title="Epicuticular wax">Epicuticular wax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(botany)" title="Epidermis (botany)">Epidermis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nectar" title="Nectar">Nectar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoma" title="Stoma">Stoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorns,_spines,_and_prickles" title="Thorns, spines, and prickles">Thorns, spines, and prickles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trichome" title="Trichome">Trichome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">Plant physiology</a><br />Materials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleurone" title="Aleurone">Aleurone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apical_dominance" title="Apical dominance">Apical dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulk_movement" title="Bulk movement">Bulk flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">Cellulose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_nutrition" title="Plant nutrition">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">Chlorophyll</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytomelanin" title="Phytomelanin">Phytomelanin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_hormone" title="Plant hormone">Plant hormones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system#Plants" title="Respiratory system">Respiration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_exchange#Plants" title="Gas exchange">Gas Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">Cellular respiration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sap" title="Sap">Sap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">Starch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">Sugar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transpiration" title="Transpiration">Transpiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turgor_pressure" title="Turgor pressure">Turgor pressure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%">Plant growth<br />and habit</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habit_(biology)#Structure" title="Habit (biology)">Habit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cushion_plant" title="Cushion plant">Cushion plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosette_(botany)" title="Rosette (botany)">Rosettes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shrub" title="Shrub">Shrubs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prostrate_shrub" title="Prostrate shrub">Prostrate shrubs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subshrub" title="Subshrub">Subshrubs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succulent_plant" title="Succulent plant">Succulent plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree" title="Tree">Trees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vine" title="Vine">Vines</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liana" title="Liana">Lianas</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbaceous_plant" title="Herbaceous plant">Herbaceous plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_growth" title="Secondary growth">Secondary growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woody_plant" title="Woody plant">Woody plants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproduction" title="Plant reproduction">Reproduction</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_evolution" title="Plant evolution">Evolution</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">Ecology</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternation_of_generations" title="Alternation of generations">Alternation of generations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_fertilization" title="Double fertilization">Double fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Plant evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Evolutionary history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_plant_evolution" title="Timeline of plant evolution">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora" title="Flora">Flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germination" title="Germination">Germination</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Pollination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_pollination" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial pollination">Artificial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollinator" title="Pollinator">Pollinators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollen_tube" title="Pollen tube">Pollen tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-pollination" title="Self-pollination">Self</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporangium" title="Sporangium">Sporangium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microsporangia" class="mw-redirect" title="Microsporangia">Microsporangia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microspore" title="Microspore">Microspore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporangium" title="Sporangium">Megasporangium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megaspore" title="Megaspore">Megaspore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">Spore</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_taxonomy" title="Plant taxonomy">Plant taxonomy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Biological classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_nomenclature" title="Botanical nomenclature">Botanical nomenclature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_name" title="Botanical name">Botanical name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correct_name" title="Correct name">Correct name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Author_citation_(botany)" title="Author citation (botany)">Author citation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_algae,_fungi,_and_plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants">International Code of Nomenclature (ICN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_Cultivated_Plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants">ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultivated_plant_taxonomy" title="Cultivated plant taxonomy">Cultivated plant taxonomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Citrus_taxonomy" title="Citrus taxonomy">Citrus taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultigen" title="Cultigen">Cultigen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultivar" title="Cultivar">Cultivar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultivar_group" title="Cultivar group">Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grex_(horticulture)" title="Grex (horticulture)">Grex</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_plant_systematics" title="History of plant systematics">History of plant systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbarium" title="Herbarium">Herbarium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_for_Plant_Taxonomy" title="International Association for Plant Taxonomy">International Association for Plant Taxonomy</a> (IAPT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_systems_of_plant_taxonomy" title="List of systems of plant taxonomy">Plant taxonomy systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">Taxonomic rank</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%">Practice</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floriculture" title="Floriculture">Floriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">Horticulture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytochemical" title="Phytochemical">Phytochemical</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Lists</li><li>Related topics</li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_botanical_terms" title="Glossary of botanical terms">Botanical terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_botanists" title="List of botanists">Botanists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_botanists_by_author_abbreviation_(W%E2%80%93Z)" title="List of botanists by author abbreviation (W–Z)">by author abbreviation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_expeditions" title="Botanical expeditions">Botanical expeditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_individual_trees" title="List of individual trees">Individual trees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_plants" title="Lists of plants">Plants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #C3EEC3;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" 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