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href="#Utdanning_og_forskningsarbeid"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Utdanning og forskningsarbeid</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Utdanning_og_forskningsarbeid-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Vis/skjul underseksjonen Utdanning og forskningsarbeid</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Utdanning_og_forskningsarbeid-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tyskland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tyskland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Tyskland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tyskland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Til_Storbritannia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Til_Storbritannia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Til Storbritannia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Til_Storbritannia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Filosofi_og_vitenskapsteori" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Filosofi_og_vitenskapsteori"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Filosofi og vitenskapsteori</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Filosofi_og_vitenskapsteori-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Utmerkelser" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Utmerkelser"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Utmerkelser</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Utmerkelser-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Publikasjoner" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Publikasjoner"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Publikasjoner</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Publikasjoner-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Vis/skjul underseksjonen Publikasjoner</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Publikasjoner-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bøker_(utvalg)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bøker_(utvalg)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Bøker (utvalg)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bøker_(utvalg)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Artikler_(utvalg)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Artikler_(utvalg)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Artikler (utvalg)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Artikler_(utvalg)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Se_også" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Se_også"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Se også</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Se_også-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Referanser" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Referanser"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Referanser</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Referanser-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eksterne_lenker" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eksterne_lenker"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Eksterne lenker</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eksterne_lenker-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Innhold" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Innholdsfortegnelse" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Vis/skjul innholdsfortegnelsen" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Vis/skjul innholdsfortegnelsen</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Michael Polanyi</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Gå til en artikkel på et annet språk. Tilgjengelig på 35 språk" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-35" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">35 språk</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi – svensk" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Michael Polanyi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="svensk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi – afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Michael Polanyi" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%84_%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A" title="مايكل بولاني – arabisk" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مايكل بولاني" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="arabisk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BF" title="মাইকেল পোলান্যি – bengali" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মাইকেল পোলান্যি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="bengali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BA%D0%BB_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96" title="Майкл Полані – belarusisk" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Майкл Полані" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="belarusisk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi – katalansk" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Michael Polanyi" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="katalansk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi – tsjekkisk" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Michael Polanyi" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="tsjekkisk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi – tysk" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Michael Polanyi" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="tysk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi – estisk" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Michael Polanyi" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="estisk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi – engelsk" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Michael Polanyi" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="engelsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi – spansk" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Michael Polanyi" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="spansk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mih%C3%A1ly_Pol%C3%A1nyi" title="Mihály Polányi – esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Mihály Polányi" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%84_%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="مایکل پولانی – persisk" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مایکل پولانی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="persisk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi – fransk" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Michael Polanyi" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="fransk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi – irsk" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Michael Polanyi" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="irsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A7%88%EC%9D%B4%ED%81%B4_%ED%8F%B4%EB%9D%BC%EB%8B%88" title="마이클 폴라니 – koreansk" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="마이클 폴라니" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="koreansk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%80" title="माइकेल पोलान्यी – hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="माइकेल पोलान्यी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi – kroatisk" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Michael Polanyi" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="kroatisk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi – indonesisk" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Michael Polanyi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="indonesisk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi – italiensk" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Michael Polanyi" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="italiensk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%9C_%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%99" title="מייקל פולאני – hebraisk" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מייקל פולאני" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="hebraisk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi – latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Michael Polanyi" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pol%C3%A1nyi_Mih%C3%A1ly" title="Polányi Mihály – ungarsk" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Polányi Mihály" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="ungarsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%84_%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%89" title="مايكل بولانى – egyptisk arabisk" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="مايكل بولانى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="egyptisk arabisk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi – nederlandsk" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Michael Polanyi" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="nederlandsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%9E%E3%82%A4%E3%82%B1%E3%83%AB%E3%83%BB%E3%83%9D%E3%83%A9%E3%83%B3%E3%83%8B%E3%83%BC" title="マイケル・ポランニー – japansk" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="マイケル・ポランニー" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="japansk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi – polsk" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Michael Polanyi" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="polsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi – portugisisk" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Michael Polanyi" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="portugisisk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8,_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BA%D0%BB" title="Полани, Майкл – russisk" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Полани, Майкл" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="russisk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi – slovakisk" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Michael Polanyi" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="slovakisk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi – slovensk" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Michael Polanyi" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="slovensk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi – finsk" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Michael Polanyi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="finsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi – tyrkisk" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Michael Polanyi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="tyrkisk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BA%D0%BB_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8C%D1%97" title="Майкл Поланьї – ukrainsk" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Майкл Поланьї" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="ukrainsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%BF%88%E5%85%8B%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E6%B3%A2%E5%85%B0%E5%B0%BC" title="迈克尔·波兰尼 – kinesisk" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="迈克尔·波兰尼" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="kinesisk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q163087#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Rediger lenker til artikkelen på andre språk" class="wbc-editpage">Rediger lenker</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Navnerom"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Vis innholdssiden [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Artikkel</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Diskusjon:Michael_Polanyi" rel="discussion" 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1em;background-color:#f9f9f9;color:black;vertical-align:top;text-align:left;font-size:88%}.mw-parser-output table.infoboks tr.overskrift th{text-align:center;font-weight:bold;font-size:larger;border:none}.mw-parser-output table.infoboks tr.bilde td{background-color:#fff;color:black;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;border:none}.mw-parser-output table.infoboks th{border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;text-align:center;padding-left:3px;padding-right:3px;padding-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output table.infoboks td{background-color:#efefef;color:black;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;margin:0;padding:3px}.mw-parser-output table.infoboks tr.custom td{background:none;border:none}.mw-parser-output table.infoboks tr.rad th{text-align:left;font-weight:bold;border:none;padding-left:3px;padding-right:3px;padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.1em}.mw-parser-output table.infoboks tr.rad td{text-align:left;font-weight:normal;border:none;padding-left:3px;padding-right:3px;padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.1em;background-color:#f9f9f9}.mw-parser-output table.infoboks tr.rad td.center{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output table.infoboks tr.rad td.headercenter{text-align:center;font-weight:bold;border:none;padding-left:0px;padding-right:0px;padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.1em;background-color:#f9f9f9}.mw-parser-output table.infoboks tr.hode th{padding-left:0px;padding-right:0px;padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.1em}.mw-parser-output table.infoboks tr.bilde td{text-align:center;font-weight:normal;border:none;padding-left:3px;padding-right:3px;padding-top:0;padding-bottom:0;background-color:#f9f9f9}.mw-parser-output table.infoboks tr.overskrift td{text-align:center;font-weight:bold;background-color:#eee;border:none;padding-left:0px;padding-right:0px;padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.1em}.mw-parser-output .infoboks.geografi tr.overskrift th{background-color:#f9f9f9;color:black}.mw-parser-output .infoboks.biografi tr.overskrift th{background-color:#f9f9f9;color:black}.mw-parser-output .infoboks.transport tr.overskrift th{background-color:#f9f9f9;color:black}.mw-parser-output .infoboks.bygning tr.overskrift th{background-color:#f9f9f9;color:black}.mw-parser-output .infoboks.infrastruktur tr.overskrift th{background-color:#f9f9f9;color:black}.mw-parser-output .infoboks.bred tr.overskrift td{font-size:larger}.mw-parser-output .infoboks.ekstrabred tr.overskrift td{font-size:larger}.mw-parser-output .infoboks.bordered tr.rad th{border-bottom:1px solid #ccc}.mw-parser-output .infoboks.bordered tr.rad td{border-bottom:1px solid #ccc}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r24884810" /><table class="infobox infoboks biografi fastbredde"><tbody><tr class="hode overskrift"><th colspan="4">Michael Polanyi</th></tr> <tr class="bilde" valign="top"><td colspan="4" class="sentrert"><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/Fil:Michael_Polanyi.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Michael_Polanyi.png/250px-Michael_Polanyi.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="410" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Michael_Polanyi.png 1.5x" data-file-width="252" data-file-height="413" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></td></tr> <tr class="rad"><th colspan="2"><span class="edit-props-marker edit-props-P1477 edit-props-P569 edit-props-P19">Født</span></th><td colspan="2"><span><span><span lang="hu">Pollacsek Mihály</span></span></span><br /><span><a href="/wiki/11._mars" title="11. mars">11. mars</a> <a href="/wiki/1891" title="1891">1891</a></span><sup id="cite_ref-hash-00cee5166aafc6650abeb75e8ece2ab43276cd0a_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hash-00cee5166aafc6650abeb75e8ece2ab43276cd0a-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><span class="wb-edithandle" data-bridge-edit-flow="single-best-value"><span class="mw-valign-text-top" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q163087?uselang=nb#P569" title="Rediger på Wikidata"><img alt="Rediger på Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Budapest" title="Budapest">Budapest</a><sup id="cite_ref-hash-332d162d365fc309135025684aa893bfe39caf21_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hash-332d162d365fc309135025684aa893bfe39caf21-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr class="rad"><th colspan="2"><span class="edit-props-marker edit-props-P570 edit-props-P20 edit-props-P509">Død</span></th><td colspan="2"><span><a href="/wiki/22._februar" title="22. februar">22. feb.</a> <a href="/wiki/1976" title="1976">1976</a></span><sup id="cite_ref-hash-274565d7568c32a4ecb6b04d940e94ee9bcb90b8_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hash-274565d7568c32a4ecb6b04d940e94ee9bcb90b8-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hash-00cee5166aafc6650abeb75e8ece2ab43276cd0a_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hash-00cee5166aafc6650abeb75e8ece2ab43276cd0a-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hash-81591a4b3cc3c58205e616785f8047f4eb4ca451_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hash-81591a4b3cc3c58205e616785f8047f4eb4ca451-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hash-7c012b129f0bec57f627f316c115cf816270b64c_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hash-7c012b129f0bec57f627f316c115cf816270b64c-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><span class="wb-edithandle" data-bridge-edit-flow="single-best-value"><span class="mw-valign-text-top" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q163087?uselang=nb#P570" title="Rediger på Wikidata"><img alt="Rediger på Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></span> (84 år)<br /><a href="/wiki/Northampton" title="Northampton">Northampton</a><sup id="cite_ref-hash-c2970044d446c90bd046873b0e51f27e8867aaa1_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hash-c2970044d446c90bd046873b0e51f27e8867aaa1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr class="rad"><th colspan="2">Beskjeftigelse</th><td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Filosof" class="mw-redirect" title="Filosof">Filosof</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C3%98konom" title="Økonom">samfunnsøkonom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kjemiker" title="Kjemiker">kjemiker</a> <span class="penicon autoconfirmed-show"><span class="mw-valign-text-top" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q163087?uselang=nb#P106" title="Rediger på Wikidata"><img alt="Rediger på Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></span></td></tr><tr class="rad"><th colspan="2">Embete</th><td colspan="2"><ul style="list-style:none none; padding:0px; margin:0px"><li>President (1944–1946) <span class="penicon autoconfirmed-show"><span class="mw-valign-text-top" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q163087?uselang=nb#P39" title="Rediger på Wikidata"><img alt="Rediger på Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></span></li></ul></td></tr><tr class="rad" valign="top"><th colspan="2" class="nowrap">Utdannet ved</th><td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Universitetet_i_Budapest" title="Universitetet i Budapest">Eötvös Loránd-universitetet</a> (–<span title="sluttdato: 1914">1914</span>) (akademisk grad: dr.med.)<sup id="cite_ref-hash-abc3ab9e5345d58a9f38e5c9f88efa055ad97908_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hash-abc3ab9e5345d58a9f38e5c9f88efa055ad97908-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /><a href="/wiki/Universitetet_i_Budapest" title="Universitetet i Budapest">Eötvös Loránd-universitetet</a> (–<span title="sluttdato: 1917">1917</span>) (akademisk grad: <a href="/wiki/Filosofisk_doktorgrad" title="Filosofisk doktorgrad">ph.d.</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-hash-abc3ab9e5345d58a9f38e5c9f88efa055ad97908_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hash-abc3ab9e5345d58a9f38e5c9f88efa055ad97908-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr class="rad" valign="top"><th colspan="2" class="nowrap">Doktorgrads-<br />veileder</th><td colspan="2">Gusztáv Buchböck (<span title="tidspunkt: 1917">1917</span>)<sup id="cite_ref-hash-3f945a6d2dddb456af5ad6e21af753cc4e1969ef_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hash-3f945a6d2dddb456af5ad6e21af753cc4e1969ef-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr class="rad" valign="top"><th colspan="2" class="nowrap">Mor</th><td colspan="2">Cecília Wohl</td></tr><tr class="rad" valign="top"><th colspan="2" class="nowrap">Søsken</th><td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Karl Polanyi</a><br />Laura Striker</td></tr><tr class="rad" valign="top"><th colspan="2" class="nowrap">Barn</th><td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/John_Charles_Polanyi" title="John Charles Polanyi">John Charles Polanyi</a></td></tr><tr class="rad" valign="top"><th colspan="2" class="nowrap">Nasjonalitet</th><td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ungarn" title="Ungarn">Ungarn</a> (–<span title="sluttdato: 1919">1919</span>)<sup id="cite_ref-hash-44c64bdbaa2236573a134fcfc737160aeeb5d482_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hash-44c64bdbaa2236573a134fcfc737160aeeb5d482-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /><a href="/wiki/Storbritannia" title="Storbritannia">Storbritannia</a> (<span title="startdato: 1939">1939</span>–)<sup id="cite_ref-hash-6f0de658f58f5936c292feea60ca8d3f9ac98382_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hash-6f0de658f58f5936c292feea60ca8d3f9ac98382-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /><a href="/wiki/%C3%98sterrike" title="Østerrike">Østerrike</a> (<span title="startdato: 1919">1919</span>–)<sup id="cite_ref-hash-6f20e02b3267e0803ec61357be550bb63d611db0_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hash-6f20e02b3267e0803ec61357be550bb63d611db0-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr class="rad" valign="top"><th colspan="2" class="nowrap">Medlem av</th><td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a><br />American Academy of Arts and Sciences<br />Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society</td></tr><tr class="rad"><td colspan="4"><hr /><div class="sentrert"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Michael_Polanyi" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Michael Polanyi">Michael Polanyi på Commons</a></div></td></tr> </tbody></table> <p><b>Michael Polányi</b> (1891–1976) var en <a href="/wiki/Storbritannia" title="Storbritannia">britisk</a> <a href="/wiki/Lege" title="Lege">lege</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kjemi" title="Kjemi">kjemiker</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vitenskapsteori" title="Vitenskapsteori">vitenskapsteoretiker</a> og <a href="/wiki/Filosofi" title="Filosofi">filosof</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Knepper_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knepper-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Polányi er særlig kjent for sin teori om <a href="/wiki/Taus_kunnskap" title="Taus kunnskap">taus kunnskap</a> (<i>tacit knowledge</i>) som han presenterte i sin bok <i>The tacit dimension</i> (1966). Hans faglige virke var preget av uvanlig bredde i <a href="/wiki/Naturvitenskap" title="Naturvitenskap">naturvitenskap</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samfunnsfag" title="Samfunnsfag">samfunnsfag</a> og <a href="/wiki/Filosofi" title="Filosofi">filosofi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wigner_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wigner-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hargittai_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hargittai-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Polányi mente at vitenskapen er et sosialt fellesskap styrt av normer og tradisjoner.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Polányi ble født og vokste opp i <a href="/wiki/%C3%98sterrike-Ungarn" title="Østerrike-Ungarn">Ungarn</a>, arbeidet en periode som forsker i <a href="/wiki/Tysklands_historie_(1918%E2%80%931933)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tysklands historie (1918–1933)">Tyskland</a> i <a href="/wiki/Mellomkrigstiden" title="Mellomkrigstiden">mellomkrigstiden</a> og utvandret på grunn av <a href="/wiki/Nasjonalsosialisme" title="Nasjonalsosialisme">nazistene</a> til <a href="/wiki/Storbritannia" title="Storbritannia">Storbritannia</a> i 1933.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Han tok avstand fra en del av den venstreorienterte tenkningen i akademia før og etter <a href="/wiki/Andre_verdenskrig" title="Andre verdenskrig">andre verdenskrig</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To av Polányis medarbeidere, <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Eugene Wigner</a> (som doktorstudent) og <a href="/wiki/Melvin_Calvin" title="Melvin Calvin">Melvin Calvin</a> (som <a href="/wiki/Postdoktor" title="Postdoktor">postdoktor</a>), og Polányis sønn <a href="/wiki/John_Charles_Polanyi" title="John Charles Polanyi">John Charles Polanyi</a> ble tildelt <a href="/wiki/Nobelprisen" title="Nobelprisen">nobelprisen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hargittai2023_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hargittai2023-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:9_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Liv_og_familie">Liv og familie</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_Polanyi&veaction=edit&section=1" title="Rediger avsnitt: Liv og familie" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>rediger</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_Polanyi&action=edit&section=1" title="Rediger kildekoden til seksjonen Liv og familie"><span>rediger kilde</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Michael Polányi ble født som Mihály Pollacsek 11. mars 1891 i <a href="/wiki/Budapest" title="Budapest">Budapest</a> som femte barnet til Mihály Pollacsek og Cecília Wohl som var sekulære jøder.<sup id="cite_ref-Knepper_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knepper-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:7_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Michael Polányi døde 22. februar 1976 i <a href="/wiki/Northampton" title="Northampton">Northampton</a>, Storbritannia.<sup id="cite_ref-Wigner_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wigner-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Friedrich_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedrich-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Han ble britisk statsborger i august 1939.<sup id="cite_ref-Nye2011_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nye2011-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fil:05640-Budapest-1904-Andrassy_Stra%C3%9Fe_mit_Pferdewagen-Br%C3%BCck_%26_Sohn_Kunstverlag.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/05640-Budapest-1904-Andrassy_Stra%C3%9Fe_mit_Pferdewagen-Br%C3%BCck_%26_Sohn_Kunstverlag.jpg/130px-05640-Budapest-1904-Andrassy_Stra%C3%9Fe_mit_Pferdewagen-Br%C3%BCck_%26_Sohn_Kunstverlag.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/05640-Budapest-1904-Andrassy_Stra%C3%9Fe_mit_Pferdewagen-Br%C3%BCck_%26_Sohn_Kunstverlag.jpg/195px-05640-Budapest-1904-Andrassy_Stra%C3%9Fe_mit_Pferdewagen-Br%C3%BCck_%26_Sohn_Kunstverlag.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/05640-Budapest-1904-Andrassy_Stra%C3%9Fe_mit_Pferdewagen-Br%C3%BCck_%26_Sohn_Kunstverlag.jpg/260px-05640-Budapest-1904-Andrassy_Stra%C3%9Fe_mit_Pferdewagen-Br%C3%BCck_%26_Sohn_Kunstverlag.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1274" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A1ssy_%C3%BAt" title="Andrássy út">Andrássy út</a> i 1904</figcaption></figure> <p>Faren Mihály kom fra <a href="/wiki/Uzjhorod" title="Uzjhorod">Ungvár</a> i <a href="/wiki/Karpato-Ruthenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Karpato-Ruthenia">Karpato-Ruthenia</a> den gangen en del av <a href="/wiki/Konged%C3%B8mmet_Ungarn" title="Kongedømmet Ungarn">Kongeriket Ungarn</a>. Morens familie kom fra <a href="/wiki/Vilnius" title="Vilnius">Vilnius</a> der hennes far var <a href="/wiki/Rabbiner" title="Rabbiner">rabbiner</a>. Foreldrene møttes i Wien og flyttet til Budapest før Michael ble født.<sup id="cite_ref-Hargittai2023_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hargittai2023-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cecílias far hadde sendt henne til Zürich og Wien for holde henne unna hennes russiske venner som var politisk aktive og risikerte arrestasjon.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Foreldrene giftet seg rundt 1880 og var relativt velstående, de hadde boliger både i Budapest og <a href="/wiki/Wien" title="Wien">Wien</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Familien bodde i elegant leilighet på fasjonable <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A1ssy_%C3%BAt" title="Andrássy út">Andrássy út</a> i Budapest til 1899.<sup id="cite_ref-Hargittai2023_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hargittai2023-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Omkring 5 % av Ungarns innbyggere var på den tiden jødiske og en stor del bodde i Budapest der de utgjorde over 20 % av byens innbyggere. Jødene i Ungarn var i stor grad assimilert i ungarsk kultur.<sup id="cite_ref-Friedrich_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedrich-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> I 1867 fikk jødene i <a href="/wiki/%C3%98sterrike-Ungarn" title="Østerrike-Ungarn">dobbelmonarkiet</a> fulle borgerretter og større muligheter til å delta i arbeids- og forretningsliv. I Ungarn ble ikke-<a href="/wiki/Madjarer" title="Madjarer">magyrarer</a> oppmuntret til å ta ungarsk-klingende etternavn.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Familien tilpasset navnet til ungarsk og Michael endret det til Polányi i desember 1919<sup id="cite_ref-Nye_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nye-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (noen kilder oppgir at faren endret etternavn for barna i 1904<sup id="cite_ref-Vezer_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vezer-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nye_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nye-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). “I am a Jew for purposes of persecution” (Jeg er jøde bare for at man skal kunne forfølge meg) kommenterte han som voksen.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fil:Homonnai_J%C3%B3zsef_Attila.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Homonnai_J%C3%B3zsef_Attila.jpg/250px-Homonnai_J%C3%B3zsef_Attila.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Homonnai_J%C3%B3zsef_Attila.jpg/330px-Homonnai_J%C3%B3zsef_Attila.jpg 2x" data-file-width="548" data-file-height="755" /></a><figcaption>Attila József var en ledend dikter i Ungarn.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Faren Mihály var utdannet ingeniør ved <a href="/wiki/Eidgen%C3%B6ssische_Technische_Hochschule_Z%C3%BCrich" title="Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich">ETH</a> i <a href="/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich" title="Zürich">Zürich</a> og gjorde det godt som forretningsmann innenfor jernbane. Han anla omkring 1000 km jernbane i Ungarn og gikk konkurs i 1900. Faren mistet da det meste av sin formue og da faren døde i 1905 ble familiens økonomiske situasjon ytterligere forverret. Moren forble sentrum i en krets av intellektuelle og kunstnere; morens interesse for sosiale og intellektuelle tema betydelig innflytelse på den unge Michael. Hans fire eldre søsken (to brødre og to søstre) utmerket seg på ulike områder.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_25-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wigner_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wigner-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> En søster døde i konsentrasjonsleir under <a href="/wiki/Holocaust" title="Holocaust">holocaust</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Moren hadde en bred omgangskrets og før 1919 inkluderte denne blant andre <a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">György Lukács</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=B%C3%A9la_Bal%C3%A1zs&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Béla Balázs (ikke skrevet ennå)">Béla Balázs</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Oszk%C3%A1r_J%C3%A1szi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Oszkár Jászi (ikke skrevet ennå)">Oszkár Jászi</a> og <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ervin_Szab%C3%B3&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ervin Szabó (ikke skrevet ennå)">Ervin Szabó</a>, i 1920- og 1930-årene blant andre <a href="/w/index.php?title=Attila_J%C3%B3zsef&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Attila József (ikke skrevet ennå)">Attila József</a> (en ledende ungarsk forfatter) og <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gyula_Illy%C3%A9s&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gyula Illyés (ikke skrevet ennå)">Gyula Illyés</a>. Moren døde i 1939 rett før utbruddet av <a href="/wiki/Andre_verdenskrig" title="Andre verdenskrig">andre verdenskrig</a> og alle hennes barn var da i eksil.<sup id="cite_ref-Vezer_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vezer-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Michael etablerte Galilei-kretsen der broren Karl var president. Til forskjell fra Karl var Michael skeptisk til sosialistiske ideer. Michael var kjent for sin evne til fri tenkning.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oppveksten i Budapest var preget av et liberal og kosmopolitisk miljø.<sup id="cite_ref-Nye2011_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nye2011-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> I Budapest møtte han og broren Karl blant andre <a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">Georg Lukács</a> and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Mannheim" title="Karl Mannheim">Karl Mannheim</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> I 1917, på bakgrunn av den pågående verdenskrigen, tok han til orde for å avskaffe de europeiske statene og erstatte med et felles lovbasert system.<sup id="cite_ref-Friedrich_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedrich-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Broren <a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Karl Polanyi</a> ble en fremstående økonom.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ekteskap_og_konvertering">Ekteskap og konvertering</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_Polanyi&veaction=edit&section=2" title="Rediger avsnitt: Ekteskap og konvertering" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>rediger</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_Polanyi&action=edit&section=2" title="Rediger kildekoden til seksjonen Ekteskap og konvertering"><span>rediger kilde</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Via sin onkel Karl i Wien skaffet han seg attest på at han var døpt <a href="/wiki/Den_katolske_kirke" title="Den katolske kirke">katolikk</a>. Han konverterte han og ble døpt i oktober 1919 før han flyttet til Tyskland.<sup id="cite_ref-Knepper_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knepper-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:7_21-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Etter første verdenskrig skaffet han seg østerriksk statsborgerskap. Han ønsket å være oppført som kristen i sitt nye østerrikske pass.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_21-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:8_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> I 1921 giftet han seg <a href="/wiki/Borgerlig_vigsel" title="Borgerlig vigsel">borgerlig</a> med den ungarske kjemistudenten Magda Elizabeth Kemeny (som han møtte i Karlsruhe). Magda var oppdratt som katolikk.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_21-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nye_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nye-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:5_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wigner_16-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wigner-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Deres første sønn Georg ble født i 1922, han ble økonom. Sønnene hans ble døpt som katolikker. Han argumenterte for at de europeiske jødene burde "følge ham ut av gettoen"<sup id="cite_ref-:7_21-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> og mente <a href="/wiki/Sionisme" title="Sionisme">sinoismen</a> var bakstreversk.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Da nazistene overtok makten i 1933 reiste Polányi til <a href="/wiki/Manchester_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Manchester University">Manchester University</a><sup id="cite_ref-:0_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> som opprettet en stilling for ham.<sup class="Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Hjelp:Trenger_referanse" title="Hjelp:Trenger referanse"><span title="Foregående påstand trenger referanse">trenger referanse</span></a></i>]</sup> Han ble britisk statsborger i 1939 rett før andre verdenskrig begynte og unngikk dermed internering.<sup id="cite_ref-Nye_28-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nye-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:5_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sønnen <a href="/wiki/John_Charles_Polanyi" title="John Charles Polanyi">John Charles Polanyi</a> (født 1929) ble professor kjemi og tildelt <a href="/wiki/Nobelprisen_i_kjemi" title="Nobelprisen i kjemi">nobelprisen i kjemi</a> i 1986.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Polanyi vokste opp i et sekulært miljø blant jødiske familier i <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A1ssy_%C3%BAt" title="Andrássy út">Andrássy út</a>, Budapest. Han gikk ikke på jødisk skole, ba ikke i <a href="/wiki/Synagoge" title="Synagoge">synagogen</a>, lærte ikke hebraisk og hadde ikke <a href="/wiki/Bar_mitzvah" class="mw-redirect" title="Bar mitzvah">bar mitzvah</a>. Uten jødisk utdanning hadde han liten kjennskap til jødisk kultur og forestilte seg jødedommen som bakstreversk og dominert av rabbinerne.<sup id="cite_ref-Knepper_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knepper-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Polányi fremsto som en troende person påvirket av kristendom, men identifiserte seg ikke med noe spesielt kirkesamfunn. Han var opptatt av grunnleggende verdier som sannhet, rettferdighet, frihet, hjelp til trengende og skjønnhet.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_15-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Utdanning_og_forskningsarbeid">Utdanning og forskningsarbeid</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_Polanyi&veaction=edit&section=3" title="Rediger avsnitt: Utdanning og forskningsarbeid" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>rediger</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_Polanyi&action=edit&section=3" title="Rediger kildekoden til seksjonen Utdanning og forskningsarbeid"><span>rediger kilde</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Hjemme lærte han og søskenene ungarsk, tysk og engelsk. Moren snakket tysk med barna. Michael og broren <a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Karl</a> gikk på Trefort elitegymnas i Budapest.<sup id="cite_ref-Friedrich_22-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedrich-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Vezer_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vezer-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Gymnasium" title="Gymnasium">Gymnaset</a> ble den gangen kalt «Minta Gimnázium» («Modellgymnaset») og hadde andre kjente elever som <a href="/wiki/Theodor_von_K%C3%A1rm%C3%A1n" title="Theodor von Kármán">Theodor von Kármán</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Lax" title="Peter Lax">Peter Lax</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a> og <a href="/wiki/Leo_Szilard" class="mw-redirect" title="Leo Szilard">Leo Szilard</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hargittai_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hargittai-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:8_15-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gymnaset la vekt på kreativitet fremfor flid og patriotisme.<sup id="cite_ref-Nye2011_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nye2011-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Han fullførte gymnaset i 1909 og begynte på universitetet i Budapest. Han fullførte medisinstudiet i 1914. Hans interesser var mer i grunnleggende vitenskap og han begynte å studere kjemi. Han skrev sin første vitenskapelige artikkel mens han var elev på gymnaset og han skrev en vitenskapelig artikkel om medisinsk tema da han var 19 år og fersk medisinstudent.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Friedrich_22-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedrich-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fil:Trefort_%C3%81goston_Gyakorl%C3%B3iskola.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Trefort_%C3%81goston_Gyakorl%C3%B3iskola.jpg/250px-Trefort_%C3%81goston_Gyakorl%C3%B3iskola.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Trefort_%C3%81goston_Gyakorl%C3%B3iskola.jpg/375px-Trefort_%C3%81goston_Gyakorl%C3%B3iskola.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Trefort_%C3%81goston_Gyakorl%C3%B3iskola.jpg/500px-Trefort_%C3%81goston_Gyakorl%C3%B3iskola.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2939" data-file-height="2205" /></a><figcaption>Gymnasets bygningen ved Trefort-gaten i sentrum av Budapest (Pest-siden).</figcaption></figure> <p>Polányi fikk stipend for å studere kjemi i <a href="/wiki/Karlsruhe" title="Karlsruhe">Karlsruhe</a> i <a href="/wiki/Tyskland" title="Tyskland">Tyskland</a>. Han besøkte Karlsruhe i 1912 mens han var medisinstudent og professor <a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Bredig&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Georg Bredig (ikke skrevet ennå)">Georg Bredig</a> oppmuntret ham der til å studere <a href="/wiki/Termodynamikk" title="Termodynamikk">termodynamikk</a>. I Karlsruhe skrev han en artikkel om <a href="/wiki/Termodynamikkens_tredje_lov" title="Termodynamikkens tredje lov">termodynamikkens tredje lov</a> (skrevet før Polányi ble tatt opp som student i Karlsruhe). Professor Georg Bredig i Karlsruhe anså seg ikke kompetent til å vurdere artikkelen og han sendt den til <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> som skal ha blitt imponert. Han innledet med dette korrespondanse med Einstein. Han tjenestegjorde som feltlege under <a href="/wiki/F%C3%B8rste_verdenskrig" title="Første verdenskrig">første verdenskrig</a> og arbeidet samtidig med flere vitenskapelige artikler.<sup id="cite_ref-Wigner_16-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wigner-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Knepper_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knepper-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Den siste artikkelen, som omhandlet oppløsning av gass i faste materialer, ble innlevert som doktoravhandling i kjemi ved Universitetet i Budapest.<sup id="cite_ref-Wigner_16-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wigner-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Knepper_12-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knepper-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Han fullførte sin doktoravhandling i 1916,<sup id="cite_ref-:6_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> som ble støttet av <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>, og forsvarte avhandlingen i 1919<sup id="cite_ref-Friedrich_22-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedrich-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (i 1917 ifølge noen kilder<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). Under en konferanse i Berlin etter krigen ble hans nye teori om absorbsjon av gass i faste materialer fremmet i avhandlingen hardt kritisert av Einstein, Haber og andre eksperter. Trolig fordi avhandlingen fra 1916 ikke hadde fanget opp utvikling i faget i Vesten.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Polanyis modell for absorbsjon avvek vesentlig fra <a href="/wiki/Irving_Langmuir" title="Irving Langmuir">Irving Langmuirs</a> modell (Langmuir ble tildelt nobelprisen for sitt arbeid på området).<sup id="cite_ref-Friedrich_22-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedrich-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fil:ETH-BIB-Bredig,_Georg_(1868-1944)-Portr_05659.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/ETH-BIB-Bredig%2C_Georg_%281868-1944%29-Portr_05659.tif/lossy-page1-250px-ETH-BIB-Bredig%2C_Georg_%281868-1944%29-Portr_05659.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="334" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/ETH-BIB-Bredig%2C_Georg_%281868-1944%29-Portr_05659.tif/lossy-page1-375px-ETH-BIB-Bredig%2C_Georg_%281868-1944%29-Portr_05659.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/ETH-BIB-Bredig%2C_Georg_%281868-1944%29-Portr_05659.tif/lossy-page1-500px-ETH-BIB-Bredig%2C_Georg_%281868-1944%29-Portr_05659.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1172" data-file-height="1564" /></a><figcaption><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Bredig&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Georg Bredig (ikke skrevet ennå)">Georg Bredig</a> (1868-1944) var professor i Karlsruhe. Han var av jødisk herkomst og unnslapp til USA i januar 1940.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Polányi hadde en høyere administrativ stilling i staten under den demokratiske revolusjonen i 1918 og under kommunistenes <a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9la_Kun" title="Béla Kun">Béla Kun</a> i 1919. Han arbeidet på den tiden en kort periode for <a href="/wiki/George_de_Hevesy" title="George de Hevesy">George de Hevesy</a>. Da de konservative kontra-revolusjonære under den autoritære <a href="/wiki/Mikl%C3%B3s_Horthy" title="Miklós Horthy">Miklós Horthy</a> tok makten ble situasjonen i Ungarn vanskelig, særlig for personer av jødisk bakgrunn.<sup id="cite_ref-Hargittai_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hargittai-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nye_28-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nye-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:5_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> På grunn av den kaotiske politiske situasjonen i Ungarn etter oppløsningen av imperiet reiste han tilbake til Karlsruhe i 1919. Han fikk på den tiden interesse for hastigheten i <a href="/wiki/Kjemisk_reaksjon" title="Kjemisk reaksjon">kjemiske reaksjoner</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wigner_16-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wigner-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tyskland">Tyskland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_Polanyi&veaction=edit&section=4" title="Rediger avsnitt: Tyskland" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>rediger</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_Polanyi&action=edit&section=4" title="Rediger kildekoden til seksjonen Tyskland"><span>rediger kilde</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ved årsskiftet 1920–1921 begynte han ved institutt for fiberkjemi i <a href="/wiki/Dahlem" title="Dahlem">Dahlem</a>, <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_21-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fibermaterialer var et viktig tema i naturvitenskap og teknisk forskning den gangen.<sup id="cite_ref-Hargittai2023_19-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hargittai2023-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Han begynte med <a href="/wiki/R%C3%B8ntgenkrystallografi" title="Røntgenkrystallografi">røntgenanalyser</a> av blant annet cellulose og metaller, og han begynte å studere krystallstrukturer i metall. Dette arbeidet var mindre vellykket i form av anerkjennelse fra andre forskere enn hans arbeid med reaksjonshastighet. Han innledet samarbeid med mange andre forskere, til sammen hadde han nær 60 medforfattere på sine publikasjoner..<sup id="cite_ref-Wigner_16-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wigner-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nye2011_23-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nye2011-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Polányi hadde uvanlig bredde interesser og bredt virkefelt. Han begynte etterhvert å engasjere seg i sosiale og økonomiske problemer samt vitenskapsfilosofiske tema. Etter tre år ved institutt for fiberkjemi inviterte <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Haber" title="Fritz Haber">Fritz Haber</a> ham til å ta over ledelsen av en avdeling ved institutt for fysikalsk kjemi og elektrokjemi. Haber var en fjern insitituttsjef og avdelingslederne drev instituttet nokså selvstending. I 1923 ble Polányi kvalifisert som <i>Privatdozent</i> ved <a href="/wiki/Technische_Universit%C3%A4t_Berlin" title="Technische Universität Berlin">Technische Universität Berlin</a> på grunnlag av arbeidet med krystallstrukturer.<sup id="cite_ref-Wigner_16-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wigner-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nye2011_23-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nye2011-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>I 1926 ble han utnevnt til professor med livsvarig medlemskap i Kaiser Wilhelm Gesellschaft (det senere <a href="/wiki/Max-Planck-Gesellschaft" title="Max-Planck-Gesellschaft">Max-Planck-Gesellschaft</a>) på grunnlag av arbeid med kjemisk reaksjonshastighet.<sup id="cite_ref-Wigner_16-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wigner-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Polányi, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Henry_Eyring&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Henry Eyring (ikke skrevet ennå)">Henry Eyring</a> og <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Eugene Wigner</a> (Wigner hadde Polányi som veileder på doktorgraden) regnes som grunnleggere av feltet reaksjonsdynamikk i kjemi.<sup id="cite_ref-Nye2011_23-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nye2011-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eyring var utdannet ved <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">Berkeley</a> og kom til Berlin i 1929.<sup id="cite_ref-Friedrich_22-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedrich-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nazistene hadde innflytelse også før <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> kom til makten i 1933 og en del jødiske vitenskapsfolk ble presset ut av sine stillinger. Polányi avholdt i november 1932 et møte med flere ledende vitenskapsfolk, inkludert <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck">Max Planck</a> og <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger" title="Erwin Schrödinger">Erwin Schrödinger</a>, med sikte på å skrive en felles protest mot utviklingen. De fremmøtte var enige med Polányi uten at det kom noe ut av initiativet. Etter kort tid trakk han seg fra stillingen ved instituttet da de nazististiske makthaverne forlangte at ikke-ariske medarbeidere skulle fjernes og sa fra seg sitt medlemskap i Kaiser Wilhelm Gesellschaft.<sup id="cite_ref-Wigner_16-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wigner-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Til_Storbritannia">Til Storbritannia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_Polanyi&veaction=edit&section=5" title="Rediger avsnitt: Til Storbritannia" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>rediger</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_Polanyi&action=edit&section=5" title="Rediger kildekoden til seksjonen Til Storbritannia"><span>rediger kilde</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Han fikk høsten 1933 et professorat i fysikalsk kjemi ved <a href="/wiki/University_of_Manchester" title="University of Manchester">University of Manchester</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wigner_16-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wigner-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/John_Dalton" title="John Dalton">John Dalton</a> hadde hatt samme professorat tidligere. Han hadde i juni 1932 fått et svært gunstig tilbud fra Manchester, et tilbud han avslo tidlig i midten januar 1933. Etter nazistenes <a href="/wiki/Machtergreifung" title="Machtergreifung">maktovertakelse</a> forlot han Tyskland og reiste til Manchester der han ble ansatt på noe mindre gunstige betingelser enn tilbudet fra året før.<sup id="cite_ref-Friedrich_22-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedrich-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fil:Heisenberg,W._Wigner,E._1928.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Heisenberg%2CW._Wigner%2CE._1928.jpg/250px-Heisenberg%2CW._Wigner%2CE._1928.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Heisenberg%2CW._Wigner%2CE._1928.jpg/375px-Heisenberg%2CW._Wigner%2CE._1928.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Heisenberg%2CW._Wigner%2CE._1928.jpg/500px-Heisenberg%2CW._Wigner%2CE._1928.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Werner Heisenberg</a> (til venstre) og Eugene Wigner i 1928</figcaption></figure> <p>I Tyskland veiledet han <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Eugene Wigners</a> doktoravhandling <i>Bildung und Zerfall von Molekülen</i> (1925). Sammen med <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a> og <a href="/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd" title="Leó Szilárd">Leo Szilard</a> advarte Wigner president <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> om faren for at Tyskland kunne utvikle en atombombe, kjent som <a href="/wiki/Einstein%E2%80%93Szil%C3%A1rds_brev" title="Einstein–Szilárds brev">Einstein–Szilárds brev</a> (1939). Wigner medvirket selv i <a href="/wiki/Manhattanprosjektet" title="Manhattanprosjektet">Manhattanprosjektet</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hargittai2023_19-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hargittai2023-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wigner ble tildelt nobelprisen i 1963. </p><p>I Manchester veiledet Polányi <a href="/wiki/Melvin_Calvin" title="Melvin Calvin">Melvin Calvin</a> som ble tildelt <a href="/wiki/Nobelprisen_i_kjemi" title="Nobelprisen i kjemi">nobelprisen i kjemi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hargittai2023_19-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hargittai2023-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oppholdet hos Polányi fikk stor betydning for Calvins arbeid.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Polányi lærte seg godt engelsk og etter 1933 skrev han for det meste på engelsk. I årene 1933–1937 publiserte han 37 artikler om kjemisk reaksjonshastighet. Under andre verdenskrig publiserte han mest innenfor politiske og filosofiske tema. I 1944 skrev han en artikkel om <a href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">patentlovgivning</a> som han mente måtte reformeres for å fremme oppfinnelser. Et vesentlig tema i hans tekster om økonomi er hvordan individuell frihet kan sikres i et komplisert samfunn med kritikk av det umenneskelige i totalitære samfunn.<sup id="cite_ref-Wigner_16-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wigner-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>I 1948 fikk han et personlig professorat i sosiale studier (ved Faculty of Economics and Social Studies) og en del av hans venner var skuffet over skiftet og mente at dette var et tap for naturvitenskapen. Hans filosofiske hovedverk, <i>Personal Knowledge,</i> ble utviklet som en serie på 18 forelesninger i <a href="/wiki/Aberdeen" title="Aberdeen">Aberdeen</a> i 1951–1952.<sup id="cite_ref-Wigner_16-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wigner-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Han hevdet der at all kunnskap er taus (<i>tacit</i>) eller er basert på taus kunnskap.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_15-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ifølge Polanyi kan slik kunnskaper bare erverves ved personlig erfaring.<sup id="cite_ref-Hargittai_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hargittai-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Personal Knowledge</i> inneholder mange eksempler fra vitenskapshistorien, blant annet Einsteins arbeid med <a href="/wiki/Relativitetsteori" title="Relativitetsteori">relativitetsteorien</a>. Polányi hevdet at relativitetsteorien var basert på spekulasjon og rasjonell intuisjon (ettertiden har konkludert med at Polányis beskrivelse var dekkende).<sup id="cite_ref-Friedrich_22-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedrich-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Polányi fryktet en dehumanisering av vitenskap og generelt all kunnskap, det mest ekstreme utslaget av dette fant han i marxismen. Han skrev i 1940 at marxismen er en mer fullstendig og intelligent undertrykkelse enn italiensk og tysk fascisme. Han mente at intellektuelles motstand var grunn og fragmentert.<sup id="cite_ref-Wigner_16-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wigner-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Polányi besøkte Moskva i 1936 og ble sjokkert da <a href="/wiki/Nikolaj_Bukharin" title="Nikolaj Bukharin">Nicolai Bukharin</a> argumenterte for at vitenskapen under sosialismen måtte underordne seg fem-årsplaner, vitenskapen skulle ikke lenger bedrives for sin egen del og han avviste ideen om <a href="/wiki/Grunnforskning" title="Grunnforskning">grunnforskning</a> som "<a href="/wiki/Borgerskap" title="Borgerskap">bourgeois</a>" ideologi. Lignende nytteperspektiv på vitenskap fremkom i Storbritannia i 1930-årene, blant annet fremmet av <a href="/wiki/John_Desmond_Bernal" title="John Desmond Bernal">John Desmond Bernal</a> og <a href="/wiki/Lancelot_Hogben" title="Lancelot Hogben">Lancelot Hogben</a>. Zoologen John Baker tok til motmæle mot "bernalismen" og stiftet Society for Freedom of Science der Polányi var aktiv. Foreningen sto i opposisjon til sosialistiske ideer om vitenskap. Baker og Polányi ble venner og delte syn om at vitenskapen skulle være fri.<sup id="cite_ref-Wigner_16-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wigner-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:8_15-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/James_Bryant_Conant" title="James Bryant Conant">James Bryant Conant</a> og Polányi sto for det samme synet, mens mange venstreorienterte i Europa, særlig i Storbritannia, mente at vitenskap først og fremst var teknologi.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_18-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hans interesse for vitenskapspolitikk og økonomi sprang ut av diskusjoner med andre forskerer og med broren Karl.<sup id="cite_ref-Friedrich_22-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedrich-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>I 1951 fikk han tilbud om professorat i sosialfilosofi ved <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>. Polányi ble da nektet innreise til USA på grunn av påstander om at han var kommunist.<sup id="cite_ref-Friedrich_22-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedrich-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Broren Karl var ikke kommunist, men kritiserte kapitalismen for dens negative konsekvenser for menneskene. Tidlig på 1950-tallet advarte Polányi om stalinisme og andre totalitære regimer. Etter forslag fra vennen <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Koestler" title="Arthur Koestler">Arthur Koestler</a> sluttet han seg til den anti-kommunistiske <a href="/w/index.php?title=Congress_for_Cultural_Freedom&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Congress for Cultural Freedom (ikke skrevet ennå)">Congress for Cultural Freedom</a> (stiftet av <a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a>) der han satt i styret til 1968. Senere kom det, til Polányis skuffelse, frem at <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">CIA</a> støttet etablering og drift av denne kongressen.<sup id="cite_ref-Hargittai2023_19-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hargittai2023-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:10_18-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>I 1958 flyttet Polányi til <a href="/wiki/Merton_College" title="Merton College">Merton College</a>, Oxford, der han ble <i>senior research fellow</i>. Han reiste de følgende årene en god del og publiserte artikler om vitenskap, politikk og estetikk. I 1962 holdt han en forelesningsrekke ved <a href="/wiki/Yale_University" title="Yale University">Yale University</a> og ga dette ut som <i>The Tacit Dimension</i> der han formulerte sin teori om kunnskap. Som filosof var han nokså isolert og ble gjenstand for kritikk og mistenksomhet; en del av filosofien han kritiserte, blant annet <a href="/wiki/Logisk_positivisme" title="Logisk positivisme">logisk positivisme</a>, sto sterkt ved Oxford. Han mente at det var et for snevert syn på objektivitet i vitenskap. Han var skuffet og frustrert over at så få brydde seg om hans ideer. Noen av hans tekster har preg profetiske prekener og han var lite presis i definisjoner og begrepsbruk.<sup id="cite_ref-Wigner_16-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wigner-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:8_15-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>De siste årene arbeidet han blant annet sammen med <a href="/w/index.php?title=Harry_Prosch&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Harry Prosch (ikke skrevet ennå)">Harry Prosch</a> med sikte på å samordne innsikter fra estetikk, epistemologi, teologi og kulturstudier. Boken <i>Meaning</i> ble publisert kort tid før han døde.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_15-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Filosofi_og_vitenskapsteori">Filosofi og vitenskapsteori</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_Polanyi&veaction=edit&section=6" title="Rediger avsnitt: Filosofi og vitenskapsteori" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>rediger</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_Polanyi&action=edit&section=6" title="Rediger kildekoden til seksjonen Filosofi og vitenskapsteori"><span>rediger kilde</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Polányi var en kritiker av <a href="/wiki/Positivisme" title="Positivisme">positivisme</a>, <a href="/wiki/Utilitarisme" title="Utilitarisme">utilitarisme</a> og <a href="/wiki/Marxisme" title="Marxisme">marxisme</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Positivismen antar at objektiv observasjon av målbare objekter og sammenhenger, uten ytre påvirkning og forutinntatte holdninger, gir kunnskap og viten. Polányi hevder at mennesket av natur ikke bare er "rasjonelle maskiner", og at det er umulig å studere detaljer helt adskilt fra virkeligheten.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Positivismen kan derfor føre til en subjektiv forståelse av verden når den ikke tar hensyn til den tause kunnskapen som ligger under og ikke så lett kan identifiseres eller forklares. Polányi argumenterte mot kravet om at viten skal være upersonlig, helt objektiv og eksplisitt, og for at metafysiske verdier som sannhet, rettferdighet, godhet og toleranse er avgjørende for et fritt samfunn og fri tenkning. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fil:Bal%C3%A1zs_B%C3%A9la.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Bal%C3%A1zs_B%C3%A9la.jpg/250px-Bal%C3%A1zs_B%C3%A9la.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="331" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Bal%C3%A1zs_B%C3%A9la.jpg/375px-Bal%C3%A1zs_B%C3%A9la.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Bal%C3%A1zs_B%C3%A9la.jpg/500px-Bal%C3%A1zs_B%C3%A9la.jpg 2x" data-file-width="685" data-file-height="907" /></a><figcaption>Den ungarske filmteoretikeren <a href="/w/index.php?title=B%C3%A9la_Bal%C3%A1zs&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Béla Balázs (ikke skrevet ennå)">Béla Balázs</a> som holdt søndagsdiskusjoner hjemme.</figcaption></figure> <p>Polányis beskrivelse av erkjennelsesprosessen samsvarer ikke med den rasjonalistiske vitenskapsfilosofiens krav. Hans tilnærming har preg av noe ugjennomsiktig og ubestemt. Polányi hadde ikke en fagfilosofisk tilnærming og interesserte seg lite for en <a href="/wiki/Erkjennelsesteori" title="Erkjennelsesteori">kunnskapsteoretisk</a> tilnærming. Hans interesse var (i likhet med <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a>) hvordan oppdagelser blir til, ikke hvordan sannhet etableres. Fra Polányis perspektiv kunne ikke den tradisjonelle vitenskapsfilosofien forklare vitenskapelige oppdagelser slik han selv erfarte det som forsker. Han avviste at hans vitenskapssyn fremmet subjektivisme.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Polányis beskrivelse av sosiale prosesser i vitenskap gjenfinnes senere hos Thomas Kuhn. <a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Robert K. Merton</a>, samtidig med Polányi, beskrev forskningen som et sosialt fenomen. <a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a> var kritisk til Polányis og Kuhns beskrivelse av stabile og motstandsdyktige forestillinger i vitenskapene. Popper anså Kuhns og Polanyis perspektiver som i strid med hans egen vektlegging av skepsis.<sup id="cite_ref-Nye2011_23-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nye2011-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Polányi korresponderte og diskuterte med mange ledende vitenskapsfolk i samtiden. <a href="/wiki/Karl_Mannheim" title="Karl Mannheim">Karl Mannheim</a>, hans jevnaldrende flyktning fra Budapest, møtte han i London ved flere anledninger. Trolig hadde de møtt hverandre som studenter i 1915 da de begge var til stede ved søndagsdiskusjoner hjemme hos filmteoretikeren <a href="/w/index.php?title=B%C3%A9la_Bal%C3%A1zs&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Béla Balázs (ikke skrevet ennå)">Béla Balázs</a> i Budapest.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>I 1962 ble han æresmedlem i <a href="/w/index.php?title=American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="American Academy of Arts and Sciences (ikke skrevet ennå)">American Academy of Arts and Sciences</a>.<sup class="Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Hjelp:Trenger_referanse" title="Hjelp:Trenger referanse"><span title="Foregående påstand trenger referanse">trenger referanse</span></a></i>]</sup> Polanyi korresponderte med <a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a>, også han flyktning fra nazistene. De hadde ulike <a href="/wiki/Vitenskapsfilosofi" class="mw-redirect" title="Vitenskapsfilosofi">vitenskapsfilosofiske</a> perspektiver og Popper mente at Polanyis posisjon innebar kognitiv relativism og irrasjonalisme.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Popper og Polányi møttes og diskuterte felles tema etter at Popper ble ansatt ved <a href="/wiki/London_School_of_Economics" title="London School of Economics">London School of Economics</a>. Etter at Polányi tydelig inntok en annen vitenskapsteoretisk holdning hadde de lite kontakt.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Polanyi korresponderte med <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_von_Hayek" class="mw-redirect" title="Friedrich von Hayek">Friedrich von Hayek</a> i 30 år. Hayek hjalp både Popper og Polányi med deres vitenskapelig arbeider på 1940-tallet.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Utmerkelser">Utmerkelser</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_Polanyi&veaction=edit&section=7" title="Rediger avsnitt: Utmerkelser" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>rediger</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_Polanyi&action=edit&section=7" title="Rediger kildekoden til seksjonen Utmerkelser"><span>rediger kilde</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Han var <a href="/wiki/%C3%86resdoktor" class="mw-redirect" title="Æresdoktor">æresdoktor</a> (Hon.D.Sc. og Hon.LL.D.) ved:<sup id="cite_ref-Wigner_16-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wigner-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a> (1946)</li> <li>Leeds University (1947)</li> <li>Manchester University (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">Cambridge</a> (1969)</li> <li>Abderdeen (1959)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wesleyan_University" title="Wesleyan University">Wesleyan</a> (1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Toronto" title="University of Toronto">Toronto</a> (1967)</li></ul> <p>Polányi ble medlem (<i>fellow</i>) av <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> i 1944. Han ble utnevnt til livsvarig medlem av <a href="/wiki/Max-Planck-Gesellschaft" title="Max-Planck-Gesellschaft">Max-Planck-Gesellschaft</a> i 1949.<sup id="cite_ref-Wigner_16-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wigner-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Friedrich_22-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedrich-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Publikasjoner">Publikasjoner</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_Polanyi&veaction=edit&section=8" title="Rediger avsnitt: Publikasjoner" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>rediger</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_Polanyi&action=edit&section=8" title="Rediger kildekoden til seksjonen Publikasjoner"><span>rediger kilde</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bøker_(utvalg)"><span id="B.C3.B8ker_.28utvalg.29"></span>Bøker (utvalg)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_Polanyi&veaction=edit&section=9" title="Rediger avsnitt: Bøker (utvalg)" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>rediger</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_Polanyi&action=edit&section=9" title="Rediger kildekoden til seksjonen Bøker (utvalg)"><span>rediger kilde</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i>The Contempt of Freedom</i>. London: Watts, 1940</li> <li><i>Full Employment and Free Trade.</i> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1945.</li> <li><i>Personal Knowledge: Towards a Post-Critical Philosophy</i>. Chicago University Press, 1958.</li> <li><i>The Study of Man</i>. Chicago University Press, 1959.</li> <li><i>Science, Faith and Society</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1946, ny utgave 1963.</li> <li><i>The Tacit Dimension</i>. New York: Doubleday, 1966.</li> <li><i>Meaning,</i> Chicago University Press, 1976</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Artikler_(utvalg)"><span id="Artikler_.28utvalg.29"></span>Artikler (utvalg)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_Polanyi&veaction=edit&section=10" title="Rediger avsnitt: Artikler (utvalg)" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>rediger</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_Polanyi&action=edit&section=10" title="Rediger kildekoden til seksjonen Artikler (utvalg)"><span>rediger kilde</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Polanyi, M. (1941). The growth of thought in society. <i>Economica</i>, 8(32), 428-456.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Se_også"><span id="Se_ogs.C3.A5"></span>Se også</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_Polanyi&veaction=edit&section=11" title="Rediger avsnitt: Se også" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>rediger</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_Polanyi&action=edit&section=11" title="Rediger kildekoden til seksjonen Se også"><span>rediger kilde</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitenskapelig_metode" title="Vitenskapelig metode">Vitenskapelig metode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taus_kunnskap" title="Taus kunnskap">Taus kunnskap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemologi" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemologi">Epistemologi</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Referanser">Referanser</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_Polanyi&veaction=edit&section=12" title="Rediger avsnitt: Referanser" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>rediger</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_Polanyi&action=edit&section=12" title="Rediger kildekoden til seksjonen Referanser"><span>rediger kilde</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-hash-00cee5166aafc6650abeb75e8ece2ab43276cd0a-1"><b>^</b> <a href="#cite_ref-hash-00cee5166aafc6650abeb75e8ece2ab43276cd0a_1-0"><sup>a</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hash-00cee5166aafc6650abeb75e8ece2ab43276cd0a_1-1"><sup>b</sup></a> <span class="reference-text"> <span><span>Internet Philosophy Ontology project</span></span>, InPhO ID <span><span><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.inphoproject.org/thinker/3732">thinker/3732</a></span></span>, besøkt 9. oktober 2017<sup><small>[Hentet fra Wikidata]</small></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hash-332d162d365fc309135025684aa893bfe39caf21-2"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hash-332d162d365fc309135025684aa893bfe39caf21_2-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"> <span><span><a href="/wiki/Gemeinsame_Normdatei" title="Gemeinsame Normdatei">Gemeinsame Normdatei</a></span></span>, besøkt 11. desember 2014<sup><small>[Hentet fra Wikidata]</small></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hash-274565d7568c32a4ecb6b04d940e94ee9bcb90b8-3"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hash-274565d7568c32a4ecb6b04d940e94ee9bcb90b8_3-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"> <span><span><a href="/wiki/Gemeinsame_Normdatei" title="Gemeinsame Normdatei">Gemeinsame Normdatei</a></span></span>, besøkt 26. april 2014<sup><small>[Hentet fra Wikidata]</small></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hash-81591a4b3cc3c58205e616785f8047f4eb4ca451-4"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hash-81591a4b3cc3c58205e616785f8047f4eb4ca451_4-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"> <span><span>Social Networks and Archival Context</span></span>, SNAC Ark-ID <span><span><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6bz6dd6">w6bz6dd6</a></span></span>, besøkt 9. oktober 2017<sup><small>[Hentet fra Wikidata]</small></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hash-7c012b129f0bec57f627f316c115cf816270b64c-5"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hash-7c012b129f0bec57f627f316c115cf816270b64c_5-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"> <span><span>Autorités BnF</span></span>, BNF-ID <span><span><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12021728d">12021728d</a></span></span>, besøkt 10. oktober 2015<sup><small>[Hentet fra Wikidata]</small></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hash-c2970044d446c90bd046873b0e51f27e8867aaa1-6"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hash-c2970044d446c90bd046873b0e51f27e8867aaa1_6-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"> <span><span>Autorités BnF</span></span>, besøkt 26. januar 2018<sup><small>[Hentet fra Wikidata]</small></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hash-abc3ab9e5345d58a9f38e5c9f88efa055ad97908-7"><b>^</b> <a href="#cite_ref-hash-abc3ab9e5345d58a9f38e5c9f88efa055ad97908_7-0"><sup>a</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hash-abc3ab9e5345d58a9f38e5c9f88efa055ad97908_7-1"><sup>b</sup></a> <span class="reference-text"> <span><span><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_Genealogy_Project" title="Mathematics Genealogy Project">Mathematics Genealogy Project</a></span></span>, Mathematics Genealogy Project-identifikator <span><span><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=79750">79750</a></span></span>, besøkt 12. februar 2022<sup><small>[Hentet fra Wikidata]</small></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hash-3f945a6d2dddb456af5ad6e21af753cc4e1969ef-8"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hash-3f945a6d2dddb456af5ad6e21af753cc4e1969ef_8-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"> <span><span><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_Genealogy_Project" title="Mathematics Genealogy Project">Mathematics Genealogy Project</a></span></span>, verkets språk <span><span><a href="/wiki/Engelsk" title="Engelsk">engelsk</a></span></span>, Mathematics Genealogy Project-identifikator <span><span><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=79750">79750</a></span></span>, besøkt 15. august 2018<sup><small>[Hentet fra Wikidata]</small></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hash-44c64bdbaa2236573a134fcfc737160aeeb5d482-9"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hash-44c64bdbaa2236573a134fcfc737160aeeb5d482_9-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/book/36398?login=true">academic.oup.com</a><sup><small>[Hentet fra Wikidata]</small></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hash-6f0de658f58f5936c292feea60ca8d3f9ac98382-10"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hash-6f0de658f58f5936c292feea60ca8d3f9ac98382_10-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/chicago-scholarship-online/book/21278">academic.oup.com</a><sup><small>[Hentet fra Wikidata]</small></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hash-6f20e02b3267e0803ec61357be550bb63d611db0-11"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hash-6f20e02b3267e0803ec61357be550bb63d611db0_11-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093/019517433X.001.0001">doi.org</a><sup><small>[Hentet fra Wikidata]</small></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Knepper-12"><b>^</b> <a href="#cite_ref-Knepper_12-0"><sup>a</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Knepper_12-1"><sup>b</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Knepper_12-2"><sup>c</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Knepper_12-3"><sup>d</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Knepper_12-4"><sup>e</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Knepper_12-5"><sup>f</sup></a> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Knepper, Paul (18. august 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0048393105277986">«Michael Polanyi and Jewish Identity:»</a>. <i>Philosophy of the Social Sciences</i> (på engelsk). <a href="/wiki/Digital_objektidentifikator" title="Digital objektidentifikator">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0048393105277986">10.1177/0048393105277986</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Besøkt 18. oktober 2020</span>. «Michael Polanyi’s Jewish identity contributed to his philosophical outlook. His life in a Hungarian-acculturated, nonobservant Jewish family in the last decades of the Austro-Hungarian Empire; his experience as a Jew emigrating from Hitler’s Germany; and his thoughts about Zionism informed his theory of knowledge. During the late 1930s and 1940s, he worked to reconcile his Jewish identity with his commitments to Christianity, and this tension contributed to his thinking about the nature of scientific discovery. The malapropism baptized Jew characterizes the scientist on the verge of discovery, one who occupies a twilight world between adherence and apostasy with regard to the scientific community.»</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fno.wikipedia.org%3AMichael+Polanyi&rft.atitle=Michael+Polanyi+and+Jewish+Identity%3A&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.aulast=Knepper&rft.date=2016-08-18&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+of+the+Social+Sciences&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sagepub.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1177%2F0048393105277986&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0048393105277986&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-13"><b>^</b> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_13-0"><sup>a</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_13-1"><sup>b</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_13-2"><sup>c</sup></a> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Hargittai, Istvan (1. oktober 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11224-016-0816-8">«Michael Polanyi—pupils and crossroads—on the 125th anniversary of his birth»</a>. <i>Structural Chemistry</i>. 5 (på engelsk). 27: 1327–1344. <a href="/wiki/Internasjonalt_standard_periodikanummer" title="Internasjonalt standard periodikanummer">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/1572-9001">1572-9001</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_objektidentifikator" title="Digital objektidentifikator">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11224-016-0816-8">10.1007/s11224-016-0816-8</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Besøkt 18. oktober 2020</span>. «Michael Polanyi (1891–1976) was a Hungarian-born British physician turned physical chemist turned philosopher. His milestone epistemological treatise Personal Knowledge followed his substantial discoveries in adsorption studies, X-ray crystallography, materials science, and the mechanism of chemical reactions. Michael Polanyi was one of the last polymaths and his teachings impacted the world views of other outstanding contributors to twentieth century science and culture.»</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fno.wikipedia.org%3AMichael+Polanyi&rft.atitle=Michael+Polanyi%E2%80%94pupils+and+crossroads%E2%80%94on+the+125th+anniversary+of+his+birth&rft.aufirst=Istvan&rft.aulast=Hargittai&rft.date=2016-10-01&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=1572-9001&rft.jtitle=Structural+Chemistry&rft.pages=1327-1344&rft.volume=27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%2Fs11224-016-0816-8&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11224-016-0816-8&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-14"><b>^</b> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_14-0"><sup>a</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_14-1"><sup>b</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_14-2"><sup>c</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_14-3"><sup>d</sup></a> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Wigner, Eugene Paul; Hodgkin, R. A. (1. november 1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbm.1977.0016">«Michael Polanyi, 12 March 1891- 22 February 1976»</a>. <i>Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society</i>. 23: 413–448. <a href="/wiki/Digital_objektidentifikator" title="Digital objektidentifikator">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbm.1977.0016">10.1098/rsbm.1977.0016</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Besøkt 18. oktober 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fno.wikipedia.org%3AMichael+Polanyi&rft.atitle=Michael+Polanyi%2C+12+March+1891-+22+February+1976&rft.au=Hodgkin%2C+R.+A.&rft.aufirst=Eugene+Paul&rft.aulast=Wigner&rft.date=1977-11-01&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biographical+Memoirs+of+Fellows+of+the+Royal+Society&rft.pages=413-448&rft.volume=23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Froyalsocietypublishing.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1098%2Frsbm.1977.0016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsbm.1977.0016&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:8-15"><b>^</b> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_15-0"><sup>a</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_15-1"><sup>b</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_15-2"><sup>c</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_15-3"><sup>d</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_15-4"><sup>e</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_15-5"><sup>f</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_15-6"><sup>g</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_15-7"><sup>h</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_15-8"><sup>i</sup></a> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Scott, William Taussig, and Martin X. Moleski (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093/019517433X.001.0001"><i>Michael Polanyi: Scientist and Philosopher</i></a>. Oxford Academic.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fno.wikipedia.org%3AMichael+Polanyi&rft.au=Scott%2C+William+Taussig%2C+and+Martin+X.+Moleski&rft.btitle=Michael+Polanyi%3A+Scientist+and+Philosopher&rft.date=2005&rft.genre=book&rft.pub=Oxford+Academic&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%2F019517433X.001.0001&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span><span class="citation-comment" style="display:none; color:#33aa33; margin-left:0.3em">CS1-vedlikehold: Flere navn: forfatterliste (<a href="/wiki/Kategori:CS1-vedlikehold:_Flere_navn:_forfatterliste" title="Kategori:CS1-vedlikehold: Flere navn: forfatterliste">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wigner-16"><b>^</b> <a href="#cite_ref-Wigner_16-0"><sup>a</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wigner_16-1"><sup>b</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wigner_16-2"><sup>c</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wigner_16-3"><sup>d</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wigner_16-4"><sup>e</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wigner_16-5"><sup>f</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wigner_16-6"><sup>g</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wigner_16-7"><sup>h</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wigner_16-8"><sup>i</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wigner_16-9"><sup>j</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wigner_16-10"><sup>k</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wigner_16-11"><sup>l</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wigner_16-12"><sup>m</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wigner_16-13"><sup>n</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wigner_16-14"><sup>o</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wigner_16-15"><sup>p</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wigner_16-16"><sup>q</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wigner_16-17"><sup>r</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wigner_16-18"><sup>s</sup></a> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Wigner, Eugene Paul; Hodgkin, R. A. (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbm.1977.0016">«Michael Polanyi, 12 March 1891- 22 February 1976»</a>. <i>Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society</i> (på engelsk). 23: 413–448. <a href="/wiki/Internasjonalt_standard_periodikanummer" title="Internasjonalt standard periodikanummer">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0080-4606">0080-4606</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_objektidentifikator" title="Digital objektidentifikator">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbm.1977.0016">10.1098/rsbm.1977.0016</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Besøkt 10. desember 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fno.wikipedia.org%3AMichael+Polanyi&rft.atitle=Michael+Polanyi%2C+12+March+1891-+22+February+1976&rft.au=Hodgkin%2C+R.+A.&rft.aufirst=Eugene+Paul&rft.aulast=Wigner&rft.date=1977&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=0080-4606&rft.jtitle=Biographical+Memoirs+of+Fellows+of+the+Royal+Society&rft.pages=413-448&rft.volume=23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Froyalsocietypublishing.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1098%2Frsbm.1977.0016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsbm.1977.0016&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hargittai-17"><b>^</b> <a href="#cite_ref-Hargittai_17-0"><sup>a</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hargittai_17-1"><sup>b</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hargittai_17-2"><sup>c</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hargittai_17-3"><sup>d</sup></a> <span class="reference-text">Hargittai, I., & Hargittai, M. (2000). <i>In our own image: personal symmetry in discovery</i>. Springer Science & Business Media.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:10-18"><b>^</b> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_18-0"><sup>a</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_18-1"><sup>b</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_18-2"><sup>c</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_18-3"><sup>d</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_18-4"><sup>e</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_18-5"><sup>f</sup></a> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Turner, Stephen (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0306312712458479">«Polanyi defanged»</a>. <i>Social Studies of Science</i> (på engelsk). 42 (6): 945–953. <a href="/wiki/Internasjonalt_standard_periodikanummer" title="Internasjonalt standard periodikanummer">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0306-3127">0306-3127</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_objektidentifikator" title="Digital objektidentifikator">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0306312712458479">10.1177/0306312712458479</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Besøkt 18. desember 2023</span>. «Michael Polanyi is a significant figure in the history of science studies, not only for his account of the role of tacit knowledge in science, but also for his depiction of science as a community governed by tradition. Polanyi was a complex figure from a distinctive background, who was centrally located in 20th century science as a physical chemist, and later as a social, economic, and philosophical thinker.»</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fno.wikipedia.org%3AMichael+Polanyi&rft.atitle=Polanyi+defanged&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft.aulast=Turner&rft.date=2012&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=0306-3127&rft.issue=6&rft.jtitle=Social+Studies+of+Science&rft.pages=945-953&rft.volume=42&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sagepub.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1177%2F0306312712458479&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0306312712458479&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hargittai2023-19"><b>^</b> <a href="#cite_ref-Hargittai2023_19-0"><sup>a</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hargittai2023_19-1"><sup>b</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hargittai2023_19-2"><sup>c</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hargittai2023_19-3"><sup>d</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hargittai2023_19-4"><sup>e</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hargittai2023_19-5"><sup>f</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hargittai2023_19-6"><sup>g</sup></a> <span class="reference-text">Hargittai, I., & Hargittai, B. (2023). <i>Brilliance in exile: the diaspora of Hungarian scientists from John von Neumann to Katalin Karikó.</i> Central European University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:9-20"><b>^</b> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_20-0"><sup>a</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_20-1"><sup>b</sup></a> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia">Pedersen, Bjørn (29. september 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snl.no/Melvin_Calvin">«Melvin Calvin»</a>. <i>Store norske leksikon</i> (på norsk)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Besøkt 16. desember 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fno.wikipedia.org%3AMichael+Polanyi&rft.atitle=Melvin+Calvin&rft.aufirst=Bj%C3%B8rn&rft.aulast=Pedersen&rft.btitle=Store+norske+leksikon&rft.date=2023-09-29&rft.genre=bookitem&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsnl.no%2FMelvin_Calvin&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:7-21"><b>^</b> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_21-0"><sup>a</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_21-1"><sup>b</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_21-2"><sup>c</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_21-3"><sup>d</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_21-4"><sup>e</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_21-5"><sup>f</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_21-6"><sup>g</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_21-7"><sup>h</sup></a> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Moleski, Martin X. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://utpjournals.press/doi/10.3138/uram.36.3-4.160">«At Home in the Universe Again: Doing Justice to Polanyi’s Theological Intuitions»</a>. <i>Ultimate Reality and Meaning</i> (på engelsk). 36 (3-4): 160–175. <a href="/wiki/Internasjonalt_standard_periodikanummer" title="Internasjonalt standard periodikanummer">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0709-549X">0709-549X</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_objektidentifikator" title="Digital objektidentifikator">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3138%2Furam.36.3-4.160">10.3138/uram.36.3-4.160</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Besøkt 10. desember 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fno.wikipedia.org%3AMichael+Polanyi&rft.atitle=At+Home+in+the+Universe+Again%3A+Doing+Justice+to+Polanyi%E2%80%99s+Theological+Intuitions&rft.aufirst=Martin+X.&rft.aulast=Moleski&rft.date=2020&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=0709-549X&rft.issue=3-4&rft.jtitle=Ultimate+Reality+and+Meaning&rft.pages=160-175&rft.volume=36&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Futpjournals.press%2Fdoi%2F10.3138%2Furam.36.3-4.160&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3138%2Furam.36.3-4.160&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Friedrich-22"><b>^</b> <a href="#cite_ref-Friedrich_22-0"><sup>a</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Friedrich_22-1"><sup>b</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Friedrich_22-2"><sup>c</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Friedrich_22-3"><sup>d</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Friedrich_22-4"><sup>e</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Friedrich_22-5"><sup>f</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Friedrich_22-6"><sup>g</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Friedrich_22-7"><sup>h</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Friedrich_22-8"><sup>i</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Friedrich_22-9"><sup>j</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Friedrich_22-10"><sup>k</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Friedrich_22-11"><sup>l</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Friedrich_22-12"><sup>m</sup></a> <span class="reference-text">Friedrich, B. (2016). Michael Polanyi (1891–1976): The life of the mind. <i>Bunsen-Magazin</i>, 18(5), 160-167.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nye2011-23"><b>^</b> <a href="#cite_ref-Nye2011_23-0"><sup>a</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nye2011_23-1"><sup>b</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nye2011_23-2"><sup>c</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nye2011_23-3"><sup>d</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nye2011_23-4"><sup>e</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nye2011_23-5"><sup>f</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nye2011_23-6"><sup>g</sup></a> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Nye, Mary Jo (2011). <i>Michael Polanyi and His Generation: Origins of the Social Construction of Science</i>. Oxford Academic/University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesial:Bokkilder/9780226610658" title="Spesial:Bokkilder/9780226610658">9780226610658</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fno.wikipedia.org%3AMichael+Polanyi&rft.aufirst=Mary+Jo&rft.aulast=Nye&rft.btitle=Michael+Polanyi+and+His+Generation%3A+Origins+of+the+Social+Construction+of+Science&rft.date=2011&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=9780226610658&rft.pub=Oxford+Academic%2FUniversity+of+Chicago+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text">Polanyi, M. (2011). <i>Society, economics, and philosophy: Selected papers.</i> Transaction Publishers.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-25"><b>^</b> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_25-0"><sup>a</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_25-1"><sup>b</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_25-2"><sup>c</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_25-3"><sup>d</sup></a> <span class="reference-text">Jha, S. R. (2002). <i>Reconsidering Michael Polanyi’s Philosophy</i>. University of Pittsburgh Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text">Megargee, Geoffrey P. (2018): <i>The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos, 1933–1945.</i> Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Konrád, Miklós (1. august 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080/13501670903016282">«Jews and politics in Hungary in the Dualist era, 1867–1914»</a>. <i>East European Jewish Affairs</i>. 2. 39: 167–186. <a href="/wiki/Internasjonalt_standard_periodikanummer" title="Internasjonalt standard periodikanummer">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/1350-1674">1350-1674</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_objektidentifikator" title="Digital objektidentifikator">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13501670903016282">10.1080/13501670903016282</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Besøkt 25. august 2020</span>. «n Hungary, Jewish political power took a slow, but upward trend. The importance of the Jewish population, which grew from half a million at the time of the emancipation in 1867, to more than 900,000, or 5% of the total population in 1910, ensured that Jews had significant political influence. This was all the more so since censitary suffrage advantaged Jews who were better off than their non‐Jewish fellow‐citizens and were thus over‐represented among the voters. Andrew C. Janos estimated that Budapest's Jewish inhabitants (203,687 persons, or 23.1% of the total population in 1910) …. With emancipation, which gave equal rights to Jews as Hungarians of the Jewish religion, Hungarian Jewry officially ceased to exist as a politically separate body. Naturally, specific interests still bound Hungary's Jews together.»</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fno.wikipedia.org%3AMichael+Polanyi&rft.atitle=Jews+and+politics+in+Hungary+in+the+Dualist+era%2C+1867%E2%80%931914&rft.aufirst=Mikl%C3%B3s&rft.aulast=Konr%C3%A1d&rft.date=2009-08-01&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=1350-1674&rft.jtitle=East+European+Jewish+Affairs&rft.pages=167-186&rft.volume=39&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%2F13501670903016282&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13501670903016282&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nye-28"><b>^</b> <a href="#cite_ref-Nye_28-0"><sup>a</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nye_28-1"><sup>b</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nye_28-2"><sup>c</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nye_28-3"><sup>d</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nye_28-4"><sup>e</sup></a> <span class="reference-text">Nye, M. J. (2011). <i>Michael Polanyi and his generation: Origins of the social construction of science.</i> University of Chicago Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Vezer-29"><b>^</b> <a href="#cite_ref-Vezer_29-0"><sup>a</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vezer_29-1"><sup>b</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vezer_29-2"><sup>c</sup></a> <span class="reference-text">Vezér, E. (1990). The Polanyi Family. Kari Polanyi Levitt: <i>Life and Work of Karl Polanyi</i>, Black Rose Books, 18–25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia">Sulyok, Vince (23. august 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snl.no/Attila_J%C3%B3zsef">«Attila József»</a>. <i>Store norske leksikon</i> (på norsk)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Besøkt 18. desember 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fno.wikipedia.org%3AMichael+Polanyi&rft.atitle=Attila+J%C3%B3zsef&rft.aufirst=Vince&rft.aulast=Sulyok&rft.btitle=Store+norske+leksikon&rft.date=2023-08-23&rft.genre=bookitem&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsnl.no%2FAttila_J%25C3%25B3zsef&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-31"><b>^</b> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_31-0"><sup>a</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_31-1"><sup>b</sup></a> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia">Sulyok, Vince (23. august 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snl.no/Attila_J%C3%B3zsef">«Attila József»</a>. <i>Store norske leksikon</i> (på norsk)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Besøkt 9. desember 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fno.wikipedia.org%3AMichael+Polanyi&rft.atitle=Attila+J%C3%B3zsef&rft.aufirst=Vince&rft.aulast=Sulyok&rft.btitle=Store+norske+leksikon&rft.date=2023-08-23&rft.genre=bookitem&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsnl.no%2FAttila_J%25C3%25B3zsef&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1964/04/25/archives/dr-karl-polanyi-economist-77-dies-former-political-leader-in.html">«DR. KARL POLANYI, ECONOMIST, 77, DIES; Former Political Leader in Hungary—Taught Here (Published 1964)»</a>. <i>The New York Times</i> (på engelsk). 25. april 1964. <a href="/wiki/Internasjonalt_standard_periodikanummer" title="Internasjonalt standard periodikanummer">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Besøkt 18. oktober 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fno.wikipedia.org%3AMichael+Polanyi&rft.atitle=DR.+KARL+POLANYI%2C+ECONOMIST%2C+77%2C+DIES%3B+Former+Political+Leader+in+Hungary%E2%80%94Taught+Here+%28Published+1964%29&rft.date=1964-04-25&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1964%2F04%2F25%2Farchives%2Fdr-karl-polanyi-economist-77-dies-former-political-leader-in.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-33"><b>^</b> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_33-0"><sup>a</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_33-1"><sup>b</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_33-2"><sup>c</sup></a> <span class="reference-text">Edgerton, D. (2011). <i>Britain's war machine: weapons, resources, and experts in the Second World War.</i> Oxford University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-34"><b>^</b> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_34-0"><sup>a</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_34-1"><sup>b</sup></a> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia">Pedersen, Bjørn (19. august 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://snl.no/John_Charles_Polanyi">«John Charles Polanyi»</a>. <i>Store norske leksikon</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Besøkt 20. oktober 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fno.wikipedia.org%3AMichael+Polanyi&rft.atitle=John+Charles+Polanyi&rft.aufirst=Bj%C3%B8rn&rft.aulast=Pedersen&rft.btitle=Store+norske+leksikon&rft.date=2020-08-19&rft.genre=bookitem&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsnl.no%2FJohn_Charles_Polanyi&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201022073637/https://www.chemistry.msu.edu/faculty-research/portraits/john-charles-polanyi/">«John Charles Polanyi»</a>. <i>www.chemistry.msu.edu</i> (på engelsk). Arkivert fra <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chemistry.msu.edu/faculty-research/portraits/john-charles-polanyi/">originalen</a> 22. oktober 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Besøkt 20. oktober 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fno.wikipedia.org%3AMichael+Polanyi&rft.atitle=John+Charles+Polanyi&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.chemistry.msu.edu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.chemistry.msu.edu%2Ffaculty-research%2Fportraits%2Fjohn-charles-polanyi%2F&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1986/polanyi/biographical/">«The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1986»</a>. <i>NobelPrize.org</i> (på engelsk)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Besøkt 20. oktober 2020</span>. «John Charles Polanyi was born in 1929 in Berlin, Germany, of Hungarian parents, Michael and Magda Elizabeth Polanyi. The family moved to England in 1933 where he received his education.»</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fno.wikipedia.org%3AMichael+Polanyi&rft.atitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Chemistry+1986&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NobelPrize.org&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fprizes%2Fchemistry%2F1986%2Fpolanyi%2Fbiographical%2F&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Hargittai, Istvan (1. oktober 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11224-016-0816-8">«Michael Polanyi—pupils and crossroads—on the 125th anniversary of his birth»</a>. <i>Structural Chemistry</i>. 5 (på engelsk). 27: 1327–1344. <a href="/wiki/Internasjonalt_standard_periodikanummer" title="Internasjonalt standard periodikanummer">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/1572-9001">1572-9001</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_objektidentifikator" title="Digital objektidentifikator">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11224-016-0816-8">10.1007/s11224-016-0816-8</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Besøkt 10. desember 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fno.wikipedia.org%3AMichael+Polanyi&rft.atitle=Michael+Polanyi%E2%80%94pupils+and+crossroads%E2%80%94on+the+125th+anniversary+of+his+birth&rft.aufirst=Istvan&rft.aulast=Hargittai&rft.date=2016-10-01&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=1572-9001&rft.jtitle=Structural+Chemistry&rft.pages=1327-1344&rft.volume=27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%2Fs11224-016-0816-8&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11224-016-0816-8&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-38"><b>^</b> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_38-0"><sup>a</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_38-1"><sup>b</sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_38-2"><sup>c</sup></a> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Polanyi, Michael med etterord av Knut Ågotnes (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://urn.nb.no/URN:NBN:no-nb_digibok_2012091805028"><i>Den tause dimensjonen</i></a>. Oslo: Spartacus. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesial:Bokkilder/8243001611" title="Spesial:Bokkilder/8243001611">8243001611</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fno.wikipedia.org%3AMichael+Polanyi&rft.au=Polanyi%2C+Michael+med+etterord+av+Knut+%C3%85gotnes&rft.btitle=Den+tause+dimensjonen&rft.date=2000&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=8243001611&rft.place=Oslo&rft.pub=Spartacus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Furn.nb.no%2FURN%3ANBN%3Ano-nb_digibok_2012091805028&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia">Jacobs, Struan (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137452603_5">«Hayek, the ‘Spontaneous’ Order and the Social Objectives of Michael Polanyi»</a>. I Leeson, Robert. <i>Hayek: A Collaborative Biography: Part IV, England, the Ordinal Revolution and the Road to Serfdom, 1931–50</i> (på engelsk). Palgrave Macmillan UK. s. 180–196. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesial:Bokkilder/978-1-137-45260-3" title="Spesial:Bokkilder/978-1-137-45260-3">978-1-137-45260-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_objektidentifikator" title="Digital objektidentifikator">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9781137452603_5">10.1057/9781137452603_5</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Besøkt 19. oktober 2020</span>. «There is indirect evidence of Polanyi as the source of Hayek’s idea of spontaneous social order. Not only did Polanyi identify and systematically discuss the phenomenon years before Hayek; they were also acquaintances, conversant with each other’s work from the 1930s, both men, for example, having participated in a symposium in Paris in 1938 to discuss Walter Lippmann’s lately published, The Good Society. An important article by Polanyi on social order appeared in the journal Economica in 1941 when Hayek was its editor.13 Polanyi was among the 36 participants at the inaugural meeting of The Mount Pelerin Society in 1947, organized by Hayek. Polanyi had stints as a visiting professor at the University of Chicago from 1950, the year in which Hayek was appointed to a professorship there. Hayek in a general acknowledgement in The Constitution of Liberty listed Polanyi among his intellectual benefactors»</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fno.wikipedia.org%3AMichael+Polanyi&rft.atitle=Hayek%2C+the+%E2%80%98Spontaneous%E2%80%99+Order+and+the+Social+Objectives+of+Michael+Polanyi&rft.aufirst=Struan&rft.aulast=Jacobs&rft.btitle=Hayek%3A+A+Collaborative+Biography%3A+Part+IV%2C+England%2C+the+Ordinal+Revolution+and+the+Road+to+Serfdom%2C+1931%E2%80%9350&rft.date=2015&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.isbn=978-1-137-45260-3&rft.pages=180-196&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan+UK&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1057%2F9781137452603_5&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9781137452603_5&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sciencehistory.org/stories/magazine/georg-bredig-scientist-humanist-and-holocaust-survivor/">«Georg Bredig: Scientist, Humanist, and Holocaust Survivor»</a>. <i>Science History Institute</i> (på engelsk)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Besøkt 18. desember 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fno.wikipedia.org%3AMichael+Polanyi&rft.atitle=Georg+Bredig%3A+Scientist%2C+Humanist%2C+and+Holocaust+Survivor&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Science+History+Institute&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsciencehistory.org%2Fstories%2Fmagazine%2Fgeorg-bredig-scientist-humanist-and-holocaust-survivor%2F&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Shea, Patrick H. (1. oktober 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/ci-2023-0402/html">«Science and Survival: Exploring the Papers of Georg and Max Bredig»</a>. <i>Chemistry International</i>. 4 (på tysk). 45: 6–13. <a href="/wiki/Internasjonalt_standard_periodikanummer" title="Internasjonalt standard periodikanummer">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/1365-2192">1365-2192</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_objektidentifikator" title="Digital objektidentifikator">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fci-2023-0402">10.1515/ci-2023-0402</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Besøkt 18. desember 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fno.wikipedia.org%3AMichael+Polanyi&rft.atitle=Science+and+Survival%3A+Exploring+the+Papers+of+Georg+and+Max+Bredig&rft.aufirst=Patrick+H.&rft.aulast=Shea&rft.date=2023-10-01&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=1365-2192&rft.jtitle=Chemistry+International&rft.pages=6-13&rft.volume=45&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fdocument%2Fdoi%2F10.1515%2Fci-2023-0402%2Fhtml&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fci-2023-0402&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">McGUCKEN, William (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41827223">«On Freedom and Planning in Science: The Society for Freedom in Science, 1940-46»</a>. <i>Minerva</i>. 16 (1): 42–72. <a href="/wiki/Internasjonalt_standard_periodikanummer" title="Internasjonalt standard periodikanummer">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0026-4695">0026-4695</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Besøkt 10. desember 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fno.wikipedia.org%3AMichael+Polanyi&rft.atitle=On+Freedom+and+Planning+in+Science%3A+The+Society+for+Freedom+in+Science%2C+1940-46&rft.aufirst=William&rft.aulast=McGUCKEN&rft.date=1978&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=0026-4695&rft.issue=1&rft.jtitle=Minerva&rft.pages=42-72&rft.volume=16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41827223&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Baker, John R. (1. september 1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01096667">«Michael Polanyi's contributions to the cause of freedom in science»</a>. <i>Minerva</i>. 3 (på engelsk). 16: 382–396. <a href="/wiki/Internasjonalt_standard_periodikanummer" title="Internasjonalt standard periodikanummer">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/1573-1871">1573-1871</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_objektidentifikator" title="Digital objektidentifikator">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01096667">10.1007/BF01096667</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Besøkt 10. desember 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fno.wikipedia.org%3AMichael+Polanyi&rft.atitle=Michael+Polanyi%27s+contributions+to+the+cause+of+freedom+in+science&rft.aufirst=John+R.&rft.aulast=Baker&rft.date=1978-09-01&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=1573-1871&rft.jtitle=Minerva&rft.pages=382-396&rft.volume=16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%2FBF01096667&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF01096667&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs12108-998-1019-6">"Michael Polanyi and the Sociology of a Free Society", Louis H. Swartz</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://truthplace.files.wordpress.com/2013/01/response-to-logical-positivism.pdf">MICHAEL POLANYI’S TACIT KNOWLEDGE: A RESPONSE TO LOGICAL POSITIVISM</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text">Mullins, P., & Jacobs, S. (2005). Michael Polanyi and Karl Mannheim. <i>Tradition and Discovery: The Polanyi Society Periodical</i>, 32(1), 20-43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Jacobs, Struan; Mullins, Phil (1. september 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0039368111000185">«Relations between Karl Popper and Michael Polanyi»</a>. <i>Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A</i>. 3 (på engelsk). 42: 426–435. <a href="/wiki/Internasjonalt_standard_periodikanummer" title="Internasjonalt standard periodikanummer">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0039-3681">0039-3681</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_objektidentifikator" title="Digital objektidentifikator">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.shpsa.2010.09.001">10.1016/j.shpsa.2010.09.001</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Besøkt 19. oktober 2020</span>. «Popper regarded Polanyi’s position as implying cognitive relativism and irrationalism, and from the time of Polanyi’s 1952 paper their personal relationship became strained. Discord between them became publicly manifest when Polanyi subtitled his book Personal Knowledge (1958), Towards a post-critical philosophy, and Popper lambasted the idea of a ‘post-critical’ philosophy in his Preface in The Logic of Scientific Discovery (1959).»</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fno.wikipedia.org%3AMichael+Polanyi&rft.atitle=Relations+between+Karl+Popper+and+Michael+Polanyi&rft.au=Mullins%2C+Phil&rft.aufirst=Struan&rft.aulast=Jacobs&rft.date=2011-09-01&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=0039-3681&rft.jtitle=Studies+in+History+and+Philosophy+of+Science+Part+A&rft.pages=426-435&rft.volume=42&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS0039368111000185&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.shpsa.2010.09.001&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text">Jacobs, S., & Mullins, P. (2012). Michael Polanyi and Karl Popper: The fraying of a long-standing acquaintance. <i>Tradition & Discovery: The Polanyi Society Periodical</i>, 61-93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Jacobs, Struan; Mullins, Phil (2. januar 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080/01916599.2014.1002971">«Friedrich Hayek and Michael Polanyi in Correspondence»</a>. <i>History of European Ideas</i>. 1. 42: 107–130. <a href="/wiki/Internasjonalt_standard_periodikanummer" title="Internasjonalt standard periodikanummer">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0191-6599">0191-6599</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_objektidentifikator" title="Digital objektidentifikator">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01916599.2014.1002971">10.1080/01916599.2014.1002971</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Besøkt 19. oktober 2020</span>. «hey had shared interests that included science, social science, economics, epistemology, history of ideas and political philosophy. Studying their correspondence and related writings, this article shows that Hayek and Polanyi were committed Liberals but with different understandings of liberty, the forces that endanger liberty, and the policies required to rescue it.»</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fno.wikipedia.org%3AMichael+Polanyi&rft.atitle=Friedrich+Hayek+and+Michael+Polanyi+in+Correspondence&rft.au=Mullins%2C+Phil&rft.aufirst=Struan&rft.aulast=Jacobs&rft.date=2016-01-02&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=0191-6599&rft.jtitle=History+of+European+Ideas&rft.pages=107-130&rft.volume=42&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%2F01916599.2014.1002971&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F01916599.2014.1002971&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Eksterne_lenker">Eksterne lenker</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_Polanyi&veaction=edit&section=13" title="Rediger avsnitt: Eksterne lenker" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>rediger</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_Polanyi&action=edit&section=13" title="Rediger kildekoden til seksjonen Eksterne lenker"><span>rediger kilde</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="bjeller languageicon" style="color: var(--color-subtle, #54595d);cursor:help;" title="engelsk">(en)</span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Michael_Polanyi" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Michael Polanyi">Michael Polanyi</a> – kategori av bilder, video eller lyd på <a href="/wiki/Wikimedia_Commons" title="Wikimedia Commons">Commons</a> <span class="noprint plainlinks wikidata-linkback wd_p373"><span class="mw-valign-text-top" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q163087?uselang=nb#P373" title="Rediger på Wikidata"><img alt="Rediger på Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061010171758/http://www.apollon.uio.no/vis/art/2001/1/taus_kunnskap">Bokanmenldelse for norsk utgave av <i>The tacit dimension</i></a>. 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<span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-editLock mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-editLock"></span> <span></span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-language"></span> <span>35 språk</span> </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Nytt emne</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="mw-portlet mw-portlet-dock-bottom emptyPortlet" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul> </ul> </div> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.eqiad.main-d6f4c4464-8kj5v","wgBackendResponseTime":237,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.086","walltime":"1.536","ppvisitednodes":{"value":13090,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":96850,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":13996,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":14,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":38,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":0,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":81233,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":20,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1308.936 1 -total"," 50.06% 655.200 1 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