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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Remote_sensing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Remote sensing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Remote_sensing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Passive_sensor_methodologies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Passive_sensor_methodologies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Passive sensor methodologies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Passive_sensor_methodologies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Photogrammetry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Photogrammetry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>Photogrammetry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Photogrammetry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Active_sensor_methodologies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Active_sensor_methodologies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.3</span> <span>Active sensor methodologies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Active_sensor_methodologies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forms_of_topographic_data" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forms_of_topographic_data"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Forms of topographic data</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Forms_of_topographic_data-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Forms of topographic data subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Forms_of_topographic_data-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Raw_survey_data" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Raw_survey_data"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Raw survey data</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Raw_survey_data-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Remote_sensing_data" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Remote_sensing_data"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Remote sensing data</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Remote_sensing_data-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Topographic_mapping" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Topographic_mapping"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Topographic mapping</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Topographic_mapping-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Digital_elevation_modeling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Digital_elevation_modeling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Digital elevation modeling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Digital_elevation_modeling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Topological_modeling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Topological_modeling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Topological modeling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Topological_modeling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Topography_in_other_fields" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Topography_in_other_fields"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Topography in other fields</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Topography_in_other_fields-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Topographers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Topographers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Topographers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Topographers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span 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Available in 73 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-73" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">73 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografie" title="Topografie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Topografie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B7%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="طبوغرافيا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="طبوغرافيا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topograf%C3%ADa" title="Topografía – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Topografía" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topoqrafiya" title="Topoqrafiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Topoqrafiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%82%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C" title="توپوقرافی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="توپوقرافی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="ভূসংস্থান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ভূসংস্থান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Тапаграфія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Тапаграфія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Топография – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Топография" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografija" title="Topografija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Topografija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografia" title="Topografia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Topografia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografie" title="Topografie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Topografie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografi" title="Topografi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Topografi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografie_(Kartografie)" title="Topografie (Kartografie) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Topografie (Kartografie)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topograafia" title="Topograafia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Topograafia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CE%BF%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%B3%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%86%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Τοπογραφία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Τοπογραφία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topograf%C3%ADa" title="Topografía – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Topografía" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografio" title="Topografio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Topografio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografia" title="Topografia – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Topografia" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografia" title="Topografia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Topografia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%BE%D9%88%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C" title="توپوگرافی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="توپوگرافی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topographie" title="Topographie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Topographie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topagrafa%C3%ADocht" title="Topagrafaíocht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Topagrafaíocht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topograf%C3%ADa" title="Topografía – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Topografía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A7%80%EC%A7%80%ED%95%99" title="지지학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="지지학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8F%D5%A5%D5%B2%D5%A1%D5%A3%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Տեղագրություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Տեղագրություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="स्थलाकृति – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="स्थलाकृति" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografija" title="Topografija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Topografija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografio" title="Topografio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Topografio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografi" title="Topografi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Topografi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sta%C3%B0fr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Staðfræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Staðfræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografia" title="Topografia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Topografia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%94" title="טופוגרפיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="טופוגרפיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A5%E0%B2%B3_%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A3%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%86" title="ಸ್ಥಳ ವರ್ಣನೆ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಸ್ಥಳ ವರ್ಣನೆ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9E%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ტოპოგრაფია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ტოპოგრაფია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Топография – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Топография" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Топография – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Топография" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topographia" title="Topographia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Topographia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topogr%C4%81fija" title="Topogrāfija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Topogrāfija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topographie" title="Topographie – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Topographie" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografija" title="Topografija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Topografija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografie" title="Topografie – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Topografie" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topogr%C3%A1fia" title="Topográfia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Topográfia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Топографија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Топографија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografi" title="Topografi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Topografi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%80_%D0%B7%D2%AF%D0%B9" title="Байр зүй – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Байр зүй" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografie" title="Topografie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Topografie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%88%E3%83%9D%E3%82%B0%E3%83%A9%E3%83%95%E3%82%A3%E3%83%BC" title="トポグラフィー – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="トポグラフィー" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografi" title="Topografi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Topografi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografi" title="Topografi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Topografi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografia" title="Topografia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Topografia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9F%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%97%E0%A9%8D%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%AB%E0%A9%80" title="ਟੋਪੋਗ੍ਰਾਫੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਟੋਪੋਗ੍ਰਾਫੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BC%D9%88%D9%BE%D9%88%DA%AB%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%8A" title="ټوپوګرافي – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ټوپوګرافي" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografia_(geografia)" title="Topografia (geografia) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Topografia (geografia)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografia" title="Topografia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Topografia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografie" title="Topografie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Topografie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Топография – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Топография" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografia" title="Topografia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Topografia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topography" title="Topography – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Topography" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografia" title="Topografia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Topografia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografija" title="Topografija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Topografija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Топографија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Топографија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografija" title="Topografija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Topografija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografia" title="Topografia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Topografia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografi" title="Topografi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Topografi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topograpiya" title="Topograpiya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Topograpiya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%9F_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="இட அமைப்பியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="இட அமைப்பியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topo%C4%9Frafya" title="Topoğrafya – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Topoğrafya" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Топографія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Топографія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BB%8Ba_h%C3%ACnh_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Địa hình học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Địa hình học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topograpiya" title="Topograpiya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Topograpiya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B5%8B%E7%BB%98%E5%AD%A6" title="测绘学 – Wu" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Study of the forms of land surfaces</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Topology" title="Topology">topology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Typography" title="Typography">typography</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Tomography" title="Tomography">tomography</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the study of Earth's surface shape and features. For discussion of land surfaces themselves, see <a href="/wiki/Terrain" title="Terrain">Terrain</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Topography_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Topography (disambiguation)">Topography (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Topography" title="Special:EditPage/Topography">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Topography%22">"Topography"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Topography%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Topography%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Topography%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Topography%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Topography%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Topographic_map_example.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Topographic_map_example.png/290px-Topographic_map_example.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="290" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Topographic_map_example.png/435px-Topographic_map_example.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Topographic_map_example.png/580px-Topographic_map_example.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>A topographic map of <a href="/wiki/Stowe,_Vermont" title="Stowe, Vermont">Stowe, Vermont</a> with <a href="/wiki/Contour_line" title="Contour line">contour lines</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aster_newyorkcity_lrg.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Aster_newyorkcity_lrg.jpg/170px-Aster_newyorkcity_lrg.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Aster_newyorkcity_lrg.jpg/255px-Aster_newyorkcity_lrg.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Aster_newyorkcity_lrg.jpg/340px-Aster_newyorkcity_lrg.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1964" data-file-height="2607" /></a><figcaption>This <a href="/wiki/False_color" title="False color">false-color</a> <a href="/wiki/Satellite_imagery" title="Satellite imagery">satellite image</a> illustrates topography of the <a href="/wiki/Urban_area#United_States" title="Urban area">urban core</a> of the <a href="/wiki/New_York_metropolitan_area" title="New York metropolitan area">New York metropolitan area</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Manhattan" title="Manhattan">Manhattan</a> at its center.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Topography</b> is the study of the forms and features of <a href="/wiki/Land_surface" class="mw-redirect" title="Land surface">land surfaces</a>. The topography of an area may refer to the land forms and features themselves, or a description or <a href="/wiki/Depiction" title="Depiction">depiction</a> in maps. </p><p>Topography is a field of <a href="/wiki/Geoscience" class="mw-redirect" title="Geoscience">geoscience</a> and <a href="/wiki/Planetary_science" title="Planetary science">planetary science</a> and is concerned with local detail in general, including not only <a href="/wiki/Terrain#Relief" title="Terrain">relief</a>, but also <a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">natural</a>, artificial, and <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">cultural</a> features such as roads, land boundaries, and buildings.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the United States, topography often means specifically <i>relief</i>, even though the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Geological_Survey" title="United States Geological Survey">USGS</a> <a href="/wiki/Quadrangle_(geography)" title="Quadrangle (geography)">topographic maps</a> record not just <a href="/wiki/Elevation" title="Elevation">elevation</a> contours, but also roads, populated places, structures, land boundaries, and so on.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Topography in a narrow sense involves the recording of relief or <a href="/wiki/Terrain" title="Terrain">terrain</a>, the three-dimensional quality of the surface, and the identification of specific <a href="/wiki/Landform" title="Landform">landforms</a>; this is also known as <a href="/wiki/Geomorphometry" title="Geomorphometry">geomorphometry</a>. In modern usage, this involves generation of elevation data in digital form (<a href="/wiki/Digital_Elevation_Model" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Elevation Model">DEM</a>). It is often considered to include the graphic representation of the landform on a <a href="/wiki/Map" title="Map">map</a> by a variety of <a href="/wiki/Cartographic_relief_depiction" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartographic relief depiction">cartographic relief depiction</a> techniques, including <a href="/wiki/Contour_line" title="Contour line">contour lines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hypsometric_tints" title="Hypsometric tints">hypsometric tints</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Shaded_relief" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaded relief">relief shading</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topography&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Topographic_map#History" title="Topographic map">Topographic map § History</a></div> <p>The term <i>topography</i> originated in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a> and continued in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">ancient Rome</a>, as the detailed description of a place. The word comes from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">τόπος</span></span> (<i>topos</i>, "place") and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">-γραφία</span></span> (<i>-graphia</i>, "writing").<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In classical literature this refers to writing about a place or places, what is now largely called '<a href="/wiki/Local_history" title="Local history">local history</a>'. In Britain and in Europe in general, the word topography is still sometimes used in its original sense.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Detailed military surveys in <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Britain</a> (beginning in the late eighteenth century) were called <a href="/wiki/Ordnance_Survey" title="Ordnance Survey">Ordnance Surveys</a>, and this term was used into the 20th century as generic for topographic surveys and maps.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest scientific surveys in France were the <a href="/wiki/French_cartography#Cassini_maps" class="mw-redirect" title="French cartography">Cassini maps</a> after the family who produced them over four generations.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term "topographic surveys" appears to be American in origin. The earliest detailed surveys in the United States were made by the "Topographical Bureau of the Army", formed during the <a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which became the <a href="/wiki/Corps_of_Topographical_Engineers" class="mw-redirect" title="Corps of Topographical Engineers">Corps of Topographical Engineers</a> in 1838.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the work of national mapping was assumed by the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Geological_Survey" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Geological Survey">U.S. Geological Survey</a> in 1878, the term topographical remained as a general term for detailed surveys and mapping programs, and has been adopted by most other nations as standard. </p><p>In the 20th century, the term topography started to be used to describe surface description in other fields where <a href="/wiki/Map" title="Map">mapping</a> in a broader sense is used, particularly in medical fields such as <a href="/wiki/Neurology" title="Neurology">neurology</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Objectives">Objectives</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topography&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Objectives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An objective of topography is to determine the position of any feature or more generally any point in terms of both a horizontal <a href="/wiki/Coordinate_system" title="Coordinate system">coordinate system</a> such as latitude, longitude, and <a href="/wiki/Altitude" title="Altitude">altitude</a>. Identifying (naming) features, and recognizing typical landform patterns are also part of the field. </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">topographic study</a> may be made for a variety of reasons: military planning and geological exploration have been primary motivators to start survey programs, but detailed information about <a href="/wiki/Terrain" title="Terrain">terrain</a> and surface features is essential for the <a href="/wiki/Planning" title="Planning">planning</a> and <a href="/wiki/Construction" title="Construction">construction</a> of any major <a href="/wiki/Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">civil engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Public_works" title="Public works">public works</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Land_reclamation" title="Land reclamation">reclamation</a> projects. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Techniques">Techniques</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topography&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Techniques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are a variety of approaches to studying topography. Which method(s) to use depends on the scale and size of the area under study, its accessibility, and the quality of existing surveys. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Field_survey">Field survey</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topography&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Field survey"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vermessungspunkt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Vermessungspunkt.jpg/150px-Vermessungspunkt.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Vermessungspunkt.jpg/225px-Vermessungspunkt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Vermessungspunkt.jpg/300px-Vermessungspunkt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>A surveying point in <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">Surveying</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></div> <p>Surveying helps determine accurately the terrestrial or <a href="/wiki/Three-dimensional_space" title="Three-dimensional space">three-dimensional space</a> position of points and the distances and <a href="/wiki/Angle" title="Angle">angles</a> between them using <a href="/wiki/Leveling_instrument" class="mw-redirect" title="Leveling instrument">leveling instruments</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Theodolite" title="Theodolite">theodolites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dumpy_level" class="mw-redirect" title="Dumpy level">dumpy levels</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clinometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Clinometer">clinometers</a>. <a href="/wiki/GPS" class="mw-redirect" title="GPS">GPS</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Global_navigation_satellite_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Global navigation satellite systems">global navigation satellite systems</a> (GNSS) are also used. </p><p>Work on one of the first topographic maps was begun in France by <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Domenico_Cassini" title="Giovanni Domenico Cassini">Giovanni Domenico Cassini</a>, the great Italian astronomer. </p><p>Even though remote sensing has greatly sped up the process of gathering information, and has allowed greater accuracy control over long distances, the direct survey still provides the basic control points and framework for all topographic work, whether manual or <a href="/wiki/GIS" class="mw-redirect" title="GIS">GIS</a>-based. </p><p>In areas where there has been an extensive direct survey and mapping program (most of Europe and the Continental U.S., for example), the compiled data forms the basis of basic digital elevation datasets such as <a href="/wiki/USGS_DEM" title="USGS DEM">USGS DEM</a> data. This data must often be "cleaned" to eliminate discrepancies between surveys, but it still forms a valuable set of information for large-scale analysis. </p><p>The original American <a href="/wiki/Topographical_surveys" class="mw-redirect" title="Topographical surveys">topographic surveys</a> (or the British "Ordnance" surveys) involved not only recording of relief, but identification of landmark features and vegetative land cover. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Remote_sensing">Remote sensing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topography&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Remote sensing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">Remote sensing</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">Remote sensing</a> is a general term for geodata collection at a distance from the subject area. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Passive_sensor_methodologies">Passive sensor methodologies</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topography&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Passive sensor methodologies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Aerial_photography" title="Aerial photography">Aerial photography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Satellite_imagery" title="Satellite imagery">Satellite imagery</a></div> <p>Besides their role in photogrammetry, aerial and satellite imagery can be used to identify and delineate terrain features and more general land-cover features. Certainly they have become more and more a part of <a href="/wiki/Geovisualization" title="Geovisualization">geovisualization</a>, whether <a href="/wiki/Map" title="Map">maps</a> or <a href="/wiki/GIS" class="mw-redirect" title="GIS">GIS</a> systems. False-color and non-visible <a href="/wiki/Spectrum" title="Spectrum">spectra</a> imaging can also help determine the lie of the land by delineating vegetation and other land-use information more clearly. Images can be in visible colours and in other spectrum. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Photogrammetry">Photogrammetry</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topography&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Photogrammetry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Photogrammetry" title="Photogrammetry">Photogrammetry</a></div> <p>Photogrammetry is a measurement technique for which the <a href="/wiki/Co-ordinates" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-ordinates">co-ordinates</a> of the points in <a href="/wiki/Three-dimensional_space" title="Three-dimensional space">3D</a> of an object are determined by the measurements made in two <a href="/wiki/Photographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photographic">photographic</a> images (or more) taken starting from different positions, usually from different passes of an aerial photography flight. In this technique, the common points are identified on each <a href="/wiki/Image" title="Image">image</a>. A line of sight (or <a href="/wiki/Ray_(optics)" title="Ray (optics)">ray</a>) can be built from the camera location to the point on the object. It is the intersection of its rays (<a href="/wiki/Triangulation" title="Triangulation">triangulation</a>) which determines the relative three-dimensional position of the point. Known control points can be used to give these relative positions absolute values. More sophisticated <a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithms</a> can exploit other information on the scene known a priori (for example, symmetries in certain cases allowing the rebuilding of three-dimensional co-ordinates starting from one only position of the camera). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Active_sensor_methodologies">Active sensor methodologies</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topography&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Active sensor methodologies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Satellite <a href="/wiki/RADAR" class="mw-redirect" title="RADAR">RADAR</a> mapping is one of the major techniques of generating Digital Elevation Models (see below). Similar techniques are applied in <a href="/wiki/Bathymetry" title="Bathymetry">bathymetric</a> surveys using <a href="/wiki/Sonar" title="Sonar">sonar</a> to determine the terrain of the ocean floor. In recent years, <a href="/wiki/LIDAR" class="mw-redirect" title="LIDAR">LIDAR</a> (<b>LI</b>ght <b>D</b>etection <b>A</b>nd <b>R</b>anging), a remote sensing technique that uses a laser instead of radio waves, has increasingly been employed for complex mapping needs such as charting canopies and monitoring glaciers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Forms_of_topographic_data">Forms of topographic data</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topography&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Forms of topographic data"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Terrain is commonly modelled either using vector (<a href="/wiki/Triangulated_irregular_network" title="Triangulated irregular network">triangulated irregular network</a> or TIN) or gridded (<a href="/wiki/Raster_image" class="mw-redirect" title="Raster image">raster image</a>) mathematical models. In the most applications in <a href="/wiki/Environmental_science" title="Environmental science">environmental sciences</a>, land surface is represented and modelled using gridded models. In civil engineering and entertainment businesses, the most representations of land surface employ some variant of TIN models. In <a href="/wiki/Geostatistics" title="Geostatistics">geostatistics</a>, land surface is commonly modelled as a combination of the two signals – the smooth (spatially correlated) and the rough (noise) signal. </p><p>In practice, surveyors first sample heights in an area, then use these to produce a Digital Land Surface Model in the form of a <a href="/wiki/Triangulated_irregular_network" title="Triangulated irregular network">TIN</a>. The DLSM can then be used to visualize terrain, drape remote sensing images, quantify ecological properties of a surface or extract land surface objects. The contour data or any other sampled elevation datasets are not a DLSM. A DLSM implies that elevation is available continuously at each location in the study area, i.e. that the map represents a complete surface. Digital Land Surface Models should not be confused with Digital Surface Models, which can be surfaces of the canopy, buildings and similar objects. For example, in the case of surface models produces using the lidar technology, one can have several surfaces – starting from the top of the canopy to the actual solid earth. The difference between the two surface models can then be used to derive volumetric measures (height of trees etc.). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Raw_survey_data">Raw survey data</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topography&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Raw survey data"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Topographic survey information is historically based upon the notes of surveyors. They may derive naming and cultural information from other local sources (for example, <a href="/wiki/Boundary_(topology)" title="Boundary (topology)">boundary</a> delineation may be derived from local <a href="/wiki/Cadastral" class="mw-redirect" title="Cadastral">cadastral</a> mapping). While of historical interest, these field notes inherently include errors and contradictions that later stages in map production resolve. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Remote_sensing_data">Remote sensing data</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topography&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Remote sensing data"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As with field notes, remote sensing data (aerial and satellite photography, for example), is raw and uninterpreted. It may contain holes (due to cloud cover for example) or inconsistencies (due to the timing of specific image captures). Most modern topographic mapping includes a large component of remotely sensed data in its compilation process. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Topographic_mapping">Topographic mapping</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topography&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Topographic mapping"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Topographic_map" title="Topographic map">Topographic map</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Europe_topography_map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Europe_topography_map.png/220px-Europe_topography_map.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Europe_topography_map.png/330px-Europe_topography_map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Europe_topography_map.png/440px-Europe_topography_map.png 2x" data-file-width="1473" data-file-height="1198" /></a><figcaption>A map of <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> using <b>elevation modeling</b></figcaption></figure> <p>In its contemporary definition, topographic mapping shows relief. In the United States, <a href="/wiki/USGS" class="mw-redirect" title="USGS">USGS</a> topographic maps show relief using <a href="/wiki/Contour_lines" class="mw-redirect" title="Contour lines">contour lines</a>. The USGS calls maps based on topographic surveys, but without contours, "planimetric maps." </p><p>These maps show not only the contours, but also any significant streams or other bodies of water, <a href="/wiki/Forest_cover" title="Forest cover">forest cover</a>, built-up areas or individual buildings (depending on scale), and other features and points of interest. </p><p>While not officially "topographic" maps, the national surveys of other nations share many of the same features, and so they are often called "topographic maps." </p><p>Existing topographic survey maps, because of their comprehensive and encyclopedic coverage, form the basis for much derived topographic work. Digital Elevation Models, for example, have often been created not from new remote sensing data but from existing paper topographic maps. Many government and private publishers use the artwork (especially the contour lines) from existing topographic map sheets as the basis for their own specialized or updated topographic maps.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Topographic mapping should not be confused with <a href="/wiki/Geologic_map" title="Geologic map">geologic mapping</a>. The latter is concerned with underlying structures and processes to the surface, rather than with identifiable surface features. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Digital_elevation_modeling">Digital elevation modeling</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topography&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Digital elevation modeling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Digital_elevation_model" title="Digital elevation model">Digital elevation model</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maps-for-free_Sierra_Nevada.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Maps-for-free_Sierra_Nevada.png/220px-Maps-for-free_Sierra_Nevada.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Maps-for-free_Sierra_Nevada.png/330px-Maps-for-free_Sierra_Nevada.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Maps-for-free_Sierra_Nevada.png/440px-Maps-for-free_Sierra_Nevada.png 2x" data-file-width="497" data-file-height="399" /></a><figcaption>Relief map: <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Nevada_(Spain)" title="Sierra Nevada (Spain)">Sierra Nevada Mountains</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> </figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mtm-05277e_3d.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Mtm-05277e_3d.png/220px-Mtm-05277e_3d.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Mtm-05277e_3d.png/330px-Mtm-05277e_3d.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Mtm-05277e_3d.png/440px-Mtm-05277e_3d.png 2x" data-file-width="1274" data-file-height="972" /></a><figcaption>3D rendering of a <a href="/wiki/Digital_elevation_model" title="Digital elevation model">DEM</a> used for the <a href="/wiki/Topography_of_Mars" class="mw-redirect" title="Topography of Mars">topography of Mars</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The digital elevation model (DEM) is a <a href="/wiki/Raster_graphics" title="Raster graphics">raster</a>-based <a href="/wiki/Digital_data" title="Digital data">digital</a> dataset of the topography (<a href="/wiki/Hypsometry" title="Hypsometry">hypsometry</a> and/or <a href="/wiki/Bathymetry" title="Bathymetry">bathymetry</a>) of all or part of the Earth (or a <a href="/wiki/Telluric_planet" class="mw-redirect" title="Telluric planet">telluric planet</a>). The <a href="/wiki/Pixels" class="mw-redirect" title="Pixels">pixels</a> of the dataset are each assigned an elevation value, and a header portion of the dataset defines the area of coverage, the units each pixel covers, and the units of elevation (and the zero-point). DEMs may be derived from existing paper maps and survey data, or they may be generated from new satellite or other remotely sensed <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sonar" title="Sonar">sonar</a> data. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Topological_modeling">Topological modeling</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topography&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Topological modeling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span class="mw-3d-wrapper" data-label="3D"><a href="/wiki/File:Earth_dry_elevation.stl" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Earth_dry_elevation.stl/220px-Earth_dry_elevation.stl.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Earth_dry_elevation.stl/330px-Earth_dry_elevation.stl.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Earth_dry_elevation.stl/440px-Earth_dry_elevation.stl.png 2x" data-file-width="5120" data-file-height="2880" /></a></span><figcaption><a href="/wiki/STL_(file_format)" title="STL (file format)">STL 3D model</a> of Earth without liquid water with 20× elevation exaggeration</figcaption></figure> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">geographic information system</a> (GIS) can recognize and analyze the spatial relationships that exist within digitally stored spatial data. These topological relationships allow complex spatial <a href="/wiki/Model_(abstract)" class="mw-redirect" title="Model (abstract)">modelling</a> and analysis to be performed. Topological relationships between geometric entities traditionally include adjacency (what adjoins what), containment (what encloses what), and proximity (how close something is to something else). </p> <ul><li>reconstitute a sight in synthesized images of the ground,</li> <li>determine a trajectory of overflight of the ground,</li> <li>calculate surfaces or volumes,</li> <li>trace topographic profiles,</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Topography_in_other_fields">Topography in other fields</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topography&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Topography in other fields"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Topography_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Topography (disambiguation)">Topography (disambiguation)</a></div> <p>Topography has been applied to different science fields. In <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">neuroscience</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">neuroimaging</a> discipline uses techniques such as EEG topography for <a href="/wiki/Brain_mapping" title="Brain mapping">brain mapping</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Ophthalmology" title="Ophthalmology">ophthalmology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corneal_topography" title="Corneal topography">corneal topography</a> is used as a technique for mapping the surface curvature of the <a href="/wiki/Cornea" title="Cornea">cornea</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Tissue_engineering" title="Tissue engineering">tissue engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atomic_force_microscopy" title="Atomic force microscopy">atomic force microscopy</a> is used to map <a href="/wiki/Nanotopography" title="Nanotopography">nanotopography</a>. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Human_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Human anatomy">human anatomy</a>, topography is <a href="/wiki/Superficial_human_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Superficial human anatomy">superficial human anatomy</a>. </p><p>In mathematics the concept of topography is used to indicate the patterns or general organization of features on a map or as a term referring to the pattern in which variables (or their values) are distributed in a space. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Topographers">Topographers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topography&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Topographers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-notice" role="presentation" style="width: auto;"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/20px-Information_icon4.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/30px-Information_icon4.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/40px-Information_icon4.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="620" /></span></span></td><td class="mbox-text" style="width: auto;"><div class="mbox-text-span">This list is <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Lists#Incomplete_lists" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Lists">incomplete</a>; you can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Topography&action=edit">adding missing items</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2021</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main category: <a href="/wiki/Category:Topographers" title="Category:Topographers">Topographers</a></div> <p><b>Topographers</b> are experts in topography. They study and describe the surface features of a place or region. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topography&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">Cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_elevation_model" title="Digital elevation model">Digital elevation model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_line_(topography)" title="Fall line (topography)">Fall line (topography)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">Geomorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Relief_Model" class="mw-redirect" title="Global Relief Model">Global Relief Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypsography" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypsography">Hypsography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_topography" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine topography">Marine topography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topographic_map" title="Topographic map">Topographic map</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orography" title="Orography">Orography</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Topography&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWestShakoor2018" class="citation book cs1">West, Terry R.; Shakoor, Abdul (2018-03-19). <i>Geology Applied to Engineering</i> (2nd ed.). Waveland Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vRRSDwAAQBAJ&dq=topography+includes+cultural+features&pg=PA545">545</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4786-3722-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4786-3722-6"><bdi>978-1-4786-3722-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geology+Applied+to+Engineering&rft.pages=545&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Waveland+Press&rft.date=2018-03-19&rft.isbn=978-1-4786-3722-6&rft.aulast=West&rft.aufirst=Terry+R.&rft.au=Shakoor%2C+Abdul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATopography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2013/3093/pdf/fs2013-3093.pdf">"US Topo—Topographic Maps for the Nation"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. United States Geological Survey. October 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=US+Topo%E2%80%94Topographic+Maps+for+the+Nation&rft.pub=United+States+Geological+Survey&rft.date=2013-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubs.usgs.gov%2Ffs%2F2013%2F3093%2Fpdf%2Ffs2013-3093.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATopography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=topography">Online Etymology Dictionary</a> – etymonline.com</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For example, see the websites of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.victoriacountyhistory.ac.uk/explore/themes/settlement-and-topography">Victoria County History</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.topsoclondon.org/">London Topographical Society</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i> – "Ordnance Survey"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaena" class="citation web cs1">Baena, Victoria. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nypl.org/blog/2022/10/18/revolutionary-cartography-and-cassini-map-france">"Revolutionary Cartography and the Cassini Map of France"</a>. <i>New York Public Library</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 June</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=New+York+Public+Library&rft.atitle=Revolutionary+Cartography+and+the+Cassini+Map+of+France&rft.aulast=Baena&rft.aufirst=Victoria&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nypl.org%2Fblog%2F2022%2F10%2F18%2Frevolutionary-cartography-and-cassini-map-france&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATopography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.topogs.org/History.htm">Topographical Engineers – History and Personnel</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140926122419/http://www.topogs.org/History.htm">Archived</a> 2014-09-26 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Charting the Inland Seas: A History of the U.S. Lake Survey</i>, Arthur M. Woodford, 1991</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See for example the publications of <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ngmapstore.com/jump.jsp?itemType=CATEGORY&itemID=54">National Geographic Trails Illustrated Maps</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061116063243/http://www.ngmapstore.com/jump.jsp?itemID=54&itemType=CATEGORY">Archived</a> 2006-11-16 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> and <a href="/wiki/DeLorme" title="DeLorme">DeLorme</a> products.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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