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vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonotactics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Phonotactics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phonotactics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Timing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Timing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Timing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Timing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historic_sound_changes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historic_sound_changes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Historic sound changes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historic_sound_changes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Orthography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orthography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Orthography </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Orthography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Orthography subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Orthography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Display_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Display_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Display issues </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Display_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Differences_in_orthography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Differences_in_orthography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Differences in orthography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Differences_in_orthography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bender's_orthography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bender's_orthography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Bender's orthography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bender's_orthography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Grammar </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Grammar subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Morphology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syntax" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syntax"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Syntax </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syntax-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vocabulary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vocabulary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Vocabulary </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Vocabulary-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Vocabulary subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Vocabulary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cardinal_numbers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cardinal_numbers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Cardinal numbers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cardinal_numbers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Months" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Months"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Months </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Months-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Weekdays" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Weekdays"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Weekdays </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Weekdays-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marshallese_atolls_and_islands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marshallese_atolls_and_islands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 Marshallese atolls and islands </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marshallese_atolls_and_islands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_countries_and_places" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_countries_and_places"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.5 Other countries and places </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_countries_and_places-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Text_examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Text_examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Text examples </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Text_examples-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Text examples subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Text_examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Modern_orthography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_orthography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Modern orthography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_orthography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Older_orthography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Older_orthography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Older orthography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Older_orthography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Marshallese language</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 65 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-65" aria-hidden="true" > 65 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshallees" title="Marshallees – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Marshallees" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="मार्शली भाषा – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="मार्शली भाषा" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="اللغة المارشالية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="اللغة المارشالية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_marxal%C3%A9s" title="Idioma marxalés – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Idioma marxalés" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mar%C5%9Fall_dili" title="Marşall dili – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Marşall dili" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C" title="مارشال دیلی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="مارشال دیلی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall-g%C3%AD" title="Marshall-gí – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Marshall-gí" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Маршальская мова – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Маршальская мова" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Маршалски език – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Маршалски език" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marchalleg" title="Marchalleg – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Marchalleg" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall%C3%A8s" title="Marshallès – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Marshallès" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mar%C5%A1%C3%A1l%C5%A1tina" title="Maršálština – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Maršálština" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshallesische_Sprache" title="Marshallesische Sprache – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Marshallesische Sprache" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mh mw-list-item"><a href="https://mh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kajin_M%CC%A7aje%C4%BC" title="Kajin M̧ajeļ – Marshallese" lang="mh" hreflang="mh" data-title="Kajin M̧ajeļ" data-language-autonym="Ebon" data-language-local-name="Marshallese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ebon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mar%C5%A1alli_keel" title="Maršalli keel – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Maršalli keel" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B1%CF%81%CF%83%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%AD%CE%B6%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%B7_%CE%B3%CE%BB%CF%8E%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1" title="Μαρσαλέζικη γλώσσα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μαρσαλέζικη γλώσσα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_marshal%C3%A9s" title="Idioma marshalés – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Idioma marshalés" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mar%C5%9Dala_lingvo" title="Marŝala lingvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Marŝala lingvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshallera" title="Marshallera – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Marshallera" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C" title="زبان مارشالی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان مارشالی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshallais" title="Marshallais – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Marshallais" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_marshalesa" title="Lingua marshalesa – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Lingua marshalesa" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A7%88%EC%85%9C%EC%96%B4" title="마셜어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="마셜어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%B7%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A5%D5%B6" title="Մարշալերեն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մարշալերեն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mar%C5%A1alski_jezik" title="Maršalski jezik – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Maršalski jezik" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagsasao_a_Marshales" title="Pagsasao a Marshales – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Pagsasao a Marshales" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Marshall" title="Bahasa Marshall – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Marshall" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_marshallese" title="Lingua marshallese – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua marshallese" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A8%D7%A9%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%AA" title="מרשלית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מרשלית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rw mw-list-item"><a href="https://rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikimarishali" title="Ikimarishali – Kinyarwanda" lang="rw" hreflang="rw" data-title="Ikimarishali" data-language-autonym="Ikinyarwanda" data-language-local-name="Kinyarwanda" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ikinyarwanda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB_%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%B2" title="Маршалл кыв – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="Маршалл кыв" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Коми</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C4%81r%C5%A1alie%C5%A1u_valoda" title="Māršaliešu valoda – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Māršaliešu valoda" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mar%C5%A1alie%C4%8Di%C5%B3_kalba" title="Maršaliečių kalba – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Maršaliečių kalba" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengua_marscialleise" title="Lengua marscialleise – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Lengua marscialleise" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Маршалски јазик – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Маршалски јазик" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C" title="مارشالی – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="مارشالی" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall-ng%E1%B9%B3%CC%84" title="Marshall-ngṳ̄ – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Marshall-ngṳ̄" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshallees" title="Marshallees – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Marshallees" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%9E%E3%83%BC%E3%82%B7%E3%83%A3%E3%83%AB%E8%AA%9E" title="マーシャル語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="マーシャル語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshalleesk_spriak" title="Marshalleesk spriak – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Marshalleesk spriak" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshallesisk" title="Marshallesisk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Marshallesisk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshallesisk" title="Marshallesisk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Marshallesisk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall%C3%A9s" title="Marshallés – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Marshallés" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_tili" title="Marshall tili – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Marshall tili" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A_%DA%98%D8%A8%D9%87" title="مارشالي ژبه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="مارشالي ژبه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenga_Marshal%C3%A8isa" title="Lenga Marshalèisa – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Lenga Marshalèisa" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyk_marszalski" title="Język marszalski – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Język marszalski" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_marshallesa" title="Língua marshallesa – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Língua marshallesa" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Маршалльский язык – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Маршалльский язык" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sm mw-list-item"><a href="https://sm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gagana_Marshallese" title="Gagana Marshallese – Samoan" lang="sm" hreflang="sm" data-title="Gagana Marshallese" data-language-autonym="Gagana Samoa" data-language-local-name="Samoan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gagana Samoa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A2%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%9E%E1%B1%A4_%E1%B1%AF%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B9%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%A4" title="ᱢᱟᱨᱥᱟᱞᱤ ᱯᱟᱹᱨᱥᱤ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱢᱟᱨᱥᱟᱞᱤ ᱯᱟᱹᱨᱥᱤ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gjuha_marshalleze" title="Gjuha marshalleze – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gjuha marshalleze" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshallese_language" title="Marshallese language – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Marshallese language" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mar%C5%A1alski_jezik" title="Maršalski jezik – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Maršalski jezik" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshallin_kieli" title="Marshallin kieli – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Marshallin kieli" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshallesiska" title="Marshallesiska – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Marshallesiska" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikang_Marshales" title="Wikang Marshales – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Wikang Marshales" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF" title="கயின மொழி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கயின மொழி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_Adalar%C4%B1_dili" title="Marshall Adaları dili – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Marshall Adaları dili" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Маршальська мова – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Маршальська мова" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B4%D9%84%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86" title="مارشلی زبان – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="مارشلی زبان" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng_Marshall" title="Tiếng Marshall – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tiếng Marshall" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" 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id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Micronesian language of the Marshall Islands</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: pink;">Marshallese</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: pink;">Kajin M̧ajeļ<a href="#cite_note-eth-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: pink;">(new orthography) Kajin M̧ajel‌̧ (old orthography) Kajin Majōl</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Native to</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Islands" title="Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Ethnicity</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Marshallese_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Marshallese people">Marshallese</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Native speakers</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">(55,000 cited 1979)<a href="#cite_note-e18-2">[2]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Malayo-Polynesian_languages" title="Malayo-Polynesian languages">Malayo-Polynesian</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_languages" title="Oceanic languages">Oceanic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Micronesian_languages" title="Micronesian languages">Micronesian</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li>Micronesian Proper<ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li>Nuclear Micronesian<ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li>Marshallese</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Marshallese_orthography" class="mw-redirect" title="Marshallese orthography">Marshallese alphabet</a>)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: pink;">Official status</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Official language in</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Flag_of_the_Marshall_Islands.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Marshall_Islands.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Flag_of_the_Marshall_Islands.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Marshall_Islands.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Flag_of_the_Marshall_Islands.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Marshall_Islands.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1140" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Islands" title="Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: pink;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-1" title="ISO 639-1">ISO 639-1</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?iso_639_1=mh">mh</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-2" title="ISO 639-2">ISO 639-2</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?code_ID=277">mah</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/mah" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:mah">mah</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/mars1254">mars1254</a></code></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/File:Micronesian_languages.en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Micronesian_languages.en.svg/320px-Micronesian_languages.en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Micronesian_languages.en.svg/480px-Micronesian_languages.en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Micronesian_languages.en.svg/640px-Micronesian_languages.en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1583" data-file-height="912" /></a><div style="text-align:left;">Map of <a href="/wiki/Micronesian_languages" title="Micronesian languages">Micronesian languages</a>; Marshallese is spoken in the orange area.</div></td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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.sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output 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.sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_Marshall_Islands" title="Culture of the Marshall Islands">Culture of the Marshall Islands</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image photo"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Marshall_Islands.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Flag_of_the_Marshall_Islands.svg/150px-Flag_of_the_Marshall_Islands.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="79" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Flag_of_the_Marshall_Islands.svg/225px-Flag_of_the_Marshall_Islands.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Flag_of_the_Marshall_Islands.svg/300px-Flag_of_the_Marshall_Islands.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1140" data-file-height="600" /></a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:105%;line-height:1.6;"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Marshall_Islands" title="History of the Marshall Islands">History</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:105%;line-height:1.6;"> <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Marshall_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of the Marshall Islands">Languages</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:105%;line-height:1.6;"> <a href="/wiki/Marshallese_cuisine" title="Marshallese cuisine">Cuisine</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:105%;line-height:1.6;"> <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Marshall_Islands" title="Religion in the Marshall Islands">Religion</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:105%;line-height:1.6;"> <a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_Marshall_Islands" title="Music of the Marshall Islands">Music</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:105%;line-height:1.6;"> <a href="/wiki/Sport_in_the_Marshall_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Sport in the Marshall Islands">Sport</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Monuments</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_the_Marshall_Islands" title="List of World Heritage Sites in the Marshall Islands">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Symbols</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Marshall_Islands" title="Flag of the Marshall Islands">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Marshall_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Coat of arms of the Marshall Islands">Coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_anthem_of_the_Marshall_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="National anthem of the Marshall Islands">National anthem</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Culture_of_the_Marshall_Islands" title="Template:Culture of the Marshall Islands"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Culture_of_the_Marshall_Islands" title="Template talk:Culture of the Marshall Islands"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Culture_of_the_Marshall_Islands" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Culture of the Marshall Islands"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Marshallese (Marshallese: Kajin M̧ajel‌̧ or Kajin Majōl <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[kɑzʲinʲ(i)mˠɑːzʲɛlˠ]</a>), also known as Ebon, is a <a href="/wiki/Micronesian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Micronesian language">Micronesian language</a> spoken in the <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Islands" title="Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a>. The language of the <a href="/wiki/Marshallese_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Marshallese people">Marshallese people</a>, it is spoken by nearly all of the country's population of 59,000, making it the principal language.<a href="#cite_note-Pop-3">[3]</a> There are also roughly 27,000 Marshallese citizens residing in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Ruststaff-4">[4]</a> nearly all of whom speak Marshallese, as well as residents in other countries such as <a href="/wiki/Nauru" title="Nauru">Nauru</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kiribati" title="Kiribati">Kiribati</a>. There are two major dialects, the western <a href="/wiki/Ralik_Chain" class="mw-redirect" title="Ralik Chain">Rālik</a> and the eastern <a href="/wiki/Ratak_Chain" class="mw-redirect" title="Ratak Chain">Ratak</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marshallese_language&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Classification">edit</a>]</div> Marshallese, a <a href="/wiki/Micronesian_languages" title="Micronesian languages">Micronesian language</a>, is a member of the Eastern <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_languages" title="Oceanic languages">Oceanic</a> subgroup of the <a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian languages</a>.<a href="#cite_note-hgb-5">[5]</a> The closest linguistic relatives of Marshallese are the other Micronesian languages, including <a href="/wiki/Gilbertese_language" title="Gilbertese language">Gilbertese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nauruan_language" title="Nauruan language">Nauruan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pohnpeian_language" title="Pohnpeian language">Pohnpeian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mokilese_language" title="Mokilese language">Mokilese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chuukese_language" title="Chuukese language">Chuukese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carolinian_people" title="Carolinian people">Refaluwash</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kosraean_language" title="Kosraean language">Kosraean</a>. Marshallese shows 50% lexical similarity with <a href="/wiki/Gilbertese_language" title="Gilbertese language">Gilbertese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mokilese_language" title="Mokilese language">Mokilese</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pohnpeian_language" title="Pohnpeian language">Pohnpeian</a>.<a href="#cite_note-eth-1">[1]</a> Within the <a href="/wiki/Micronesia" title="Micronesia">Micronesian</a> archipelago, Marshallese—along with the rest of the Micronesian language group—is not as closely related to the more ambiguously classified Oceanic language <a href="/wiki/Yapese_language" title="Yapese language">Yapese</a> in <a href="/wiki/Yap_State" title="Yap State">Yap State</a>, or to the <a href="/wiki/Polynesian_outlier" title="Polynesian outlier">Polynesian outlier</a> languages <a href="/wiki/Kapingamarangi_language" title="Kapingamarangi language">Kapingamarangi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nukuoro_language" title="Nukuoro language">Nukuoro</a> in <a href="/wiki/Pohnpei_State" title="Pohnpei State">Pohnpei State</a>, and even less closely related to the non-Oceanic languages <a href="/wiki/Palauan_language" title="Palauan language">Palauan</a> in <a href="/wiki/Palau" title="Palau">Palau</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chamorro_language" title="Chamorro language">Chamorro</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Mariana_Islands" title="Mariana Islands">Mariana Islands</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Variation">Variation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marshallese_language&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Variation">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_the_Marshall_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of the Marshall Islands">Republic of the Marshall Islands</a> contains 34 <a href="/wiki/Atolls" class="mw-redirect" title="Atolls">atolls</a> that are split into two chains, the eastern <a href="/wiki/Ratak_Chain" class="mw-redirect" title="Ratak Chain">Ratak Chain</a> and the western <a href="/wiki/R%C4%81lik_Chain" class="mw-redirect" title="Rālik Chain">Rālik Chain</a>.<a href="#cite_note-hgb-5">[5]</a> These two chains have different dialects, which differ mainly <a href="/wiki/Lexicon" title="Lexicon">lexically</a>, and are <a href="/wiki/Mutually_intelligible" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutually intelligible">mutually intelligible</a>.<a href="#cite_note-eth-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-hgb-5">[5]</a> The atoll of <a href="/wiki/Ujelang" class="mw-redirect" title="Ujelang">Ujelang</a> in the west was reported to have "slightly less homogeneous speech",<a href="#cite_note-eth-1">[1]</a> but it has been uninhabited since 1980.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> The Ratak and Rālik dialects differ phonetically in how they deal with stems that begin with double consonants.<a href="#cite_note-hgb-5">[5]</a> Ratak Marshallese inserts a vowel to separate the consonants, while Ralik adds a vowel before the consonants (and pronounced an unwritten consonant phoneme /j/ before the vowel).<a href="#cite_note-hgb-5">[5]</a> For example, the stem kkure 'play' becomes ikkure in Rālik Marshallese and kukure in Ratak Marshallese.<a href="#cite_note-hgb-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Status">Status</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marshallese_language&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Status">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stop_the_Spread_of_Germs_updated_(Marshallese).pdf" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Stop_the_Spread_of_Germs_updated_%28Marshallese%29.pdf/page1-220px-Stop_the_Spread_of_Germs_updated_%28Marshallese%29.pdf.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Stop_the_Spread_of_Germs_updated_%28Marshallese%29.pdf/page1-330px-Stop_the_Spread_of_Germs_updated_%28Marshallese%29.pdf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Stop_the_Spread_of_Germs_updated_%28Marshallese%29.pdf/page1-440px-Stop_the_Spread_of_Germs_updated_%28Marshallese%29.pdf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1275" data-file-height="1650" /></a><figcaption>A poster sponsored by <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">CDC</a> about <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19</a> prevention in Marshallese.</figcaption></figure> Marshallese is the official language of the <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Islands" title="Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a> and enjoys vigorous use.<a href="#cite_note-eth-1">[1]</a> As of 1979, the language was spoken by 43,900 people in the Marshall Islands.<a href="#cite_note-eth-1">[1]</a> in 2020 the number was closer to 59,000.<a href="#cite_note-Pop-3">[3]</a> Additional groups of speakers in other countries including <a href="/wiki/Nauru" title="Nauru">Nauru</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> increase the total number of Marshallese speakers, with approximately 27,000 Marshallese-Americans living in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a><a href="#cite_note-Ruststaff-4">[4]</a> Along with <a href="/wiki/Pohnpeian_language" title="Pohnpeian language">Pohnpeian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chuukese_language" title="Chuukese language">Chuukese</a>, Marshallese stands out among Micronesian languages in having tens of thousands of speakers; most Micronesian languages have far fewer.<a href="#cite_note-w2008pp6-7-8">[8]</a> A dictionary and at least two Bible translations have been published in Marshallese.<a href="#cite_note-eth-1">[1]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marshallese_language&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Phonology">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marshallese_language&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Consonants">edit</a>]</div> Marshallese has a large consonant inventory, and each consonant has some type of secondary articulation (<a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">palatalization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Velarization" title="Velarization">velarization</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">rounding</a>).<a href="#cite_note-w1-9">[9]</a> The palatalized consonants are regarded as "light", and the velarized and rounded consonants are regarded as "heavy", with the rounded consonants being both velarized and <a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">labialized</a>.<a href="#cite_note-MEDSounds-10">[10]</a> (This contrast is similar to that between "slender" and "broad" consonants in <a href="/wiki/Goidelic_languages" title="Goidelic languages">Goidelic languages</a>, or between "soft" and "hard" consonants in <a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic languages</a>.) The "light" consonants are considered more relaxed articulations. <a href="#cite_note-MEDSounds-10">[10]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"> <caption>Consonant phonemes of Marshallese </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="3"> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th colspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Coronal_consonant" title="Coronal consonant">Coronal</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_consonant" title="Dorsal consonant">Dorsal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Light </th> <th>Heavy </th> <th>Light </th> <th colspan="2">Heavy </th> <th colspan="2">Heavy </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">Palatalized</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Velarization" title="Velarization">Velarized</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">Palatalized</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Velarization" title="Velarization">Velarized</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">Labialized</a> </th> <th>(Velar) </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">Labialized</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">Stop</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">pʲ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Velarization" title="Velarization">pˠ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">tʲ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Velarization" title="Velarization">tˠ</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">kʷ</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">mʲ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Velarization" title="Velarization">mˠ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">nʲ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Velarization" title="Velarization">nˠ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">nʷ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_nasal" title="Voiced velar nasal">ŋ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">ŋʷ</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Rhotic_consonant" title="Rhotic consonant">Rhotic</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">rʲ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Velarization" title="Velarization">rˠ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">rʷ</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">Lateral</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">lʲ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Velarized_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Velarized alveolar lateral approximant">lˠ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">lʷ</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Glide_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Glide consonant">Glide</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_approximant" title="Voiced velar approximant">ɰ</a>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> Although Marshallese has no <a href="/wiki/Consonant_voicing_and_devoicing" title="Consonant voicing and devoicing">voicing</a> contrast in consonants,<a href="#cite_note-w1-9">[9]</a> stops may be allophonically <a href="/wiki/Partial_voicing" class="mw-redirect" title="Partial voicing">partially voiced</a> ([p → b], [t → d], [k → ɡ]),<a href="#cite_note-c14-11">[11]</a> when they are between vowels and not <a href="/wiki/Geminated" class="mw-redirect" title="Geminated">geminated</a>. (Technically, partially voiced stops would be [p̬~b̥], [t̬~d̥], [k̬~ɡ̊], but this article uses voiced transcriptions [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a>], [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a>], [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>] for simplicity.)<a href="#cite_note-alph-12">[12]</a> Final consonants are often <a href="/wiki/Unreleased_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Unreleased stop">unreleased</a>.<a href="#cite_note-c14-11">[11]</a> Glides /j ɰ w/ vanish in many environments, with surrounding vowels assimilating their <a href="/wiki/Backness" class="mw-redirect" title="Backness">backness</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roundedness" title="Roundedness">roundedness</a>.<a href="#cite_note-b21-22-13">[13]</a> That is motivated by the limited surface distribution of these phonemes as well as other evidence that backness and roundedness are not specified phonemically for Marshallese vowels.<a href="#cite_note-b21-22-13">[13]</a> In fact, the consonant /ɰ/ never surfaces phonetically but is used to explain the preceding phenomenon.<a href="#cite_note-c14-11">[11]</a> (/j/ and /w/ may surface phonetically in word-initial and word-final positions and, even then, not consistently.<a href="#cite_note-c14-11">[11]</a>) Bender (1968) explains that it was once believed there were six bilabial consonants because of observed surface realizations, /p pʲ pʷ m mʲ mʷ/, but he determined that two of these, /p m/, were actually allophones of /pʲ mʲ/ respectively before front vowels and allophones of /pˠ mˠ/ respectively before back vowels.<a href="#cite_note-b16-14">[14]</a> Before front vowels, the velarized <a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">labial consonants</a> /pˠ mˠ/ actually tend to have rounded (labiovelarized) articulations [pʷ mʷ], but they remain unrounded on the phonemic level, and there are no distinct /pʷ mʷ/ phonemes.<a href="#cite_note-b16-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-bxvi-xvii-15">[15]</a> The pronunciation guide used by Naan (2014) still recognizes [p m] as allophone symbols separate from [pʲ pˠ mʲ mˠ] in these same conditions while recognizing that there are only palatalized and velarized phonemes.<a href="#cite_note-naan-16">[16]</a> This article uses [pʲ pˠ mʲ mˠ] in phonetic transcriptions. The consonant /tʲ/ may be phonetically realized as [<a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">tʲ</a>], [t͡sʲ], [<a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">sʲ</a>], [t͡ɕ], [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative">ɕ</a>], [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_plosive" title="Voiceless palatal plosive">c</a>], or [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless palatal fricative">ç</a>] (or any of their <a href="/wiki/Voiced_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced consonant">voiced</a> variants [<a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">dʲ</a>], [d͡zʲ], [<a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">zʲ</a>], [d͡ʑ], [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolo-palatal_fricative" title="Voiced alveolo-palatal fricative">ʑ</a>], [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_plosive" title="Voiced palatal plosive">ɟ</a>], or [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_fricative" title="Voiced palatal fricative">ʝ</a>]), in <a href="/wiki/Free_variation" title="Free variation">free variation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-MEDSounds-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-c14-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-alph-12">[12]</a> Word-internally it usually assumes a <a href="/wiki/Voiced_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced consonant">voiced</a> <a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">fricative</a> articulation as [<a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">zʲ</a>] (or [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolo-palatal_fricative" title="Voiced alveolo-palatal fricative">ʑ</a>] or [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_fricative" title="Voiced palatal fricative">ʝ</a>]) but not when <a href="/wiki/Gemination" title="Gemination">geminated</a>.<a href="#cite_note-alph-12">[12]</a> /tʲ/ is used to adapt foreign <a href="/wiki/Sibilant" title="Sibilant">sibilants</a> into Marshallese. In phonetic transcription, this article uses [<a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">tʲ</a>] and [<a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">zʲ</a>] as voiceless and voiced allophones of the same phoneme. Marshallese has no distinct /tʷ/ phoneme. The <a href="/wiki/Dorsal_consonant" title="Dorsal consonant">dorsal consonants</a> /k ŋ kʷ ŋʷ/ are usually <a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">velar</a> but with the tongue a little farther back [k̠ ɡ̠ ŋ̠ k̠ʷ ɡ̠ʷ ŋ̠ʷ], making them somewhere between velar and <a href="/wiki/Uvular_consonant" title="Uvular consonant">uvular</a> in articulation.<a href="#cite_note-alph-12">[12]</a> All dorsal phonemes are "heavy" (velarized or rounded), and none are "light" (palatalized).<a href="#cite_note-MEDSounds-10">[10]</a> As stated before, the <a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">palatal consonant</a> articulations [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_plosive" title="Voiceless palatal plosive">c</a>], [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_plosive" title="Voiced palatal plosive">ɟ</a>], [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless palatal fricative">ç</a>] and [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_fricative" title="Voiced palatal fricative">ʝ</a>] are treated as allophones of the palatalized <a href="/wiki/Coronal_consonant" title="Coronal consonant">coronal</a> obstruent /tʲ/, even though palatal consonants are physically dorsal. For simplicity, this article uses unmarked [k ɡ ŋ kʷ ɡʷ ŋʷ] in phonetic transcription. Bender (1969) describes /nˠ/ and /nʷ/ as being 'dark' r-colored, but is not more specific.<a href="#cite_note-bxvii-17">[17]</a> The Marshallese-English Dictionary (MED) describes these as heavy <a href="/wiki/Dental_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Dental nasal">dental nasals</a>.<a href="#cite_note-MEDSounds-10">[10]</a> Consonants /rʲ/, /rˠ/ and /rʷ/ are all <a href="/wiki/Coronal_consonant" title="Coronal consonant">coronal consonants</a> and full <a href="/wiki/Trill_consonant" title="Trill consonant">trills</a>. /rˠ/ is similar to <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> rr with a trill position just behind the <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_ridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar ridge">alveolar ridge</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Postalveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Postalveolar trill">postalveolar trill</a> [r̠ˠ],<a href="#cite_note-bxvii-17">[17]</a> but /rʲ/ is a palatalized <a href="/wiki/Dental_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Dental trill">dental trill</a> [r̪ʲ], articulated further forward behind the <a href="/wiki/Front_teeth" class="mw-redirect" title="Front teeth">front teeth</a>.<a href="#cite_note-alph-12">[12]</a> The MED and Willson (2003) describe the rhotic consonants as "<a href="/wiki/Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">retroflex</a>", but are not clear how this relates to their dental or alveolar trill positions.<a href="#cite_note-MEDSounds-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-w6-18">[18]</a> (See <a href="/wiki/Retroflex_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Retroflex trill">retroflex trill</a>.) This article uses [<a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">rʲ</a>], [<a href="/wiki/Velarization" title="Velarization">rˠ</a>] and [<a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">rʷ</a>] in phonetic transcription. The heavy lateral consonants /lˠ/ and /lʷ/ are <a href="/wiki/Dark_l" class="mw-redirect" title="Dark l">dark l</a> like in English feel, articulated [<a href="/wiki/Velarized_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Velarized alveolar lateral approximant">ɫ</a>] and [<a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">ɫʷ</a>] respectively.<a href="#cite_note-alph-12">[12]</a> This article uses [<a href="/wiki/Velarized_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Velarized alveolar lateral approximant">lˠ</a>] and [<a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">lʷ</a>] in phonetic transcription. The velarized consonants (and, by extension, the rounded consonants) may be velarized or <a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">pharyngealized</a><a href="#cite_note-MEDSounds-10">[10]</a> like the <a href="/wiki/Emphatic_consonant" title="Emphatic consonant">emphatic consonants</a> in <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Hebrew" title="Mizrahi Hebrew">Mizrahi Hebrew</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marshallese_language&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Vowels">edit</a>]</div> Marshallese has a <a href="/wiki/Vertical_vowel_system" title="Vertical vowel system">vertical vowel system</a> of just four <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">vowel</a> <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemes</a>, each with several <a href="/wiki/Allophone" title="Allophone">allophones</a> depending on the surrounding consonants.<a href="#cite_note-w2-19">[19]</a> On the phonemic level, while Bender (1969) and Choi (1992) agree that the vowel phonemes are distinguished by <a href="/wiki/Vowel_height" class="mw-redirect" title="Vowel height">height</a>, they describe the abstract nature of these phonemes differently, with Bender treating the <a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">front</a> unrounded surface realizations as their relaxed state that becomes altered by proximity of velarized or rounded consonants,<a href="#cite_note-bxiii-xvii-20">[20]</a> while Choi uses <a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">central vowel</a> symbols in a neutral fashion to notate the abstract phonemes and completely different <a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">front</a>, <a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">back</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roundedness" title="Roundedness">rounded</a> vowel symbols for surface realizations. Bender (1968, 1969), MED (1976) and Willson (2003) recognize four vowel phonemes, but Choi (1992) observes only three of the phonemes as having a stable quality, but theorizes that there may be a historical process of reduction from four to three, and otherwise ignores the fourth phoneme. For phonemic transcription of vowels, this article recognizes four phonemes and uses the front unrounded vowel /æ ɛ e i/ notation of the MED, following the approach of Bender (1969) in treating the front vowel surface realizations as the representative phonemes. On the phonetic level, Bender (1968), MED (1976), Choi (1992), Willson (2003) and Naan (2014) notate some Marshallese vowel surface realizations differently from one another, and they disagree on how to characterize the <a href="/wiki/Vowel_height" class="mw-redirect" title="Vowel height">vowel heights</a> of the underlying phonemes, with Willson (2003) taking the most divergent approach in treating the four heights as actually two heights each with the added presence (+ATR) or absence (-ATR) of <a href="/wiki/Advanced_tongue_root" class="mw-redirect" title="Advanced tongue root">advanced tongue root</a>. Bender (1968) assigns central vowel symbols for the surface realizations that neighbor velarized consonants, but the MED (1976), Choi (1992) and Willson (2003) largely assign back unrounded vowel symbols for these, with the exception that the MED uses [<a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a>] rather than cardinal [<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back unrounded vowel">ɤ</a>] for the <a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back unrounded vowel">close-mid back unrounded vowel</a>, and Choi (1992) and Willson (2003) use [<a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a>] rather than cardinal [<a href="/wiki/Open_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open back unrounded vowel">ɑ</a>] for the <a href="/wiki/Open_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open back unrounded vowel">open back unrounded vowel</a>. Naan (2014) is the only reference providing a <a href="/wiki/Vowel_trapezium" class="mw-redirect" title="Vowel trapezium">vowel trapezium</a> for its own vowels, and differs especially from the other vowel models in splitting the front allophones of /i/ into two realizations ([<a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-front unrounded vowel">ɪ</a>] before consonants and [<a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a>] in open syllables), merging the front allophones of /ɛ/ and /e/ as [<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a>] before consonants and [<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a>] in open syllables, merging the rounded allophones of /ɛ/ and /e/ as [<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a>], and indicating the front allophone of /æ/ as a close-mid central unrounded vowel [<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid central unrounded vowel">ɘ</a>], a realization more raised even than the front allophone of the normally higher /ɛ/. For phonetic notation of vowel surface realizations, this article largely uses the MED's notation, but uses only cardinal symbols for back unrounded vowels. <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"> <caption>Marshallese vowel phonemes and surface realizations </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="4">Bender<a href="#cite_note-b17-21">[21]</a> </th> <th rowspan="7">  </th> <th colspan="5">MED<a href="#cite_note-MEDSounds-10">[10]</a> </th> <th rowspan="7">  </th> <th colspan="5">Choi<a href="#cite_note-c15-22">[22]</a> </th> <th rowspan="7">  </th> <th colspan="4">Willson<a href="#cite_note-w3-23">[23]</a> </th> <th rowspan="7">  </th> <th colspan="4">Naan<a href="#cite_note-naan-16">[16]</a> </th></tr> <tr style="font-size: 75%;"> <th rowspan="2">Height </th> <th colspan="2">Unrnd. </th> <th>Rnd. </th> <th rowspan="2">Height </th> <th rowspan="2">Phon. </th> <th colspan="2">Unrnd. </th> <th>Rnd. </th> <th rowspan="2">Height </th> <th rowspan="2">Phon. </th> <th colspan="2">Unrnd. </th> <th>Rnd. </th> <th rowspan="2">Height </th> <th colspan="2">Unrnd. </th> <th>Rnd. </th> <th colspan="2">Unrnd. </th> <th>Rnd. </th></tr> <tr style="font-size: 75%;"> <th>Frt. </th> <th colspan="2">Back </th> <th>Frt. </th> <th colspan="2">Back </th> <th>Frt. </th> <th colspan="2">Back </th> <th>Frt. </th> <th colspan="2">Back </th> <th>Frt. </th> <th colspan="2">Back </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a>]</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Close_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Close central unrounded vowel">ɨ</a>]</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a>] </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </td> <td>{i} </td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a>]</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Close_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Close back unrounded vowel">ɯ</a>]</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a>] </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </td> <td>/ɨ/ </td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a>]</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Close_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Close back unrounded vowel">ɯ</a>]</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a>] </td> <td>+hi, +ATR </td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a>]</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Close_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Close back unrounded vowel">ɯ</a>]</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a>] </td> <td>[ɪ, i]</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Near-close_central_unrounded_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Near-close central unrounded vowel">ɪ̈</a>]</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a>] </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_vowel" title="Close-mid vowel">Close-mid</a> </td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-front unrounded vowel">ɪ</a>]</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Near-close_central_unrounded_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Near-close central unrounded vowel">ɪ̈</a>]</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-back_rounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-back rounded vowel">ʊ</a>] </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> </td> <td>{ȩ} </td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a>]</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a>]</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a>] </td> <th colspan="5">  </th> <td>+hi, -ATR </td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-front unrounded vowel">ɪ</a>]</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back unrounded vowel">ɤ</a>]</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-back_rounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-back rounded vowel">ʊ</a>] </td> <td rowspan="2">[ɛ, e]</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid central unrounded vowel">ɘ</a>]</td> <td rowspan="2">[<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a>] </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> </td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a>]</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a>]</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a>] </td> <td>{e} </td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a>]</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back unrounded vowel">ʌ</a>]</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔ</a>] </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> </td> <td>/ə/ </td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a>]</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back unrounded vowel">ʌ</a>]</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a>] </td> <td>-hi, +ATR </td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a>]</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back unrounded vowel">ʌ</a>]</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a>] </td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back unrounded vowel">ʌ</a>] </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a>]</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a>]</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔ</a>] </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </td> <td>{a} </td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Near-open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-open front unrounded vowel">æ</a>]</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Open_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open back unrounded vowel">ɑ</a>]</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Open_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open back rounded vowel">ɒ</a>] </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </td> <td>/ɐ/ </td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a>]</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a>]</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔ</a>] </td> <td>-hi, -ATR </td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a>]</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a>]</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔ</a>] </td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid central unrounded vowel">ë</a>]</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a>]</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Open_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open back rounded vowel">ɒ</a>] </td></tr></tbody></table> Superficially, 12 Marshallese vowel allophones appear in <a href="/wiki/Minimal_pairs" class="mw-redirect" title="Minimal pairs">minimal pairs</a>, a common test for phonemicity.<a href="#cite_note-b17-21">[21]</a> For example, [mʲæ] (mā, 'breadfruit'), [mʲɑ] (ma, 'but'), and [mʲɒ] (mo̧, 'taboo') are separate Marshallese words.<a href="#cite_note-b17-21">[21]</a> However, the uneven distribution of glide phonemes suggests that they underlyingly end with the glides (thus /mʲæj/, /mʲæɰ/, /mʲæw/).<a href="#cite_note-b21-22-13">[13]</a> When glides are taken into account, it emerges that there are only 4 vowel phonemes.<a href="#cite_note-b21-22-13">[13]</a> When a vowel phoneme appears between consonants with different secondary articulations, the vowel often surfaces as a smooth transition from one vowel allophone to the other.<a href="#cite_note-w3-23">[23]</a> For example, jok 'shy', phonemically /tʲɛkʷ/, is often realized phonetically as [tʲɛ͡ɔkʷ].<a href="#cite_note-w3-23">[23]</a> It follows that there are 24 possible short <a href="/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong">diphthongs</a> in Marshallese:<a href="#cite_note-w3-23">[23]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" align="center"> <tbody><tr> <th>Phoneme </th> <th>◌ʲ_◌ˠ </th> <th>◌ʲ_◌ʷ </th> <th>◌ˠ_◌ʲ </th> <th>◌ˠ_◌ʷ </th> <th>◌ʷ_◌ʲ </th> <th>◌ʷ_◌ˠ </th></tr> <tr> <td>/i/</td> <td>[i͡ɯ]</td> <td>[i͡u]</td> <td>[ɯ͡i]</td> <td>[ɯ͡u]</td> <td>[u͡i]</td> <td>[u͡ɯ] </td></tr> <tr> <td>/e/</td> <td>[e͡ɤ]</td> <td>[e͡o]</td> <td>[ɤ͡e]</td> <td>[ɤ͡o]</td> <td>[o͡e]</td> <td>[o͡ɤ] </td></tr> <tr> <td>/ɛ/</td> <td>[ɛ͡ʌ]</td> <td>[ɛ͡ɔ]</td> <td>[ʌ͡ɛ]</td> <td>[ʌ͡ɔ]</td> <td>[ɔ͡ɛ]</td> <td>[ɔ͡ʌ] </td></tr> <tr> <td>/æ/</td> <td>[æ͡ɑ]</td> <td>[æ͡ɒ]</td> <td>[ɑ͡æ]</td> <td>[ɑ͡ɒ]</td> <td>[ɒ͡æ]</td> <td>[ɒ͡ɑ] </td></tr></tbody></table> These diphthongs are the typical realizations of short vowels between two non-glide consonants, but in reality the diphthongs themselves are not phonemic, and short vowels between two consonants with different secondary articulations can be articulated as either a smooth diphthong (such as [ɛ͡ʌ]) or as a monophthong of one of the two vowel allophones (such as [ɛ ~ ʌ]), all in free variation. Bender (1968) also observes that when the would-be diphthong starts with a back rounded vowel [ɒ ɔ o u] and ends with a front unrounded vowel [æ ɛ e i], then a vowel allophone associated with the back unrounded vowels (notated in this article as [ɑ ʌ ɤ ɯ]) may also occur in the vowel nucleus.<a href="#cite_note-b22-23-24">[24]</a> Because the cumulative visual complexity of notating so many diphthongs in phonetic transcriptions can make them more difficult to read, it is not uncommon to phonetically transcribe Marshallese vowel allophones only as one predominant monophthongal allophone, so that a word like [tʲɛ͡ɔkʷ] can be more simply transcribed as [tʲɔkʷ], in a condensed fashion. Before Bender's (1968) discovery that Marshallese utilized a vertical vowel system, it was conventional to transcribe the language in this manner with a presumed inventory of 12 vowel monophthong phonemes,<a href="#cite_note-b17-21-25">[25]</a> and it remains in occasional use as a more condensed phonetic transcription.<a href="#cite_note-c22-25-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-w6-18">[18]</a> This article uses phonemic or diphthongal phonetic transcriptions for illustrative purposes, but for most examples it uses condensed phonetic transcription with the most relevant short vowel allophones roughly corresponding to <a href="#Orthography">Marshallese orthography</a> as informed by the MED. Some syllables appear to contain long vowels: naaj 'future'.<a href="#cite_note-w7-27">[27]</a> They are thought to contain an underlying glide (/j/, /ɰ/ or /w/), which is not present phonetically.<a href="#cite_note-w7-8-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-b22-29">[29]</a> For instance, the underlying form of naaj is /nʲæɰætʲ/.<a href="#cite_note-w7-27">[27]</a> Although the medial glide is not realized phonetically, it affects vowel quality; in a word like /nʲæɰætʲ/, the vowel transitions from [<a href="/wiki/Near-open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-open front unrounded vowel">æ</a>] to [<a href="/wiki/Open_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open back unrounded vowel">ɑ</a>] and then back to [<a href="/wiki/Near-open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-open front unrounded vowel">æ</a>], as [nʲæ͡ɑɑ͡ætʲ].<a href="#cite_note-clong-30">[30]</a> In condensed phonetic transcription, the same word can be expressed as [nʲɑɑtʲ] or [nʲɑːtʲ].<a href="#cite_note-b17-21-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-c22-25-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-w6-18">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phonotactics">Phonotactics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marshallese_language&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Phonotactics">edit</a>]</div> Syllables in Marshallese follow CV, CVC, and VC patterns.<a href="#cite_note-w7-27">[27]</a> Marshallese words always underlyingly begin and end with consonants.<a href="#cite_note-b22-29">[29]</a> Initial, final, and long vowels may be explained as the results of underlying glides not present on the phonetic level.<a href="#cite_note-b22-29">[29]</a> Initial vowels are sometimes realized with an onglide [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a>] or [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a>] but not consistently:<a href="#cite_note-c22-31">[31]</a> <ul><li>/jætʲ/ → [ætʲ ~ jætʲ] 'weave'<a href="#cite_note-c23-32">[32]</a></li></ul> Only <a href="/wiki/Homorganic_consonants" class="mw-redirect" title="Homorganic consonants">homorganic</a> consonant sequences are allowed in Marshallese,<a href="#cite_note-w4-5-33">[33]</a> including geminate varieties of each consonant, except for glides.<a href="#cite_note-c14-11">[11]</a> Non-homorganic clusters are separated by vowel <a href="/wiki/Epenthesis" title="Epenthesis">epenthesis</a> even across word boundaries.<a href="#cite_note-w4-5-33">[33]</a> Some homorganic clusters are also disallowed:<a href="#cite_note-w4-5-33">[33]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Obstruent_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Obstruent consonant">Obstruent</a>-obstruent, <a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">nasal</a>-nasal, <a href="/wiki/Liquid_consonant" title="Liquid consonant">liquid</a>-liquid, nasal-obstruent, and nasal-liquid clusters undergo assimilation of the secondary articulation except if the first consonant is a rounded coronal or a rounded dorsal. Then, the clusters undergo assimilation of the rounded articulation.<a href="#cite_note-w5-34">[34]</a></li> <li>†Obstruent-liquid and liquid-obstruent clusters besides /lʲtˠ/ and /lˠtˠ/ undergo epenthesis.<a href="#cite_note-w5-34">[34]</a></li> <li>Liquid-nasal clusters undergo nasal assimilation.<a href="#cite_note-w5-34">[34]</a></li> <li>Obstruent-nasal clusters undergo epenthesis (if coronal) or nasal assimilation (if non-coronal).<a href="#cite_note-w5-34">[34]</a></li> <li>Clusters involving any glides undergo epenthesis, including otherwise homorganic clusters of two of the same glide.</li></ul> The following assimilations are created, with empty combinations representing epenthesis. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1216972533">.mw-parser-output .col-begin{border-collapse:collapse;padding:0;color:inherit;width:100%;border:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .col-begin-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .col-break{vertical-align:top;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .col-break-2{width:50%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-3{width:33.3%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-4{width:25%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-5{width:20%}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .col-begin,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr>td{display:block!important;width:100%!important}.mw-parser-output .col-break{padding-left:0!important}}</style><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break"> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"> <caption>Bilabials </caption> <tbody><tr> <td>↓→ </td> <th>/p/ </th> <th>/m/ </th></tr> <tr> <th>/p/ </th> <td>/pː/ </td> <td rowspan="2">/mː/ </td></tr> <tr> <th>/m/ </th> <td>/mp/ </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td class="col-break"> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"> <caption>Coronals </caption> <tbody><tr> <td>↓→ </td> <th>/t/ </th> <th>/n/ </th> <th>/r/ </th> <th>/l/ </th></tr> <tr> <th>/t/ </th> <td>/tː/ </td> <th colspan="3"> </th></tr> <tr> <th>/n/ </th> <td>/nt/ </td> <td rowspan="3">/nː/ </td> <td>/nr/ </td> <td>/nl/ </td></tr> <tr> <th>/r/ </th> <th> </th> <td>/rː/ </td> <td>/rl/ </td></tr> <tr> <th>/l/ </th> <td>† </td> <td>/lr/ </td> <td>/lː/ </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td class="col-break"> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"> <caption>Dorsals </caption> <tbody><tr> <td>↓→ </td> <th>/k/ </th> <th>/ŋ/ </th></tr> <tr> <th>/k/ </th> <td>/kː/ </td> <td rowspan="2">/ŋː/ </td></tr> <tr> <th>/ŋ/ </th> <td>/ŋk/ </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td class="col-break"> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"> <caption>Secondary </caption> <tbody><tr> <td>↓→ </td> <th>/◌ʲ/ </th> <th>/◌ˠ/ </th> <th>/◌ʷ/ </th></tr> <tr> <th>/◌ʲ/ </th> <td rowspan="2">/◌ʲ◌ʲ/ </td> <td rowspan="2">/◌ˠ◌ˠ/ </td> <td rowspan="2">/◌ʷ◌ʷ/ </td></tr> <tr> <th>/◌ˠ/ </th></tr> <tr> <th>/◌ʷ/ </th> <td colspan="3">/◌ʷ◌ʷ/ </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> The <a href="/wiki/Vowel_height" class="mw-redirect" title="Vowel height">vowel height</a> of an epenthetic vowel is not phonemic as the epenthetic vowel itself is not phonemic, but is still phonetically predictable given the two nearest other vowels and whether one or both of the cluster consonants are glides.<a href="#cite_note-b22-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-w7-27">[27]</a> Bender (1968) does not specifically explain the vowel heights of epenthetic vowels between two non-glides, but of his various examples containing such vowels, none of the epenthetic vowels has a height lower than the highest of either of their nearest neighboring vowels, and the epenthetic vowel actually becomes /ɛ̯/ if the two nearest vowels are both /æ/. Naan (2014) does not take the heights of epenthetic vowels between non-glides into consideration, phonetically transcribing all of them as a <a href="/wiki/Schwa" class="mw-redirect" title="Schwa">schwa</a> [<a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a>].<a href="#cite_note-naan-16">[16]</a> But when one of the consonants in a cluster is a glide, the height of the epenthetic vowel between them follows a different process, assuming the same height of whichever vowel is on the opposite side of that glide, forming a long vowel with it across the otherwise silent glide.<a href="#cite_note-b22-23-24">[24]</a> Epenthetic vowels do not affect the rhythm of the spoken language, and can never be a stressed syllable.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Phonetic transcription may indicate epenthetic vowels between two non-glides as non-syllabic,<a href="#cite_note-b8-35">[35]</a> using IPA notation similar to that of <a href="/wiki/Semi-vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Semi-vowel">semi-vowels</a>. Certain Westernized Marshallese placenames spell out the epenthetic vowels: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ebeye" class="mw-redirect" title="Ebeye">Ebeye</a>, from earlier Ebeje, from Epjā<a href="#cite_note-MED-36">[36]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erikub" class="mw-redirect" title="Erikub">Erikub</a>, from Ādkup<a href="#cite_note-MED-36">[36]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwajalein" class="mw-redirect" title="Kwajalein">Kwajalein</a>, from Kuwajleen<a href="#cite_note-MED-36">[36]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majuro" title="Majuro">Majuro</a>, from Mājro<a href="#cite_note-MED-36">[36]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namorik" class="mw-redirect" title="Namorik">Namorik</a>, from Nam̧dik<a href="#cite_note-MED-36">[36]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omelek" class="mw-redirect" title="Omelek">Omelek</a>, from Kom̧le ("Kom̧le, Kom̧le")<a href="#cite_note-MED-36">[36]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rongelap" class="mw-redirect" title="Rongelap">Rongelap</a>, from Ron̄l‌̧ap<a href="#cite_note-MED-36">[36]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rongerik" class="mw-redirect" title="Rongerik">Rongerik</a>, from Ron̄dik<a href="#cite_note-MED-36">[36]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ujelang" class="mw-redirect" title="Ujelang">Ujelang</a>, from Wūjlan̄<a href="#cite_note-MED-36">[36]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uliga" title="Uliga">Uliga</a>, from Wūlka<a href="#cite_note-MED-36">[36]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utirik" class="mw-redirect" title="Utirik">Utirik</a>, from Utrōk<a href="#cite_note-MED-36">[36]</a></li></ul> Epenthetic vowels in general can be omitted without affecting meaning, such as in song or in enunciated syllable breaks. This article uses non-syllabic notation in phonetic IPA transcription to indicate epenthetic vowels between non-glides. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Timing">Timing</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marshallese_language&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Timing">edit</a>]</div> The short vowel phonemes /æ ɛ e i/ and the approximant phonemes /j ɰ w/ all occupy a roughly equal duration of time.<a href="#cite_note-c27-37">[37]</a> Though they occupy time, the approximants are generally not articulated as glides, and Choi (1992) does not rule out a deeper level of representation.<a href="#cite_note-c71-38">[38]</a> In particular, /V/ short vowels occupy one unit of time, and /VGV/ long vowels (for which /G/ is an approximant phoneme) are three times as long.<a href="#cite_note-c65-39">[39]</a> As a matter of <a href="/wiki/Prosody_(linguistics)" title="Prosody (linguistics)">prosody</a>, each /C/ consonant and /V/ vowel phonemic sequence carries one <a href="/wiki/Mora_(linguistics)" title="Mora (linguistics)">mora</a> in length, with the exception of /C/ in /CV/ sequences where the vowel carries one mora for both phonemes. All morae are thus measured in /CV/ or shut /C/ sequences:<a href="#cite_note-w8-40">[40]</a> <ul><li>/CVC/ is two morae: /CV-C/. It is also the shortest possible length of a Marshallese word.</li> <li>/CVCVC/ is three morae: /CV-CV-C/. Since approximants are also consonants, long vowel sequences of /CVGVC/ are also three morae.</li> <li>/CVCCVC/ is four morae: /CV-C-CV-C/.</li> <li>Prefixes like ri- are /CV-/ sequences occupying only one mora but are attached to words rather than standing as words on their own.</li> <li>Suffixes like -in are /-VC/ sequences. The syllable itself occupies two morae but adds only one mora to the word because the vowel attaches itself to the last consonant phoneme in the word, changing /-C/ into /-C‿V-C/.</li></ul> That makes Marshallese a mora-rhythmed language in a fashion similar to <a href="/wiki/Finnish_language" title="Finnish language">Finnish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gilbertese_language" title="Gilbertese language">Gilbertese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_language" title="Hawaiian language">Hawaiian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historic_sound_changes">Historic sound changes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marshallese_language&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Historic sound changes">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <caption>Marshallese reflexes of <a href="/wiki/Proto-Oceanic_language" title="Proto-Oceanic language">Proto Oceanic</a> <a href="/wiki/Consonant" title="Consonant">consonants</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBender_et_al.20034,_5-41">[41]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Proto-Oceanic_language" title="Proto-Oceanic language">Proto-Oceanic</a> </th> <td>*mp</td> <td>*mp,ŋp</td> <td>*p</td> <td>*m</td> <td>*m,ŋm</td> <td>*k</td> <td>*ŋk</td> <td>*ŋ</td> <td>*y</td> <td>*w</td> <td>*t</td> <td></td> <td>*s,nj</td> <td>*ns,j</td> <td>*j</td> <td>*nt,nd</td> <td>*d,R</td> <td>*l</td> <td>*n</td> <td>*ɲ </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Micronesian_languages" title="Micronesian languages">Proto-Micronesian</a> </th> <td>*p</td> <td>*pʷ</td> <td>*f</td> <td>*m</td> <td>*mʷ</td> <td>*k</td> <td>*x</td> <td>*ŋ</td> <td>*y</td> <td>*w</td> <td>*t</td> <td>*T</td> <td>*s</td> <td>*S</td> <td>*Z</td> <td>*c</td> <td>*r</td> <td>*l</td> <td>*n</td> <td>*ɲ </td></tr> <tr> <th>Marshallese </th> <td>/pʲ/</td> <td>/pˠ/</td> <td>/j/</td> <td>/mʲ/</td> <td>/mˠ/</td> <td>/k, kʷ/</td> <td>∅</td> <td>/ŋ, ŋʷ/</td> <td>/j/</td> <td>/w/</td> <td>/tʲ/</td> <td>/tʲ/</td> <td>/tˠ/</td> <td>/tˠ/</td> <td>∅</td> <td>/rʲ/</td> <td>/rˠ, rʷ/</td> <td>/lʲ, lˠ, lʷ/</td> <td>/nʲ, nˠ, nʷ/</td> <td>/nʲ/ </td></tr> </tbody></table> Marshallese consonants show splits conditioned by the surrounding Proto-Micronesian vowels. Proto-Micronesian *k *ŋ *r become rounded next to *o or next to *u except in bisyllables whose other vowel is unrounded. Default outcomes of *l and *n are palatalized; they become velarized or rounded before *a or sometimes *o if there is no high vowel in an adjacent syllable. Then, roundedness is determined by the same rule as above. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Orthography">Orthography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marshallese_language&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Orthography">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Book_of_Mormon_-_Marshallese.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Book_of_Mormon_-_Marshallese.jpg/220px-Book_of_Mormon_-_Marshallese.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="288" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Book_of_Mormon_-_Marshallese.jpg/330px-Book_of_Mormon_-_Marshallese.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Book_of_Mormon_-_Marshallese.jpg/440px-Book_of_Mormon_-_Marshallese.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2513" data-file-height="3290" /></a><figcaption>Marshallese version of the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Mormon" title="Book of Mormon">Book of Mormon</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alphabet_marshallais.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Alphabet_marshallais.jpg/220px-Alphabet_marshallais.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Alphabet_marshallais.jpg/330px-Alphabet_marshallais.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Alphabet_marshallais.jpg/440px-Alphabet_marshallais.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Marshallese alphabet in a library</figcaption></figure> Marshallese is written in the <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a>. There are two competing orthographies.<a href="#cite_note-mx-42">[42]</a> The "old" orthography was introduced by missionaries.<a href="#cite_note-mx-42">[42]</a> This system is not highly consistent or faithful in representing the sounds of Marshallese, but until recently, it had no competing orthography.<a href="#cite_note-r6-43">[43]</a> It is currently widely used, including in newspapers and signs.<a href="#cite_note-r6-43">[43]</a> The "new" orthography is gaining popularity especially in schools and among young adults and children.<a href="#cite_note-mx-42">[42]</a> The "new" orthography represents the sounds of the Marshallese language more faithfully and is the system used in the Marshallese–English dictionary by Abo et al., currently the only complete published Marshallese dictionary.<a href="#cite_note-mx-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-r6-43">[43]</a> Here is the current <a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">alphabet</a>, as promoted by the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_the_Marshall_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of the Marshall Islands">Republic of the Marshall Islands</a>. It consists of 24 letters. <table border="0" style="border-collapse:collapse; text-align:center"> <tbody><tr> <td>A</td> <td>Ā</td> <td>B</td> <td>D </td> <td>E</td> <td>I</td> <td>J</td> <td>K </td> <td>L</td> <td>L‌̧</td> <td>M</td> <td>M̧ </td> <td>N</td> <td>N‌̧</td> <td>N̄</td> <td>O </td> <td>O̧</td> <td>Ō</td> <td>P</td> <td>R </td> <td>T</td> <td>U</td> <td>Ū</td> <td>W </td></tr> <tr> <td>a</td> <td>ā</td> <td>b</td> <td>d </td> <td>e</td> <td>i</td> <td>j</td> <td>k </td> <td>l</td> <td>l‌̧</td> <td>m</td> <td>m̧ </td> <td>n</td> <td>n‌̧</td> <td>n̄</td> <td>o </td> <td>o̧</td> <td>ō</td> <td>p</td> <td>r </td> <td>t</td> <td>u</td> <td>ū</td> <td>w </td></tr></tbody></table> <table> <tbody><tr> <td valign="top"> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"> <caption>Orthographic consonants of Marshallese<a href="#cite_note-alph-12">[12]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th colspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Coronal_consonant" title="Coronal consonant">Coronal</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_consonant" title="Dorsal consonant">Dorsal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Light</th> <th>Heavy</th> <th>Light</th> <th colspan="2">Heavy</th> <th colspan="2">Heavy </th></tr> <tr> <th> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">Palatalised</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Velarization" title="Velarization">Velarised</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">Palatalised</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Velarization" title="Velarization">Velarised</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">Labialised</a> </th> <th>(Velar) </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">Labialised</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">Stop</a> </th> <td>p</td> <td>b(w)</td> <td>j</td> <td>t</td> <td></td> <td>k</td> <td>k(w) </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a> </th> <td>m</td> <td>m̧(w)</td> <td>n</td> <td>n‌̧</td> <td>n‌̧(w)</td> <td>n̄</td> <td>n̄(w) </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Rhotic_consonant" title="Rhotic consonant">Rhotic</a> </th> <td></td> <td></td> <td>d</td> <td>r</td> <td>r(w)</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">Lateral</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>l </td> <td>l‌̧ </td> <td>l‌̧(w) </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Glide_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Glide consonant">Glide</a> </th> <td></td> <td></td> <td>e/i/-</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>-</td> <td>w/- </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td valign="top"> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"> <caption>Orthographic vowels of Marshallese<a href="#cite_note-alph-12">[12]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2">Unrounded </th> <th>Rounded </th></tr> <tr> <th>Front </th> <th colspan="2">Back </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td>i</td> <td>ū</td> <td>u </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> </th> <td>e</td> <td>ō</td> <td>o </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td>ā</td> <td>a</td> <td>o̧ </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> Marshallese spelling is based on pronunciation rather than a phonemic analysis. Therefore, backness is marked in vowels despite being allophonic (it does not change the meaning), and many instances of the glides /j ɰ w/ proposed on the phonemic level are unwritten, because they do not surface as consonants phonetically. In particular, the glide /ɰ/, which never surfaces as a consonant phonetically, is always unwritten. The letter w is generally used only in three situations: <ol><li>To mark a rounded consonant (one of kw l‌̧w n‌̧w n̄w rw) or approximant phoneme (w) before a vowel that precedes an unrounded consonant phoneme (a ā e i ō ū). Even then, if the consonant phoneme comes after a back rounded vowel o̧ o u and before another vowel, it is common to write one of l‌̧ n‌̧ r instead of l‌̧w n‌̧w rw, but the rounded dorsal consonants kw n̄w are still written with w in these circumstances.</li> <li>To mark a velarized bilabial consonant (either bw or m̧w) before a vowel that precedes a palatalized consonant phoneme (ā e i).</li> <li>To indicate a [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a>] glide phonetically surfacing either word-initially or between two vowels.</li></ol> w is never written out word-finally or before another consonant. <ul><li>Kuwajleen / Kuajleen [kʷuwɑzʲɛ̆lʲɛːnʲ] "<a href="/wiki/Kwajalein" class="mw-redirect" title="Kwajalein">Kwajalein</a>".<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></li></ul> The palatal glide phoneme /j/ may also be written out but only as e before one of a o ō o̧, or as i before one of either u ū. The approximant is never written before any of ā e i. A stronger raised palatal glide [<a href="/wiki/Semivowel" title="Semivowel">i̯</a>], phonemically analyzed as the exotic un-syllabic consonant-vowel-consonant sequence /ji̯j/ rather than plain /j/, may occur word-initially before any vowel and is written i. For historical reasons, certain words like io̧kwe may be written as yokwe<a href="#cite_note-medYokwe-45">[45]</a> with a y, which does not otherwise exist in the Marshallese alphabet. One source of orthographic variation is in the representation of vowels. Pure <a href="/wiki/Monophthong" title="Monophthong">monophthongs</a> are written consistently based on vowel quality. However, short <a href="/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong">diphthongs</a> may often be written with one of the two vowel sounds that they contain. (Alternate phonetic realizations for the same phonemic sequences are provided purely for illustrative purposes.) <ul><li>wōtōm / otem [wɤdˠɤmʲ ~ o͜ɤdˠɤ͜emʲ ~ odˠemʲ] "all; every".<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></li></ul> Modern orthography has a bias in certain spelling choices in which both possibilities are equally clear between two non-approximant consonants. <ul><li>a is preferred over ā. <dl><dd>l‌̧ap [lˠɑpʲ ~ lˠɑ͜æpʲ ~ lˠæpʲ] "big", not *l‌̧āp<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></dd></dl></li> <li>i is preferred over ū. <dl><dd>dik [rʲik ~ rʲi͜ɯk ~ rʲɯk] "small", not *dūk<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></dd></dl></li> <li>Historically, both ō and e have been common and sometimes interchangeable. It is still true today with some words. In the new orthography, ō is generally preferred over e in most such situations. <dl><dd>aelōn̄ [ɑelʲɤŋ ~ ɑelʲe͜ɤŋ ~ ɑelʲeŋ] "atoll; island; land", not *aelen̄<a href="#cite_note-MEDaelon-49">[49]</a></dd> <dd>Epatōn [ɛbʲɑdˠʌnʲ ~ ɛbʲæ͜ɑdˠʌ͜ɛnʲ] "<a href="/wiki/Ebadon_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Ebadon Island">Ebadon</a>", not *Epaten<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></dd> <dd>Kūrijm̧ōj [kɯrˠizʲĭmˠɤtʲ ~ kɯrˠɯ͜izʲĭ͜ɯ̆mˠɤ͜etʲ] "Christmas", not *Kūrijm̧ej<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></dd> <dd>Nōl‌̧ [nʲʌlˠ ~ nʲɛ͜ʌlˠ ~ nʲɛlˠ] "<a href="/wiki/Nell_Island" title="Nell Island">Nell</a>", not *Nel‌̧<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></dd></dl></li> <li>However, after one of d j m p and before one of unrounded b k l‌̧ m̧ n‌̧ n̄ r t, the spelling e is preferred over ō. <dl><dd>pinjel‌̧ [pʲinzʲɛlˠ ~ pʲinzʲɛ͜ʌlˠ ~ pʲinzʲʌlˠ] "pencil", not *pinjōl‌̧<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></dd></dl></li> <li>For the name of the Marshall Islands, the new orthography prefers e, but the spelling with ō is still found. <dl><dd>M̧ajel‌̧ or M̧ajōl‌̧ [mˠɑːzʲɛlˠ ~ mˠɑːzʲɛ͜ʌlˠ ~ mˠɑːzʲʌlˠ], "Marshall Islands"<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></dd></dl></li></ul> In a syllable whose first consonant is rounded and whose second consonant is palatalized, it is common to see the vowel between them written as one of a ō ū, usually associated with a neighboring velarized consonant: <ul><li>O̧kwōj [ɒɡʷʌtʲ ~ ɒɡʷɔ͜ɛtʲ] "August".<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></li> <li>Wūjlan̄ [wɯzʲĭlʲɑŋ ~ u͜izʲĭlʲæ͜ɑŋ ~ uzʲĭlʲɑŋ] "<a href="/wiki/Ujelang" class="mw-redirect" title="Ujelang">Ujelang</a>".<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></li></ul> The exception is long vowels and long diphthongs made up of two mora units, which are written with the vowel quality closer to the phonetic nucleus of the long syllable: <ul><li>jouj [tʲoutʲ] "kindness".<a href="#cite_note-trussel2.com-58">[58]</a></li> <li>naaj [nʲɑːtʲ] "will be".<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></li> <li>tāākji [tˠæːɡĭzʲi] "taxicab".<a href="#cite_note-trussel2.com-58">[58]</a></li></ul> If the syllable is phonetically open, the vowel written is usually the second vowel in the diphthong: the word bwe [pˠɛ]<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> is usually not written any other way, but exceptions exist such as aelōn̄ (/ɰajɘlʲɘŋ/ [ɑelʲɤŋ] "land; country; island; atoll"<a href="#cite_note-MEDaelon-49">[49]</a>), which is preferred over *āelōn̄ because the a spelling emphasizes that the first (unwritten) glide phoneme is dorsal rather than palatal. The spelling of grammatical <a href="/wiki/Affix" title="Affix">affixes</a>, such as ri- (/rˠi-/<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a>) and -in (/-inʲ/) is less variable despite the fact that their vowels become diphthongs with second member dependent on the preceding/following consonant: the prefix ri- may be pronounced as any of [rˠɯ͜i, rˠɯ, rˠɯ͜u] depending on the stem. The term Ri-M̧ajel‌̧ ("<a href="/wiki/Marshallese_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Marshallese people">Marshallese people</a>") is actually pronounced [rˠɯmˠɑːzʲɛlˠ] as if it were Rūm̧ajel‌̧.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Display_issues">Display issues</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marshallese_language&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Display issues">edit</a>]</div> In the most <a href="/wiki/Copy_editing" title="Copy editing">polished</a> printed text, the letters L‌̧ l‌̧ M̧ m̧ N‌̧ n‌̧ O̧ o̧ always appear with unaltered <a href="/wiki/Cedilla" title="Cedilla">cedillas</a> directly beneath, and the letters Ā ā N̄ n̄ Ō ō Ū ū always appear with unaltered <a href="/wiki/Macron_(diacritic)" title="Macron (diacritic)">macrons</a> directly above. Regardless, the diacritics are often replaced by ad hoc spellings using more common or more easily displayable characters. In particular, the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/">Marshallese-English Online Dictionary</a> (but not the print version), or MOD, uses the following characters:<a href="#cite_note-MED-36">[36]</a> <table border="0" style="border-collapse:collapse; text-align:center"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="5">Standard </th> <th rowspan="3">    </th> <th colspan="5">MOD </th></tr> <tr> <td>L‌̧</td> <td>M̧</td> <td>N‌̧</td> <td>N̄</td> <td>O̧ </td> <td>Ḷ</td> <td>Ṃ</td> <td>Ṇ</td> <td>Ñ</td> <td>Ọ </td></tr> <tr> <td>l‌̧</td> <td>m̧</td> <td>n‌̧</td> <td>n̄</td> <td>o̧ </td> <td>ḷ</td> <td>ṃ</td> <td>ṇ</td> <td>ñ</td> <td>ọ </td></tr></tbody></table> As of 2019, there are no dedicated <a href="/wiki/Precomposed_character" title="Precomposed character">precomposed characters</a> in <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> for the letters M̧ m̧ N̄ n̄ O̧ o̧; they must be displayed as plain Latin letters with <a href="/wiki/Combining_character" title="Combining character">combining</a> <a href="/wiki/Diacritic" title="Diacritic">diacritics</a>, and even many Unicode <a href="/wiki/Font" title="Font">fonts</a> will not display the combinations properly and neatly. Although L‌̧ l‌̧ N‌̧ n‌̧ exist as precomposed characters in Unicode, these letters also do not display properly as Marshallese letters in most Unicode fonts. Unicode defines the letters as having a <a href="/wiki/Cedilla" title="Cedilla">cedilla</a>, but fonts usually display them with a <a href="/wiki/Comma_below" class="mw-redirect" title="Comma below">comma below</a> because of rendering expectations of the <a href="/wiki/Latvian_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Latvian alphabet">Latvian alphabet</a>. For many fonts, a workaround is to encode these letters as the base letter L l N n followed by a <a href="/wiki/Zero-width_non-joiner" title="Zero-width non-joiner">zero-width non-joiner</a> and then a combining cedilla, producing L‌̧ l‌̧ N‌̧ n‌̧. Both systems already require fonts that display <a href="/wiki/ISO_basic_Latin_alphabet" title="ISO basic Latin alphabet">Basic Latin</a> (with A a B b D d E e I i J j K k L l M m N n O o P p R r T t U u W w) and <a href="/wiki/Latin_Extended-A" title="Latin Extended-A">Latin Extended-A</a> (with Ā ā Ō ō Ū ū). The standard orthography also requires <a href="/wiki/Combining_Diacritical_Marks" title="Combining Diacritical Marks">Combining Diacritical Marks</a> for the combining diacritics. The MOD's alternative letters have the advantage of being neatly displayable as all-precomposed characters in any Unicode fonts that support Basic Latin, Latin Extended-A along with <a href="/wiki/Latin-1_Supplement" title="Latin-1 Supplement">Latin-1 Supplement</a> (with Ñ ñ) and <a href="/wiki/Latin_Extended_Additional" title="Latin Extended Additional">Latin Extended Additional</a> (with Ḷ ḷ Ṃ ṃ Ṇ ṇ Ọ ọ). If a font comfortably displays both the <a href="/wiki/International_Alphabet_of_Sanskrit_Transliteration" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_alphabet" title="Vietnamese alphabet">Vietnamese alphabet</a>, it can also display MOD Marshallese. This chart highlights the display issues in common web fonts and common free Unicode fonts that are known to support standard or MOD Marshallese lettering. Distinct typefaces appear only if the operating environment supports them. Some fonts have combining diacritic alignment issues, and the vast majority of the fonts have the Latvian diacritic issue; of the fonts shown below, only the <a href="/wiki/Noto" title="Noto">Noto</a> series displays Marshallese correctly. <table class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw"> <caption class="nowrap">Marshallese letters in various typefaces </caption> <tbody><tr style="border-collapse: collapse;"> <th>Typeface </th> <th colspan="16">Standard letters </th> <th colspan="4">With <a href="/wiki/ISO_639-1" title="ISO 639-1">"mh"</a> code </th> <th colspan="4">With <a href="/wiki/Zero-width_non-joiner" title="Zero-width non-joiner">zero-width non-joiner</a> </th> <th colspan="10">MOD alternates </th></tr> <tr style="font-family: 'Arial';"> <td><a href="/wiki/Arial" title="Arial">Arial</a></td> <td>Ā</td> <td>ā</td> <td>Ļ</td> <td>ļ</td> <td>M̧</td> <td>m̧</td> <td>Ņ</td> <td>ņ</td> <td>N̄</td> <td>n̄</td> <td>O̧</td> <td>o̧</td> <td>Ō</td> <td>ō</td> <td>Ū</td> <td>ū</td> <td lang="mh">Ļ</td> <td lang="mh">ļ</td> <td lang="mh">Ņ</td> <td lang="mh">ņ</td> <td>L‌̧</td> <td>l‌̧</td> <td>N‌̧</td> <td>n‌̧</td> <td>Ḷ</td> <td>ḷ</td> <td>Ṃ</td> <td>ṃ</td> <td>Ṇ</td> <td>ṇ</td> <td>Ñ</td> <td>ñ</td> <td>Ọ</td> <td>ọ </td></tr> <tr style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS';"> <td><a href="/wiki/Arial_Unicode_MS" title="Arial Unicode MS">Arial Unicode MS</a></td> <td>Ā</td> <td>ā</td> <td>Ļ</td> <td>ļ</td> <td>M̧</td> <td>m̧</td> <td>Ņ</td> <td>ņ</td> <td>N̄</td> <td>n̄</td> <td>O̧</td> <td>o̧</td> <td>Ō</td> <td>ō</td> <td>Ū</td> <td>ū</td> <td lang="mh">Ļ</td> <td lang="mh">ļ</td> <td lang="mh">Ņ</td> <td lang="mh">ņ</td> <td>L‌̧</td> <td>l‌̧</td> <td>N‌̧</td> <td>n‌̧</td> <td>Ḷ</td> <td>ḷ</td> <td>Ṃ</td> <td>ṃ</td> <td>Ṇ</td> <td>ṇ</td> <td>Ñ</td> <td>ñ</td> <td>Ọ</td> <td>ọ </td></tr> <tr style="font-family: 'Calibri';"> <td><a href="/wiki/Calibri" title="Calibri">Calibri</a></td> <td>Ā</td> <td>ā</td> <td>Ļ</td> <td>ļ</td> <td>M̧</td> <td>m̧</td> <td>Ņ</td> <td>ņ</td> <td>N̄</td> <td>n̄</td> <td>O̧</td> <td>o̧</td> <td>Ō</td> <td>ō</td> <td>Ū</td> <td>ū</td> <td lang="mh">Ļ</td> <td lang="mh">ļ</td> <td lang="mh">Ņ</td> <td lang="mh">ņ</td> <td>L‌̧</td> <td>l‌̧</td> <td>N‌̧</td> <td>n‌̧</td> <td>Ḷ</td> <td>ḷ</td> <td>Ṃ</td> <td>ṃ</td> <td>Ṇ</td> <td>ṇ</td> <td>Ñ</td> <td>ñ</td> <td>Ọ</td> <td>ọ </td></tr> <tr style="font-family: 'Cambria';"> <td><a href="/wiki/Cambria_(typeface)" title="Cambria (typeface)">Cambria</a></td> <td>Ā</td> <td>ā</td> <td>Ļ</td> <td>ļ</td> <td>M̧</td> <td>m̧</td> <td>Ņ</td> <td>ņ</td> <td>N̄</td> <td>n̄</td> <td>O̧</td> <td>o̧</td> <td>Ō</td> <td>ō</td> <td>Ū</td> <td>ū</td> <td lang="mh">Ļ</td> <td lang="mh">ļ</td> <td lang="mh">Ņ</td> <td lang="mh">ņ</td> <td>L‌̧</td> <td>l‌̧</td> <td>N‌̧</td> <td>n‌̧</td> <td>Ḷ</td> <td>ḷ</td> <td>Ṃ</td> <td>ṃ</td> <td>Ṇ</td> <td>ṇ</td> <td>Ñ</td> <td>ñ</td> <td>Ọ</td> <td>ọ </td></tr> <tr style="font-family: 'Candara';"> <td><a href="/wiki/Candara" title="Candara">Candara</a></td> <td>Ā</td> <td>ā</td> <td>Ļ</td> <td>ļ</td> <td>M̧</td> <td>m̧</td> <td>Ņ</td> <td>ņ</td> <td>N̄</td> <td>n̄</td> <td>O̧</td> <td>o̧</td> <td>Ō</td> <td>ō</td> <td>Ū</td> <td>ū</td> <td lang="mh">Ļ</td> <td lang="mh">ļ</td> <td lang="mh">Ņ</td> <td lang="mh">ņ</td> <td>L‌̧</td> <td>l‌̧</td> <td>N‌̧</td> <td>n‌̧</td> <td>Ḷ</td> <td>ḷ</td> <td>Ṃ</td> <td>ṃ</td> <td>Ṇ</td> <td>ṇ</td> <td>Ñ</td> <td>ñ</td> <td>Ọ</td> <td>ọ </td></tr> <tr style="font-family: 'Charis SIL';"> <td><a href="/wiki/Charis_SIL" title="Charis SIL">Charis SIL</a></td> <td>Ā</td> <td>ā</td> <td>Ļ</td> <td>ļ</td> <td>M̧</td> <td>m̧</td> <td>Ņ</td> <td>ņ</td> <td>N̄</td> <td>n̄</td> <td>O̧</td> <td>o̧</td> <td>Ō</td> <td>ō</td> <td>Ū</td> <td>ū</td> <td lang="mh">Ļ</td> <td lang="mh">ļ</td> <td lang="mh">Ņ</td> <td lang="mh">ņ</td> <td>L‌̧</td> <td>l‌̧</td> <td>N‌̧</td> <td>n‌̧</td> <td>Ḷ</td> <td>ḷ</td> <td>Ṃ</td> <td>ṃ</td> <td>Ṇ</td> <td>ṇ</td> <td>Ñ</td> <td>ñ</td> <td>Ọ</td> <td>ọ </td></tr> <tr style="font-family: 'Code2000';"> <td><a href="/wiki/Code2000" title="Code2000">Code2000</a></td> <td>Ā</td> <td>ā</td> <td>Ļ</td> <td>ļ</td> <td>M̧</td> <td>m̧</td> <td>Ņ</td> <td>ņ</td> <td>N̄</td> <td>n̄</td> <td>O̧</td> <td>o̧</td> <td>Ō</td> <td>ō</td> <td>Ū</td> <td>ū</td> <td lang="mh">Ļ</td> <td lang="mh">ļ</td> <td lang="mh">Ņ</td> <td lang="mh">ņ</td> <td>L‌̧</td> <td>l‌̧</td> <td>N‌̧</td> <td>n‌̧</td> <td>Ḷ</td> <td>ḷ</td> <td>Ṃ</td> <td>ṃ</td> <td>Ṇ</td> <td>ṇ</td> <td>Ñ</td> <td>ñ</td> <td>Ọ</td> <td>ọ </td></tr> <tr style="font-family: 'Consolas';"> <td><a href="/wiki/Consolas" title="Consolas">Consolas</a></td> <td>Ā</td> <td>ā</td> <td>Ļ</td> <td>ļ</td> <td>M̧</td> <td>m̧</td> <td>Ņ</td> <td>ņ</td> <td>N̄</td> <td>n̄</td> <td>O̧</td> <td>o̧</td> <td>Ō</td> <td>ō</td> <td>Ū</td> <td>ū</td> <td lang="mh">Ļ</td> <td lang="mh">ļ</td> <td lang="mh">Ņ</td> <td lang="mh">ņ</td> <td>L‌̧</td> <td>l‌̧</td> <td>N‌̧</td> <td>n‌̧</td> <td>Ḷ</td> <td>ḷ</td> <td>Ṃ</td> <td>ṃ</td> <td>Ṇ</td> <td>ṇ</td> <td>Ñ</td> <td>ñ</td> <td>Ọ</td> <td>ọ </td></tr> <tr style="font-family: 'Constantia';"> <td><a href="/wiki/Constantia_(typeface)" title="Constantia (typeface)">Constantia</a></td> <td>Ā</td> <td>ā</td> <td>Ļ</td> <td>ļ</td> <td>M̧</td> <td>m̧</td> <td>Ņ</td> <td>ņ</td> <td>N̄</td> <td>n̄</td> <td>O̧</td> <td>o̧</td> <td>Ō</td> <td>ō</td> <td>Ū</td> <td>ū</td> <td lang="mh">Ļ</td> <td lang="mh">ļ</td> <td lang="mh">Ņ</td> <td lang="mh">ņ</td> <td>L‌̧</td> <td>l‌̧</td> <td>N‌̧</td> <td>n‌̧</td> <td>Ḷ</td> <td>ḷ</td> <td>Ṃ</td> <td>ṃ</td> <td>Ṇ</td> <td>ṇ</td> <td>Ñ</td> <td>ñ</td> <td>Ọ</td> <td>ọ </td></tr> <tr style="font-family: 'Corbel';"> <td><a href="/wiki/Corbel_(typeface)" title="Corbel (typeface)">Corbel</a></td> <td>Ā</td> <td>ā</td> <td>Ļ</td> <td>ļ</td> <td>M̧</td> <td>m̧</td> <td>Ņ</td> <td>ņ</td> <td>N̄</td> <td>n̄</td> <td>O̧</td> <td>o̧</td> <td>Ō</td> <td>ō</td> <td>Ū</td> <td>ū</td> <td lang="mh">Ļ</td> <td lang="mh">ļ</td> <td lang="mh">Ņ</td> <td lang="mh">ņ</td> <td>L‌̧</td> <td>l‌̧</td> <td>N‌̧</td> <td>n‌̧</td> <td>Ḷ</td> <td>ḷ</td> <td>Ṃ</td> <td>ṃ</td> <td>Ṇ</td> <td>ṇ</td> <td>Ñ</td> <td>ñ</td> <td>Ọ</td> <td>ọ </td></tr> <tr style="font-family: 'Cormorant';"> <td><a href="/wiki/Garamond#Cormorant" title="Garamond">Cormorant</a></td> <td>Ā</td> <td>ā</td> <td>Ļ</td> <td>ļ</td> <td>M̧</td> <td>m̧</td> <td>Ņ</td> <td>ņ</td> <td>N̄</td> <td>n̄</td> <td>O̧</td> <td>o̧</td> <td>Ō</td> <td>ō</td> <td>Ū</td> <td>ū</td> <td lang="mh">Ļ</td> <td lang="mh">ļ</td> <td lang="mh">Ņ</td> <td lang="mh">ņ</td> <td>L‌̧</td> <td>l‌̧</td> <td>N‌̧</td> <td>n‌̧</td> <td>Ḷ</td> <td>ḷ</td> <td>Ṃ</td> <td>ṃ</td> <td>Ṇ</td> <td>ṇ</td> <td>Ñ</td> <td>ñ</td> <td>Ọ</td> <td>ọ </td></tr> <tr style="font-family: 'Courier New';"> <td><a href="/wiki/Courier_New" class="mw-redirect" title="Courier New">Courier New</a></td> <td>Ā</td> <td>ā</td> <td>Ļ</td> <td>ļ</td> <td>M̧</td> <td>m̧</td> <td>Ņ</td> <td>ņ</td> <td>N̄</td> <td>n̄</td> <td>O̧</td> <td>o̧</td> <td>Ō</td> <td>ō</td> <td>Ū</td> <td>ū</td> <td lang="mh">Ļ</td> <td lang="mh">ļ</td> <td lang="mh">Ņ</td> <td lang="mh">ņ</td> <td>L‌̧</td> <td>l‌̧</td> <td>N‌̧</td> <td>n‌̧</td> <td>Ḷ</td> <td>ḷ</td> <td>Ṃ</td> <td>ṃ</td> <td>Ṇ</td> <td>ṇ</td> <td>Ñ</td> <td>ñ</td> <td>Ọ</td> <td>ọ </td></tr> <tr style="font-family: 'DejaVu Sans';"> <td><a href="/wiki/DejaVu_fonts" title="DejaVu fonts">DejaVu</a> Sans</td> <td>Ā</td> <td>ā</td> <td>Ļ</td> <td>ļ</td> <td>M̧</td> <td>m̧</td> <td>Ņ</td> <td>ņ</td> <td>N̄</td> <td>n̄</td> <td>O̧</td> <td>o̧</td> <td>Ō</td> <td>ō</td> <td>Ū</td> <td>ū</td> <td lang="mh">Ļ</td> <td lang="mh">ļ</td> <td lang="mh">Ņ</td> <td lang="mh">ņ</td> <td>L‌̧</td> <td>l‌̧</td> <td>N‌̧</td> <td>n‌̧</td> <td>Ḷ</td> <td>ḷ</td> <td>Ṃ</td> <td>ṃ</td> <td>Ṇ</td> <td>ṇ</td> <td>Ñ</td> <td>ñ</td> <td>Ọ</td> <td>ọ </td></tr> <tr style="font-family: 'DejaVu Sans Mono';"> <td><a href="/wiki/DejaVu_fonts" title="DejaVu fonts">DejaVu</a> Sans Mono</td> <td>Ā</td> <td>ā</td> <td>Ļ</td> <td>ļ</td> <td>M̧</td> <td>m̧</td> <td>Ņ</td> <td>ņ</td> <td>N̄</td> <td>n̄</td> <td>O̧</td> <td>o̧</td> <td>Ō</td> <td>ō</td> <td>Ū</td> <td>ū</td> <td lang="mh">Ļ</td> <td lang="mh">ļ</td> <td lang="mh">Ņ</td> <td lang="mh">ņ</td> <td>L‌̧</td> <td>l‌̧</td> <td>N‌̧</td> <td>n‌̧</td> <td>Ḷ</td> <td>ḷ</td> <td>Ṃ</td> <td>ṃ</td> <td>Ṇ</td> <td>ṇ</td> <td>Ñ</td> <td>ñ</td> <td>Ọ</td> <td>ọ </td></tr> <tr style="font-family: 'DejaVu Serif';"> <td><a href="/wiki/DejaVu_fonts" title="DejaVu fonts">DejaVu</a> Serif</td> <td>Ā</td> <td>ā</td> <td>Ļ</td> <td>ļ</td> <td>M̧</td> <td>m̧</td> <td>Ņ</td> <td>ņ</td> <td>N̄</td> <td>n̄</td> <td>O̧</td> <td>o̧</td> <td>Ō</td> <td>ō</td> <td>Ū</td> <td>ū</td> <td lang="mh">Ļ</td> <td lang="mh">ļ</td> <td lang="mh">Ņ</td> <td lang="mh">ņ</td> <td>L‌̧</td> <td>l‌̧</td> <td>N‌̧</td> <td>n‌̧</td> <td>Ḷ</td> <td>ḷ</td> <td>Ṃ</td> <td>ṃ</td> <td>Ṇ</td> <td>ṇ</td> <td>Ñ</td> <td>ñ</td> <td>Ọ</td> <td>ọ </td></tr> <tr style="font-family: 'Gentium';"> <td><a href="/wiki/Gentium" title="Gentium">Gentium</a></td> <td>Ā</td> <td>ā</td> <td>Ļ</td> <td>ļ</td> <td>M̧</td> <td>m̧</td> <td>Ņ</td> <td>ņ</td> <td>N̄</td> <td>n̄</td> <td>O̧</td> <td>o̧</td> <td>Ō</td> <td>ō</td> <td>Ū</td> <td>ū</td> <td lang="mh">Ļ</td> <td lang="mh">ļ</td> <td lang="mh">Ņ</td> <td lang="mh">ņ</td> <td>L‌̧</td> <td>l‌̧</td> <td>N‌̧</td> <td>n‌̧</td> <td>Ḷ</td> <td>ḷ</td> <td>Ṃ</td> <td>ṃ</td> <td>Ṇ</td> <td>ṇ</td> <td>Ñ</td> <td>ñ</td> <td>Ọ</td> <td>ọ </td></tr> <tr style="font-family: 'Gentium Basic';"> <td><a href="/wiki/Gentium" title="Gentium">Gentium</a> Basic</td> <td>Ā</td> <td>ā</td> <td>Ļ</td> <td>ļ</td> <td>M̧</td> <td>m̧</td> <td>Ņ</td> <td>ņ</td> <td>N̄</td> <td>n̄</td> <td>O̧</td> <td>o̧</td> <td>Ō</td> <td>ō</td> <td>Ū</td> <td>ū</td> <td lang="mh">Ļ</td> <td lang="mh">ļ</td> <td lang="mh">Ņ</td> <td lang="mh">ņ</td> <td>L‌̧</td> <td>l‌̧</td> <td>N‌̧</td> <td>n‌̧</td> <td>Ḷ</td> <td>ḷ</td> <td>Ṃ</td> <td>ṃ</td> <td>Ṇ</td> <td>ṇ</td> <td>Ñ</td> <td>ñ</td> <td>Ọ</td> <td>ọ </td></tr> <tr style="font-family: 'Gentium Book Basic';"> <td><a href="/wiki/Gentium" title="Gentium">Gentium</a> Book Basic</td> <td>Ā</td> <td>ā</td> <td>Ļ</td> <td>ļ</td> <td>M̧</td> <td>m̧</td> <td>Ņ</td> <td>ņ</td> <td>N̄</td> <td>n̄</td> <td>O̧</td> <td>o̧</td> <td>Ō</td> <td>ō</td> <td>Ū</td> <td>ū</td> <td lang="mh">Ļ</td> <td lang="mh">ļ</td> <td lang="mh">Ņ</td> <td lang="mh">ņ</td> <td>L‌̧</td> <td>l‌̧</td> <td>N‌̧</td> <td>n‌̧</td> <td>Ḷ</td> <td>ḷ</td> <td>Ṃ</td> <td>ṃ</td> <td>Ṇ</td> <td>ṇ</td> <td>Ñ</td> <td>ñ</td> <td>Ọ</td> <td>ọ </td></tr> <tr style="font-family: 'Gentium Plus';"> <td><a href="/wiki/Gentium" title="Gentium">Gentium</a> Plus</td> <td>Ā</td> <td>ā</td> <td>Ļ</td> <td>ļ</td> <td>M̧</td> <td>m̧</td> <td>Ņ</td> <td>ņ</td> <td>N̄</td> <td>n̄</td> <td>O̧</td> <td>o̧</td> <td>Ō</td> <td>ō</td> <td>Ū</td> <td>ū</td> <td lang="mh">Ļ</td> <td lang="mh">ļ</td> <td lang="mh">Ņ</td> <td lang="mh">ņ</td> <td>L‌̧</td> <td>l‌̧</td> <td>N‌̧</td> <td>n‌̧</td> <td>Ḷ</td> <td>ḷ</td> <td>Ṃ</td> <td>ṃ</td> <td>Ṇ</td> <td>ṇ</td> <td>Ñ</td> <td>ñ</td> <td>Ọ</td> <td>ọ </td></tr> <tr style="font-family: 'Inconsolata';"> <td><a href="/wiki/Inconsolata" title="Inconsolata">Inconsolata</a></td> <td>Ā</td> <td>ā</td> <td>Ļ</td> <td>ļ</td> <td>M̧</td> <td>m̧</td> <td>Ņ</td> <td>ņ</td> <td>N̄</td> <td>n̄</td> <td>O̧</td> <td>o̧</td> <td>Ō</td> <td>ō</td> <td>Ū</td> <td>ū</td> <td lang="mh">Ļ</td> <td lang="mh">ļ</td> <td lang="mh">Ņ</td> <td lang="mh">ņ</td> <td>L‌̧</td> <td>l‌̧</td> <td>N‌̧</td> <td>n‌̧</td> <td>Ḷ</td> <td>ḷ</td> <td>Ṃ</td> <td>ṃ</td> <td>Ṇ</td> <td>ṇ</td> <td>Ñ</td> <td>ñ</td> <td>Ọ</td> <td>ọ </td></tr> <tr style="font-family: 'Junicode';"> <td><a href="/wiki/Junicode" title="Junicode">Junicode</a></td> <td>Ā</td> <td>ā</td> <td>Ļ</td> <td>ļ</td> <td>M̧</td> <td>m̧</td> <td>Ņ</td> <td>ņ</td> <td>N̄</td> <td>n̄</td> <td>O̧</td> <td>o̧</td> <td>Ō</td> <td>ō</td> <td>Ū</td> <td>ū</td> <td lang="mh">Ļ</td> <td lang="mh">ļ</td> <td lang="mh">Ņ</td> <td lang="mh">ņ</td> <td>L‌̧</td> <td>l‌̧</td> <td>N‌̧</td> <td>n‌̧</td> <td>Ḷ</td> <td>ḷ</td> <td>Ṃ</td> <td>ṃ</td> <td>Ṇ</td> <td>ṇ</td> <td>Ñ</td> <td>ñ</td> <td>Ọ</td> <td>ọ </td></tr> <tr style="font-family: 'Linux Libertine';"> <td><a href="/wiki/Linux_Libertine" title="Linux Libertine">Linux Libertine</a></td> <td>Ā</td> <td>ā</td> <td>Ļ</td> <td>ļ</td> <td>M̧</td> <td>m̧</td> <td>Ņ</td> <td>ņ</td> <td>N̄</td> <td>n̄</td> <td>O̧</td> <td>o̧</td> <td>Ō</td> <td>ō</td> <td>Ū</td> <td>ū</td> <td lang="mh">Ļ</td> <td lang="mh">ļ</td> <td lang="mh">Ņ</td> <td lang="mh">ņ</td> <td>L‌̧</td> <td>l‌̧</td> <td>N‌̧</td> <td>n‌̧</td> <td>Ḷ</td> <td>ḷ</td> <td>Ṃ</td> <td>ṃ</td> <td>Ṇ</td> <td>ṇ</td> <td>Ñ</td> <td>ñ</td> <td>Ọ</td> <td>ọ </td></tr> <tr style="font-family: 'Lucida Sans Unicode';"> <td><a href="/wiki/Lucida_Sans_Unicode" title="Lucida Sans Unicode">Lucida Sans Unicode</a></td> <td>Ā</td> <td>ā</td> <td>Ļ</td> <td>ļ</td> <td>M̧</td> <td>m̧</td> <td>Ņ</td> <td>ņ</td> <td>N̄</td> <td>n̄</td> <td>O̧</td> <td>o̧</td> <td>Ō</td> <td>ō</td> <td>Ū</td> <td>ū</td> <td lang="mh">Ļ</td> <td lang="mh">ļ</td> <td lang="mh">Ņ</td> <td lang="mh">ņ</td> <td>L‌̧</td> <td>l‌̧</td> <td>N‌̧</td> <td>n‌̧</td> <td>Ḷ</td> <td>ḷ</td> <td>Ṃ</td> <td>ṃ</td> <td>Ṇ</td> <td>ṇ</td> <td>Ñ</td> <td>ñ</td> <td>Ọ</td> <td>ọ </td></tr> <tr style="font-family: 'Noto Sans';"> <td><a href="/wiki/Noto_fonts" title="Noto fonts">Noto</a> Sans</td> <td>Ā</td> <td>ā</td> <td>Ļ</td> <td>ļ</td> <td>M̧</td> <td>m̧</td> <td>Ņ</td> <td>ņ</td> <td>N̄</td> <td>n̄</td> <td>O̧</td> <td>o̧</td> <td>Ō</td> <td>ō</td> <td>Ū</td> <td>ū</td> <td lang="mh">Ļ</td> <td lang="mh">ļ</td> <td lang="mh">Ņ</td> <td lang="mh">ņ</td> <td>L‌̧</td> <td>l‌̧</td> <td>N‌̧</td> <td>n‌̧</td> <td>Ḷ</td> <td>ḷ</td> <td>Ṃ</td> <td>ṃ</td> <td>Ṇ</td> <td>ṇ</td> <td>Ñ</td> <td>ñ</td> <td>Ọ</td> <td>ọ </td></tr> <tr style="font-family: 'Noto Sans Mono';"> <td><a href="/wiki/Noto_fonts" title="Noto fonts">Noto</a> Sans Mono</td> <td>Ā</td> <td>ā</td> <td>Ļ</td> <td>ļ</td> <td>M̧</td> <td>m̧</td> <td>Ņ</td> <td>ņ</td> <td>N̄</td> <td>n̄</td> <td>O̧</td> <td>o̧</td> <td>Ō</td> <td>ō</td> <td>Ū</td> <td>ū</td> <td lang="mh">Ļ</td> <td lang="mh">ļ</td> <td lang="mh">Ņ</td> <td lang="mh">ņ</td> <td>L‌̧</td> <td>l‌̧</td> <td>N‌̧</td> <td>n‌̧</td> <td>Ḷ</td> <td>ḷ</td> <td>Ṃ</td> <td>ṃ</td> <td>Ṇ</td> <td>ṇ</td> <td>Ñ</td> <td>ñ</td> <td>Ọ</td> <td>ọ </td></tr> <tr style="font-family: 'Noto Serif';"> <td><a href="/wiki/Noto_fonts" title="Noto fonts">Noto</a> Serif</td> <td>Ā</td> <td>ā</td> <td>Ļ</td> <td>ļ</td> <td>M̧</td> <td>m̧</td> <td>Ņ</td> <td>ņ</td> <td>N̄</td> <td>n̄</td> <td>O̧</td> <td>o̧</td> <td>Ō</td> <td>ō</td> <td>Ū</td> <td>ū</td> <td lang="mh">Ļ</td> <td lang="mh">ļ</td> <td lang="mh">Ņ</td> <td lang="mh">ņ</td> <td>L‌̧</td> <td>l‌̧</td> <td>N‌̧</td> <td>n‌̧</td> <td>Ḷ</td> <td>ḷ</td> <td>Ṃ</td> <td>ṃ</td> <td>Ṇ</td> <td>ṇ</td> <td>Ñ</td> <td>ñ</td> <td>Ọ</td> <td>ọ </td></tr> <tr style="font-family: 'Open Sans';"> <td><a href="/wiki/Open_Sans" title="Open Sans">Open Sans</a></td> <td>Ā</td> <td>ā</td> <td>Ļ</td> <td>ļ</td> <td>M̧</td> <td>m̧</td> <td>Ņ</td> <td>ņ</td> <td>N̄</td> <td>n̄</td> <td>O̧</td> <td>o̧</td> <td>Ō</td> <td>ō</td> <td>Ū</td> <td>ū</td> <td lang="mh">Ļ</td> <td lang="mh">ļ</td> <td lang="mh">Ņ</td> <td lang="mh">ņ</td> <td>L‌̧</td> <td>l‌̧</td> <td>N‌̧</td> <td>n‌̧</td> <td>Ḷ</td> <td>ḷ</td> <td>Ṃ</td> <td>ṃ</td> <td>Ṇ</td> <td>ṇ</td> <td>Ñ</td> <td>ñ</td> <td>Ọ</td> <td>ọ </td></tr> <tr style="font-family: 'Segoe UI';"> <td><a href="/wiki/Segoe_UI" class="mw-redirect" title="Segoe UI">Segoe UI</a></td> <td>Ā</td> <td>ā</td> <td>Ļ</td> <td>ļ</td> <td>M̧</td> <td>m̧</td> <td>Ņ</td> <td>ņ</td> <td>N̄</td> <td>n̄</td> <td>O̧</td> <td>o̧</td> <td>Ō</td> <td>ō</td> <td>Ū</td> <td>ū</td> <td lang="mh">Ļ</td> <td lang="mh">ļ</td> <td lang="mh">Ņ</td> <td lang="mh">ņ</td> <td>L‌̧</td> <td>l‌̧</td> <td>N‌̧</td> <td>n‌̧</td> <td>Ḷ</td> <td>ḷ</td> <td>Ṃ</td> <td>ṃ</td> <td>Ṇ</td> <td>ṇ</td> <td>Ñ</td> <td>ñ</td> <td>Ọ</td> <td>ọ </td></tr> <tr style="font-family: 'Source Code Pro';"> <td><a href="/wiki/Source_Code_Pro" title="Source Code Pro">Source Code Pro</a></td> <td>Ā</td> <td>ā</td> <td>Ļ</td> <td>ļ</td> <td>M̧</td> <td>m̧</td> <td>Ņ</td> <td>ņ</td> <td>N̄</td> <td>n̄</td> <td>O̧</td> <td>o̧</td> <td>Ō</td> <td>ō</td> <td>Ū</td> <td>ū</td> <td lang="mh">Ļ</td> <td lang="mh">ļ</td> <td lang="mh">Ņ</td> <td lang="mh">ņ</td> <td>L‌̧</td> <td>l‌̧</td> <td>N‌̧</td> <td>n‌̧</td> <td>Ḷ</td> <td>ḷ</td> <td>Ṃ</td> <td>ṃ</td> <td>Ṇ</td> <td>ṇ</td> <td>Ñ</td> <td>ñ</td> <td>Ọ</td> <td>ọ </td></tr> <tr style="font-family: 'Source Sans Pro';"> <td><a href="/wiki/Source_Sans_Pro" class="mw-redirect" title="Source Sans Pro">Source Sans Pro</a></td> <td>Ā</td> <td>ā</td> <td>Ļ</td> <td>ļ</td> <td>M̧</td> <td>m̧</td> <td>Ņ</td> <td>ņ</td> <td>N̄</td> <td>n̄</td> <td>O̧</td> <td>o̧</td> <td>Ō</td> <td>ō</td> <td>Ū</td> <td>ū</td> <td lang="mh">Ļ</td> <td lang="mh">ļ</td> <td lang="mh">Ņ</td> <td lang="mh">ņ</td> <td>L‌̧</td> <td>l‌̧</td> <td>N‌̧</td> <td>n‌̧</td> <td>Ḷ</td> <td>ḷ</td> <td>Ṃ</td> <td>ṃ</td> <td>Ṇ</td> <td>ṇ</td> <td>Ñ</td> <td>ñ</td> <td>Ọ</td> <td>ọ </td></tr> <tr style="font-family: 'Source Serif Pro';"> <td><a href="/wiki/Source_Serif_Pro" class="mw-redirect" title="Source Serif Pro">Source Serif Pro</a></td> <td>Ā</td> <td>ā</td> <td>Ļ</td> <td>ļ</td> <td>M̧</td> <td>m̧</td> <td>Ņ</td> <td>ņ</td> <td>N̄</td> <td>n̄</td> <td>O̧</td> <td>o̧</td> <td>Ō</td> <td>ō</td> <td>Ū</td> <td>ū</td> <td lang="mh">Ļ</td> <td lang="mh">ļ</td> <td lang="mh">Ņ</td> <td lang="mh">ņ</td> <td>L‌̧</td> <td>l‌̧</td> <td>N‌̧</td> <td>n‌̧</td> <td>Ḷ</td> <td>ḷ</td> <td>Ṃ</td> <td>ṃ</td> <td>Ṇ</td> <td>ṇ</td> <td>Ñ</td> <td>ñ</td> <td>Ọ</td> <td>ọ </td></tr> <tr style="font-family: 'Tahoma';"> <td><a href="/wiki/Tahoma_(typeface)" title="Tahoma (typeface)">Tahoma</a></td> <td>Ā</td> <td>ā</td> <td>Ļ</td> <td>ļ</td> <td>M̧</td> <td>m̧</td> <td>Ņ</td> <td>ņ</td> <td>N̄</td> <td>n̄</td> <td>O̧</td> <td>o̧</td> <td>Ō</td> <td>ō</td> <td>Ū</td> <td>ū</td> <td lang="mh">Ļ</td> <td lang="mh">ļ</td> <td lang="mh">Ņ</td> <td lang="mh">ņ</td> <td>L‌̧</td> <td>l‌̧</td> <td>N‌̧</td> <td>n‌̧</td> <td>Ḷ</td> <td>ḷ</td> <td>Ṃ</td> <td>ṃ</td> <td>Ṇ</td> <td>ṇ</td> <td>Ñ</td> <td>ñ</td> <td>Ọ</td> <td>ọ </td></tr> <tr style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> <td><a href="/wiki/Times_New_Roman" title="Times New Roman">Times New Roman</a></td> <td>Ā</td> <td>ā</td> <td>Ļ</td> <td>ļ</td> <td>M̧</td> <td>m̧</td> <td>Ņ</td> <td>ņ</td> <td>N̄</td> <td>n̄</td> <td>O̧</td> <td>o̧</td> <td>Ō</td> <td>ō</td> <td>Ū</td> <td>ū</td> <td lang="mh">Ļ</td> <td lang="mh">ļ</td> <td lang="mh">Ņ</td> <td lang="mh">ņ</td> <td>L‌̧</td> <td>l‌̧</td> <td>N‌̧</td> <td>n‌̧</td> <td>Ḷ</td> <td>ḷ</td> <td>Ṃ</td> <td>ṃ</td> <td>Ṇ</td> <td>ṇ</td> <td>Ñ</td> <td>ñ</td> <td>Ọ</td> <td>ọ </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Differences_in_orthography">Differences in orthography</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marshallese_language&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Differences in orthography">edit</a>]</div> The old orthography was still very similar to the new orthography but made fewer phonological distinctions in spelling than the new orthography does. The new orthography attempts phonological consistency while adhering to most of the spelling patterns of the old orthography, especially in regard to vowels and w. It has made the new orthography relatively easy for old orthography users to learn. The phonology of Marshallese was documented by Bender (1969) with written examples using the old orthography. Here are some differences between the new and old orthographies: <ul><li>The new orthography uses the <a href="/wiki/Cedilla" title="Cedilla">cedillaed</a> letters l‌̧ m̧ n‌̧ o̧. The old orthography did not use cedillas and ambiguously wrote them l m n o.</li> <li>The new orthography uses p for "light" /pʲ/ and b for "heavy" /pˠ/. The old orthography used b for both. <dl><dd>Compare old binjel vs. new pinjel‌̧ [pʲinzʲɛlˠ], 'pencil'.</dd></dl></li> <li>The new orthography consistently uses d for "light" /rʲ/ in all positions. The old orthography often wrote dr before vowels, and r after vowels. <dl><dd>Compare old Amerka vs. new Amedka [ɑmʲɛrʲɛ̆ɡɑ], '<a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>'.</dd> <dd>Compare old indreo or indrio vs. new indeeo [inrʲeːɔ], 'forever'.</dd></dl></li> <li>Except in certain affixes like -an whose spelling may be fixed, the new orthography spells the vowel monophthong allophone [<a href="/wiki/Near-open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-open front unrounded vowel">æ</a>] as ā in all positions. The old orthography had ā, but it was relatively less common, and [<a href="/wiki/Near-open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-open front unrounded vowel">æ</a>] was sometimes written e instead. <dl><dd>Compare old Ebeje vs. new Epjā [ɛbʲɛ̆zʲæ], '<a href="/wiki/Ebeye_Island" title="Ebeye Island">Ebeye</a>'.</dd></dl></li> <li>Except in certain affixes like ri- whose the spelling of the vowels may be fixed, the new orthography spells the vowel monophthong allophone [<a href="/wiki/Close_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Close back unrounded vowel">ɯ</a>] as ū in all positions. The old orthography spelled [<a href="/wiki/Close_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Close back unrounded vowel">ɯ</a>] as i between consonants. <dl><dd>Compare old Kirijmōj vs. new Kūrijm̧ōj [kɯrˠizʲĭmˠɤtʲ], 'Christmas'.</dd></dl></li> <li>The new orthography uses only e o ō for allophones of the vowel phoneme /e/. In the old orthography, some words used e o ō, but other words used i u (ū) instead. <dl><dd>Compare old ailin̄ vs. new aelōn̄ [ɑelʲɤŋ ~ ɑelʲeŋ], 'land'.</dd></dl></li> <li>The new orthography uses the letter o̧ for the vowel monophthong allophone [<a href="/wiki/Open_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open back rounded vowel">ɒ</a>] along with many of its related diphthong allophones. The old orthography spelt [<a href="/wiki/Open_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open back rounded vowel">ɒ</a>] as a between consonants but o at the ends of words. <dl><dd>Compare old iakwe vs. new io̧kwe [i̯ɒɡʷɛ], 'hello; good bye; love'.</dd> <dd>Compare old mo vs. new mo̧ [mʲɒ], 'taboo'.</dd></dl></li> <li>The new orthography tries to consistently write long vowels and geminated consonants with double letters. The old orthography habitually wrote these as single letters. <dl><dd>Compare old ekatak vs. new ekkatak [ɛkːɑdˠɑk], 'study'.</dd> <dd>Compare old jab vs. new jaab [tʲɑːpˠ], 'no'.</dd></dl></li> <li>The word io̧kwe [i̯ɒɡʷɛ] ('hello; goodbye; love') and the phrase io̧kwe eok [i̯ɒɡʷɛe̯okʷ] ('hello [to you]') are a special case. The new orthography's rules use io̧kwe eok, while the old orthography's rules used iakwe iuk. However, yokwe yuk has been historically more entrenched in both orthographies, but the letter y does not exist in the normal spelling rules of either orthography. That spelling has multilingual significance as well; yokwe (yuk) /ˈjɒkweɪ (ˈjʊk)/ is also the established spelling for the greeting when used in Marshallese-influenced <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> and by <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">anglophones</a> in the Marshall Islands.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bender's_orthography">Bender's orthography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marshallese_language&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Bender's orthography">edit</a>]</div> In his 1968 publication Marshallese Phonology, linguist <a href="/wiki/Byron_W._Bender" title="Byron W. Bender">Byron W. Bender</a> designed a purely morphophonemic orthography, containing only non-IPA symbols corresponding to consonant phonemes, vowel phonemes and regular reflexes between the dialects, intended for use in dictionaries and language teaching. Besides also appearing in his 1969 tutorial Spoken Marshallese,&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2021)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBender1969[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2021)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-63">[63]</a> it appeared in a modified form alongside the "new" orthography in the 1976 Marshallese-English Dictionary (MED) to which he contributed. Bender later collaborated with Stephen Trussel when the MED was adapted to website format as the Marshallese-English Online Dictionary (MOD), with Bender's orthography appearing in an again-modified form. <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th>Phoneme </th> <td>/pʲ/ </td> <td>/pˠ/ </td> <td>/tʲ/ </td> <td>/tˠ/ </td> <td>/k/ </td> <td>/kʷ/ </td> <td>/mʲ/ </td> <td>/mˠ/ </td> <td>/nʲ/ </td> <td>/nˠ/ </td> <td>/nʷ/ </td> <td>/ŋ/ </td> <td>/ŋʷ/ </td> <td>/rʲ/ </td> <td>/rˠ/ </td> <td>/rʷ/ </td> <td>/lʲ/ </td> <td>/lˠ/ </td> <td>/lʷ/ </td> <td>/j/ </td> <td>/ɰ/ </td> <td>/w/ </td> <td>/æ/ </td> <td>/ɛ/ </td> <td>/e/ </td> <td>/i/ </td></tr> <tr> <th>Bender (1968) </th> <td>p </td> <td>b </td> <td>j </td> <td>t </td> <td>k </td> <td>q </td> <td>m </td> <td>ṁ </td> <td>n </td> <td>ṅ </td> <td>n̈ </td> <td>g </td> <td>g̈ </td> <td>d </td> <td>r </td> <td>r̈ </td> <td>l </td> <td>ł </td> <td>l̈ </td> <td>y </td> <td>h </td> <td>w </td> <td>a </td> <td>e </td> <td>& </td> <td>i </td></tr> <tr> <th>MED (1976) </th> <td>p </td> <td>b </td> <td>j </td> <td>t </td> <td>k </td> <td>q </td> <td>m </td> <td>m̧ </td> <td>n </td> <td>n‌̧ </td> <td>n‌̧° </td> <td>g </td> <td>g° </td> <td>d </td> <td>r </td> <td>r° </td> <td>l </td> <td>l‌̧ </td> <td>l‌̧° </td> <td>y </td> <td>h </td> <td>w </td> <td>a </td> <td>e </td> <td>ȩ </td> <td>i </td></tr> <tr> <th>MOD </th> <td>p </td> <td>b </td> <td>j </td> <td>t </td> <td>k </td> <td>kʷ </td> <td>m </td> <td>ṃ </td> <td>n </td> <td>ṇ </td> <td>ṇʷ </td> <td>g </td> <td>gʷ </td> <td>d </td> <td>r </td> <td>rʷ </td> <td>l </td> <td>ḷ </td> <td>ḷʷ </td> <td>y </td> <td>h </td> <td>w </td> <td>a </td> <td>e </td> <td>ẹ </td> <td>i </td></tr></tbody></table> The MOD's version of Bender's orthography uses <a href="/wiki/Dot_(diacritic)" title="Dot (diacritic)">under-dot</a> diacritics instead of the <a href="/wiki/Cedilla" title="Cedilla">cedillas</a> used both by the "new" orthography and by the 1976 MED's version of Bender's orthography, for reasons specific to the MOD's <a href="#Display_issues">display issues</a>. In addition to plain sequences of phonemes, Bender's orthography recognizes a few special sequences, many of which relate to regular differences between the <a href="/wiki/Ralik_Chain" class="mw-redirect" title="Ralik Chain">Rālik</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ratak_Chain" class="mw-redirect" title="Ratak Chain">Ratak</a> dialects of Marshallese. <ul><li>{yi'y} is for a "passing over lightly" version of the vowel allophone i that occurs at the beginning of certain words, phonetically pronounced [<a href="/wiki/Semivowel" title="Semivowel">i̯</a>] and existing on the phonemic level as /ji̯j/. For example, {yi'yakʷey} is equivalent to io̧kwe [i̯ɒɡʷɛ] /ji̯jækʷɛj/ "hello; goodbye; love".</li> <li>{'yiy} is for a "dwelling upon" version of i that occurs at the beginning of certain words, now generally written ii in the "new" orthography, phonetically pronounced [<a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">iː</a>] and existing on the phonemic level as /jijj/, effectively making it identical to {yiyy}. An example is {'yiyayiyȩw}, which is equivalent to iiāio [iːæio] /jijjæjijew/ "reunion".</li> <li>{yiy} at the beginning of a word, without apostrophes, indicates a version of i whose reflex differs between the two dialects. In the Rālik dialect, this assumes the "dwelling upon" pronunciation, equivalent to {'yiy}. In the Ratak dialect, it instead assumes the "passing over lightly" pronunciation, equivalent to {yi'y}. An example is {yiyal‌̧}, equivalent to ial‌̧ "road": <ul><li>In the Rālik dialect, {yiyal‌̧} becomes [iːɑlˠ] /jijjælˠ/ and is often instead written as iial‌̧ in the "new" orthography.</li> <li>In the Ratak dialect, {yiyal‌̧} becomes [i̯ɑlˠ] /ji̯jælˠ/.</li></ul></li> <li>{hhV} at the beginning of a word (where "V" can be any vowel) indicates a back unrounded vowel that whose reflex differs between the dialects. In the Rālik dialect, {hhV} becomes {hVhV}, lengthening the vowel. In the Ratak dialect, the second {h} disappears, becoming {hV}, and the vowel remains short. An example is {hhayȩt}, equivalent to aet "yes": <ul><li>In the Rālik dialect, {hhayȩt} becomes [ɑːetˠ] /ɰæɰæjetˠ/ and is often instead written as aaet in the "new" orthography.</li> <li>In the Ratak dialect, {hhayȩt} becomes [ɑetˠ] /ɰæjetˠ/.</li></ul></li> <li>{yiwV} at the beginning of a word (where "V" can be any vowel) is usually equivalent to {yiwwV}.</li> <li>{wiwV} at the beginning of a word (where "V" can be any vowel) usually becomes {yiwwV} in the Rālik dialect, but usually becomes {wiwwV} in the Ratak dialect.</li> <li>When a Bender orthography spelling begins with a doubled consonant other than {hh}, such as {m̧m̧an} "good", its reflex differs between the dialects. <ul><li>In the Rālik dialect, {m̧m̧an} becomes {yem̧m̧an}, sprouting both a <a href="/wiki/Prothesis_(linguistics)" title="Prothesis (linguistics)">prothetic</a> {y} and a vowel. The dialect generally spells this em̧m̧an [ɛmˠːɑnʲ] /jemˠmˠænʲ/ "good" in the "new" orthography, making it homophonous with the phrase em̧m̧an which means "it is good" in both dialects.</li> <li>In the Ratak dialect, {m̧m̧an} becomes {m̧em̧an} with only a prothetic vowel, appearing instead between the two consonants. The dialect generally spells this m̧ōm̧an [mˠʌmˠɑnʲ] /mˠɛmˠænʲ/ "good" in the "new" orthography.</li> <li>In both dialects, the prothetic vowel is equivalent to the first stem vowel unless it is {a}, in which case the stem vowel is always paired with the prothetic vowel {e}. But when spellings like {m̧m̧an} take <a href="/wiki/Prefix" title="Prefix">prefixes</a> with a vowel, there are no prothetic vowels: {ri-} "person" + {m̧m̧an} "good" becomes {rim̧m̧an} /rˠi-mˠmˠænʲ/ [rˠɯmˠːɑnʲ], which the "new" orthography spells rūm̧m̧an "good person".</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marshallese_language&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Grammar">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Morphology">Morphology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marshallese_language&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Morphology">edit</a>]</div> Nouns are not overtly marked as such, and do not inflect for number, gender, or case.<a href="#cite_note-ws15-64">[64]</a> Nouns are often verbalized and verbs nominalized without any overt morphological marker:<a href="#cite_note-ws15-64">[64]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1209690778">.mw-parser-output .interlinear .bold{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .interlinear .smallcaps{text-transform:uppercase;font-size:smaller}</style><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">Je-n<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, plural" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1PL</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="inclusive person" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IN</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="agreement" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">AGR</abbr>-should</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">alsing.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="transitive" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">TR</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">alsong</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">inof</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">pālle.be.covered(=American)</div>Je-n al al in pālle.1PL.IN.AGR-should sing.TR song of be.covered(=American)'We should sing American songs.' (Willson 2008)<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> Marshallese has determiners and demonstratives which follow the noun they modify.<a href="#cite_note-ws16-65">[65]</a> These are marked for number, and in the plural also encode a human/nonhuman distinction.<a href="#cite_note-ws17-66">[66]</a> For example, in the singular pinjel‌̧ eo 'the pencil' and l‌̧addik eo 'the boy' take the same determiner, but in the plural pinjel‌̧ ko 'the pencils' and l‌̧addik ro have different determiners.<a href="#cite_note-ws17-66">[66]</a> Indefinites are an exception; in the singular they are expressed with the word juon 'one' before the noun (e.g. juon al 'a song'), and there is no plural indefinite determiner.<a href="#cite_note-ws17-18-67">[67]</a> The Marshallese demonstrative system has five levels: <ol><li>near the speaker (sg. e / pl. human rā / pl. nonhuman kā)</li> <li>near the speaker and listener (in / rein / kein)</li> <li>near the listener (n‌̧e / ran‌̧e / kan‌̧e)</li> <li>away from both speaker and listener (en‌̧ / ran‌̧ / kan‌̧)</li> <li>distant but visible (uweo / roro / koko).<a href="#cite_note-ws17-66">[66]</a></li></ol> <div style="float:right; margin-left:20px"> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"> <caption>Marshallese pronouns<a href="#cite_note-ws18-68">[68]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3">Person </th> <th>absolutive / emphatic</th> <th>objective </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3">s </th> <th colspan="2">1 </th> <td>n̄a</td> <td>eō </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">2 </th> <td>kwe</td> <td>eok </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">3 </th> <td colspan="2">e </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="4">pl </th> <th>1 </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Clusivity" title="Clusivity">inc</a> </th> <td colspan="2">kōj </td></tr> <tr> <th>1 </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Clusivity" title="Clusivity">exc</a> </th> <td colspan="2">kōm </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">2 </th> <td colspan="2">kom̧ (Ralik) kom̧i (Ratak) </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">3 </th> <td colspan="2">er </td></tr></tbody></table> </div> Marshallese possesses two sets of 1st and 2nd person singular pronouns, known as "absolutive" or "emphatic" pronouns and as "objective" pronouns.<a href="#cite_note-ws18-68">[68]</a> Marshallese 1st person plurals mark for <a href="/wiki/Clusivity" title="Clusivity">clusivity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ws18-68">[68]</a> Third person objective pronouns may only be used for humans; nonhumans instead take a null pronoun:<a href="#cite_note-ws18-68">[68]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">E-ar<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3S</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="agreement" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">AGR</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PAST</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">den̄ōtslap.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="transitive" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">TR</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">er.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, plural" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3PL</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="object pronoun" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">OBJ</abbr></div>E-ar den̄ōt er.3S.AGR-PAST slap.TR 3PL.<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="object pronoun" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">OBJ</abbr>'He slapped them (human).' (Willson 2008)<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">E-ar<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3S</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="agreement" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">AGR</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PAST</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">den̄ōt-i.slap.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="transitive" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">TR</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="object marker" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">OBJ</abbr></div>E-ar den̄ōt-i.3S.AGR-PAST slap.TR-<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="object marker" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">OBJ</abbr>'He slapped them (nonhuman).' (Willson 2008)<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> The emphatic pronouns serve as subjects of equational sentences, as complements of prepositions, in order to emphasize objects, in coordination structures, and with topicalized or focused subjects.<a href="#cite_note-ws19-21-69">[69]</a> It is common in Oceanic languages for a special type of pronoun to be used in equational sentences and for topicalization or focus.<a href="#cite_note-ws19-21-69">[69]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">N̄a<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1S</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="emphatic" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">EMPH</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">rikaki.teacher</div>N̄a rikaki.1S.EMPH teacher'I am a teacher.' (Willson 2008)<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">N̄a<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1S</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="emphatic" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">EMPH</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">i-j<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1S</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="agreement" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">AGR</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="present tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRES</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">yokwelove</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ajirichild</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">rothe.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="human/anthropic gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">HUM</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">nej-ū.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="possessive classifier for cherished items" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CHER.POSS</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1S</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="genitive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">GEN</abbr></div>N̄a i-j yokwe ajiri ro nej-ū.1S.EMPH 1S.AGR.PRES love child the.PL.HUM <abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="possessive classifier for cherished items" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CHER.POSS</abbr>-1S.GEN'Me, I love my children.' (Willson 2008)<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> Marshallese has four verb tenses: present, past, near future, and future. The tenses are formed by adding a tense suffix to the personal pronoun in the sentence. If the subject is not a personal pronoun, a third-person pronoun is added with the appropriate tense suffix. The present tense is formed by attaching the suffix -j to the personal pronoun (-ij for kōm and kom̧). The suffix for the past tense is either -ar or -kar depending on the dialect. -naaj is the suffix used for the regular future tense and -itōn is used for the near future.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERudiak-Gould200435-70">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syntax">Syntax</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marshallese_language&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Syntax">edit</a>]</div> Marshallese, like many Micronesian languages, divides sentences into two types: predicational sentences and equational sentences.<a href="#cite_note-wms-71">[71]</a> Predicational sentences have <a href="/wiki/Subject-verb-object" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject-verb-object">SVO</a> word order and a main verb:<a href="#cite_note-wms-71">[71]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">E-j<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3S</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="present tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRES</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">kajan̄jan̄play</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">kita.guitar.</div>E-j kajan̄jan̄ kita.3S-PRES play guitar.'He plays guitar.' (Willson 2002)<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> In equational sentences, both the subject and predicate are noun phrases:<a href="#cite_note-wms-71">[71]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">Nuknukdress</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">eo<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="determiner" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DET</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">e-aibujuij.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3S</abbr>-beautiful.</div>Nuknuk eo e-aibujuij.dress DET 3S-beautiful.'The dress is beautiful.' (Willson 2002)<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vocabulary">Vocabulary</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marshallese_language&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Vocabulary">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Marshallese vocabulary<a href="#cite_note-MED-36">[36]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <td>(Rālik) aaet; (Ratak) aet </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[ɑːetˠ, ɑetˠ]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Yes_and_no" title="Yes and no">Yes</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>aelōn̄ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[ɑelʲɤŋ]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Atoll" title="Atoll">Atoll</a>, or island; the word for land in general </td></tr> <tr> <td>ej et am̧ mour </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[ɛzʲeːdˠɑːmmʲourˠ]</a> </td> <td>How are you? (Literally, "How is your life doing?") Notice that the m̧ <a href="#Phonotactics">assimilates</a> before the m. </td></tr> <tr> <td>em̧m̧an </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[ɛmmˠɑnʲ]</a> </td> <td>(It) is good. </td></tr> <tr> <td>enana </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[ɛnʲɑːnʲɑ]</a> </td> <td>(It) is bad. </td></tr> <tr> <td>io̧kwe; yokwe </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[i̯ɒɡwɛ]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hello" title="Hello">Hello</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parting_phrase" title="Parting phrase">goodbye</a> and <a href="/wiki/Love" title="Love">love</a>, similar to the <a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_language" title="Hawaiian language">Hawaiian</a> <a href="/wiki/Aloha" title="Aloha">aloha</a>; also an expression of sympathy. Its literal, archaic meaning is "You are a rainbow".<a href="#cite_note-medYokwe-45">[45]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">failed verification</a>] </td></tr> <tr> <td>irwōj; irooj </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[irˠ(u)wɤtʲ, irˠoːtʲ]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Iroij" class="mw-redirect" title="Iroij">Iroij</a>, the various <a href="/wiki/Paramount_chieftain" title="Paramount chieftain">paramount chieftains</a> of <a href="/wiki/Marshallese_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Marshallese culture">Marshallese culture</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>jaab </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[tʲɑːpʲ]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Yes_and_no" title="Yes and no">No</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>kom̧m̧ool tata </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[kʷɔmmˠɔːltˠɑːdˠɑ]</a> </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/thank_you" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:thank you">Thank you</a> very much. Kom̧m̧ool alone means "thank you". </td></tr> <tr> <td>kōn jouj </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[kɤnzʲoutʲ]</a> </td> <td>You're welcome. Literally "for kindness". </td></tr> <tr> <td>Kūrjin </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[kɯrˠ(i)zʲinʲ]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a>: The majority <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a> of the Marshall Islands </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cardinal_numbers">Cardinal numbers</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marshallese_language&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Cardinal numbers">edit</a>]</div> This includes the cardinal numbers one through ten in the Rālik dialect. Where Ratak forms differ, they are listed in parentheses. <ol><li>juon <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[tʲuɔnʲ]</a></li> <li>ruo <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[rˠuɔ]</a></li> <li>jilu <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[tʲilʲu]</a></li> <li>emān <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[ɛmʲænʲ]</a></li> <li>l‌̧alem <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[lˠɑlʲemʲ]</a></li> <li>jiljino <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[tʲizʲinʲɔ]</a> (the l is silent<a href="#cite_note-r12-72">[72]</a>)</li> <li>jimjuon <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[tʲimʲ(i)zʲuɔnʲ]</a></li> <li>ralitōk <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[rˠɑːlʲiːdˠɤk]</a> (ejino)</li> <li>ratimjuon <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[rˠɑːdˠimʲ(i)zʲuɔnʲ]</a> (ejilimjuon)</li> <li>jon̄oul <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[tʲoŋʷoulʲ]</a></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Months">Months</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marshallese_language&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Months">edit</a>]</div> <ol><li>Jānwōde <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[tʲænʲ(ɔ)wɔrˠɛ]</a>, 'January'</li> <li>Pāpode <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[pʲæbʲɔːrˠɛ]</a>, 'February'</li> <li>M̧aaj <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[mˠɑːtʲ]</a>, 'March'</li> <li>Eprōl‌̧ <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[ɛbʲ(ɛ)rˠʌlˠ]</a>, 'April'</li> <li>Māe <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[mʲæe]</a>, 'May'</li> <li>Juun <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[tʲuːnʲ]</a>, 'June'</li> <li>Jul‌̧ae <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[tʲuːlˠɑːɛ]</a>, 'July'</li> <li>O̧kwōj <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[ɒɡwʌtʲ]</a>, 'August'</li> <li>Jeptōm̧ba <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[tʲɛbʲ(ɛ)dˠʌmbˠɑ]</a>, also Jebtōm̧ba <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[tʲɛbˠ(ʌ)dˠʌmbˠɑ]</a>, 'September'</li> <li>Oktoba <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[wɔɡ(ʌ)dˠɔːbˠɑ]</a>, 'October'</li> <li>Nobōm̧ba <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[nʲɔːbˠʌmbˠɑ]</a>, also Nopem̧ba <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[nʲɔːbʲɛmbˠɑ]</a>, 'November'</li> <li>Tijem̧ba <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[tˠiːzʲɛmbˠɑ]</a>, 'December'</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Weekdays">Weekdays</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marshallese_language&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Weekdays">edit</a>]</div> <ol><li>Jabōt <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[tʲɑbˠʌtˠ]</a>, 'Sunday; Sabbath'</li> <li>M̧ande <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[mˠɑnrʲɛ]</a>, 'Monday'</li> <li>Juje <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[tʲuːzʲɛ]</a>, 'Tuesday'</li> <li>Wōnje <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[wʌnzʲɛ]</a>, 'Wednesday'</li> <li>Taije <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[tˠɑːizʲɛ]</a>, 'Thursday'</li> <li>Bōraide <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[pˠʌrˠɑːirʲɛ]</a>, also Bōl‌̧aide <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[pˠʌlˠɑːirʲɛ]</a>, also Būl‌̧āide <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[pˠɯlˠæirʲɛ]</a>, 'Friday'</li> <li>Jādede <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[tʲærʲɛːrʲɛ]</a>, 'Saturday'</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marshallese_atolls_and_islands">Marshallese atolls and islands</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marshallese_language&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Marshallese atolls and islands">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>M̧ajel‌̧ or M̧ajōl‌̧ <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[mˠɑːzʲɛlˠ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Marshall_Islands" title="Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a>' <ul><li>Ratak <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[rˠɑːdˠɑk]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Ratak_Chain" class="mw-redirect" title="Ratak Chain">Ratak Chain</a>' <ul><li>Aelok <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[ɑelʲokʷ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Ailuk_Atoll" title="Ailuk Atoll">Ailuk Atoll</a>'</li> <li>Arn‌̧o <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[ɑnnˠɔ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Arno_Atoll" title="Arno Atoll">Arno Atoll</a>'</li> <li>Aur <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[ɑurˠ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Aur_Atoll" title="Aur Atoll">Aur Atoll</a>'</li> <li>Ādkup <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[ærʲ(u)ɡʷupʲ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Erikub_Atoll" title="Erikub Atoll">Erikub Atoll</a>'</li> <li>Bokaak or Bok-ak <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[pˠɔɡwɑːk]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Bokak_Atoll" title="Bokak Atoll">Bokak (Taongi) Atoll</a>'</li> <li>Jāmo̧ <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[tʲæːmʲɒ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Jemo_Island" title="Jemo Island">Jemo Island</a>'</li> <li>Likiep <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[lʲiɡiɛpʲ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Likiep_Atoll" title="Likiep Atoll">Likiep Atoll</a>'</li> <li>Mājeej <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[mʲæzʲɛːtʲ]</a> or Mājej <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[mʲæzʲɛːtʲ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Mejit_Island" title="Mejit Island">Mejit Island</a>'</li> <li>Mājro <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[mʲæzʲ(e)rˠo]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Majuro" title="Majuro">Majuro Atoll</a>' <ul><li>Jarōj <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[tʲɑrˠʌtʲ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Djarrit" title="Djarrit">Djarrit</a>'</li> <li>L‌̧ora <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[lˠɔːrˠɑ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Laura,_Marshall_Islands" title="Laura, Marshall Islands">Laura</a>'</li> <li>Tel‌̧ap <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[tˠɛːlˠɑpʲ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Delap" title="Delap">Delap</a>'</li> <li>Wūlka <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[wɯlʲ(i)ɡɑ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Uliga" title="Uliga">Uliga</a>'</li></ul></li> <li>Mile <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[mʲilʲe]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Mili_Atoll" title="Mili Atoll">Mili Atoll</a>'</li> <li>M̧al‌̧o-el‌̧ap <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[mˠɑlˠɔːɛlˠɑpʲ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Maloelap_Atoll" title="Maloelap Atoll">Maloelap Atoll</a>'</li> <li>N‌̧a-dikdik <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[nˠɑːrʲiɡ(i)rʲik]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Knox_Atoll" title="Knox Atoll">Knox Atoll</a>'</li> <li>Pikaar <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[pʲiɡɑːrˠ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Bikar_Atoll" title="Bikar Atoll">Bikar Atoll</a>'</li> <li>Tōkā <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[tˠʌɡæ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Toke_Atoll" title="Toke Atoll">Toke (Taka) Atoll</a>'</li> <li>Utrōk <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[wudˠ(ɯ)rˠɤk]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Utirik_Atoll" title="Utirik Atoll">Utirik Atoll</a>'</li> <li>Wōjjā <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[wʌttʲæ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Wotje_Atoll" title="Wotje Atoll">Wotje Atoll</a>'</li></ul></li> <li>Rālik <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[rˠæːlʲik]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Ralik_Chain" class="mw-redirect" title="Ralik Chain">Ralik Chain</a>' <ul><li>Aelōn̄in-ae <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[ɑelʲɤŋinʲɑːɛ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Ailinginae_Atoll" title="Ailinginae Atoll">Ailinginae Atoll</a>'</li> <li>Aelōn̄l‌̧apl‌̧ap <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[ɑelʲɤŋ(ɤ)lˠɑbʲ(ɛ)lˠɑpʲ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Ailinglaplap_Atoll" title="Ailinglaplap Atoll">Ailinglaplap Atoll</a>'</li> <li>Āne-wātak <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[ænʲeːwæːdˠɑk]</a>, also Ānewetak <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[ænʲeːwɛːdˠɑk]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Enewetak_Atoll" title="Enewetak Atoll">Enewetak (Eniwetok) Atoll</a>'</li> <li>Ellep <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[ɛllʲɛpʲ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Lib_Island" title="Lib Island">Lib Island</a>'</li> <li>Epoon <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[ɛbʲɔːnʲ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Ebon_Atoll" title="Ebon Atoll">Ebon Atoll</a>'</li> <li>Jālwōj <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[tʲælʲ(o)wɤtʲ]</a> or Jālooj <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[tʲælʲoːtʲ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Jaluit_Atoll" title="Jaluit Atoll">Jaluit Atoll</a>' <ul><li>Jebwad <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[tʲɛbˠ(ɔ)wɑrʲ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Jabor_(Marshall_Islands)" title="Jabor (Marshall Islands)">Jabor Island</a>'</li></ul></li> <li>Jebat <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[tʲɛbˠɑtˠ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Jabat_Island" title="Jabat Island">Jabat (Jabot, Jabwot) Island</a>'</li> <li>Kōle <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[kɤlʲe]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Kili_Island" title="Kili Island">Kili Island</a>'</li> <li>Kuwajleen <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[kʷuwɑzʲ(ɛ)lʲɛːnʲ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Kwajalein_Atoll" title="Kwajalein Atoll">Kwajalein Atoll</a>' <ul><li>Epjā <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[ɛbʲ(ɛ)zʲæ]</a>, also Ibae <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[ibˠɑːɛ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Ebeye_Island" title="Ebeye Island">Ebeye Island</a>'</li></ul></li> <li>Lae <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[lʲɑːɛ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Lae_Atoll" title="Lae Atoll">Lae Atoll</a>'</li> <li>Nam̧dik <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[nʲɑmˠ(wi)rʲik]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Namdrik_Atoll" title="Namdrik Atoll">Namdrik (Namorik) Atoll</a>'</li> <li>Nam̧o <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[nʲɑmˠo]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Namu_Atoll" title="Namu Atoll">Namu Atoll</a>'</li> <li>Pikinni <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[pʲiɡinnʲi]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Bikini_Atoll" title="Bikini Atoll">Bikini Atoll</a>'</li> <li>Ron̄dik <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[rʷɔŋʷ(ɯ)rʲik]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Rongerik_Atoll" title="Rongerik Atoll">Rongerik (Rongdrik) Atoll</a>'</li> <li>Ron̄l‌̧ap <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[rʷɔŋʷ(ɔ)lˠɑpʲ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Rongelap_Atoll" title="Rongelap Atoll">Rongelap Atoll</a>'</li> <li>Wōtto <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[wʌttˠɔ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Wotho_Atoll" title="Wotho Atoll">Wotho Atoll</a>'</li> <li>Wūjae or Ujae <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[wɯzʲɑːɛ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Ujae_Atoll" title="Ujae Atoll">Ujae Atoll</a>'</li> <li>Wūjlan̄ or Ujlan̄ <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[wɯzʲ(i)lʲɑŋ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Ujelang_Atoll" title="Ujelang Atoll">Ujelang Atoll</a>'</li></ul></li> <li>Āneen-kio <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[ænʲeːnʲ(i)ɡiɔ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Wake_Island" title="Wake Island">Wake (Enenkio) Atoll</a>' (claimed by the Marshall Islands, administered by the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>)</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_countries_and_places">Other countries and places</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marshallese_language&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Other countries and places">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Amedka <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[ɑmʲɛrʲ(ɛ)ɡɑ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> (America)' <ul><li>Awai <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[ɑwɑːi]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaii</a>', where a Marshallese diaspora lives</li> <li>Kalboonea <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[kɑlʲ(ʌ)bˠɔːnʲɛ̯ɑ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>', where a Marshallese diaspora lives</li> <li>O̧kōnjo̧ <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[ɒɡwʌnzʲɒ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Arkansas" title="Arkansas">Arkansas</a>', where a large Marshallese diaspora lives</li></ul></li> <li>Aujtōrōlia <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[ɑuttˠʌrˠʌlʲiɑ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>'</li> <li>Eijia <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[eizʲiɑ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>' <ul><li>Jaina <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[tʲɑːinʲɑ]</a>, also Jāina <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[tʲæinʲɑ]</a>, also Jeina <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[tʲeinʲɑ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>'</li> <li>Jepaan <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[tʲɛbʲɑːnʲ]</a>, also Nibbon̄ <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[nʲippˠɔŋʷ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> (Nippon)', former colonial ruler</li> <li>Kuria <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[kʷurˠiɑ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a>'</li> <li>Pilipin <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[pʲilʲibʲinʲ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>', former colonial administrator under Spanish rule</li> <li>Rojia <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[rʷoːzʲiɑ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>'</li> <li>Taiwan <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[tˠɑːiwɑnʲ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>'</li></ul></li> <li>In̄len <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[iŋ(i)lʲɛnʲ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>'</li> <li>Jam̧uwa <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[tʲɑːmˠuːwɑ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Samoa" title="Samoa">Samoa</a>'</li> <li>Jāmne <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[tʲæmʲ(ɛ)nʲɛ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>', former colonial ruler</li> <li>Jipein <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[tʲibʲeinʲ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>', former colonial ruler</li> <li>M̧aikronijia <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[mˠɑːiɡ(u)rʷɔnʲizʲiɑ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Micronesia" title="Micronesia">Micronesia</a>' <ul><li>Karol‌̧āin <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[kɑrˠɔːlˠæinʲ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Caroline_Islands" title="Caroline Islands">Caroline Islands</a>' <ul><li>Bōl‌̧au <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[pˠʌlˠɑːu]</a>, also Bōl‌̧ao <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[pˠʌlˠɑːɔ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Palau" title="Palau">Palau</a>'</li> <li>FSM <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[ɛbʲɛzʲɛmʲ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Federated_States_of_Micronesia" title="Federated States of Micronesia">Federated States of Micronesia</a> (F.S.M.)' <ul><li>Boonpe <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[pˠoːnʲ(e)bʲe]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Pohnpei" title="Pohnpei">Pohnpei</a> (Ponape)'</li> <li>Iaab <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[i̯ɑːpˠ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Yap" title="Yap">Yap</a>'</li> <li>Kujjae <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[kʷuttʲɑːɛ]</a>, also Kōjae <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[kʌzʲɑːɛ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Kosrae" title="Kosrae">Kosrae</a> (Kusaie)'</li> <li>Ruk <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[rˠukʷ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Chuuk_State" title="Chuuk State">Chuuk</a> (Truk)'</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Kilbōt <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[kilʲ(i)bˠʌtˠ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Kiribati" title="Kiribati">Kiribati</a> (Gilbert Islands)'</li> <li>M̧adianna <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[mʲærʲiɑːnnʲɑ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Mariana_Islands" title="Mariana Islands">Mariana Islands</a>' <ul><li>Jāipaan <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[tʲæibʲɑːnʲ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Saipan" class="mw-redirect" title="Saipan">Saipan</a>'</li> <li>Kuwaam̧ <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[kʷuwɑːmˠ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Guam" title="Guam">Guam</a>'</li></ul></li> <li>Nawōdo <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[nʲɑːwʌrʲɔ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Nauru" title="Nauru">Nauru</a> (Naoero)'</li></ul></li> <li>Mejjiko <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[mʲɛttʲiɡɔ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>', former colonial administrator under Spanish rule</li> <li>Nijiil‌̧ōn <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[nʲuːzʲiːlˠʌnʲ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>'</li> <li>Nukne <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[nʲuɡʷ(u)nʲe]</a>, also <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[nʲuɡʷ(u)nʲɛ]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/New_Guinea" title="New Guinea">New Guinea</a>', former colonial administrator under German rule</li> <li>Piji <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[pʲiːzʲi]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Fiji" title="Fiji">Fiji</a>'</li> <li>Tubal‌̧u <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Marshallese" title="Help:IPA/Marshallese">[tˠuːbˠɑːlˠu]</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Tuvalu" title="Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a>'</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Text_examples">Text examples</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marshallese_language&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Text examples">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_orthography">Modern orthography</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marshallese_language&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Modern orthography">edit</a>]</div> Here is the <a href="/wiki/Hail_Mary" title="Hail Mary">Hail Mary</a> in standard Marshallese orthography: <dl><dd>Io̧kwe eok Maria, kwo lōn̄ kōn</dd> <dd>menin jouj;</dd> <dd>Irooj ej pād ippam̧.</dd> <dd>Kwo jeram̧m̧an iaan kōrā ran‌̧ im</dd> <dd>ejeram̧m̧an ineen lo̧jiōm̧, Jesus.</dd> <dd>O Maria kwojarjar, jinen Anij,</dd> <dd>kwōn jar kōn kem rijjerawiwi.</dd> <dd>Kiiō im ilo iien</dd> <dd>amwōj mej. Amen.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Older_orthography">Older orthography</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marshallese_language&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Older orthography">edit</a>]</div> Here is the <a href="/wiki/Lord%27s_Prayer" title="Lord's Prayer">Lord's Prayer</a> from the 1982 Marshallese Bible, which uses the older orthography: <dl><dd>Jememuij iljōn̄:</dd> <dd>En kwojarjar im utiej etam;</dd> <dd>En itok am Ailin̄;</dd> <dd>Kimin kōmōnmōn ankilam ilōl einwōt air kōmmōn ilōn.</dd> <dd>Letok n̄ōn kim kijim rainin.</dd> <dd>Jolok amuij bwid ibbam,</dd> <dd>Einwōt kimij julok bwid ko an ro jet ibbem.</dd> <dd>Am melejjon̄e kim en jab ellā jen jon̄an,</dd> <dd>Ak kwon kejbarok kim jen Eo Enana.</dd> <dd>Bwe am Ailin̄ im kajur im aibuijuij indrio, Amen.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marshallese_language&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 24em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-eth-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-eth_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-eth_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-eth_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-eth_1-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-eth_1-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-eth_1-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-eth_1-6">g</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150411065329/http://www.ethnologue.com/language/mah">"Marshallese"</a>. <a href="/wiki/SIL_International" title="SIL International">SIL International</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ethnologue.org/show_language.asp?code=mah">the original</a> on 2015-04-11. Retrieved 2012-12-05.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Marshallese&rft.pub=SIL+International&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ethnologue.org%2Fshow_language.asp%3Fcode%3Dmah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMarshallese+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-e18-2"><a href="#cite_ref-e18_2-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/18/language/mah/">Marshallese</a> at <a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a> (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required) </li> <li id="cite_note-Pop-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pop_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pop_3-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?locations=MH">"Population, total – Marshall Islands"</a>. The World Bank.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Population%2C+total+%E2%80%93+Marshall+Islands&rft.pub=The+World+Bank&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdata.worldbank.org%2Findicator%2FSP.POP.TOTL%3Flocations%3DMH&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMarshallese+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ruststaff-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ruststaff_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ruststaff_4-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSusanne_Ruststaff2019" class="citation web cs1">Susanne Ruststaff (December 31, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.latimes.com/world-nation/story/2019-12-31/marshall-islands-uncertain-future-us-marshallese-spokane">"They came here after the U.S. irradiated their islands. Now they face an uncertain future"</a>. Los Angeles Times.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&rft.atitle=They+came+here+after+the+U.S.+irradiated+their+islands.+Now+they+face+an+uncertain+future&rft.date=2019-12-31&rft.au=Susanne+Ruststaff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.latimes.com%2Fworld-nation%2Fstory%2F2019-12-31%2Fmarshall-islands-uncertain-future-us-marshallese-spokane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMarshallese+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-hgb-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hgb_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hgb_5-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hgb_5-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hgb_5-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hgb_5-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hgb_5-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFWillson2002">Willson (2002)</a>, 1.1 General background </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">"Marshall Islands Nuclear Claims Tribunal: In the Matter of the People of Enewetak". 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Naan.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Naan&rft.atitle=free+Marshallese-English+dictionary&rft.date=2014-08-01&rft.au=Nik+Willson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsites.google.com%2Fsite%2Flalenaan%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMarshallese+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-bxvii-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bxvii_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bxvii_17-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBender1969">Bender (1969)</a>, p. xvii </li> <li id="cite_note-w6-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-w6_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-w6_18-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-w6_18-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFWillson2003">Willson (2003)</a>, p. 6 </li> <li id="cite_note-w2-19"><a href="#cite_ref-w2_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWillson2003">Willson (2003)</a>, p. 2 </li> <li id="cite_note-bxiii-xvii-20"><a href="#cite_ref-bxiii-xvii_20-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBender1969">Bender (1969)</a>, pp. xiii–xvii </li> <li id="cite_note-b17-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-b17_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-b17_21-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-b17_21-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFBender1968">Bender (1968)</a>, p. 17 </li> <li id="cite_note-c15-22"><a href="#cite_ref-c15_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChoi1992">Choi (1992)</a>, p. 15 </li> <li id="cite_note-w3-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-w3_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-w3_23-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-w3_23-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-w3_23-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFWillson2003">Willson (2003)</a>, p. 3 </li> <li id="cite_note-b22-23-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-b22-23_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-b22-23_24-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBender1968">Bender (1968)</a>, pp. 22–23 </li> <li id="cite_note-b17-21-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-b17-21_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-b17-21_25-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBender1968">Bender (1968)</a>, pp. 17–21 </li> <li id="cite_note-c22-25-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-c22-25_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-c22-25_26-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFChoi1992">Choi (1992)</a>, pp. 22–25 </li> <li id="cite_note-w7-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-w7_27-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-w7_27-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-w7_27-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-w7_27-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFWillson2003">Willson (2003)</a>, p. 7 </li> <li id="cite_note-w7-8-28"><a href="#cite_ref-w7-8_28-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWillson2003">Willson (2003)</a>, pp. 7–8 </li> <li id="cite_note-b22-29">^ <a href="#cite_ref-b22_29-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-b22_29-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-b22_29-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-b22_29-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFBender1968">Bender (1968)</a>, p. 22 </li> <li id="cite_note-clong-30"><a href="#cite_ref-clong_30-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChoi1992">Choi (1992)</a>, pp. 70–73 </li> <li id="cite_note-c22-31"><a href="#cite_ref-c22_31-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChoi1992">Choi (1992)</a>, p. 22 </li> <li id="cite_note-c23-32"><a href="#cite_ref-c23_32-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChoi1992">Choi (1992)</a>, p. 23 </li> <li id="cite_note-w4-5-33">^ <a href="#cite_ref-w4-5_33-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-w4-5_33-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-w4-5_33-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFWillson2003">Willson (2003)</a>, pp. 4–5 </li> <li id="cite_note-w5-34">^ <a href="#cite_ref-w5_34-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-w5_34-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-w5_34-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-w5_34-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFWillson2003">Willson (2003)</a>, p. 5 </li> <li id="cite_note-b8-35"><a href="#cite_ref-b8_35-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBender1968">Bender (1968)</a>, p. 8 </li> <li id="cite_note-MED-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MED_36-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MED_36-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MED_36-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MED_36-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MED_36-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MED_36-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MED_36-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MED_36-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MED_36-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MED_36-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MED_36-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MED_36-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MED_36-12">m</a> <a href="#CITEREFAboBenderCapelleDeBrum1976">Abo et al. 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(2003)</a>, pp. 4, 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-mx-42">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mx_42-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-mx_42-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-mx_42-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-mx_42-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFMiller2010">Miller (2010)</a>, p. x </li> <li id="cite_note-r6-43">^ <a href="#cite_ref-r6_43-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-r6_43-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-r6_43-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFRudiak-Gould2004">Rudiak-Gould (2004)</a>, p. 6 </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/LocK.htm#Kuwajleen">MED: Kuwajleen</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/ConcordK.htm#Kuajleen">MED: Kuajleen</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-medYokwe-45">^ <a href="#cite_ref-medYokwe_45-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-medYokwe_45-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/MED2I.htm#iọkwe">MED: io̧kwe</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/MED2W.htm#wōtōm">MED: wōtōm</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/MED2L.htm#ḷap">MED: l‌̧ap</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/MED2D.htm#dik">MED: dik</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-MEDaelon-49">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MEDaelon_49-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MEDaelon_49-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/MED2A.htm#aelōñ">MED: aelōn̄</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/LocK.htm#Kuwajleen">MED: Epatōn</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/MED2K.htm#Kūrijṃōj">MED: Kūrijm̧ōj</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/LocK.htm#Kuwajleen">MED: Nōl‌̧</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/MED2P.htm#pinjeḷ">MED: pinjel‌̧</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/MED2M.htm#Ṃajeḷ">MED: M̧ajel‌̧</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/ConcordM.htm#Ṃajōḷ">MED: M̧ajōl‌̧</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/MED2O.htm#Ọkwōj">MED: O̧kwōj</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/LocW.htm#Wūjlañ">MED: Wūjlan̄</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-trussel2.com-58">^ <a href="#cite_ref-trussel2.com_58-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-trussel2.com_58-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/MED2T.htm#tāākji">MED: tāākji</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/MED2N.htm#naaj">MED: naaj</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/MED2B.htm">MED: bwe</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/MED2R.htm#ri-">MED: ri-</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/MED2R.htm#Ri-Ṃajeḷ">MED: Ri-M̧ajel‌̧</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBender1969[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2021)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-63"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBender1969[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2021)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_63-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBender1969">Bender (1969)</a>, p. [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]. </li> <li id="cite_note-ws15-64">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ws15_64-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ws15_64-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWillson2008">Willson (2008)</a>, p. 15 </li> <li id="cite_note-ws16-65"><a href="#cite_ref-ws16_65-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWillson2008">Willson (2008)</a>, p. 16 </li> <li id="cite_note-ws17-66">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ws17_66-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ws17_66-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ws17_66-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFWillson2008">Willson (2008)</a>, p. 17 </li> <li id="cite_note-ws17-18-67"><a href="#cite_ref-ws17-18_67-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWillson2008">Willson (2008)</a>, pp. 17–18 </li> <li id="cite_note-ws18-68">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ws18_68-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ws18_68-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ws18_68-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ws18_68-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFWillson2008">Willson (2008)</a>, p. 18 </li> <li id="cite_note-ws19-21-69">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ws19-21_69-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ws19-21_69-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWillson2008">Willson (2008)</a>, pp. 19–21 </li> <li 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(2003). "Proto-Micronesian Reconstructions: I". Oceanic Linguistics. 42 (1): 1–110. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3623449">10.2307/3623449</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3623449">3623449</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oceanic+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Proto-Micronesian+Reconstructions%3A+I&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-110&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3623449&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3623449%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Bender&rft.aufirst=Byron+W.&rft.au=Goodenough%2C+Ward+H.&rft.au=Jackson%2C+Frederick+H.&rft.au=Marck%2C+Jeffrey+C.&rft.au=Rehg%2C+Kenneth+L.&rft.au=Sohn%2C+Ho-min&rft.au=Trussel%2C+Stephen&rft.au=Wang%2C+Judith+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMarshallese+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChoi1992" class="citation journal cs1">Choi, John (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://escholarship.org/uc/item/07b9m6x8">"Phonetic Underspecification and Target Interpolation: An Acoustic Study of Marshallese Vowel Allophony"</a>. Working Papers in Phonetics. 82. Los Angeles: UCLA. Retrieved 2012-12-30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Working+Papers+in+Phonetics&rft.atitle=Phonetic+Underspecification+and+Target+Interpolation%3A+An+Acoustic+Study+of+Marshallese+Vowel+Allophony&rft.volume=82&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Choi&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fescholarship.org%2Fuc%2Fitem%2F07b9m6x8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMarshallese+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller2010" class="citation book cs1">Miller, Rachel (2010). Wa kuk wa jimor: Outrigger canoes, social change, and modern life in the Marshall Islands. University of Hawai’i. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10125%2F21114">10125/21114</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wa+kuk+wa+jimor%3A+Outrigger+canoes%2C+social+change%2C+and+modern+life+in+the+Marshall+Islands&rft.pub=University+of+Hawai%E2%80%99i&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10125%2F21114&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Rachel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMarshallese+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRudiak-Gould2004" class="citation book cs1">Rudiak-Gould, Peter (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.peterrg.com/Practical%20Marshallese.pdf">Practical Marshallese</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/WorldTeach" title="WorldTeach">WorldTeach</a>. Retrieved 2012-12-05.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Practical+Marshallese&rft.pub=WorldTeach&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Rudiak-Gould&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.peterrg.com%2FPractical%2520Marshallese.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMarshallese+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWillson2002" class="citation cs2">Willson, Heather (2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304033019/http://hwillson.bol.ucla.edu/TheMarshalleseComplemetizerPhrase.pdf">The Marshallese Complementizer Phrase</a> (PDF), Arizona State University, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hwillson.bol.ucla.edu/TheMarshalleseComplemetizerPhrase.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2016-03-04, retrieved 2012-12-10</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Marshallese+Complementizer+Phrase&rft.pub=Arizona+State+University&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Willson&rft.aufirst=Heather&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhwillson.bol.ucla.edu%2FTheMarshalleseComplemetizerPhrase.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMarshallese+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWillson2003" class="citation book cs1">Willson, Heather (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240616075641/linguistics.byu.edu/faculty/hwills1/ABriefIntroductiontoMarshallesePhonology.pdf">A Brief Introduction to Marshallese Phonology</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://linguistics.byu.edu/faculty/hwills1/ABriefIntroductiontoMarshallesePhonology.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2024-06-16. Retrieved 2012-12-04.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Brief+Introduction+to+Marshallese+Phonology&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Willson&rft.aufirst=Heather&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flinguistics.byu.edu%2Ffaculty%2Fhwills1%2FABriefIntroductiontoMarshallesePhonology.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMarshallese+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWillson2008" class="citation book cs1">Willson, Heather (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111113111611/http://linguistics.byu.edu/faculty/hwills1/Subject%20Positions%20In%20Marshallese.pdf">Subject Positions in Marshallese</a> (PDF). University of California, Los Angeles. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://linguistics.byu.edu/faculty/hwills1/Subject%20Positions%20In%20Marshallese.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2011-11-13. Retrieved 2012-12-10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Subject+Positions+in+Marshallese&rft.pub=University+of+California%2C+Los+Angeles&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Willson&rft.aufirst=Heather&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flinguistics.byu.edu%2Ffaculty%2Fhwills1%2FSubject%2520Positions%2520In%2520Marshallese.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMarshallese+language" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marshallese_language&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Bender, Byron W. (1969). Vowel dissimilation in Marshallese. In Working papers in linguistics (No. 11, pp. 88–96). University of Hawaii.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBender1973" class="citation journal cs1">Bender, Byron W (1973). "Parallelisms in the morphophonemics of several Micronesian languages". Oceanic Linguistics. 12 (1/2): 455–477. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3622863">10.2307/3622863</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3622863">3622863</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oceanic+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Parallelisms+in+the+morphophonemics+of+several+Micronesian+languages&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1%2F2&rft.pages=455-477&rft.date=1973&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3622863&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3622863%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Bender&rft.aufirst=Byron+W&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMarshallese+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErdland1906" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Erdland, August (1906). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_-FZIAQAAMAAJ/page/n255">Wörterbuch und Grammatik der Marschall-Sprache</a>. Archiv für das Studium der deutschen Kolonialsprachen IV (in German). Berlin: Georg Reimer.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=W%C3%B6rterbuch+und+Grammatik+der+Marschall-Sprache&rft.place=Berlin&rft.series=Archiv+f%C3%BCr+das+Studium+der+deutschen+Kolonialsprachen+IV&rft.pub=Georg+Reimer&rft.date=1906&rft.aulast=Erdland&rft.aufirst=August&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbub_gb_-FZIAQAAMAAJ%2Fpage%2Fn255&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMarshallese+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Hale, Mark. (2007) Chapter 5 of Historical Linguistics: Theory and Method. Blackwell</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHale2000" class="citation journal cs1">Hale, Mark (2000). "Marshallese phonology, the phonetics-phonology interface and historical linguistics". The Linguistic Review. 17 (2–4): 241–257. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Ftlir.2000.17.2-4.241">10.1515/tlir.2000.17.2-4.241</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143601901">143601901</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Linguistic+Review&rft.atitle=Marshallese+phonology%2C+the+phonetics-phonology+interface+and+historical+linguistics&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=2%E2%80%934&rft.pages=241-257&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Ftlir.2000.17.2-4.241&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143601901%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Hale&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMarshallese+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKroeber1911" class="citation journal cs1">Kroeber, A. L. (1911). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1911.13.3.02a00020">"Phonetics of the Micronesian Language of the Marshall Islands"</a>. American Anthropologist. New Series. 13 (3): 380–393. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1911.13.3.02a00020">10.1525/aa.1911.13.3.02a00020</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10524%2F11920">10524/11920</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/659915">659915</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Anthropologist&rft.atitle=Phonetics+of+the+Micronesian+Language+of+the+Marshall+Islands&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=380-393&rft.date=1911&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10524%2F11920&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F659915%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Faa.1911.13.3.02a00020&rft.aulast=Kroeber&rft.aufirst=A.+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1525%252Faa.1911.13.3.02a00020&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMarshallese+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Pagotto, L. (1987). Verb subcategorization and verb derivation in Marshallese: a lexicase analysis.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marshallese_language&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/32px-Incubator-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/48px-Incubator-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/64px-Incubator-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="799" data-file-height="1000" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="https://incubator.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wp/mh" class="extiw" title="incubator:Wp/mh">Marshallese language test</a> of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a> at <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Incubator" class="extiw" title="meta:Wikimedia Incubator">Wikimedia Incubator</a></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> Marshallese at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Marshallese_language" class="extiw" title="wikt:Category:Marshallese language">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Marshallese_language" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Marshallese language">Media</a> from Commons</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/27px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/41px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/54px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36280" class="extiw" title="d:Q36280">Data</a> from Wikidata</li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sites.google.com/site/lalenaan/">Naan, a free Marshallese–English Dictionary for beginner/intermediate learners of both languages</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/">Marshallese–English Online Dictionary</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051110235126/http://www.rmiembassyus.org/Marshallese%20Phrasebook.htm">Marshallese Phrasebook on the website for the Republic of Marshall Islands</a> lists the Marshallese word for the Marshallese language as kajin Majöl</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.linguistics.berkeley.edu/~rscook/pdf/PCMLT-JejeinM.pdf">Peace Corps Marshall Islands Marshallese Language Training Manual</a> (<a href="/wiki/Portable_Document_Format" class="mw-redirect" title="Portable Document Format">PDF</a>, 275 KB; instead of macrons uses trema on vowels and tilde on n, and underlines instead of cedillas)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://faroutliers.blogspot.com/2004/08/marshallese-spelling-reforms.html">Marshallese Spelling Reforms</a> article in the blog, "Far Outliers"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaipuleohone" title="Kaipuleohone">Kaipuleohone</a> has recordings of <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/27416">stories from the 1950s</a> as well as <a href="https://hdl.handle.net/10125/32782" class="extiw" title="hdl:10125/32782">index cards of plant and animal words</a></li> <li>Materials on Marshallese are included in the open access <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Capell" title="Arthur Capell">Arthur Capell</a> collections (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalog.paradisec.org.au/collections/AC1">AC1</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalog.paradisec.org.au/collections/AC2">AC2</a>) held by <a href="/wiki/Paradisec" class="mw-redirect" title="Paradisec">Paradisec</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Micronesian_languages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Micronesian_languages" title="Template:Micronesian languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Micronesian_languages" title="Template talk:Micronesian languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Micronesian_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Micronesian languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Micronesian_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Micronesian_languages" title="Micronesian languages">Micronesian languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nauruan</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nauruan_language" title="Nauruan language">Nauruan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nuclear Micronesian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kosraean_language" title="Kosraean language">Kosraean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbertese_language" title="Gilbertese language">Gilbertese</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Marshallese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chuukic-Pohnpeic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Chuukic-Pohnpeic languages">Chuukic– Pohnpeic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chuukic_languages" title="Chuukic languages">Chuukic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sonsorol_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sonsorol language">Sonsorol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobian_language" title="Tobian language">Tobian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuukese_language" title="Chuukese language">Chuukese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woleaian_language" title="Woleaian language">Woleaian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulithian_language" title="Ulithian language">Ulithian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puluwatese_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Puluwatese language">Puluwatese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namonuito_language" title="Namonuito language">Namonuito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanapag_language" title="Tanapag language">Tanapag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolinian_language" title="Carolinian language">Carolinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satawalese_language" title="Satawalese language">Satawalese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortlockese_language" title="Mortlockese language">Mortlockese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C3%A1%C3%A1fang_language" title="Pááfang language">Pááfang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapia_language" title="Mapia language">Mapia</a> †</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pohnpeic_languages" title="Pohnpeic languages">Pohnpeic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mokilese_language" title="Mokilese language">Mokilese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pingelapese_language" title="Pingelapese language">Pingelapese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pohnpeian_language" title="Pohnpeian language">Pohnpeian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngatikese_language" title="Ngatikese language">Ngatikese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>* indicates proposed status</li> <li>? indicates classification dispute</li> <li>† indicates <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct status</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Eastern_Malayo-Polynesian_languages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Eastern_Malayo-Polynesian_languages" title="Template:Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Eastern_Malayo-Polynesian_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Eastern_Malayo-Polynesian_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Eastern_Malayo-Polynesian_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Malayo-Polynesian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages">Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Halmahera%E2%80%93West_New_Guinea_languages" title="South Halmahera–West New Guinea languages">SHWNG</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tandia_language" title="Tandia language">Tandia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moor_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Moor language">Mor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waropen_language" title="Waropen language">Waropen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warembori_language" title="Warembori language">Warembori</a> ?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoke_language" title="Yoke language">Yoke</a> ?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Halmahera_Sea_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Halmahera Sea languages">Halmahera Sea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ambel–Biga</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambel_language" title="Ambel language">Ambel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biga_language" title="Biga language">Biga</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Maya–Matbat</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ma%27ya_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma'ya language">Ma'ya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matbat_language" title="Matbat language">Matbat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Maden</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maden_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Maden language">Maden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiawat_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiawat language">Fiawat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">As</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/As_language" title="As language">As</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Halmahera_languages" title="South Halmahera languages">South Halmahera</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gane_language" title="Gane language">Gane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taba_language" title="Taba language">Taba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buli_language_(Indonesia)" title="Buli language (Indonesia)">Buli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maba_language" title="Maba language">Maba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patani_language" title="Patani language">Patani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sawai_language" title="Sawai language">Sawai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gebe_language" title="Gebe language">Gebe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cenderawasih_languages" title="Cenderawasih languages">Cenderawasih</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biakic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Biakic languages">Biakic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biak_language" title="Biak language">Biak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dusner_language" title="Dusner language">Dusner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meoswar_language" title="Meoswar language">Meoswar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roon_language" title="Roon language">Roon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Yapen_languages_(Austronesian)" title="Yapen languages (Austronesian)">Yapen</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambai_language" title="Ambai language">Ambai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ansus_language" title="Ansus language">Ansus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marau_language" title="Marau language">Marau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wandamen_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Wandamen language">Wandamen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wooi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Wooi language">Wooi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munggui_language" title="Munggui language">Munggui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papuma_language" title="Papuma language">Papuma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pom_language" title="Pom language">pom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serui-Laut_language" title="Serui-Laut language">Serui-Laut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurudu_language" title="Kurudu language">Kurudu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wabo_language" title="Wabo language">Wabo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southwest</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yaur_language" title="Yaur language">Yaur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yerisiam_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Yerisiam language">Yerisiam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umar_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Umar language">Umar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_languages" title="Oceanic languages">Oceanic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Admiralty_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Admiralty languages">Admiralty</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yapese_language" title="Yapese language">Yapese</a> ?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eastern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manus_languages" title="Manus languages">Manus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baluan-Pam_language" title="Baluan-Pam language">Baluan-Pam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lenkau_language" title="Lenkau language">Lenkau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lou_language_(Austronesian)" title="Lou language (Austronesian)">Lou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nauna_language" title="Nauna language">Nauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penchal_language" title="Penchal language">Penchal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Kaniet_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Kaniet language">Northern Kaniet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Kaniet_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Kaniet language">Southern Kaniet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seimat_language" title="Seimat language">Seimat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuvulu-Aua_language" title="Wuvulu-Aua language">Wuvulu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuvulu-Aua_language" title="Wuvulu-Aua language">Aua</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/St._Matthias_languages" title="St. Matthias languages">Saint Matthias</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mussau-Emira_language" title="Mussau-Emira language">Mussau-Emira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenis_language" title="Tenis language">Tenis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Temotu_languages" title="Temotu languages">Temotu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Utupua</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amba_language_(Solomon_Islands)" title="Amba language (Solomon Islands)">Amba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asumboa_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Asumboa language">Asumboa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanimbili_language" title="Tanimbili language">Tanimbili</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Vanikoro</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Teanu_language" title="Teanu language">Teanu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lovono_language" title="Lovono language">Lovono</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanema_language" title="Tanema language">Tanema</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reefs-Santa_Cruz_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Reefs-Santa Cruz languages">Reefs–Santa Cruz</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%84iwoo_language" title="Äiwoo language">Äiwoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engdewu_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Engdewu language">Engdewu / Nanggu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat%C3%BCgu_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Natügu language">Natügu / Santa Cruz</a> <ul><li>Nalögo</li> <li>Noipx</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Solomonic_languages" title="Southeast Solomonic languages">Southeast Solomonic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Gela–Guadalcanal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bugotu_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Bugotu language">Bugotu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gela_language" title="Gela language">Gela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lengo_language" title="Lengo language">Lengo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birao_language" title="Birao language">Birao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghari_language" title="Ghari language">Ghari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malango_language" title="Malango language">Malango</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talise_language" title="Talise language">Talise</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Malaita– San Cristobal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Longgu_language" title="Longgu language">Longgu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%27a_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sa'a language">Sa'a</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arosi_language" title="Arosi language">Arosi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fagani_language" title="Fagani language">Fagani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bauro_language" title="Bauro language">Bauro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kahua_language" title="Kahua language">Kahua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Owa_language" title="Owa language">Owa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marau_Wawa_language" title="Marau Wawa language">Marau Wawa</a> ? †</li> <li><a href="/wiki/To%27abaita_language" class="mw-redirect" title="To'abaita language">To'abaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baelelea_language" title="Baelelea language">Baelelea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baeggu_language" title="Baeggu language">Baeggu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fataleka_language" title="Fataleka language">Fataleka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lau_language_(Malaita)" title="Lau language (Malaita)">Lau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwara%27ae_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kwara'ae language">Kwara'ae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langalanga_language" title="Langalanga language">Wala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gula%27alaa_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gula'alaa language">Gula'alaa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwaio_language" title="Kwaio language">Kwaio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dori%27o_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Dori'o language">Dori'o</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%27Are%27are_language" class="mw-redirect" title="'Are'are language">'Are'are</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oroha_language" title="Oroha language">Oroha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_Oceanic_languages" title="Western Oceanic languages">Western Oceanic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Meso-Melanesian_languages" title="Meso-Melanesian languages">Meso–Melanesian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Kimbe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bola_language_(Austronesian)" title="Bola language (Austronesian)">Bola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulu_language_(Oceanic)" title="Bulu language (Oceanic)">Bulu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meramera_language" title="Meramera language">Meramera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nakanai_language" title="Nakanai language">Nakanai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uneapa_language" title="Uneapa language">Bali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitu_language" title="Vitu language">Vitu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New Ireland– Northwest Solomonic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tungag–Nalik</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kara_language_(Papua_New_Guinea)" title="Kara language (Papua New Guinea)">Kara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laxudumau_language" title="Laxudumau language">Laxudumau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nalik_language" title="Nalik language">Nalik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiang_language" title="Tiang language">Tiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigak_language" title="Tigak language">Tigak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tungag_language" title="Tungag language">Tungag</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tabar</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lihir_language" title="Lihir language">Lihir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandara_language" title="Mandara language">Madara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Notsi_language" title="Notsi language">Notsi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Madak</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barok_language" title="Barok language">Barok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lavatbura-Lamusong_language" title="Lavatbura-Lamusong language">Lavatbura–Lamusong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madak_language" title="Madak language">Madak</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">St. George</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bilur_language" title="Bilur language">Bilur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fanamaket_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Fanamaket language">Fanamaket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kandas_language" title="Kandas language">Kandas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konomala_language" title="Konomala language">Konomala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Label_language" title="Label language">Label</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lungalunga_language" title="Lungalunga language">Lungalunga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niwer_Mil_language" title="Niwer Mil language">Niwer Mil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patpatar_language" title="Patpatar language">Patpatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramoaaina_language" title="Ramoaaina language">Ramoaaina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siar-Lak_language" title="Siar-Lak language">Siar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sursurunga_language" title="Sursurunga language">Sursurunga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolai_language" title="Tolai language">Tolai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warwar_Feni_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Warwar Feni language">Warwar Feni</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Solomonic_languages" title="Northwest Solomonic languages">Northwest Solomonic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hahon_language" title="Hahon language">Hahon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hak%C3%B6_language" title="Hakö language">Hakö</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halia_language" title="Halia language">Halia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nehan_language" title="Nehan language">Nehan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papapana_language" title="Papapana language">Papapana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petats_language" title="Petats language">Petats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saposa_language" title="Saposa language">Saposa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solos_language" title="Solos language">Solos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teop_language" title="Teop language">Teop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tinputz_language" title="Tinputz language">Tinputz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bannoni_language" title="Bannoni language">Bannoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piva_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Piva language">Piva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mono-Alu_language" title="Mono-Alu language">Mono-Alu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torau_language" title="Torau language">Torau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruava_language" title="Uruava language">Uruava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babatana_language" title="Babatana language">Babatana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ririo_language" title="Ririo language">Ririo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varisi_language" title="Varisi language">Varisi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaghua_language" title="Vaghua language">Vaghua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghanongga_language" title="Ghanongga language">Ghanongga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoava_language" title="Hoava language">Hoava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kusaghe_language" title="Kusaghe language">Kusaghe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lungga_language" title="Lungga language">Lungga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marovo_language" title="Marovo language">Marovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nduke_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Nduke language">Nduke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roviana_language" title="Roviana language">Roviana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simbo_language" title="Simbo language">Simbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ughele_language" title="Ughele language">Ughele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vangunu_language" title="Vangunu language">Vangunu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blablanga_language" title="Blablanga language">Blablanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheke_Holo_language" title="Cheke Holo language">Cheke Holo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gao_language" title="Gao language">Gao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokota_language" title="Kokota language">Kokota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laghu_language" title="Laghu language">Laghu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zabana_language" title="Zabana language">Zabana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zazao_language" title="Zazao language">Zazao</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tomoip_language" title="Tomoip language">Tomoip</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_New_Guinea_languages" title="North New Guinea languages">North New Guinea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sarmi%E2%80%93Jayapura_languages" title="Sarmi–Jayapura languages">Sarmi– Jayapura</a> ?</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anus_language" title="Anus language">Anus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonggo_language" title="Bonggo language">Bonggo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kayupulau_language" title="Kayupulau language">Kayupulau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liki_language" title="Liki language">Liki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masimasi_language" title="Masimasi language">Masimasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ormu_language" title="Ormu language">Ormu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Podena_language" title="Podena language">Podena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaptiau_language" title="Kaptiau language">Kaptiau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sobei_language" title="Sobei language">Sobei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarpia_language" title="Tarpia language">Tarpia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobati_language" title="Tobati language">Tobati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wakde_language" title="Wakde language">Wakde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamna_language" title="Yamna language">Yamna</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Schouten_languages" title="Schouten languages">Schouten</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arop-Sissano_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arop-Sissano language">Arop-Sissano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sera_language" title="Sera language">Sera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sissano_language" title="Sissano language">Sissano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulau-Suain_language" title="Ulau-Suain language">Ulau-Suain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumleo_language" title="Tumleo language">Tumleo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakamul_language" title="Yakamul language">Yakamul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaiep_language" title="Kaiep language">Kaiep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kairiru_language" title="Kairiru language">Kairiru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terebu_language" title="Terebu language">Terebu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biem_language" title="Biem language">Biem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kis_language" title="Kis language">Kis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manam_language" title="Manam language">Manam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medebur_language" title="Medebur language">Medebur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sepa_language_(Papua_New_Guinea)" title="Sepa language (Papua New Guinea)">Sepa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wogeo_language" title="Wogeo language">Wogeo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Huon_Gulf_languages" title="Huon Gulf languages">Huon Gulf</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bukawa_language" title="Bukawa language">Bukawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kela_language_(Papua_New_Guinea)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kela language (Papua New Guinea)">Kela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yabem_language" title="Yabem language">Yabem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aribwatsa_language" title="Aribwatsa language">Aribwatsa</a> †</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aribwaung_language" title="Aribwaung language">Aribwaung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adzera_language" title="Adzera language">Adzera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danggal_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Danggal language">Dangal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duwet_language" title="Duwet language">Duwet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labu_language" title="Labu language">Labu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maralango_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Maralango language">Maralango</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mari_language_(Madang_Province)" title="Mari language (Madang Province)">Mari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musom_language" title="Musom language">Musom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nafi_language" title="Nafi language">Nafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silisili_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Silisili language">Silisili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wampar_language" title="Wampar language">Wampar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wampur_language" title="Wampur language">Wampur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hote_language" title="Hote language">Hote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iwal_language" title="Iwal language">Iwal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kapin_language" title="Kapin language">Kapin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumalu_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kumalu language">Kumalu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangga_Buang_language" title="Mangga Buang language">Mangga Buang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapos_Buang_language" title="Mapos Buang language">Mapos Buang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mumeng_language" title="Mumeng language">Mumeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piu_language" title="Piu language">Piu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vehes_language" title="Vehes language">Vehes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamap_language" title="Yamap language">Yamap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numbami_language" title="Numbami language">Numbami</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ngero%E2%80%93Vitiaz_languages" title="Ngero–Vitiaz languages">Ngero–Vitiaz</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bariai_language" title="Bariai language">Bariai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gitua_language" title="Gitua language">Gitua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kove_language" title="Kove language">Kove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusi_language" title="Lusi language">Lusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malalamai_language" title="Malalamai language">Malalamai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutu_language" title="Mutu language">Mutu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awad_Bing_language" title="Awad Bing language">Awad Bing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bilibil_language" title="Bilibil language">Bilibil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gedaged_language" title="Gedaged language">Gedaged</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marik_language" title="Marik language">Marik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matukar_language" title="Matukar language">Matukar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mindiri_language" title="Mindiri language">Mindiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takia_language" title="Takia language">Takia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wab_language" title="Wab language">Wab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamogai_language" title="Lamogai language">Lamogai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mouk-Aria_language" title="Mouk-Aria language">Mouk-Aria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aigon_language" title="Aigon language">Aigon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karore_language" title="Karore language">Karore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaulong_language" title="Kaulong language">Kaulong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miu_language" title="Miu language">Miu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sengseng_language" title="Sengseng language">Sengseng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Arawe_language" title="West Arawe language">Aiklep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akolet_language" title="Akolet language">Akolet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Arawe_language" title="West Arawe language">Apalik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avau_language" title="Avau language">Avau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bebeli_language" title="Bebeli language">Bebeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Arawe_language" title="West Arawe language">Gimi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesing-Gelimi_language" title="Lesing-Gelimi language">Lesing-Gelimi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangseng_language" title="Mangseng language">Mangseng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solong_language" title="Solong language">Solong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lote_language" title="Lote language">Lote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamusi_language" title="Mamusi language">Mamusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mengen_language" title="Mengen language">Mengen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arop-Lukep_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arop-Lukep language">Arop-Lukep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karnai_language" title="Karnai language">Karnai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malasanga_language" title="Malasanga language">Malasanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mur_Pano_language" title="Mur Pano language">Mur Pano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mato_language" title="Mato language">Mato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronji_language" title="Ronji language">Ronji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amara_language" title="Amara language">Amara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maleu-Kilenge_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Maleu-Kilenge language">Maleu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mbula_language" title="Mbula language">Mbula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sio_language" title="Sio language">Sio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tami_language" title="Tami language">Tami</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Papuan_Tip_languages" title="Papuan Tip languages">Papuan Tip</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nuclear</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%27Auhelawa_language" class="mw-redirect" title="'Auhelawa language">'Auhelawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buhutu_language" title="Buhutu language">Buhutu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bwanabwana_language" title="Bwanabwana language">Bwanabwana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oya%27oya_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Oya'oya language">Oya'oya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saliba_language_(Papua_New_Guinea)" title="Saliba language (Papua New Guinea)">Saliba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suau_language" title="Suau language">Suau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unubahe_language" title="Unubahe language">Unubahe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wagawaga_language_(New_Guinea)" title="Wagawaga language (New Guinea)">Wagawaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bwaidoka_language" title="Bwaidoka language">Bwaidoka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodio_language" title="Diodio language">Diodio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iamalele_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Iamalele language">Iamalele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iduna_language" title="Iduna language">Iduna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koluwawa_language" title="Koluwawa language">Koluwawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maiadomu_language" title="Maiadomu language">Maiadomu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bunama_language" title="Bunama language">Bunama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boselewa_language" title="Boselewa language">Boselewa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dobu_language" title="Dobu language">Dobu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duau_language" title="Duau language">Duau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galeya_language" title="Galeya language">Galeya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molima_language" title="Molima language">Molima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mwatebu_language" title="Mwatebu language">Mwatebu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewa_Bay_language" title="Sewa Bay language">Sewa Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawawa_language" title="Dawawa language">Dawawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kakabai_language" title="Kakabai language">Kakabai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Are_language" title="Are language">Are</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arifama-Miniafia_language" title="Arifama-Miniafia language">Arifama-Miniafia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doga_language" title="Doga language">Doga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gapapaiwa_language" title="Gapapaiwa language">Gapapaiwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghayavi_language" title="Ghayavi language">Ghayavi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaninuwa_language" title="Kaninuwa language">Kaninuwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubir_language" title="Ubir language">Ubir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gweda_language" title="Gweda language">Gweda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haigwai_language" title="Haigwai language">Haigwai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maiwala_language" title="Maiwala language">Maiwala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minaveha_language" title="Minaveha language">Minaveha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taupota_language" title="Taupota language">Taupota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tawala_language" title="Tawala language">Tawala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakaikeke_language" title="Yakaikeke language">Yakaikeke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anuki_language" title="Anuki language">Anuki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gumawana_language" title="Gumawana language">Gumawana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Kilivila–Misima</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Budibud_language" title="Budibud language">Budibud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kilivila_language" title="Kilivila language">Kilivila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misima_language" title="Misima language">Misima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muyuw_language" title="Muyuw language">Muyuw</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nimoa–Sudest</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nimoa_language" title="Nimoa language">Nimoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudest_language" title="Sudest language">Sudest</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Oceanic_languages" title="Southern Oceanic languages">Southern Oceanic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Vanuatu_languages" title="North Vanuatu languages">North Vanuatu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Torres-Banks_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Torres-Banks languages">Torres–Banks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hiw_language" title="Hiw language">Hiw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lo-Toga_language" title="Lo-Toga language">Lo-Toga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lehali_language" title="Lehali language">Lehali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%B6y%C3%B6p_language" title="Löyöp language">Löyöp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mwotlap_language" title="Mwotlap language">Mwotlap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volow_language" title="Volow language">Volow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemerig_language" title="Lemerig language">Lemerig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vera%27a_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Vera'a language">Vera’a</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vur%C3%ABs_language" title="Vurës language">Vurës</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mwesen_language" title="Mwesen language">Mwesen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mota_language" title="Mota language">Mota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nume_language" title="Nume language">Nume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorig_language" title="Dorig language">Dorig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koro_language_(Vanuatu)" title="Koro language (Vanuatu)">Koro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olrat_language" title="Olrat language">Olrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakon_language" title="Lakon language">Lakon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mwerlap_language" title="Mwerlap language">Mwerlap</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Maewo–Ambae– North Pentecost</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sungwadia_language" title="Sungwadia language">Sun̄wadia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peterara_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Peterara language">Sun̄wadaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baetora_language" title="Baetora language">Baetora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duidui_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Duidui language">Duidui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Ambae_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Northeast Ambae language">Northeast Ambae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raga_language" title="Raga language">Raga</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South Pentecost</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ske_language" title="Ske language">Ske</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apma_language" title="Apma language">Apma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sa language">Sa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Espiritu_Santo_languages" title="Espiritu Santo languages">Espiritu Santo</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Cumberland_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Cape Cumberland language">Cape Cumberland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nokuku_language" title="Nokuku language">Nokuku</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolomako_language" title="Tolomako language">Tolomako</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wusi_language" title="Wusi language">Wusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akei_language" title="Akei language">Akei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tasiriki_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Tasiriki language">Tasiriki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangoa_language" title="Tangoa language">Tangoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Araki_language" title="Araki language">Araki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiale_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiale language">Tiale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merei_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Merei language">Merei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiai_language" title="Kiai language">Kiai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%CC%88av%CC%88ea_language" class="mw-redirect" title="M̈av̈ea language">M̈av̈ea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tutuba_language" title="Tutuba language">Tutuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aore_language" title="Aore language">Aore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamambo_language" title="Tamambo language">Tamambo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mores_language" title="Mores language">Mores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shark_Bay_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Shark Bay language">Shark Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakao_language" title="Sakao language">Sakao</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nuclear Southern Oceanic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_Vanuatu_languages" title="Central Vanuatu languages">Central Vanuatu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Malakula_language" title="Northeast Malakula language">Northeast Malakula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vao_language" title="Vao language">Vao</a></li> <li>Vovo</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mpotovoro_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Mpotovoro language">Mpotovoro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirak_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Dirak language">Dirak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malua_Bay_language" title="Malua Bay language">Malua Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%27%C3%ABnen_Taut_language" class="mw-redirect" title="V'ënen Taut language">V’ënen Taut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tape_language" title="Tape language">Tape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larevat_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Larevat language">Larevat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neve%27ei_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Neve'ei language">Neve’ei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naman_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Naman language">Naman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navava_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Navava language">Navava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevwervwer_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Nevwervwer language">Nevwervwer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unua_language" title="Unua language">Unua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pangkumu_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Pangkumu language">Pangkumu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banam_Bay_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Banam Bay language">Banam Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aulua_language" title="Aulua language">Aulua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lendamboi_language" title="Lendamboi language">Lendamboi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasarian_language" title="Nasarian language">Nasarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axamb_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Axamb language">Axamb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avok_language" title="Avok language">Avok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maskelynes_language" title="Maskelynes language">Maskelynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_Sandwich_language" title="Port Sandwich language">Port Sandwich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinesip_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinesip language">Sinesip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naha%27ai_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Naha'ai language">Naha’ai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninde_language" title="Ninde language">Ninde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Ambrym_language" title="North Ambrym language">North Ambrym</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Ambrym_language" class="mw-redirect" title="West Ambrym language">West Ambrym</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Ambrym_language" class="mw-redirect" title="South Ambrym language">South Ambrym</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewo_language" title="Lewo language">Lewo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamen_language" title="Lamen language">Lamen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bierebo_language" title="Bierebo language">Bierebo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baki_language" title="Baki language">Baki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mkir_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Mkir language">Mkir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bieria_language" title="Bieria language">Bieria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nakanamanga_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Nakanamanga language">Nakanamanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nguna_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Nguna language">Nguna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namakir_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Namakir language">Namakir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Efate_language" class="mw-redirect" title="South Efate language">South Efate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Vanuatu_languages" title="South Vanuatu languages">South Vanuatu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Erromango</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sie_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sie language">Sie / Erromangan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorung_language" title="Sorung language">Sorung</a> †</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ifo_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ifo language">Ifo</a> (Utaha) †</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ura_language_(Vanuatu)" title="Ura language (Vanuatu)">Ura</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tanna</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kwamera_language" title="Kwamera language">Kwamera (South Tanna)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwest_Tanna_language" title="Southwest Tanna language">Southwest Tanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lenakel_language" title="Lenakel language">Lenakel (West Tanna)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitesands_language" title="Whitesands language">Whitesands (East Tanna)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Tanna_language" title="North Tanna language">North Tanna</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aneityum_language" title="Aneityum language">Aneityum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Loyalties– New Caledonia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Loyalty Islands</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drehu_language" title="Drehu language">Drehu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iaai_language" title="Iaai language">Iaai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nengone_language" title="Nengone language">Nengone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New Caledonian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ndrumbea_language" title="Ndrumbea language">Ndrumbea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Num%C3%A8%C3%A8_language" title="Numèè language">Numèè</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X%C3%A2r%C3%A2c%C3%B9%C3%B9_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Xârâcùù language">Xârâcùù</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X%C3%A2r%C3%A2gur%C3%A8_language" title="Xârâgurè language">Xârâgurè</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%AEr%C3%AE_language" title="Tîrî language">Tîrî</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zire_language" title="Zire language">Zire</a> †</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aji%C3%AB_language" title="Ajië language">Ajië</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arh%C3%B6_language" title="Arhö language">Arhö</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arh%C3%A2_language" title="Arhâ language">Arhâ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neku_language" title="Neku language">Neku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orowe_language" title="Orowe language">Orowe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Northern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vamale_language" title="Vamale language">Vamale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haveke_language" title="Haveke language">Haveke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haeke_language" title="Haeke language">Haeke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C%C3%A8muh%C3%AE_language" title="Cèmuhî language">Cèmuhî</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paic%C3%AE_language" title="Paicî language">Paicî</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pwaamei_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Pwaamei language">Pwaamei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pwapwa_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Pwapwa language">Pwapwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bwatoo" class="mw-redirect" title="Bwatoo">Bwatoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hmwaveke_language" title="Hmwaveke language">Hmwaveke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waamwang_language" title="Waamwang language">Waamwang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fw%C3%A2i_language" title="Fwâi language">Fwâi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jawe_language" title="Jawe language">Jawe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemi_language" title="Nemi language">Nemi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pije_language" title="Pije language">Pije</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caac_language" title="Caac language">Caac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumak_language" title="Kumak language">Kumak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuanga_language" title="Yuanga language">Yuanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ny%C3%A2layu_language" title="Nyâlayu language">Nyâlayu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Micronesian_languages" title="Micronesian languages">Micronesian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nauruan_language" title="Nauruan language">Nauruan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nuclear Micronesian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kosraean_language" title="Kosraean language">Kosraean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbertese_language" title="Gilbertese language">Gilbertese</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Marshallese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chuukic-Pohnpeic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Chuukic-Pohnpeic languages">Chuukic– Pohnpeic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chuukic_languages" title="Chuukic languages">Chuukic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sonsorol_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sonsorol language">Sonsorol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobian_language" title="Tobian language">Tobian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuukese_language" title="Chuukese language">Chuukese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woleaian_language" title="Woleaian language">Woleaian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulithian_language" title="Ulithian language">Ulithian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puluwatese_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Puluwatese language">Puluwatese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namonuito_language" title="Namonuito language">Namonuito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanapag_language" title="Tanapag language">Tanapag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolinian_language" title="Carolinian language">Carolinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satawalese_language" title="Satawalese language">Satawalese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortlockese_language" title="Mortlockese language">Mortlockese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C3%A1%C3%A1fang_language" title="Pááfang language">Pááfang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapia_language" title="Mapia language">Mapia</a> †</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pohnpeic_languages" title="Pohnpeic languages">Pohnpeic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mokilese_language" title="Mokilese language">Mokilese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pingelapese_language" title="Pingelapese language">Pingelapese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pohnpeian_language" title="Pohnpeian language">Pohnpeian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngatikese_language" title="Ngatikese language">Ngatikese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_Pacific_languages" title="Central Pacific languages">Central Pacific</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">West</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rotuman_language" title="Rotuman language">Rotuman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namosi-Naitasiri-Serua_language" title="Namosi-Naitasiri-Serua language">Namosi-Naitasiri-Serua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Fijian_language" title="Western Fijian language">Western Fijian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">East</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fijian_language" title="Fijian language">Fijian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gone_Dau_language" title="Gone Dau language">Gone Dau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lauan_language" title="Lauan language">Lauan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lomaiviti_language" title="Lomaiviti language">Lomaiviti</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Polynesian_languages" title="Polynesian languages">Polynesian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Polynesian_languages" title="Nuclear Polynesian languages">Nuclear Polynesian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tuvaluan_language" title="Tuvaluan language">Tuvaluan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikaiana_language" title="Sikaiana language">Sikaiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontong_Java_language" title="Ontong Java language">Ontong Java</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nukumanu_language" title="Nukumanu language">Nukumanu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takuu_language" title="Takuu language">Takuu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuguria_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuguria language">Nuguria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kapingamarangi_language" title="Kapingamarangi language">Kapingamarangi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nukuoro_language" title="Nukuoro language">Nukuoro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pukapukan_language" title="Pukapukan language">Pukapukan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Samoic_languages" title="Samoic languages">Samoic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samoan_language" title="Samoan language">Samoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokelauan_language" title="Tokelauan language">Tokelauan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niuatoputapu_language" title="Niuatoputapu language">Niuatoputapu</a> †</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eastern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_language" title="Hawaiian language">Hawaiian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquesan_language" title="Marquesan language">Marqeusan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangareva_language" title="Mangareva language">Mangareva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahitian_language" title="Tahitian language">Tahitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austral_language" title="Austral language">Austral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapa_language" title="Rapa language">Rapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuamotuan_language" title="Tuamotuan language">Tuamotuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cook_Islands_M%C4%81ori_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Cook Islands Māori language">Cook Islands Māori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rakahanga-Manihiki_language" title="Rakahanga-Manihiki language">Rakahanga-Manihiki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongareva_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Tongareva language">Tongareva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_language" title="Māori language">Māori</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moriori_language" title="Moriori language">Moriori</a> †</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapa_Nui_language" title="Rapa Nui language">Rapa Nui</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Futunic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wallisian_language" title="Wallisian language">Wallisian (East Uvean)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Uvean_language" title="West Uvean language">West Uvean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Futunan_language" title="Futunan language">Futunan (East Futunan)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Futuna-Aniwa" class="mw-redirect" title="Futuna-Aniwa">Futuna-Aniwa (West Futunan)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pukapukan_language" title="Pukapukan language">Pukapukan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anuta_language" title="Anuta language">Anuta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rennellese_language" title="Rennellese language">Rennellese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tikopia_language" title="Tikopia language">Tikopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mele-Fila_language" title="Mele-Fila language">Mele-Fila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emae_language" title="Emae language">Emae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tongic_languages" title="Tongic languages">Tongic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tongan_language" title="Tongan language">Tongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niuean_language" title="Niuean language">Niuean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niuafo%27ou_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Niuafo'ou language">Niuafo'ou</a> ?</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>* indicates proposed status</li> <li>? indicates classification dispute</li> <li>† indicates <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct status</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Languages_of_Oceania" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Oceania_topic" title="Template:Oceania topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Oceania_topic" title="Template talk:Oceania topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Oceania_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Oceania topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Languages_of_Oceania" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Oceania" title="Languages of Oceania">Languages of Oceania </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Australia" title="Languages of Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of the Federated States of Micronesia">Federated States of Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Fiji" title="Languages of Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Kiribati" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Kiribati">Kiribati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Marshall_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of the Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Nauru" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Nauru">Nauru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_New_Zealand" title="Languages of New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Palau" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Palau">Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Languages of Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Samoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Samoa">Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Solomon_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Tonga" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Tonga">Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Tuvalu" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Vanuatu" title="Languages of Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Associated states of New Zealand</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Cook_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of the Cook Islands">Cook Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Niue" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Niue">Niue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dependencies and other territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_American_Samoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of American Samoa">American Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Christmas_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Christmas Island">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Easter_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Easter Island">Easter Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_French_Polynesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of French Polynesia">French Polynesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Guam" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Hawaii" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_New_Caledonia" title="Languages of New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Norfolk_Island" title="Languages of Norfolk Island">Norfolk Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of the Northern Mariana Islands">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Pitcairn_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of the Pitcairn Islands">Pitcairn Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Tokelau" title="Languages of Tokelau">Tokelau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Wallis_and_Futuna" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Wallis and Futuna">Wallis and Futuna</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" 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