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inquiry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Factors_of_scientific_inquiry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Characterizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Characterizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Characterizations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Characterizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Definition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Definition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.1 Definition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Definition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hypothesis_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hypothesis_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Hypothesis development </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hypothesis_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Predictions_from_the_hypothesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Predictions_from_the_hypothesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Predictions from the hypothesis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Predictions_from_the_hypothesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Experiments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Experiments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Experiments </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Experiments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Communication_and_iteration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Communication_and_iteration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Communication and iteration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Communication_and_iteration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Confirmation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Confirmation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 Confirmation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Confirmation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foundational_principles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foundational_principles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Foundational principles </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Foundational_principles-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Foundational principles subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Foundational_principles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Honesty,_openness,_and_falsifiability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Honesty,_openness,_and_falsifiability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Honesty, openness, and falsifiability </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Honesty,_openness,_and_falsifiability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theory's_interactions_with_observation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theory's_interactions_with_observation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Theory's interactions with observation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theory's_interactions_with_observation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Empiricism,_rationalism,_and_more_pragmatic_views" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Empiricism,_rationalism,_and_more_pragmatic_views"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Empiricism, rationalism, and more pragmatic views </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Empiricism,_rationalism,_and_more_pragmatic_views-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rationality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rationality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Rationality </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Rationality-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Rationality subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Rationality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Beliefs_and_biases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beliefs_and_biases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Beliefs and biases </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Beliefs_and_biases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Deductive_and_inductive_reasoning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deductive_and_inductive_reasoning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Deductive and inductive reasoning </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deductive_and_inductive_reasoning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Certainty,_probabilities,_and_statistical_inference" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Certainty,_probabilities,_and_statistical_inference"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Certainty, probabilities, and statistical inference </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Certainty,_probabilities,_and_statistical_inference-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Methods_of_inquiry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methods_of_inquiry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Methods of inquiry </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Methods_of_inquiry-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Methods of inquiry subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Methods_of_inquiry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hypothetico-deductive_method" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hypothetico-deductive_method"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Hypothetico-deductive method </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hypothetico-deductive_method-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Inductive_method" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inductive_method"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Inductive method </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inductive_method-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mathematical_modelling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mathematical_modelling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Mathematical modelling </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mathematical_modelling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scientific_inquiry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scientific_inquiry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Scientific inquiry </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Scientific_inquiry-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Scientific inquiry subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Scientific_inquiry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Properties_of_scientific_inquiry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Properties_of_scientific_inquiry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Properties of scientific inquiry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Properties_of_scientific_inquiry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Heuristics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heuristics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Heuristics </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Heuristics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Heuristics subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Heuristics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Confirmation_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Confirmation_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Confirmation theory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Confirmation_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Parsimony" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Parsimony"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.1 Parsimony </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Parsimony-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Elegance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Elegance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.2 Elegance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Elegance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Invariance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Invariance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.3 Invariance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Invariance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy_and_discourse" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy_and_discourse"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Philosophy and discourse </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Philosophy_and_discourse-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Philosophy and discourse subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Philosophy_and_discourse-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pluralism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pluralism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Pluralism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pluralism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unificationism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unificationism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Unificationism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unificationism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epistemological_anarchism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epistemological_anarchism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Epistemological anarchism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epistemological_anarchism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 Education </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sociology_of_knowledge" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sociology_of_knowledge"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.5 Sociology of knowledge </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sociology_of_knowledge-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Thought_collectives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thought_collectives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.5.1 Thought collectives </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thought_collectives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Situated_cognition_and_relativism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Situated_cognition_and_relativism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.5.2 Situated cognition and relativism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Situated_cognition_and_relativism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Limits_of_method" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Limits_of_method"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Limits of method </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Limits_of_method-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Limits of method subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Limits_of_method-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Role_of_chance_in_discovery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_of_chance_in_discovery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Role of chance in discovery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Role_of_chance_in_discovery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relationship_with_statistics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relationship_with_statistics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Relationship with statistics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relationship_with_statistics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Science_of_complex_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Science_of_complex_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Science of complex systems </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Science_of_complex_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relationship_with_mathematics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relationship_with_mathematics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Relationship with mathematics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relationship_with_mathematics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Notes </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Notes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Notes subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes:_Problem-solving_via_scientific_method" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes:_Problem-solving_via_scientific_method"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1 Notes: Problem-solving via scientific method </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes:_Problem-solving_via_scientific_method-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes:_Philosophical_expressions_of_method" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes:_Philosophical_expressions_of_method"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.2 Notes: Philosophical expressions of method </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes:_Philosophical_expressions_of_method-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Scientific method</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 90 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-90" aria-hidden="true" > 90 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetenskaplike_metode" title="Wetenskaplike metode – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Wetenskaplike metode" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%B3%E1%8B%AD%E1%8A%95%E1%88%B3%E1%8B%8A_%E1%8B%98%E1%8B%B4" title="ሳይንሳዊ ዘዴ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ሳይንሳዊ ዘዴ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%86%D9%87%D8%AC_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85%D9%8A" title="منهج علمي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="منهج علمي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metodo_cientifico" title="Metodo cientifico – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Metodo cientifico" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A8toda_scientifica" title="Mètoda scientifica – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Mètoda scientifica" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Arpetan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9todu_cient%C3%ADficu" title="Métodu científicu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Métodu científicu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elmi_metod" title="Elmi metod – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Elmi metod" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%88%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF" title="বৈজ্ঞানিক পদ্ধতি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বৈজ্ঞানিক পদ্ধতি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kho-ha%CC%8Dk-tek_hong-hoat" title="Kho-ha̍k-tek hong-hoat – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kho-ha̍k-tek hong-hoat" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B4" title="Навуковы метад – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Навуковы метад" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B_%D0%BC%D1%8D%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B4" title="Навуковы мэтад – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Навуковы мэтад" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%A1" title="साइंटिफिक मेथड – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="साइंटिफिक मेथड" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siyentipikong_paagi" title="Siyentipikong paagi – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Siyentipikong paagi" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Научен метод – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Научен метод" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nau%C4%8Dna_metoda" title="Naučna metoda – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Naučna metoda" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A8tode_cient%C3%ADfic" title="Mètode científic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Mètode científic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%82%D1%81%D0%BB%C4%83%D1%85_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%87%C4%95" title="Ăслăх меслечĕ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Ăслăх меслечĕ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C4%9Bdeck%C3%A1_metoda" title="Vědecká metoda – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Vědecká metoda" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dull_gwyddonol" title="Dull gwyddonol – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Dull gwyddonol" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturvidenskabelig_metode" title="Naturvidenskabelig metode – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Naturvidenskabelig metode" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaduslik_meetod" title="Teaduslik meetod – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Teaduslik meetod" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CF%80%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%BC%CE%AD%CE%B8%CE%BF%CE%B4%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Επιστημονική μέθοδος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Επιστημονική μέθοδος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9todo_cient%C3%ADfico" title="Método científico – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Método científico" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienca_metodo" title="Scienca metodo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Scienca metodo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metodo_zientifiko" title="Metodo zientifiko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Metodo zientifiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B4_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85%DB%8C" title="روش علمی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="روش علمی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9thode_scientifique" title="Méthode scientifique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Méthode scientifique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modh_eola%C3%ADochta" title="Modh eolaíochta – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Modh eolaíochta" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9todo_cient%C3%ADfico" title="Método científico – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Método científico" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%BC%ED%95%99%EC%A0%81_%EB%B0%A9%EB%B2%95" title="과학적 방법 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="과학적 방법" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF" title="वैज्ञानिक विधि – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="वैज्ञानिक विधि" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Znanstvena_metoda" title="Znanstvena metoda – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Znanstvena metoda" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciencala_metodo" title="Ciencala metodo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Ciencala metodo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metode_ilmiah" title="Metode ilmiah – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Metode ilmiah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodo_scientific" title="Methodo scientific – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Methodo scientific" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metode_scientific" title="Metode scientific – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Metode scientific" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%ADsindaleg_a%C3%B0fer%C3%B0" title="Vísindaleg aðferð – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Vísindaleg aðferð" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metodo_scientifico" title="Metodo scientifico – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Metodo scientifico" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A9%D7%99%D7%98%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%93%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%AA" title="השיטה המדעית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="השיטה המדעית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paricara_%C3%A8lmiah" title="Paricara èlmiah – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Paricara èlmiah" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B5%E0%B3%88%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9E%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95_%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A7%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8" title="ವೈಜ್ಞಾನಿಕ ವಿಧಾನ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ವೈಜ್ಞಾನಿಕ ವಿಧಾನ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%92%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BC%D0%B8_%D3%99%D0%B4%D1%96%D1%81" title="Ғылыми әдіс – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ғылыми әдіс" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9tod_syantifik" title="Métod syantifik – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Métod syantifik" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodus_scientifica" title="Methodus scientifica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Methodus scientifica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zin%C4%81tnisk%C4%81_metode" title="Zinātniskā metode – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Zinātniskā metode" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mokslinis_metodas" title="Mokslinis metodas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Mokslinis metodas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tudom%C3%A1nyos_m%C3%B3dszer" title="Tudományos módszer – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Tudományos módszer" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Научен метод – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Научен метод" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%AF_%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%82" title="ശാസ്ത്രീയ സമീപനം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ശാസ്ത്രീയ സമീപനം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metodu_xjentifiku" title="Metodu xjentifiku – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Metodu xjentifiku" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaedah_saintifik" title="Kaedah saintifik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kaedah saintifik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metode_ilmiah" title="Metode ilmiah – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Metode ilmiah" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%BB%D1%8D%D1%85_%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0" title="Шинжлэх ухааны арга – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Шинжлэх ухааны арга" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AD%E1%80%95%E1%80%B9%E1%80%95%E1%80%B6%E1%80%94%E1%80%8A%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%80%E1%80%BB_%E1%80%94%E1%80%8A%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9C%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8" title="သိပ္ပံနည်းကျ နည်းလမ်း – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="သိပ္ပံနည်းကျ နည်းလမ်း" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%83" title="वैज्ञानिक तवः – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="वैज्ञानिक तवः" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E7%9A%84%E6%96%B9%E6%B3%95" title="科学的方法 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="科学的方法" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih mw-list-item"><a href="https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saientifik_methud" title="Saientifik methud – Norfuk / Pitkern" lang="pih" hreflang="pih" data-title="Saientifik methud" data-language-autonym="Norfuk / Pitkern" data-language-local-name="Norfuk / Pitkern" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norfuk / Pitkern</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Met%C3%B2de_scientific" title="Metòde scientific – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Metòde scientific" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%95_%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%BE" title="ਵਿਗਿਆਨਕ ਤਰੀਕਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਵਿਗਿਆਨਕ ਤਰੀਕਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85%D9%8A_%D9%85%DB%90%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%AF" title="علمي مېتود – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="علمي مېتود" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sayantifik_metod" title="Sayantifik metod – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Sayantifik metod" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%82%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%91%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A" title="ការស្រាវជ្រាវបែបវិទ្យាសាស្ត្រ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ការស្រាវជ្រាវបែបវិទ្យាសាស្ត្រ" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metoda_badawcza" title="Metoda badawcza – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Metoda badawcza" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9todo_cient%C3%ADfico" title="Método científico – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Método científico" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metod%C4%83_%C8%99tiin%C8%9Bific%C4%83" title="Metodă științifică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Metodă științifică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Научный метод – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Научный метод" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienteefic_method" title="Scienteefic method – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Scienteefic method" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metoda_shkencore" title="Metoda shkencore – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Metoda shkencore" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B8%E0%B6%9A_%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%B8%E0%B6%BA" title="විද්‍යාත්මක ක්‍රමය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="විද්‍යාත්මක ක්‍රමය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Scientific method" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%8A_%D8%B7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%82%D9%88" title="سائنسي طريقو – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="سائنسي طريقو" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedeck%C3%A1_met%C3%B3da" title="Vedecká metóda – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Vedecká metóda" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Znanstvena_metoda" title="Znanstvena metoda – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Znanstvena metoda" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%AA%DB%86%D8%AF%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="میتۆدی زانستی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="میتۆدی زانستی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nau%C4%8Dna_metoda" title="Naučna metoda – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Naučna metoda" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nau%C4%8Dna_metoda" title="Naučna metoda – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Naučna metoda" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutkimusote" title="Tutkimusote – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Tutkimusote" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vetenskaplig_metod" title="Vetenskaplig metod – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Vetenskaplig metod" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pamamaraang_makaagham" title="Pamamaraang makaagham – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Pamamaraang makaagham" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF" title="அறிவியல் அறிவு வழி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அறிவியல் அறிவு வழி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarrayt_tusnant" title="Tarrayt tusnant – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tarrayt tusnant" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="ระเบียบวิธีแบบวิทยาศาสตร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ระเบียบวิธีแบบวิทยาศาสตร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilimsel_y%C3%B6ntem" title="Bilimsel yöntem – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Bilimsel yöntem" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Науковий метод – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Науковий метод" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%86%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%B7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%82%DB%81" title="سائنسی طریقہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="سائنسی طریقہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ph%C6%B0%C6%A1ng_ph%C3%A1p_khoa_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Phương pháp khoa học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Phương pháp khoa học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siyentipiko_nga_paagi" title="Siyentipiko nga paagi – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Siyentipiko nga paagi" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E6%96%B9%E6%B3%95" title="科学方法 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="科学方法" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E6%96%B9%E6%B3%95" title="科學方法 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="科學方法" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E6%96%B9%E6%B3%95" title="科学方法 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="科学方法" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q46857#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div 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demonstrating his telescope to the Doge of Venice." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Bertini_fresco_of_Galileo_Galilei_and_Doge_of_Venice.jpg/400px-Bertini_fresco_of_Galileo_Galilei_and_Doge_of_Venice.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="434" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Bertini_fresco_of_Galileo_Galilei_and_Doge_of_Venice.jpg/600px-Bertini_fresco_of_Galileo_Galilei_and_Doge_of_Venice.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Bertini_fresco_of_Galileo_Galilei_and_Doge_of_Venice.jpg 2x" data-file-width="737" data-file-height="800" /></a></div></div> </div> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> General</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_literature" title="Scientific literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Branches_of_science" title="Branches of science">Branches</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formal_science" title="Formal science">Formal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">Natural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_physical_science" title="Outline of physical science">Physical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_life_sciences" title="List of life sciences">Life</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_science" title="Applied science">Applied</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">In society</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Science_communication" title="Science communication">Communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_community" title="Scientific community">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_education" title="Science education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funding_of_science" title="Funding of science">Funding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_policy" title="Science policy">Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientist" title="Scientist">Scientist</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Science" title="Portal:Science">Science portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_science" title="Outline of science">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Science" title="Category:Science">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indexes_of_science_articles" title="Category:Indexes of science articles">Article indexes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Glossaries_of_science" title="Category:Glossaries of science">Glossaries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Science" title="Template:Science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Science" title="Template talk:Science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The scientific method is an <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">empirical</a> method for acquiring <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a> that has been referred to while doing <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a> since at least the 17th century. The scientific method involves careful <a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">observation</a> coupled with rigorous <a href="/wiki/Scepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Scepticism">scepticism</a>, because <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science#Observation_inseparable_from_theory" title="Philosophy of science">cognitive assumptions</a> can distort the interpretation of the <a href="/wiki/Perception#Process_and_terminology" title="Perception">observation</a>. Scientific inquiry includes creating a testable <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypothesis</a> through <a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">inductive reasoning</a>, testing it through experiments and statistical analysis, and adjusting or discarding the hypothesis based on the results.<a href="#cite_note-principia-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Although procedures vary between <a href="/wiki/Branches_of_science" title="Branches of science">fields</a>, the underlying <a href="#Process">process</a> is often similar. In more detail: the scientific method involves making <a href="/wiki/Conjecture" title="Conjecture">conjectures</a> (hypothetical explanations), predicting the logical consequences of hypothesis, then carrying out experiments or empirical observations based on those predictions.<a href="#cite_note-NA-4">[4]</a> A hypothesis is a conjecture based on knowledge obtained while seeking answers to the question. Hypotheses can be very specific or broad but must be <a href="/wiki/Falsifiable" class="mw-redirect" title="Falsifiable">falsifiable</a>, implying that it is possible to identify a possible outcome of an experiment or observation that conflicts with predictions deduced from the hypothesis; otherwise, the hypothesis cannot be meaningfully tested.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPopper1959273-5">[5]</a> While the scientific method is often presented as a fixed sequence of steps, it actually represents a set of general principles. Not all steps take place in every <a href="#Scientific_inquiry">scientific inquiry</a> (nor to the same degree), and they are not always in the same order.<a href="#cite_note-allScience-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Inductive_Science_1837-7">[7]</a> Numerous discoveries have not followed the textbook model of the scientific method, for instance.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-DunbarLuck-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Serendip-10">[10]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_scientific_method" title="History of scientific method">History of scientific method</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a chronological guide, see <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_the_scientific_method" title="Timeline of the history of the scientific method">Timeline of the history of the scientific method</a>.</div> The history of scientific method considers changes in the methodology of scientific inquiry, not the <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">history of science</a> itself. The development of rules for <a href="/wiki/Scientific_reasoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific reasoning">scientific reasoning</a> has not been straightforward; scientific method has been the subject of intense and recurring debate throughout the history of science, and eminent natural philosophers and scientists have argued for the primacy of various approaches to establishing scientific knowledge. Different early expressions of <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a> and the scientific method can be found throughout history, for instance with the ancient <a href="/wiki/Stoics" class="mw-redirect" title="Stoics">Stoics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Asmis-11">[11]</a> <a href="/wiki/Alhazen" class="mw-redirect" title="Alhazen">Alhazen</a>,<a href="#cite_note-vacuum-14">[A]</a><a href="#cite_note-alhacenCharacterizes-15">[a]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[B]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tanqih-20">[i]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Sina" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Sina">Avicenna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Biruni" title="Al-Biruni">Al-Biruni</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlikuzai2013154-21">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERozhanskayaLevinova1996-22">[17]</a> <a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[α]</a>, and <a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific revolution">scientific revolution</a> of the 16th and 17th centuries some of the most important developments were the furthering of <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a> by <a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a>,<a href="#cite_note-26">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[21]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Rationalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Rationalist">rationalist</a> approach described by <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Inductivism" title="Inductivism">inductivism</a>, brought to particular prominence by <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> and those who followed him. Experiments were advocated by <a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a>, and performed by <a href="/wiki/Giambattista_della_Porta" title="Giambattista della Porta">Giambattista della Porta</a>,<a href="#cite_note-28">[22]</a> <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Johannes Kepler</a>,<a href="#cite_note-30">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kepler1604-31">[d]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a>.<a href="#cite_note-empirical-33">[β]</a> There was particular development aided by theoretical works by a skeptic <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Sanches" title="Francisco Sanches">Francisco Sanches</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanches1988-34">[25]</a> by idealists as well as empiricists <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a>, and <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a>.<a href="#cite_note-particDev-37">[e]</a> <a href="/wiki/C._S._Peirce" class="mw-redirect" title="C. S. Peirce">C. S. Peirce</a> formulated the <a href="/wiki/Hypothetico-deductive_model" title="Hypothetico-deductive model">hypothetico-deductive model</a> in the 20th century, and the model has undergone significant revision since.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGodfrey-Smith2003236-38">[28]</a> The term "scientific method" emerged in the 19th century, as a result of significant institutional development of science, and terminologies establishing clear <a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">boundaries</a> between science and non-science, such as "scientist" and "pseudoscience", appearing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThurs2011-39">[29]</a> Throughout the 1830s and 1850s, when Baconianism was popular, naturalists like William Whewell, John Herschel and John Stuart Mill engaged in debates over "induction" and "facts" and were focused on how to generate knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThurs2011-39">[29]</a> In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a debate over <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">realism</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Antirealism" class="mw-redirect" title="Antirealism">antirealism</a> was conducted as powerful scientific theories extended beyond the realm of the observable.<a href="#cite_note-auto-40">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_use_and_critical_thought">Modern use and critical thought</h3></div> The term "scientific method" came into popular use in the twentieth century; <a href="#CITEREFDewey1910">Dewey's 1910 book</a>, <a href="/wiki/How_We_Think" title="How We Think">How We Think</a>, inspired <a href="#aGuideline">popular guidelines</a>,<a href="#cite_note-cowles-41">[31]</a> appearing in dictionaries and science textbooks, although there was little consensus over its meaning.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThurs2011-39">[29]</a> Although there was growth through the middle of the twentieth century,<a href="#cite_note-deweySchool-42">[f]</a> by the 1960s and 1970s numerous influential philosophers of science such as <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a> had questioned the universality of the "scientific method" and in doing so largely replaced the notion of science as a homogeneous and universal method with that of it being a heterogeneous and local practice.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThurs2011-39">[29]</a> In particular, Paul Feyerabend, in the 1975 first edition of his book <a href="/wiki/Against_Method" title="Against Method">Against Method</a>, argued against there being any universal rules of <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a>;<a href="#cite_note-auto-40">[30]</a> <a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a>,<a href="#cite_note-44">[γ]</a> and Gauch 2003,<a href="#cite_note-allScience-6">[6]</a> disagree with Feyerabend's claim. Later stances include physicist <a href="/wiki/Lee_Smolin" title="Lee Smolin">Lee Smolin</a>'s 2013 essay "There Is No Scientific Method",<a href="#cite_note-Smolin_2013-45">[33]</a> in which he espouses two <a href="#ethicalPosition">ethical principles</a>,<a href="#cite_note-ethicalPosition-46">[δ]</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">historian of science</a> Daniel Thurs' chapter in the 2015 book Newton's Apple and Other Myths about Science, which concluded that the scientific method is a myth or, at best, an idealization.<a href="#cite_note-Thurs2015-47">[34]</a> As <a href="#Beliefs_and_biases">myths</a> are beliefs,<a href="#cite_note-beliefCreatesReality-48">[35]</a> they are subject to the <a href="/wiki/Narrative_fallacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Narrative fallacy">narrative fallacy</a> as Taleb points out.<a href="#cite_note-narrativeFallacy-49">[36]</a> Philosophers <a href="/wiki/Robert_Nola" title="Robert Nola">Robert Nola</a> and Howard Sankey, in their 2007 book Theories of Scientific Method, said that debates over the scientific method continue, and argued that Feyerabend, despite the title of Against Method, accepted certain rules of method and attempted to justify those rules with a meta methodology.<a href="#cite_note-50">[37]</a> Staddon (2017) argues it is a mistake to try following rules in the absence of an algorithmic scientific method; in that case, "science is best understood through examples".<a href="#cite_note-Staddon_2017_p.-51">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[39]</a> But algorithmic methods, such as disproof of existing theory by experiment have been used since <a href="/wiki/Alhacen" class="mw-redirect" title="Alhacen">Alhacen</a> (1027) and his <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Optics" title="Book of Optics">Book of Optics</a>,<a href="#cite_note-alhacenCharacterizes-15">[a]</a> and Galileo (1638) and his Two New Sciences,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalileo_Galilei1638-32">[24]</a> and The Assayer,<a href="#cite_note-ilSaggiatore-53">[40]</a> which still stand as scientific method. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Elements_of_inquiry">Elements of inquiry</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Overview">Overview</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Scientific_Method.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/The_Scientific_Method.svg/220px-The_Scientific_Method.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/The_Scientific_Method.svg/330px-The_Scientific_Method.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/The_Scientific_Method.svg/440px-The_Scientific_Method.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="912" /></a><figcaption>The scientific method is often represented as an <a href="#Elements_of_the_scientific_method">ongoing process</a>. This diagram represents one variant, and <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Scientific_method" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Scientific method">there are many others</a>.</figcaption></figure> The scientific method is the process by which <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a> is carried out.<a href="#cite_note-allTheSciences-54">[41]</a> As in other areas of inquiry, science (through the scientific method) can build on previous knowledge, and unify understanding of its studied topics over time.<a href="#cite_note-unification-56">[g]</a> This model can be seen to underlie the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific revolution">scientific revolution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007-57">[43]</a> The overall process involves making <a href="/wiki/Conjecture" title="Conjecture">conjectures</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypotheses</a>), predicting their logical consequences, then carrying out experiments based on those predictions to determine whether the original conjecture was correct.<a href="#cite_note-NA-4">[4]</a> However, there are difficulties in a formulaic statement of method. Though the scientific method is often presented as a fixed sequence of steps, these actions are more accurately general principles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGauch20033-58">[44]</a> Not all steps take place in every scientific inquiry (nor to the same degree), and they are not always done in the same order. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Factors_of_scientific_inquiry">Factors of scientific inquiry</h4></div> There are different ways of outlining the basic method used for scientific inquiry. The <a href="/wiki/Scientific_community" title="Scientific community">scientific community</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philosophers_of_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophers of science">philosophers of science</a> generally agree on the following classification of method components. These methodological elements and organization of procedures tend to be more characteristic of <a href="/wiki/Experimental_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Experimental science">experimental sciences</a> than <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social sciences</a>. Nonetheless, the cycle of formulating hypotheses, testing and analyzing the results, and formulating new hypotheses, will resemble the cycle described below.The scientific method is an iterative, cyclical process through which information is continually revised.<a href="#cite_note-59">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brody-1993-60">[46]</a> It is generally recognized to develop advances in knowledge through the following elements, in varying combinations or contributions:<a href="#cite_note-Fixation-61">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-Vital-62">[48]</a> <ul><li>Characterizations (observations, definitions, and measurements of the subject of inquiry)</li> <li>Hypotheses (theoretical, hypothetical explanations of observations and measurements of the subject)</li> <li>Predictions (inductive and deductive reasoning from the hypothesis or theory)</li> <li>Experiments (tests of all of the above)</li></ul> Each element of the scientific method is subject to <a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">peer review</a> for possible mistakes. These activities do not describe all that scientists do but <a href="#Beliefs_and_biases">apply mostly to experimental sciences</a> (e.g., physics, chemistry, biology, and psychology). The elements above are often taught in <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">the educational system</a> as "the scientific method".<a href="#cite_note-aQuestion-63">[C]</a> The scientific method is not a single recipe: it requires intelligence, imagination, and creativity.<a href="#cite_note-64">[49]</a> In this sense, it is not a mindless set of standards and procedures to follow but is rather an <a href="#Evaluation_and_improvement">ongoing cycle</a>, constantly developing more useful, accurate, and comprehensive models and methods. For example, when Einstein developed the Special and General Theories of Relativity, he did not in any way refute or discount Newton's Principia. On the contrary, if the astronomically massive, the feather-light, and the extremely fast are removed from Einstein's theories – all phenomena Newton could not have observed – Newton's equations are what remain. Einstein's theories are expansions and refinements of Newton's theories and, thus, increase confidence in Newton's work. An iterative,<a href="#cite_note-Brody-1993-60">[46]</a> pragmatic<a href="#cite_note-truthSought4sake-18">[15]</a> scheme of the four points above is sometimes offered as a guideline for proceeding:<a href="#cite_note-65">[50]</a> <ol><li>Define a question</li> <li>Gather information and resources (observe)</li> <li>Form an explanatory hypothesis</li> <li>Test the hypothesis by performing an experiment and collecting data in a <a href="/wiki/Reproducibility" title="Reproducibility">reproducible</a> manner</li> <li>Analyze the data</li> <li>Interpret the data and draw conclusions that serve as a starting point for a new hypothesis</li> <li>Publish results</li> <li>Retest (frequently done by other scientists)</li></ol> The iterative cycle inherent in this step-by-step method goes from point 3 to 6 and back to 3 again. While this schema outlines a typical hypothesis/testing method,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGauch2003esp._chapters_5–8-66">[51]</a> many philosophers, historians, and sociologists of science, including <a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a>,<a href="#cite_note-descartes-68">[h]</a> claim that such descriptions of scientific method have little relation to the ways that science is actually practiced. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Characterizations"> Characterizations</h3></div> The basic elements of the scientific method are illustrated by the following example (which occurred from 1944 to 1953) from the discovery of the structure of DNA (marked with <img alt="DNA label" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/DNA_icon.svg/20px-DNA_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/DNA_icon.svg/30px-DNA_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/DNA_icon.svg/39px-DNA_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="70" data-file-height="78" /> and indented). <blockquote><img alt="DNA label" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/DNA_icon.svg/20px-DNA_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/DNA_icon.svg/30px-DNA_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/DNA_icon.svg/39px-DNA_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="70" data-file-height="78" /> In 1950, it was known that <a href="/wiki/Genetic_inheritance" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic inheritance">genetic inheritance</a> had a mathematical description, starting with the studies of <a href="/wiki/Gregor_Mendel" title="Gregor Mendel">Gregor Mendel</a>, and that DNA contained genetic information (Oswald Avery's transforming principle).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCarty1985252-69">[53]</a> But the mechanism of storing genetic information (i.e., genes) in DNA was unclear. Researchers in <a href="/wiki/William_Lawrence_Bragg" class="mw-redirect" title="William Lawrence Bragg">Bragg's</a> laboratory at <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">Cambridge University</a> made <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-ray</a> <a href="/wiki/Diffraction" title="Diffraction">diffraction</a> pictures of various <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecules</a>, starting with <a href="/wiki/Crystal" title="Crystal">crystals</a> of <a href="/wiki/Salt" title="Salt">salt</a>, and proceeding to more complicated substances. Using clues painstakingly assembled over decades, beginning with its chemical composition, it was determined that it should be possible to characterize the physical structure of DNA, and the X-ray images would be the vehicle.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcElheny200434-70">[54]</a></blockquote> The scientific method depends upon increasingly sophisticated characterizations of the subjects of investigation. (The subjects can also be called <a href="/wiki/Category:Lists_of_unsolved_problems" title="Category:Lists of unsolved problems">unsolved problems</a> or the unknowns.)<a href="#cite_note-aQuestion-63">[C]</a> For example, <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a> conjectured, correctly, that <a href="/wiki/St._Elmo%27s_fire" title="St. Elmo's fire">St. Elmo's fire</a> was <a href="/wiki/Electrical" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical">electrical</a> in <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a>, but it has taken a long series of experiments and theoretical changes to establish this. While seeking the pertinent properties of the subjects, careful thought may also <a href="/wiki/Logical_consequence" title="Logical consequence">entail</a> some definitions and <a href="/wiki/Observations" class="mw-redirect" title="Observations">observations</a>; these observations often demand careful <a href="/wiki/Measurements" class="mw-redirect" title="Measurements">measurements</a> and/or counting can take the form of expansive <a href="/wiki/Empirical_research" title="Empirical research">empirical research</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Research_question" title="Research question">scientific question</a> can refer to the explanation of a specific <a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">observation</a>,<a href="#cite_note-aQuestion-63">[C]</a> as in "Why is the sky blue?" but can also be open-ended, as in "How can I <a href="/wiki/Drug_design" title="Drug design">design a drug</a> to cure this particular disease?" This stage frequently involves finding and evaluating evidence from previous experiments, personal scientific observations or assertions, as well as the work of other scientists. If the answer is already known, a different question that builds on the evidence can be posed. When applying the scientific method to research, determining a good question can be very difficult and it will affect the outcome of the investigation.<a href="#cite_note-71">[55]</a> The systematic, careful collection of measurements or counts of relevant quantities is often the critical difference between <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">pseudo-sciences</a>, such as alchemy, and science, such as chemistry or biology. Scientific measurements are usually tabulated, graphed, or mapped, and statistical manipulations, such as <a href="/wiki/Correlation" title="Correlation">correlation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Regression_analysis" title="Regression analysis">regression</a>, performed on them. The measurements might be made in a controlled setting, such as a laboratory, or made on more or less inaccessible or unmanipulatable objects such as stars or human populations. The measurements often require specialized <a href="/wiki/Scientific_instrument" title="Scientific instrument">scientific instruments</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Thermometer" title="Thermometer">thermometers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spectrometer" title="Spectrometer">spectroscopes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">particle accelerators</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Voltmeter" title="Voltmeter">voltmeters</a>, and the progress of a scientific field is usually intimately tied to their invention and improvement. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">I am not accustomed to saying anything with certainty after only one or two observations.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Andreas_Vesalius" title="Andreas Vesalius">Andreas Vesalius</a> (1546)<a href="#cite_note-72">[56]</a></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Definition">Definition</h4></div> The scientific definition of a term sometimes differs substantially from its <a href="/wiki/Natural_language" title="Natural language">natural language</a> usage. For example, <a href="/wiki/Mass" title="Mass">mass</a> and <a href="/wiki/Weight" title="Weight">weight</a> overlap in meaning in common discourse, but have distinct meanings in <a href="/wiki/Mechanics" title="Mechanics">mechanics</a>. Scientific quantities are often characterized by their <a href="/wiki/Units_of_measurement" class="mw-redirect" title="Units of measurement">units of measure</a> which can later be described in terms of conventional physical units when communicating the work. New theories are sometimes developed after realizing certain terms have not previously been sufficiently clearly defined. For example, <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>'s first paper on <a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">relativity</a> begins by defining <a href="/wiki/Relativity_of_simultaneity" title="Relativity of simultaneity">simultaneity</a> and the means for determining <a href="/wiki/Length" title="Length">length</a>. These ideas were skipped over by <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> with, "I do not define <a href="/wiki/Time_in_physics#Galileo:_the_flow_of_time" title="Time in physics">time</a>, space, place and <a href="/wiki/Motion_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Motion (physics)">motion</a>, as being well known to all." Einstein's paper then demonstrates that they (viz., absolute time and length independent of motion) were approximations. <a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a> cautions us that when characterizing a subject, however, it can be premature to define something when it remains ill-understood.<a href="#cite_note-73">[57]</a> In Crick's study of <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</a>, he actually found it easier to study <a href="/wiki/Awareness" title="Awareness">awareness</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Visual_system" title="Visual system">visual system</a>, rather than to study <a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">free will</a>, for example. His cautionary example was the gene; the gene was much more poorly understood before Watson and Crick's pioneering discovery of the structure of DNA; it would have been counterproductive to spend much time on the definition of the gene, before them. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hypothesis_development">Hypothesis development</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis_formation" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypothesis formation">Hypothesis formation</a></div> <blockquote><img alt="DNA label" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/DNA_icon.svg/20px-DNA_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/DNA_icon.svg/30px-DNA_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/DNA_icon.svg/39px-DNA_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="70" data-file-height="78" /> <a href="/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling">Linus Pauling</a> proposed that DNA might be a <a href="/wiki/Triple_helix" title="Triple helix">triple helix</a>.<a href="#cite_note-74">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[59]</a> This hypothesis was also considered by <a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_D._Watson" class="mw-redirect" title="James D. Watson">James D. Watson</a> but discarded. When Watson and Crick learned of Pauling's hypothesis, they understood from existing data that Pauling was wrong.<a href="#cite_note-76">[60]</a> and that Pauling would soon admit his difficulties with that structure.</blockquote> A <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypothesis</a> is a suggested explanation of a phenomenon, or alternately a reasoned proposal suggesting a possible correlation between or among a set of phenomena. Normally, hypotheses have the form of a <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_model" title="Mathematical model">mathematical model</a>. Sometimes, but not always, they can also be formulated as <a href="/wiki/Existential_quantification" title="Existential quantification">existential statements</a>, stating that some particular instance of the phenomenon being studied has some characteristic and causal explanations, which have the general form of <a href="/wiki/Universal_quantification" title="Universal quantification">universal statements</a>, stating that every instance of the phenomenon has a particular characteristic. Scientists are free to use whatever resources they have – their own creativity, ideas from other fields, <a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">inductive reasoning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bayesian_inference" title="Bayesian inference">Bayesian inference</a>, and so on – to imagine possible explanations for a phenomenon under study. Albert Einstein once observed that "there is no logical bridge between phenomena and their theoretical principles."<a href="#cite_note-77">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-leapIsInvolved-79">[i]</a> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a>, borrowing a page from <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (<a href="/wiki/Prior_Analytics" title="Prior Analytics">Prior Analytics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inquiry#Abduction" title="Inquiry">2.25</a>)<a href="#cite_note-aristotleAbduction-80">[63]</a> described the incipient stages of <a href="/wiki/Inquiry" title="Inquiry">inquiry</a>, instigated by the "irritation of doubt" to venture a plausible guess, as <a href="/wiki/Abductive_reasoning" title="Abductive reasoning">abductive reasoning</a>.<a href="#cite_note-How-81">[64]</a>: II, p.290  The history of science is filled with stories of scientists claiming a "flash of inspiration", or a hunch, which then motivated them to look for evidence to support or refute their idea. <a href="/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Michael Polanyi</a> made such creativity the centerpiece of his discussion of methodology. <a href="/wiki/William_Glen_(geologist_and_historian)" class="mw-redirect" title="William Glen (geologist and historian)">William Glen</a> observes that<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlen199437–38-82">[65]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">the success of a hypothesis, or its service to science, lies not simply in its perceived "truth", or power to displace, subsume or reduce a predecessor idea, but perhaps more in its ability to stimulate the research that will illuminate ... bald suppositions and areas of vagueness.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>William Glen, The Mass-Extinction Debates</cite></div></blockquote> In general, scientists tend to look for theories that are "<a href="/wiki/Elegance" title="Elegance">elegant</a>" or "<a href="/wiki/Beauty" title="Beauty">beautiful</a>". Scientists often use these terms to refer to a theory that is following the known facts but is nevertheless relatively simple and easy to handle. <a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_Razor" class="mw-redirect" title="Occam's Razor">Occam's Razor</a> serves as a rule of thumb for choosing the most desirable amongst a group of equally explanatory hypotheses. To minimize the <a href="/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">confirmation bias</a> that results from entertaining a single hypothesis, <a href="/wiki/Strong_inference" title="Strong inference">strong inference</a> emphasizes the need for entertaining multiple alternative hypotheses,<a href="#cite_note-platt-83">[66]</a> and avoiding artifacts.<a href="#cite_note-sn1987a-84">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Predictions_from_the_hypothesis">Predictions from the hypothesis</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Prediction#Science" title="Prediction">Prediction § Science</a></div><blockquote><img alt="DNA label" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/DNA_icon.svg/20px-DNA_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/DNA_icon.svg/30px-DNA_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/DNA_icon.svg/39px-DNA_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="70" data-file-height="78" /> <a href="/wiki/James_D._Watson" class="mw-redirect" title="James D. Watson">James D. Watson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a>, and others hypothesized that DNA had a helical structure. This implied that DNA's X-ray diffraction pattern would be 'x shaped'.<a href="#cite_note-Crick_pp._137–138-85">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-McElheny_2004_43-86">[69]</a> This prediction followed from the work of Cochran, Crick and Vand<a href="#cite_note-HelixTransform-87">[70]</a> (and independently by Stokes). The Cochran-Crick-Vand-Stokes theorem provided a mathematical explanation for the empirical observation that diffraction from helical structures produces x-shaped patterns. In their first paper, Watson and Crick also noted that the <a href="/wiki/Double_helix" class="mw-redirect" title="Double helix">double helix</a> structure they proposed provided a simple mechanism for <a href="/wiki/DNA_replication" title="DNA replication">DNA replication</a>, writing, "It has not escaped our notice that the specific pairing we have postulated immediately suggests a possible copying mechanism for the genetic material".<a href="#cite_note-88">[71]</a></blockquote>Any useful hypothesis will enable <a href="/wiki/Prediction" title="Prediction">predictions</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Reasoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Reasoning">reasoning</a> including <a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">deductive reasoning</a>.<a href="#cite_note-89">[j]</a> It might predict the outcome of an experiment in a laboratory setting or the observation of a phenomenon in nature. The prediction can also be statistical and deal only with probabilities. It is essential that the outcome of testing such a prediction be currently unknown. Only in this case does a successful outcome increase the probability that the hypothesis is true. If the outcome is already known, it is called a consequence and should have already been considered while <a href="#Hypothesis_development">formulating the hypothesis</a>. If the predictions are not accessible by observation or experience, the hypothesis is not yet <a href="/wiki/Testability" title="Testability">testable</a> and so will remain to that extent unscientific in a strict sense. A new technology or theory might make the necessary experiments feasible. For example, while a hypothesis on the existence of other intelligent species may be convincing with scientifically based speculation, no known experiment can test this hypothesis. Therefore, science itself can have little to say about the possibility. In the future, a new technique may allow for an experimental test and the speculation would then become part of accepted science. For example, Einstein's theory of <a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">general relativity</a> makes several specific predictions about the observable structure of <a href="/wiki/Spacetime" title="Spacetime">spacetime</a>, such as that <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">light</a> bends in a <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_field" title="Gravitational field">gravitational field</a>, and that the amount of bending depends in a precise way on the strength of that gravitational field. <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Eddington" title="Arthur Eddington">Arthur Eddington</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Eddington_experiment" title="Eddington experiment">observations made during a 1919 solar eclipse</a> supported General Relativity rather than Newtonian <a href="/wiki/Gravitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitation">gravitation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-90">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Experiments">Experiments</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">Experiment</a></div><blockquote><img alt="DNA label" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/DNA_icon.svg/20px-DNA_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/DNA_icon.svg/30px-DNA_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/DNA_icon.svg/39px-DNA_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="70" data-file-height="78" /> Watson and Crick showed an initial (and incorrect) proposal for the structure of DNA to a team from <a href="/wiki/King%27s_College_London" title="King's College London">King's College London</a> – <a href="/wiki/Rosalind_Franklin" title="Rosalind Franklin">Rosalind Franklin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Wilkins" title="Maurice Wilkins">Maurice Wilkins</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Gosling" title="Raymond Gosling">Raymond Gosling</a>. Franklin immediately spotted the flaws which concerned the water content. Later Watson saw Franklin's <a href="/wiki/Photo_51" title="Photo 51">photo 51</a>, a detailed X-ray diffraction image, which showed an X-shape<a href="#cite_note-91">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-photo51Explained-92">[74]</a> and was able to confirm the structure was helical.<a href="#cite_note-TeaTime-93">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-Watson_1968_167-94">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-nextItemToSettle-98">[k]</a></blockquote> Once predictions are made, they can be sought by experiments. If the test results contradict the predictions, the hypotheses which entailed them are called into question and become less tenable. Sometimes the experiments are conducted incorrectly or are not very well designed when compared to a <a href="/wiki/Crucial_experiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Crucial experiment">crucial experiment</a>. If the experimental results confirm the predictions, then the hypotheses are considered more likely to be correct, but might still be wrong and continue to be subject to <a href="#Evaluation_and_improvement">further testing.</a> The <a href="/wiki/Experimental_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Experimental control">experimental control</a> is a technique for dealing with observational error. This technique uses the contrast between multiple samples, or observations, or populations, under differing conditions, to see what varies or what remains the same. We vary the conditions for the acts of measurement, to help isolate what has changed. <a href="/wiki/Mill%27s_canons" class="mw-redirect" title="Mill's canons">Mill's canons</a> can then help us figure out what the important factor is.<a href="#cite_note-99">[80]</a> <a href="/wiki/Factor_analysis" title="Factor analysis">Factor analysis</a> is one technique for discovering the important factor in an effect. Depending on the predictions, the experiments can have different shapes. It could be a classical experiment in a laboratory setting, a <a href="/wiki/Double-blind" class="mw-redirect" title="Double-blind">double-blind</a> study or an archaeological <a href="/wiki/Excavation_(archaeology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Excavation (archaeology)">excavation</a>. Even taking a plane from <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a> to <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a> is an experiment that tests the <a href="/wiki/Aerodynamics" title="Aerodynamics">aerodynamical</a> hypotheses used for constructing the plane. These institutions thereby reduce the research function to a cost/benefit,<a href="#cite_note-conjugatePairs-100">[81]</a> which is expressed as money, and the time and attention of the researchers to be expended,<a href="#cite_note-conjugatePairs-100">[81]</a> in exchange for a report to their constituents.<a href="#cite_note-nsf-101">[82]</a> Current large instruments, such as CERN's <a href="/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider" title="Large Hadron Collider">Large Hadron Collider</a> (LHC),<a href="#cite_note-lhc-102">[83]</a> or <a href="/wiki/LIGO" title="LIGO">LIGO</a>,<a href="#cite_note-ligo-103">[84]</a> or the <a href="/wiki/National_Ignition_Facility" title="National Ignition Facility">National Ignition Facility</a> (NIF),<a href="#cite_note-nif-104">[85]</a> or the <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a> (ISS),<a href="#cite_note-iss-105">[86]</a> or the <a href="/wiki/James_Webb_Space_Telescope" title="James Webb Space Telescope">James Webb Space Telescope</a> (JWST),<a href="#cite_note-jwst-106">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-jwstDeploymentSeq-107">[88]</a> entail expected costs of billions of dollars, and timeframes extending over decades. These kinds of institutions affect public policy, on a national or even international basis, and the researchers would require shared access to such machines and their <a href="#otherScientists">adjunct infrastructure</a>.<a href="#cite_note-feedTheMachinery-108">[ε]</a><a href="#cite_note-Crutchfield-109">[89]</a> Scientists assume an attitude of openness and accountability on the part of those experimenting. Detailed record-keeping is essential, to aid in recording and reporting on the experimental results, and supports the effectiveness and integrity of the procedure. They will also assist in reproducing the experimental results, likely by others. Traces of this approach can be seen in the work of <a href="/wiki/Hipparchus" title="Hipparchus">Hipparchus</a> (190–120 BCE), when determining a value for the precession of the Earth, while <a href="/wiki/Scientific_control" title="Scientific control">controlled experiments</a> can be seen in the works of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_J%C4%81bir_al-Harr%C4%81n%C4%AB_al-Batt%C4%81n%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Jābir al-Harrānī al-Battānī">al-Battani</a> (853–929 CE)<a href="#cite_note-110">[90]</a> and <a href="#alhazen">Alhazen</a> (965–1039 CE).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2001b-111">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[l]</a><a href="#cite_note-straightLinesOnly-16">[b]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Communication_and_iteration">Communication and iteration</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Scientific_literature" title="Scientific literature">Scientific literature</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scholarly_communication" title="Scholarly communication">Scholarly communication</a></div> <blockquote> <img alt="DNA label" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/DNA_icon.svg/20px-DNA_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/DNA_icon.svg/30px-DNA_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/DNA_icon.svg/39px-DNA_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="70" data-file-height="78" /> Watson and Crick then produced their model, using this information along with the previously known information about DNA's composition, especially Chargaff's rules of base pairing.<a href="#cite_note-SameShape-97">[79]</a> After considerable fruitless experimentation, being discouraged by their superior from continuing, and numerous false starts,<a href="#cite_note-114">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[95]</a> Watson and Crick were able to infer the essential structure of <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> by concrete <a href="/wiki/Model_(abstract)" class="mw-redirect" title="Model (abstract)">modeling</a> <a href="/wiki/DNA#History" title="DNA">of the physical shapes</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">nucleotides</a> which comprise it.<a href="#cite_note-SameShape-97">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-117">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[97]</a> They were guided by the bond lengths which had been deduced by <a href="/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling">Linus Pauling</a> and by <a href="/wiki/Rosalind_Franklin" title="Rosalind Franklin">Rosalind Franklin</a>'s X-ray diffraction images. </blockquote> The scientific method is iterative. At any stage, it is possible to refine its <a href="/wiki/Accuracy_and_precision" title="Accuracy and precision">accuracy and precision</a>, so that some consideration will lead the scientist to repeat an earlier part of the process. Failure to develop an interesting hypothesis may lead a scientist to re-define the subject under consideration. Failure of a hypothesis to produce interesting and testable predictions may lead to reconsideration of the hypothesis or of the definition of the subject. Failure of an experiment to produce interesting results may lead a scientist to reconsider the experimental method, the hypothesis, or the definition of the subject. This manner of iteration can span decades and sometimes centuries. <a href="/wiki/Academic_publishing#Types_of_academic_paper" title="Academic publishing">Published papers</a> can be built upon. For example: By 1027, <a href="/wiki/Alhazen" class="mw-redirect" title="Alhazen">Alhazen</a>, based on his measurements of the <a href="/wiki/Refraction" title="Refraction">refraction</a> of light, was able to deduce that <a href="/wiki/Outer_space" title="Outer space">outer space</a> was less dense than <a href="/wiki/Air" class="mw-redirect" title="Air">air</a>, that is: "the body of the heavens is rarer than the body of air".<a href="#cite_note-alhacenOnRefraction4.28-13">[13]</a> In 1079 <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Mu%27adh_al-Jayyani" title="Ibn Mu'adh al-Jayyani">Ibn Mu'adh</a>'s Treatise On Twilight was able to infer that Earth's atmosphere was 50 miles thick, based on <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_refraction" title="Atmospheric refraction">atmospheric refraction</a> of the sun's rays.<a href="#cite_note-crepusculis-120">[m]</a> This is why the scientific method is often represented as circular – new information leads to new characterisations, and the cycle of science continues. Measurements collected <a href="/wiki/Research_data_archiving" title="Research data archiving">can be archived</a>, passed onwards and used by others. Other scientists may start their own research and <a href="#aGuideline">enter the process</a> at any stage. They might adopt the characterization and formulate their own hypothesis, or they might adopt the hypothesis and deduce their own predictions. Often the experiment is not done by the person who made the prediction, and the characterization is based on experiments done by someone else. Published results of experiments can also serve as a hypothesis predicting their own reproducibility. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Confirmation">Confirmation</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Reproducibility" title="Reproducibility">Reproducibility</a></div> Science is a social enterprise, and scientific work tends to be accepted by the scientific community when it has been confirmed. Crucially, experimental and theoretical results must be reproduced by others within the scientific community. Researchers have given their lives for this vision; <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Richmann" title="Georg Wilhelm Richmann">Georg Wilhelm Richmann</a> was killed by <a href="/wiki/Ball_lightning" title="Ball lightning">ball lightning</a> (1753) when attempting to replicate the 1752 kite-flying experiment of <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-121">[99]</a> If an experiment cannot be <a href="/wiki/Reproducibility" title="Reproducibility">repeated</a> to produce the same results, this implies that the original results might have been in error. As a result, it is common for a single experiment to be performed multiple times, especially when there are uncontrolled variables or other indications of <a href="/wiki/Observational_error" title="Observational error">experimental error</a>. For significant or surprising results, other scientists may also attempt to replicate the results for themselves, especially if those results would be important to their own work.<a href="#cite_note-122">[100]</a> Replication has become a contentious issue in social and biomedical science where treatments are administered to groups of individuals. Typically an experimental group gets the treatment, such as a drug, and the control group gets a placebo. <a href="/wiki/John_Ioannidis" title="John Ioannidis">John Ioannidis</a> in 2005 pointed out that the method being used has led to many findings that cannot be replicated.<a href="#cite_note-123">[101]</a> The process of <a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">peer review</a> involves the evaluation of the experiment by experts, who typically give their opinions anonymously. Some journals request that the experimenter provide lists of possible peer reviewers, especially if the field is highly specialized. Peer review does not certify the correctness of the results, only that, in the opinion of the reviewer, the experiments themselves were sound (based on the description supplied by the experimenter). If the work passes peer review, which occasionally may require new experiments requested by the reviewers, it will be published in a peer-reviewed <a href="/wiki/Academic_journal" title="Academic journal">scientific journal</a>. The specific journal that publishes the results indicates the perceived quality of the work.<a href="#cite_note-124">[n]</a> Scientists typically are careful in recording their data, a requirement promoted by <a href="/wiki/Ludwik_Fleck" title="Ludwik Fleck">Ludwik Fleck</a> (1896–1961) and others.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleck1979xxvii–xxviii-125">[102]</a> Though not typically required, they might be requested to <a href="/wiki/Data_sharing" title="Data sharing">supply this data</a> to other scientists who wish to replicate their original results (or parts of their original results), extending to the sharing of any experimental samples that may be difficult to obtain.<a href="#cite_note-126">[103]</a> To protect against bad science and fraudulent data, government research-granting agencies such as the <a href="/wiki/National_Science_Foundation" title="National Science Foundation">National Science Foundation</a>, and science journals, including Nature and Science, have a policy that researchers must archive their data and methods so that other researchers can test the data and methods and build on the research that has gone before. <a href="/wiki/Scientific_data_archiving" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific data archiving">Scientific data archiving</a> can be done at several national archives in the U.S. or the <a href="/wiki/World_Data_Center" title="World Data Center">World Data Center</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Foundational_principles">Foundational principles</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Honesty,_openness,_and_falsifiability">Honesty, openness, and falsifiability</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Scientific_integrity" title="Scientific integrity">Scientific integrity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Open_science" title="Open science">Open science</a></div> The unfettered principles of science are to strive for accuracy and the creed of honesty; openness already being a matter of degrees. Openness is restricted by the general rigour of scepticism. And of course the matter of non-science. Smolin, in 2013, espoused ethical principles rather than giving any potentially limited definition of the rules of inquiry.<a href="#cite_note-ethicalPosition-46">[δ]</a> His ideas stand in the context of the scale of data–driven and <a href="/wiki/Big_science" title="Big science">big science</a>, which has seen increased importance of honesty and consequently <a href="/wiki/Reproducibility" title="Reproducibility">reproducibility</a>. His thought is that science is a community effort by those who have accreditation and are working within the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_community" title="Scientific community">community</a>. He also warns against overzealous parsimony. Popper previously took ethical principles even further, going as far as to ascribe value to theories only if they were falsifiable. Popper used the falsifiability criterion to demarcate a scientific theory from a theory like astrology: both "explain" observations, but the scientific theory takes the risk of making predictions that decide whether it is right or wrong:<a href="#cite_note-Popper0-127">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-Popper1-128">[105]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">"Those among us who are unwilling to expose their ideas to the hazard of refutation do not take part in the game of science." <div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Karl Popper, The Logic of Scientific Discovery (2002 [1935])</cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theory's_interactions_with_observation">Theory's interactions with observation</h3></div> Science has limits. Those limits are usually deemed to be answers to questions that aren't in science's domain, such as faith. Science has other limits as well, as it seeks to make true statements about reality.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGauch_Jr2002ch._1-129">[106]</a> The nature of <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truth</a> and the discussion on how scientific statements relate to reality is best left to the article on the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">philosophy of science</a> here. More immediately topical limitations show themselves in the observation of reality. <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PositronDiscovery.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/PositronDiscovery.png/220px-PositronDiscovery.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/PositronDiscovery.png/330px-PositronDiscovery.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/PositronDiscovery.png/440px-PositronDiscovery.png 2x" data-file-width="2408" data-file-height="2374" /></a><figcaption>This <a href="/wiki/Cloud_chamber" title="Cloud chamber">cloud chamber</a> photograph is the first observational evidence of <a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">positrons</a>, 2 August 1932; interpretable only through prior theory.<a href="#cite_note-Anderson_1933_pp._491–494-130">[107]</a></figcaption></figure> It is the natural limitations of scientific inquiry that there is no pure observation as theory is required to interpret empirical data, and observation is therefore influenced by the observer's conceptual framework.<a href="#cite_note-Hanson1958-131">[108]</a> As science is an unfinished project, this does lead to difficulties. Namely, that false conclusions are drawn, because of limited information. An example here are the experiments of Kepler and Brahe, used by Hanson to illustrate the concept. Despite observing the same sunrise the two scientists came to different conclusions—their <a href="/wiki/Intersubjectivity" title="Intersubjectivity">intersubjectivity</a> leading to differing conclusions. <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Johannes Kepler</a> used <a href="/wiki/Tycho_Brahe" title="Tycho Brahe">Tycho Brahe</a>'s method of observation, which was to project the image of the Sun on a piece of paper through a pinhole aperture, instead of looking directly at the Sun. He disagreed with Brahe's conclusion that total eclipses of the Sun were impossible because, contrary to Brahe, he knew that there were historical accounts of total eclipses. Instead, he deduced that the images taken would become more accurate, the larger the aperture—this fact is now fundamental for optical system design.<a href="#cite_note-Kepler1604-31">[d]</a> Another historic example here is the <a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_Neptune" title="Discovery of Neptune">discovery of Neptune</a>, credited as being found via mathematics because previous observers didn't know what they were looking at.<a href="#cite_note-Lequeux_2021_pp._159–183-132">[109]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Empiricism,_rationalism,_and_more_pragmatic_views">Empiricism, rationalism, and more pragmatic views</h3></div> Scientific endeavour can be characterised as the pursuit of truths about the natural world or as the elimination of doubt about the same. The former is the direct construction of explanations from empirical data and logic, the latter the reduction of potential explanations.<a href="#cite_note-134">[ζ]</a> It was established <a href="#th-v-obs">above</a> how the interpretation of empirical data is theory-laden, so neither approach is trivial. The ubiquitous element in the scientific method is <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a>, which holds that knowledge is created by a process involving observation; scientific theories generalize observations. This is in opposition to stringent forms of <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a>, which holds that knowledge is created by the human intellect; later clarified by Popper to be built on prior theory.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGodfrey-Smith200319–74-135">[111]</a> The scientific method embodies the position that reason alone cannot solve a particular scientific problem; it unequivocally refutes claims that <a href="/wiki/Revelation" title="Revelation">revelation</a>, political or religious <a href="/wiki/Dogma" title="Dogma">dogma</a>, appeals to tradition, commonly held beliefs, common sense, or currently held theories pose the only possible means of demonstrating truth.<a href="#cite_note-truthSought4sake-18">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-reasonsFirstRule-96">[78]</a> In 1877,<a href="#cite_note-Fixation-61">[47]</a> <a href="/wiki/C._S._Peirce" class="mw-redirect" title="C. S. Peirce">C. S. Peirce</a> characterized inquiry in general not as the pursuit of truth per se but as the struggle to move from irritating, inhibitory doubts born of surprises, disagreements, and the like, and to reach a secure belief, the belief being that on which one is prepared to act. His <a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">pragmatic</a> views framed scientific inquiry as part of a broader spectrum and as spurred, like inquiry generally, by actual doubt, not mere verbal or "hyperbolic doubt", which he held to be fruitless.<a href="#cite_note-138">[o]</a> This "hyperbolic doubt" Peirce argues against here is of course just another name for <a href="/wiki/Cartesian_doubt" title="Cartesian doubt">Cartesian doubt</a> associated with <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>. It is a methodological route to certain knowledge by identifying what can't be doubted. A strong formulation of the scientific method is not always aligned with a form of <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a> in which the empirical data is put forward in the form of experience or other abstracted forms of knowledge as in current scientific practice the use of <a href="/wiki/Scientific_modelling" title="Scientific modelling">scientific modelling</a> and reliance on abstract typologies and theories is normally accepted. In 2010, <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Hawking</a> suggested that physics' models of reality should simply be accepted where they prove to make useful predictions. He calls the concept <a href="/wiki/Model-dependent_realism" title="Model-dependent realism">model-dependent realism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hawking-139">[114]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rationality">Rationality</h2></div> Rationality embodies the essence of sound reasoning, a cornerstone not only in philosophical discourse but also in the realms of science and practical decision-making. According to the traditional viewpoint, rationality serves a dual purpose: it governs beliefs, ensuring they align with logical principles, and it steers actions, directing them towards coherent and beneficial outcomes. This understanding underscores the pivotal role of reason in shaping our understanding of the world and in informing our choices and behaviours.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGauch_Jr200229–31-140">[115]</a> The following section will first explore beliefs and biases, and then get to the rational reasoning most associated with the sciences. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Beliefs_and_biases">Beliefs and biases</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:224px;max-width:224px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Jean_Louis_Th%C3%A9odore_G%C3%A9ricault_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Jean_Louis_Th%C3%A9odore_G%C3%A9ricault_001.jpg/220px-Jean_Louis_Th%C3%A9odore_G%C3%A9ricault_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Jean_Louis_Th%C3%A9odore_G%C3%A9ricault_001.jpg/330px-Jean_Louis_Th%C3%A9odore_G%C3%A9ricault_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Jean_Louis_Th%C3%A9odore_G%C3%A9ricault_001.jpg/440px-Jean_Louis_Th%C3%A9odore_G%C3%A9ricault_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3200" data-file-height="2248" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Flying gallop as shown by this painting (<a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9odore_G%C3%A9ricault" title="Théodore Géricault">Théodore Géricault</a>, 1821) is <a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">falsified</a>; see below.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Horse_in_Motion_high_res.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/The_Horse_in_Motion_high_res.jpg/220px-The_Horse_in_Motion_high_res.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/The_Horse_in_Motion_high_res.jpg/330px-The_Horse_in_Motion_high_res.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/The_Horse_in_Motion_high_res.jpg/440px-The_Horse_in_Motion_high_res.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5694" data-file-height="3510" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Sallie_Gardner_at_a_Gallop" class="mw-redirect" title="Sallie Gardner at a Gallop">Muybridge's photographs</a> of The Horse in Motion, 1878, were used to answer the question of whether all four feet of a galloping horse are ever off the ground at the same time. This demonstrates a use of photography as an experimental tool in science.</div></div></div></div></div> Scientific methodology often directs that <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypotheses</a> be tested in <a href="/wiki/Scientific_control" title="Scientific control">controlled</a> conditions wherever possible. This is frequently possible in certain areas, such as in the biological sciences, and more difficult in other areas, such as in astronomy. The practice of experimental control and reproducibility can have the effect of diminishing the potentially harmful effects of circumstance, and to a degree, personal bias. For example, pre-existing beliefs can alter the interpretation of results, as in <a href="/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">confirmation bias</a>; this is a <a href="/wiki/Heuristic" title="Heuristic">heuristic</a> that leads a person with a particular belief to see things as reinforcing their belief, even if another observer might disagree (in other words, people tend to observe what they expect to observe).<a href="#cite_note-beliefCreatesReality-48">[35]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">[T]he action of thought is excited by the irritation of doubt, and ceases when belief is attained.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/C.S._Peirce" class="mw-redirect" title="C.S. Peirce">C.S. Peirce</a>, How to Make Our Ideas Clear (1877)<a href="#cite_note-How-81">[64]</a></cite></div></blockquote> A historical example is the belief that the legs of a <a href="/wiki/Horse_gallop" class="mw-redirect" title="Horse gallop">galloping</a> horse are splayed at the point when none of the horse's legs touch the ground, to the point of this image being included in paintings by its supporters. However, the first stop-action pictures of a horse's gallop by <a href="/wiki/Eadweard_Muybridge" title="Eadweard Muybridge">Eadweard Muybridge</a> showed this to be false, and that the legs are instead gathered together.<a href="#cite_note-141">[116]</a> Another important human bias that plays a role is a preference for new, surprising statements (see <a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_novelty" title="Appeal to novelty">Appeal to novelty</a>), which can result in a search for evidence that the new is true.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldhaberNieto2010940-142">[117]</a> Poorly attested beliefs can be believed and acted upon via a less rigorous heuristic.<a href="#cite_note-mythIsAbelief-143">[118]</a> Goldhaber and Nieto published in 2010 the observation that if theoretical structures with "many closely neighboring subjects are described by connecting theoretical concepts, then the theoretical structure acquires a robustness which makes it increasingly hard – though certainly never impossible – to overturn".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldhaberNieto2010942-144">[119]</a> When a narrative is constructed its elements become easier to believe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELakatos19761–19-145">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-narrativeFallacy-49">[36]</a> <a href="#CITEREFFleck1979">Fleck (1979)</a>, p. 27 notes "Words and ideas are originally phonetic and mental equivalences of the experiences coinciding with them. ... Such proto-ideas are at first always too broad and insufficiently specialized. ... Once a structurally complete and closed system of opinions consisting of many details and relations has been formed, it offers enduring resistance to anything that contradicts it". Sometimes, these relations have their elements assumed <a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">a priori</a>, or contain some other logical or methodological flaw in the process that ultimately produced them. <a href="/wiki/Donald_M._MacKay" class="mw-redirect" title="Donald M. MacKay">Donald M. MacKay</a> has analyzed these elements in terms of limits to the accuracy of measurement and has related them to instrumental elements in a category of measurement.<a href="#cite_note-macKay-146">[η]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Deductive_and_inductive_reasoning">Deductive and inductive reasoning</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">Deductive reasoning</a> and <a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Inductive reasoning</a></div> The idea of there being two opposed justifications for truth has shown up throughout the history of scientific method as analysis versus synthesis, non-ampliative/ampliative, or even confirmation and verification. (And there are other kinds of reasoning.) One to use what is observed to build towards fundamental truths – and the other to derive from those fundamental truths more specific principles.<a href="#cite_note-SEP_SM-147">[121]</a> Deductive reasoning is the building of knowledge based on what has been shown to be true before. It requires the assumption of fact established prior, and, given the truth of the assumptions, a valid deduction guarantees the truth of the conclusion. Inductive reasoning builds knowledge not from established truth, but from a body of observations. It requires stringent scepticism regarding observed phenomena, because cognitive assumptions can distort the interpretation of initial perceptions.<a href="#cite_note-Gauch_Jr_2002_p30/ch4-148">[122]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Perihelio.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Perihelio.svg/220px-Perihelio.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Perihelio.svg/330px-Perihelio.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Perihelio.svg/440px-Perihelio.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="420" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Apsidal_precession" title="Apsidal precession">Precession</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Perihelion_and_aphelion" class="mw-redirect" title="Perihelion and aphelion">perihelion</a> – exaggerated in the case of Mercury, but observed in the case of <a href="/wiki/S2_(star)" title="S2 (star)">S2</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Apsidal_precession" title="Apsidal precession">apsidal precession</a> around <a href="/wiki/Sagittarius_A*" title="Sagittarius A*">Sagittarius A*</a><a href="#cite_note-149">[123]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Inductive_Deductive_Reasoning.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Inductive_Deductive_Reasoning.svg/220px-Inductive_Deductive_Reasoning.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Inductive_Deductive_Reasoning.svg/330px-Inductive_Deductive_Reasoning.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Inductive_Deductive_Reasoning.svg/440px-Inductive_Deductive_Reasoning.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>Inductive Deductive Reasoning</figcaption></figure> An example for how inductive and deductive reasoning works can be found in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_gravitational_theory" title="History of gravitational theory">history of gravitational theory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-151">[p]</a> It took thousands of years of measurements, from the <a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chaldean</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">Indian</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran" title="History of Iran">Persian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Europe" title="Ethnic groups in Europe">European</a> astronomers, to fully record the motion of planet <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Astronomy101-153">[q]</a> <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Kepler</a>(and others) were then able to build their early theories by <a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning#inductive_generalization" title="Inductive reasoning">generalizing the collected data inductively</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a> was able to unify prior theory and measurements into the consequences of his <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion" title="Newton's laws of motion">laws of motion</a> in 1727.<a href="#cite_note-keplerNewton-155">[r]</a> Another common example of inductive reasoning is the observation of a <a href="/wiki/Counterexample" title="Counterexample">counterexample</a> to current theory inducing the need for new ideas. <a href="/wiki/Urbain_Le_Verrier" title="Urbain Le Verrier">Le Verrier</a> in 1859 pointed out problems with the <a href="/wiki/Perihelion_and_aphelion" class="mw-redirect" title="Perihelion and aphelion">perihelion</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(planet)" title="Mercury (planet)">Mercury</a> that showed Newton's theory to be at least incomplete. The observed difference of Mercury's <a href="/wiki/Apsidal_precession" title="Apsidal precession">precession</a> between Newtonian theory and observation was one of the things that occurred to <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Einstein</a> as a possible early test of his <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of relativity">theory of relativity</a>. His relativistic calculations matched observation much more closely than Newtonian theory did.<a href="#cite_note-LeVerrier1859-156">[s]</a> Though, today's <a href="/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">Standard Model</a> of physics suggests that we still do not know at least some of the concepts surrounding Einstein's theory, it holds to this day and is being built on deductively. A theory being assumed as true and subsequently built on is a common example of deductive reasoning. Theory building on Einstein's achievement can simply state that 'we have shown that this case fulfils the conditions under which general/special relativity applies, therefore its conclusions apply also'. If it was properly shown that 'this case' fulfils the conditions, the conclusion follows. An extension of this is the assumption of a solution to an open problem. This weaker kind of deductive reasoning will get used in current research, when multiple scientists or even teams of researchers are all gradually solving specific cases in working towards proving a larger theory. This often sees hypotheses being revised again and again as new proof emerges. This way of presenting inductive and deductive reasoning shows part of why science is often presented as being a cycle of iteration. It is important to keep in mind that that cycle's foundations lie in reasoning, and not wholly in the following of procedure. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Certainty,_probabilities,_and_statistical_inference">Certainty, probabilities, and statistical inference</h3></div> Claims of scientific truth can be opposed in three ways: by falsifying them, by questioning their certainty, or by asserting the claim itself to be incoherent.<a href="#cite_note-157">[t]</a> Incoherence, here, means internal errors in logic, like stating opposites to be true; falsification is what Popper would have called the honest work of conjecture and refutation<a href="#cite_note-trialAndErr-43">[32]</a> — certainty, perhaps, is where difficulties in telling truths from non-truths arise most easily. Measurements in scientific work are usually accompanied by estimates of their <a href="/wiki/Uncertainty" title="Uncertainty">uncertainty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-conjugatePairs-100">[81]</a> The uncertainty is often estimated by making repeated measurements of the desired quantity. Uncertainties may also be calculated by consideration of the uncertainties of the individual underlying quantities used. Counts of things, such as the number of people in a nation at a particular time, may also have an uncertainty due to <a href="/wiki/Data_collection" title="Data collection">data collection</a> limitations. Or counts may represent a sample of desired quantities, with an uncertainty that depends upon the <a href="/wiki/Sampling_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Sampling method">sampling method</a> used and the number of samples taken. In the case of measurement imprecision, there will simply be a 'probable deviation' expressing itself in a study's conclusions. Statistics are different. <a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning#Statistical_generalisation" title="Inductive reasoning">Inductive statistical generalisation</a> will take sample data and extrapolate more general conclusions, which has to be justified — and scrutinised. It can even be said that statistical models are only ever useful, <a href="/wiki/All_models_are_wrong" title="All models are wrong">but never a complete representation of circumstances</a>. In statistical analysis, expected and unexpected bias is a large factor.<a href="#cite_note-Welsby_Weatherall_2022_pp._793–798-158">[127]</a> <a href="/wiki/Research_question" title="Research question">Research questions</a>, the collection of data, or the interpretation of results, all are subject to larger amounts of scrutiny than in comfortably logical environments. Statistical models go through a <a href="/wiki/Statistical_model_validation" title="Statistical model validation">process for validation</a>, for which one could even say that awareness of potential biases is more important than the hard logic; errors in logic are easier to find in <a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">peer review</a>, after all.<a href="#cite_note-160">[u]</a> More general, claims to rational knowledge, and especially statistics, have to be put into their appropriate context.<a href="#cite_note-Gauch_Jr_2002_p30/ch4-148">[122]</a> Simple statements such as '9 out of 10 doctors recommend' are therefore of unknown quality because they do not justify their methodology. Lack of familiarity with statistical methodologies can result in erroneous conclusions. Foregoing the easy example,<a href="#cite_note-161">[v]</a> multiple probabilities interacting is where, for example medical professionals,<a href="#cite_note-Gigerenzer_2015-162">[129]</a> have shown a lack of proper understanding. <a href="/wiki/Bayes%27_theorem" title="Bayes' theorem">Bayes' theorem</a> is the mathematical principle lining out how standing probabilities are adjusted given new information. The <a href="/wiki/Boy_or_girl_paradox" title="Boy or girl paradox">boy or girl paradox</a> is a common example. In knowledge representation, <a href="/wiki/Mutual_information#Bayesian_estimation_of_mutual_information" title="Mutual information">Bayesian estimation of mutual information</a> between <a href="/wiki/Random_variable" title="Random variable">random variables</a> is a way to measure dependence, independence, or interdependence of the information under scrutiny.<a href="#cite_note-prml-163">[130]</a> Beyond commonly associated <a href="/wiki/Survey_methodology" title="Survey methodology">survey methodology</a> of <a href="/wiki/Field_research" title="Field research">field research</a>, the concept together with <a href="/wiki/Probabilistic_reasoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Probabilistic reasoning">probabilistic reasoning</a> is used to advance fields of science where research objects have no definitive states of being. For example, in <a href="/wiki/Statistical_mechanics" title="Statistical mechanics">statistical mechanics</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methods_of_inquiry">Methods of inquiry</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hypothetico-deductive_method">Hypothetico-deductive method</h3></div> The <a href="/wiki/Hypothetico-deductive_model" title="Hypothetico-deductive model">hypothetico-deductive model</a>, or hypothesis-testing method, or "traditional" scientific method is, as the name implies, based on the formation of <a href="/wiki/Hypotheses" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypotheses">hypotheses</a> and their testing via <a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">deductive reasoning</a>. A hypothesis stating implications, often called <a href="/wiki/Prediction" title="Prediction">predictions</a>, that are falsifiable via experiment is of central importance here, as not the hypothesis but its implications are what is tested.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVoit2019-164">[131]</a> Basically, scientists will look at the hypothetical consequences a (potential) <a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">theory</a> holds and prove or disprove those instead of the theory itself. If an <a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">experimental</a> test of those hypothetical consequences shows them to be false, it follows logically that the part of the theory that implied them was false also. If they show as true however, it does not prove the theory definitively. The <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a> of this testing is what affords this method of inquiry to be reasoned deductively. The formulated hypothesis is assumed to be 'true', and from that 'true' statement implications are inferred. If the following tests show the implications to be false, it follows that the hypothesis was false also. If test show the implications to be true, new insights will be gained. It is important to be aware that a positive test here will at best strongly imply but not definitively prove the tested hypothesis, as deductive inference (A ⇒ B) is not equivalent like that; only (¬B ⇒ ¬A) is valid logic. Their positive outcomes however, as Hempel put it, provide "at least some support, some corroboration or confirmation for it".<a href="#cite_note-Hempel_1966-165">[132]</a> This is why <a href="/wiki/Frank_Popper" title="Frank Popper">Popper</a> insisted on fielded hypotheses to be falsifieable, as successful tests imply very little otherwise. As <a href="/wiki/Donald_A._Gillies" title="Donald A. Gillies">Gillies</a> put it, "successful theories are those that survive elimination through falsification".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVoit2019-164">[131]</a> Deductive reasoning in this mode of inquiry will sometimes be replaced by <a href="/wiki/Abductive_reasoning" title="Abductive reasoning">abductive reasoning</a>—the search for the most plausible explanation via logical inference. For example in biology, where general laws are few,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVoit2019-164">[131]</a> as valid deductions rely on solid presuppositions.<a href="#cite_note-Gauch_Jr_2002_p30/ch4-148">[122]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inductive_method">Inductive method</h3></div> The <a href="/wiki/Inductivism" title="Inductivism">inductivist approach</a> to deriving scientific truth first rose to prominence with <a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a> and particularly with <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> and those who followed him.<a href="#cite_note-novOrganon-166">[133]</a> After the establishment of the HD-method, it was often put aside as something of a "fishing expedition" though.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVoit2019-164">[131]</a> It is still valid to some degree, but today's inductive method is often far removed from the historic approach—the scale of the data collected lending new effectiveness to the method. It is most-associated with data-mining projects or large-scale observation projects. In both these cases, it is often not at all clear what the results of proposed experiments will be, and thus knowledge will arise after the collection of data through inductive reasoning.<a href="#cite_note-keplerNewton-155">[r]</a> Where the traditional method of inquiry does both, the inductive approach usually formulates only a <a href="/wiki/Research_question" title="Research question">research question</a>, not a hypothesis. Following the initial question instead, a suitable "high-throughput method" of data-collection is determined, the resulting data processed and 'cleaned up', and conclusions drawn after. "This shift in focus elevates the data to the supreme role of revealing novel insights by themselves".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVoit2019-164">[131]</a> The advantage the inductive method has over methods formulating a hypothesis that it is essentially free of "a researcher's preconceived notions" regarding their subject. On the other hand, inductive reasoning is always attached to a measure of certainty, as all inductively reasoned conclusions are.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVoit2019-164">[131]</a> This measure of certainty can reach quite high degrees, though. For example, in the determination of large <a href="/wiki/Prime_number" title="Prime number">primes</a>, which are used in <a href="/wiki/Encryption_software" title="Encryption software">encryption software</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGauch2003159-167">[134]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mathematical_modelling">Mathematical modelling</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_modelling" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematical modelling">Mathematical modelling</a>, or allochthonous reasoning, typically is the formulation of a hypothesis followed by building mathematical constructs that can be tested in place of conducting physical laboratory experiments. This approach has two main factors: simplification/abstraction and secondly a set of correspondence rules. The correspondence rules lay out how the constructed model will relate back to reality-how truth is derived; and the simplifying steps taken in the abstraction of the given system are to reduce factors that do not bear relevance and thereby reduce unexpected errors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVoit2019-164">[131]</a> These steps can also help the researcher in understanding the important factors of the system, how far parsimony can be taken until the system becomes more and more unchangeable and thereby stable. Parsimony and related principles are further explored <a href="#Confirmation_theory">below</a>. Once this translation into mathematics is complete, the resulting model, in place of the corresponding system, can be analysed through purely mathematical and computational means. The results of this analysis are of course also purely mathematical in nature and get translated back to the system as it exists in reality via the previously determined correspondence rules—iteration following review and interpretation of the findings. The way such models are reasoned will often be mathematically deductive—but they don't have to be. An example here are <a href="/wiki/Monte_Carlo_method" title="Monte Carlo method">Monte-Carlo simulations</a>. These generate empirical data "arbitrarily", and, while they may not be able to reveal universal principles, they can nevertheless be useful.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVoit2019-164">[131]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scientific_inquiry">Scientific inquiry</h2></div> Scientific inquiry generally aims to obtain <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a> in the form of <a href="#suitableTest">testable explanations</a><a href="#cite_note-SuitableTest-168">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-econ-95">[77]</a> that scientists can use to <a href="/wiki/Predictability" title="Predictability">predict</a> the results of future experiments. This allows scientists to gain a better understanding of the topic under study, and later to use that understanding to intervene in its causal mechanisms (such as to cure disease). The better an explanation is at making predictions, the more useful it frequently can be, and the more likely it will continue to explain a body of evidence better than its alternatives. The most successful explanations – those that explain and make accurate predictions in a wide range of circumstances – are often called <a href="/wiki/Scientific_theories" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific theories">scientific theories</a>.<a href="#cite_note-aQuestion-63">[C]</a> Most experimental results do not produce large changes in human understanding; improvements in theoretical scientific understanding typically result from a gradual process of development over time, sometimes across different domains of science.<a href="#cite_note-169">[136]</a> Scientific models vary in the extent to which they have been experimentally tested and for how long, and in their acceptance in the scientific community. In general, explanations become accepted over time as evidence accumulates on a given topic, and the explanation in question proves more powerful than its alternatives at explaining the evidence. Often subsequent researchers re-formulate the explanations over time, or combined explanations to produce new explanations. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Properties_of_scientific_inquiry">Properties of scientific inquiry</h3></div> Scientific knowledge is closely tied to <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">empirical findings</a> and can remain subject to <a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">falsification</a> if new experimental observations are incompatible with what is found. That is, no theory can ever be considered final since new problematic evidence might be discovered. If such evidence is found, a new theory may be proposed, or (more commonly) it is found that modifications to the previous theory are sufficient to explain the new evidence. The strength of a theory relates to how long it has persisted without major alteration to its core principles. Theories can also become subsumed by other theories. For example, Newton's laws explained thousands of years of scientific observations of the planets <a href="#precession_of_Mercury">almost perfectly</a>. However, these laws were then determined to be special cases of a more general theory (<a href="/wiki/Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of relativity">relativity</a>), which explained both the (previously unexplained) exceptions to Newton's laws and predicted and explained other observations such as the deflection of <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">light</a> by <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a>. Thus, in certain cases independent, unconnected, scientific observations can be connected, unified by principles of increasing explanatory power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrody199344–45-170">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldhaberNieto2010942-144">[119]</a> Since new theories might be more comprehensive than what preceded them, and thus be able to explain more than previous ones, successor theories might be able to meet a higher standard by explaining a larger body of observations than their predecessors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrody199344–45-170">[137]</a> For example, the theory of <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> explains the <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">diversity of life on Earth</a>, how species adapt to their environments, and many other <a href="/wiki/Pattern" title="Pattern">patterns</a> observed in the natural world;<a href="#cite_note-Hall08-171">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cracraft05-172">[139]</a> its most recent major modification was unification with <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a> to form the <a href="/wiki/Extended_evolutionary_synthesis" title="Extended evolutionary synthesis">modern evolutionary synthesis</a>. In subsequent modifications, it has also subsumed aspects of many other fields such as <a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">biochemistry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Heuristics">Heuristics</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Confirmation_theory">Confirmation theory</h3></div> During the course of history, one theory has succeeded another, and some have suggested further work while others have seemed content just to explain the phenomena. The reasons why one theory has replaced another are not always obvious or simple. The philosophy of science includes the question: What criteria are satisfied by a 'good' theory. This question has a long history, and many scientists, as well as philosophers, have considered it. The objective is to be able to choose one theory as preferable to another without introducing <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias" title="Cognitive bias">cognitive bias</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kuhn-173">[140]</a> Though different thinkers emphasize different aspects,<a href="#cite_note-179">[ι]</a> a good theory: <ul><li>is accurate (the trivial element);</li> <li>is consistent, both internally and with other relevant currently accepted theories;</li> <li>has explanatory power, meaning its consequences extend beyond the data it is required to explain;</li> <li>has unificatory power; as in its organizing otherwise confused and isolated phenomena</li> <li>and is fruitful for further research.</li></ul> In trying to look for such theories, scientists will, given a lack of guidance by empirical evidence, try to adhere to: <ul><li>parsimony in causal explanations</li> <li>and look for invariant observations.</li> <li>Scientists will sometimes also list the very subjective criteria of "formal elegance" which can indicate multiple different things.</li></ul> The goal here is to make the choice between theories less arbitrary. Nonetheless, these criteria contain subjective elements, and should be considered <a href="/wiki/Heuristics" class="mw-redirect" title="Heuristics">heuristics</a> rather than a definitive.<a href="#cite_note-Pars_and_El-181">[κ]</a> Also, criteria such as these do not necessarily decide between alternative theories. Quoting <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bird" title="Alexander Bird">Bird</a>:<a href="#cite_note-Bird-182">[146]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">"[Such criteria] cannot determine scientific choice. First, which features of a theory satisfy these criteria may be disputable (e.g. does simplicity concern the ontological commitments of a theory or its mathematical form?). Secondly, these criteria are imprecise, and so there is room for disagreement about the degree to which they hold. Thirdly, there can be disagreement about how they are to be weighted relative to one another, especially when they conflict."</blockquote> It also is debatable whether existing scientific theories satisfy all these criteria, which may represent goals not yet achieved. For example, explanatory power over all existing observations is satisfied by no one theory at the moment.<a href="#cite_note-Realism-183">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-Davies-184">[148]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Parsimony">Parsimony</h4></div> The <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/desiderata" class="extiw" title="wikt:desiderata">desiderata</a> of a "good" theory have been debated for centuries, going back perhaps even earlier than <a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">Occam's razor</a>,<a href="#cite_note-185">[w]</a> which is often taken as an attribute of a good theory. Science tries to be simple. When gathered data supports multiple explanations, the most simple explanation for phenomena or the most simple formation of a theory is recommended by the principle of parsimony.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGauch2003269-186">[149]</a> Scientists go as far as to call simple proofs of complex statements beautiful. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">We are to admit no more causes of natural things than such as are both true and sufficient to explain their appearances.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Isaac Newton, Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1723 [3rd ed.])<a href="#cite_note-principia-1">[1]</a></cite></div></blockquote> The concept of parsimony should not be held to imply complete frugality in the pursuit of scientific truth. The general process starts at the opposite end of there being a vast number of potential explanations and general disorder. An example can be seen in <a href="/wiki/Paul_Krugman" title="Paul Krugman">Paul Krugman</a>'s process, who makes explicit to "dare to be silly". He writes that in his work on new theories of international trade he <a href="/wiki/Literature_review" title="Literature review">reviewed prior work</a> with an open frame of mind and broadened his initial viewpoint even in unlikely directions. Once he had a sufficient body of ideas, he would try to simplify and thus find what worked among what did not. Specific to Krugman here was to "question the question". He recognised that prior work had applied erroneous models to already present evidence, commenting that "intelligent commentary was ignored".<a href="#cite_note-Krugman-187">[150]</a> Thus touching on the need to bridge the common bias against other circles of thought.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleck197927-188">[151]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Elegance">Elegance</h4></div> Occam's razor might fall under the heading of "simple elegance", but it is arguable that parsimony and elegance pull in different directions. Introducing additional elements could simplify theory formulation, whereas simplifying a theory's ontology might lead to increased syntactical complexity.<a href="#cite_note-Baker-180">[145]</a> Sometimes ad-hoc modifications of a failing idea may also be dismissed as lacking "formal elegance". This appeal to what may be called "aesthetic" is hard to characterise, but essentially about a sort of familiarity. Though, argument based on "elegance" is contentious and over-reliance on familiarity will breed stagnation.<a href="#cite_note-Colyvan-175">[142]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Invariance">Invariance</h4></div> Principles of invariance have been a theme in scientific writing, and especially physics, since at least the early 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-invariantTheme-178">[θ]</a> The basic idea here is that good structures to look for are those independent of perspective, an idea that has featured earlier of course for example in <a href="/wiki/Mill%27s_Methods" title="Mill's Methods">Mill's Methods</a> of difference and agreement—methods that would be referred back to in the context of contrast and invariance.<a href="#cite_note-O&H_1995-189">[152]</a> But as tends to be the case, there is a difference between something being a basic consideration and something being given weight. Principles of invariance have only been given weight in the wake of Einstein's theories of relativity, which reduced everything to relations and were thereby fundamentally unchangeable, unable to be varied.<a href="#cite_note-Wigner1967-190">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-WeinertEddingtonEinstein-191">[x]</a> As <a href="/wiki/David_Deutsch" title="David Deutsch">David Deutsch</a> put it in 2009: "the search for hard-to-vary explanations is the origin of all progress".<a href="#cite_note-DD_TED-177">[144]</a> An example here can be found in one of <a href="/wiki/Einstein%27s_thought_experiments#Falling_painters_and_accelerating_elevators" title="Einstein's thought experiments">Einstein's thought experiments</a>. The one of a lab suspended in empty space is an example of a useful invariant observation. He imagined the absence of gravity and an experimenter free floating in the lab. — If now an entity pulls the lab upwards, accelerating uniformly, the experimenter would perceive the resulting force as gravity. The entity however would feel the work needed to accelerate the lab continuously.<a href="#cite_note-WeinertEddingtonEinstein-191">[x]</a> Through this experiment Einstein was able to equate gravitational and inertial mass; something unexplained by Newton's laws, and an early but "powerful argument for a generalised postulate of relativity".<a href="#cite_note-Einstein1916-192">[154]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The feature, which suggests reality, is always some kind of invariance of a structure independent of the aspect, the projection.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born">Max Born</a>, ‘Physical Reality’ (1953), 149 — as quoted by Weinert (2004)<a href="#cite_note-Weinert_2004-176">[143]</a></cite></div></blockquote> The discussion on <a href="/wiki/Invariance_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Invariance (physics)">invariance</a> in physics is often had in the more specific context of <a href="/wiki/Symmetry_(physics)" title="Symmetry (physics)">symmetry</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wigner1967-190">[153]</a> The Einstein example above, in the parlance of Mill would be an agreement between two values. In the context of invariance, it is a variable that remains unchanged through some kind of transformation or change in perspective. And discussion focused on symmetry would view the two perspectives as systems that share a relevant aspect and are therefore symmetrical. Related principles here are <a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">falsifiability</a> and <a href="/wiki/Testability" title="Testability">testability</a>. The opposite of something being hard-to-vary are theories that resist falsification—a frustration that was expressed colourfully by <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli" title="Wolfgang Pauli">Wolfgang Pauli</a> as them being "<a href="/wiki/Not_even_wrong" title="Not even wrong">not even wrong</a>". The importance of scientific theories to be falsifiable finds especial emphasis in the philosophy of Karl Popper. The broader view here is testability, since it includes the former and allows for additional practical considerations.<a href="#cite_note-193">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-l921-194">[156]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophy_and_discourse">Philosophy and discourse</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Sociology of scientific knowledge</a></div> Philosophy of science looks at <a href="#polyaFirstUnderstand">the underpinning logic</a> of the scientific method, at what separates <a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">science from non-science</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Research_ethics" title="Research ethics">ethic</a> that is implicit in science. There are basic assumptions, derived from philosophy by at least one prominent scientist,<a href="#cite_note-introspection-195">[D]</a><a href="#cite_note-comprehensibility-196">[157]</a> that form the base of the scientific method – namely, that reality is objective and consistent, that humans have the capacity to perceive reality accurately, and that rational explanations exist for elements of the real world.<a href="#cite_note-comprehensibility-196">[157]</a> These assumptions from <a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">methodological naturalism</a> form a basis on which science may be grounded. <a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">falsificationist</a>, and other theories have criticized these assumptions and given alternative accounts of the logic of science, but each has also itself been criticized. There are several kinds of modern philosophical conceptualizations and attempts at definitions of the method of science.<a href="#cite_note-198">[λ]</a> The one attempted by the unificationists, who argue for the existence of a unified definition that is useful (or at least 'works' in every context of science). The pluralists, arguing degrees of science being too fractured for a universal definition of its method to by useful. And those, who argue that the very attempt at definition is already detrimental to the free flow of ideas. Additionally, there have been views on the social framework in which science is done, and the impact of the sciences social envrionment on research. Also, there is 'scientific method' as popularised by Dewey in How We Think (1910) and Karl Pearson in Grammar of Science (1892), as used in fairly uncritical manner in education. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pluralism">Pluralism</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Scientific_pluralism" title="Scientific pluralism">Scientific pluralism</a></div> Scientific pluralism is a position within the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">philosophy of science</a> that rejects various proposed <a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">unities</a> of scientific method and subject matter. Scientific pluralists hold that science is not unified in one or more of the following ways: the <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a> of its subject matter, the <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a> of scientific knowledge, or the <a href="/wiki/Research_methods" class="mw-redirect" title="Research methods">research methods</a> and models that should be used. Some pluralists believe that pluralism is necessary due to the nature of science. Others say that since <a href="/wiki/Scientific_discipline" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific discipline">scientific disciplines</a> already vary in practice, there is no reason to believe this variation is wrong until a specific unification is <a href="/wiki/Empirically" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirically">empirically</a> proven. Finally, some hold that pluralism should be allowed for <a href="/wiki/Normative" class="mw-redirect" title="Normative">normative</a> reasons, even if unity were possible in theory. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Unificationism">Unificationism</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></div> Unificationism, in science, was a central tenet of <a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">logical positivism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Neurath†_Bonk_2011-199">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-McGill_1937-200">[160]</a> Different logical positivists construed this doctrine in several different ways, e.g. as a <a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">reductionist</a> thesis, that the objects investigated by the <a href="/wiki/Special_sciences" title="Special sciences">special sciences</a> reduce to the objects of a common, putatively more basic domain of science, usually thought to be physics; as the thesis that all theories and results of the various sciences can or ought to be expressed in a common language or "universal slang"; or as the thesis that all the special sciences share a common scientific method.<a href="#cite_note-unifiedMethod-202">[y]</a> Development of the idea has been troubled by accelerated advancement in technology that has opened up many new ways to look at the world. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The fact that the standards of scientific success shift with time does not only make the philosophy of science difficult; it also raises problems for the public understanding of science. We do not have a fixed scientific method to rally around and defend.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Steven_Weinberg" title="Steven Weinberg">Steven Weinberg</a>, 1995<a href="#cite_note-Weinberg_1995-197">[158]</a></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Epistemological_anarchism">Epistemological anarchism</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological anarchism">Epistemological anarchism</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a> examined the history of science, and was led to deny that science is genuinely a methodological process. In his book <a href="/wiki/Against_Method" title="Against Method">Against Method</a> he argued that no description of scientific method <a href="#critiquesOfFeyerabend">could possibly be broad enough</a> to include all the approaches and methods used by scientists, and that there are no useful and exception-free <a href="/wiki/Methodology" title="Methodology">methodological rules</a> governing the progress of science. In essence, he said that for any specific method or norm of science, one can find a historic episode where violating it has contributed to the progress of science. He jokingly suggested that, if believers in the scientific method wish to express a single universally valid rule, it should be '<a href="#theTermSci">anything goes</a>'.<a href="#cite_note-203">[162]</a> As has been argued before him however, this is uneconomic; <a href="/wiki/Problem_solving" title="Problem solving">problem solvers</a>, and researchers are to be prudent with their resources during their inquiry.<a href="#cite_note-FRL-1.136-205">[E]</a> A more general inference against formalised method has been found through research involving interviews with scientists regarding their conception of method. This research indicated that scientists frequently encounter difficulty in determining whether the available evidence supports their hypotheses. This reveals that there are no straightforward mappings between overarching methodological concepts and precise strategies to direct the conduct of research.<a href="#cite_note-Schickore_Hangel_2019-206">[164]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Philosophy of education</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scientific_literacy" title="Scientific literacy">Scientific literacy</a></div> In <a href="/wiki/Science_education" title="Science education">science education</a>, the idea of a general and universal scientific method has been notably influential, and numerous studies (in the US) have shown that this framing of method often forms part of both students’ and teachers’ conception of science.<a href="#cite_note-Aikenhead_1987_pp._459–487-207">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-Osborne_Simon_Collins_2003_pp._1049–1079-208">[166]</a> This convention of traditional education has been argued against by scientists, as there is a consensus that educations' sequential elements and unified view of scientific method do not reflect how scientists actually work.<a href="#cite_note-Bauer_1992_p.-209">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-McComas_1996_pp._10–16-210">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wivagg_2002_pp._645–646-211">[169]</a> Major organizations of scientists such as the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) consider the sciences to be a part of the liberal arts traditions of learning and proper understating of science includes understanding of philosophy and history, not just science in isolation.<a href="#cite_note-212">[170]</a> How the sciences make knowledge has been taught in the context of "the" scientific method (singular) since the early 20th century. Various systems of education, including but not limited to the US, have taught the method of science as a process or procedure, structured as a definitive series of steps:<a href="#cite_note-216">[174]</a> observation, hypothesis, prediction, experiment. This version of the method of science has been a long-established standard in primary and secondary education, as well as the biomedical sciences.<a href="#cite_note-218">[176]</a> It has long been held to be an inaccurate idealisation of how some scientific inquiries are structured.<a href="#cite_note-Rudolph2005-213">[171]</a> The taught presentation of science had to defend demerits such as:<a href="#cite_note-Emden2021-219">[177]</a> <ul><li>it pays no regard to the social context of science,</li> <li>it suggests a singular methodology of deriving knowledge,</li> <li>it overemphasises experimentation,</li> <li>it oversimplifies science, giving the impression that following a scientific process automatically leads to knowledge,</li> <li>it gives the illusion of determination; that questions necessarily lead to some kind of answers and answers are preceded by (specific) questions,</li> <li>and, it holds that scientific theories arise from observed phenomena only.<a href="#cite_note-BrownKumar2013-220">[178]</a></li></ul> The scientific method no longer features in the standards for US education of 2013 (<a href="/wiki/Next_Generation_Science_Standards" title="Next Generation Science Standards">NGSS</a>) that replaced those of 1996 (<a href="/wiki/National_Science_Education_Standards" title="National Science Education Standards">NRC</a>). They, too, influenced international science education,<a href="#cite_note-Emden2021-219">[177]</a> and the standards measured for have shifted since from the singular hypothesis-testing method to a broader conception of scientific methods.<a href="#cite_note-IoannidouErduran2021-221">[179]</a> These scientific methods, which are rooted in scientific practices and not epistemology, are described as the 3 dimensions of scientific and engineering practices, crosscutting concepts (interdisciplinary ideas), and disciplinary core ideas.<a href="#cite_note-Emden2021-219">[177]</a> The scientific method, as a result of simplified and universal explanations, is often held to have reached a kind of mythological status; as a tool for communication or, at best, an idealisation.<a href="#cite_note-Thurs2015-47">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-McComas_1996_pp._10–16-210">[168]</a> Education's approach was heavily influenced by John Dewey's, <a href="/wiki/How_We_Think" title="How We Think">How We Think</a> (1910).<a href="#cite_note-cowles-41">[31]</a> Van der Ploeg (2016) indicated that Dewey's views on education had long been used to further an idea of citizen education removed from "sound education", claiming that references to Dewey in such arguments were undue interpretations (of Dewey).<a href="#cite_note-van_der_Ploeg_2016_pp._145–159-222">[180]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sociology_of_knowledge">Sociology of knowledge</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Sociology of scientific knowledge</a></div> The sociology of knowledge is a concept in the discussion around scientific method, claiming the underlying method of science to be sociological. King explains that sociology distinguishes here between the system of ideas that govern the sciences through an inner logic, and the social system in which those ideas arise.<a href="#cite_note-225">[μ]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tanqih-20">[i]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Thought_collectives">Thought collectives</h4></div> A perhaps accessible lead into what is claimed is <a href="/wiki/Ludwik_Fleck" title="Ludwik Fleck">Fleck's</a> thought, echoed in <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Kuhn's</a> concept of <a href="/wiki/Normal_science" title="Normal science">normal science</a>. According to Fleck, scientists' work is based on a thought-style, that cannot be rationally reconstructed. It gets instilled through the experience of learning, and science is then advanced based on a tradition of shared assumptions held by what he called <a href="/wiki/Thought_collective" title="Thought collective">thought collectives</a>. Fleck also claims this phenomenon to be largely invisible to members of the group.<a href="#cite_note-Fleck_comp_w/Kuhn-227">[184]</a> Comparably, following the <a href="/wiki/Field_research" title="Field research">field research</a> in an academic scientific laboratory by <a href="/wiki/Bruno_Latour" title="Bruno Latour">Latour</a> and <a href="/wiki/Steve_Woolgar" title="Steve Woolgar">Woolgar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karin_Knorr_Cetina" title="Karin Knorr Cetina">Karin Knorr Cetina</a> has conducted a comparative study of two scientific fields (namely <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">high energy physics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a>) to conclude that the epistemic practices and reasonings within both scientific communities are different enough to introduce the concept of "<a href="/wiki/Epistemic_cultures" title="Epistemic cultures">epistemic cultures</a>", in contradiction with the idea that a so-called "scientific method" is unique and a unifying concept.<a href="#cite_note-228">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-232">[z]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Situated_cognition_and_relativism">Situated cognition and relativism</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Postpositivism" title="Postpositivism">Postpositivism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></div> On the idea of Fleck's thought collectives sociologists built the concept of <a href="/wiki/Situated_cognition" title="Situated cognition">situated cognition</a>: that the perspective of the researcher fundamentally affects their work; and, too, more radical views. <a href="/wiki/Norwood_Russell_Hanson" title="Norwood Russell Hanson">Norwood Russell Hanson</a>, alongside <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a>, extensively explored the theory-laden nature of observation in science. Hanson introduced the concept in 1958, emphasizing that observation is influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Situated_cognition" title="Situated cognition">observer's conceptual framework</a>. He used the concept of <a href="/wiki/Gestalt_psychology" title="Gestalt psychology">gestalt</a> to show how preconceptions can affect both observation and description, and illustrated this with examples like the initial rejection of <a href="/wiki/Golgi_apparatus" title="Golgi apparatus">Golgi bodies</a> as an artefact of staining technique, and the differing interpretations of the same sunrise by Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler. <a href="/wiki/Intersubjectivity" title="Intersubjectivity">Intersubjectivity</a> led to different conclusions.<a href="#cite_note-Hanson1958-131">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kepler1604-31">[d]</a> Kuhn and Feyerabend acknowledged Hanson's pioneering work,<a href="#cite_note-233">[189]</a><a href="#cite_note-234">[190]</a> although Feyerabend's views on methodological pluralism were more radical. Criticisms like those from Kuhn and Feyerabend prompted discussions leading to the development of the <a href="/wiki/Strong_programme" title="Strong programme">strong programme</a>, a sociological approach that seeks to explain scientific knowledge without recourse to the truth or validity of scientific theories. It examines how scientific beliefs are shaped by social factors such as power, ideology, and interests. The <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">postmodernist</a> critiques of science have themselves been the subject of intense controversy. This ongoing debate, known as the <a href="/wiki/Science_wars" title="Science wars">science wars</a>, is the result of conflicting values and assumptions between <a href="/wiki/Postmodernist" class="mw-redirect" title="Postmodernist">postmodernist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">realist</a> perspectives. Postmodernists argue that scientific knowledge is merely a discourse, devoid of any claim to fundamental truth. In contrast, realists within the scientific community maintain that science uncovers real and fundamental truths about reality. Many books have been written by scientists which take on this problem and challenge the assertions of the postmodernists while defending science as a legitimate way of deriving truth.<a href="#cite_note-235">[191]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Limits_of_method">Limits of method</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Role_of_chance_in_discovery">Role of chance in discovery</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Role_of_chance_in_scientific_discoveries" title="Role of chance in scientific discoveries">Role of chance in scientific discoveries</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sample_of_penicillin_mould_presented_by_Alexander_Fleming_to_Douglas_Macleod,_1935_(9672239344).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Sample_of_penicillin_mould_presented_by_Alexander_Fleming_to_Douglas_Macleod%2C_1935_%289672239344%29.jpg/220px-Sample_of_penicillin_mould_presented_by_Alexander_Fleming_to_Douglas_Macleod%2C_1935_%289672239344%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Sample_of_penicillin_mould_presented_by_Alexander_Fleming_to_Douglas_Macleod%2C_1935_%289672239344%29.jpg/330px-Sample_of_penicillin_mould_presented_by_Alexander_Fleming_to_Douglas_Macleod%2C_1935_%289672239344%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Sample_of_penicillin_mould_presented_by_Alexander_Fleming_to_Douglas_Macleod%2C_1935_%289672239344%29.jpg/440px-Sample_of_penicillin_mould_presented_by_Alexander_Fleming_to_Douglas_Macleod%2C_1935_%289672239344%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4684" data-file-height="3796" /></a><figcaption>A famous example of discovery being stumbled upon was Alexander Fleming's <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Fleming#Discovery_of_penicillin" title="Alexander Fleming">discovery of penicillin</a>. One of his bacteria cultures got contaminated with mould in which surroundings the bacteria had died off; thereby the method of discovery was simply knowing what to look out for.<a href="#cite_note-Tan_&_Tatsumura_2015-236">[192]</a></figcaption></figure> Somewhere between 33% and 50% of all <a href="/wiki/Scientific_discovery" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific discovery">scientific discoveries</a> are estimated to have been stumbled upon, rather than sought out. This may explain why scientists so often express that they were lucky.<a href="#cite_note-DunbarLuck-9">[9]</a> Scientists themselves in the 19th and 20th century acknowledged the role of fortunate luck or serendipity in discoveries.<a href="#cite_note-Serendip-10">[10]</a> <a href="/wiki/Louis_Pasteur" title="Louis Pasteur">Louis Pasteur</a> is credited with the famous saying that "Luck favours the prepared mind", but some psychologists have begun to study what it means to be 'prepared for luck' in the scientific context. Research is showing that scientists are taught various heuristics that tend to harness chance and the unexpected.<a href="#cite_note-DunbarLuck-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Oliver,_J.E._1991-237">[193]</a> This is what <a href="/wiki/Nassim_Nicholas_Taleb" title="Nassim Nicholas Taleb">Nassim Nicholas Taleb</a> calls "Anti-fragility"; while some systems of investigation are fragile in the face of <a href="/wiki/Human_error" title="Human error">human error</a>, human bias, and randomness, the scientific method is more than resistant or tough – it actually benefits from such randomness in many ways (it is anti-fragile). Taleb believes that the more anti-fragile the system, the more it will flourish in the real world.<a href="#cite_note-Anti-fragility-238">[194]</a> Psychologist Kevin Dunbar says the process of discovery often starts with researchers finding bugs in their experiments. These unexpected results lead researchers to try to fix what they think is an error in their method. Eventually, the researcher decides the error is too persistent and systematic to be a coincidence. The highly controlled, cautious, and curious aspects of the scientific method are thus what make it well suited for identifying such persistent systematic errors. At this point, the researcher will begin to think of theoretical explanations for the error, often seeking the help of colleagues across different domains of expertise.<a href="#cite_note-DunbarLuck-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Oliver,_J.E._1991-237">[193]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relationship_with_statistics">Relationship with statistics</h3></div> When the scientific method employs statistics as a key part of its arsenal, there are mathematical and practical issues that can have a deleterious effect on the reliability of the output of scientific methods. This is described in a popular 2005 scientific paper "<a href="/wiki/Why_Most_Published_Research_Findings_Are_False" title="Why Most Published Research Findings Are False">Why Most Published Research Findings Are False</a>" by <a href="/wiki/John_Ioannidis" title="John Ioannidis">John Ioannidis</a>, which is considered foundational to the field of <a href="/wiki/Metascience" title="Metascience">metascience</a>.<a href="#cite_note-mostRwrong-159">[128]</a> Much research in metascience seeks to identify poor use of statistics and improve its use, an example being the <a href="/wiki/Misuse_of_p-values" title="Misuse of p-values">misuse of p-values</a>.<a href="#cite_note-239">[195]</a> The particular points raised are statistical ("The smaller the studies conducted in a scientific field, the less likely the research findings are to be true" and "The greater the flexibility in designs, definitions, outcomes, and analytical modes in a scientific field, the less likely the research findings are to be true.") and economical ("The greater the financial and other interests and prejudices in a scientific field, the less likely the research findings are to be true" and "The hotter a scientific field (with more scientific teams involved), the less likely the research findings are to be true.") Hence: "Most research findings are false for most research designs and for most fields" and "As shown, the majority of modern biomedical research is operating in areas with very low pre- and poststudy probability for true findings." However: "Nevertheless, most new discoveries will continue to stem from hypothesis-generating research with low or very low pre-study odds," which means that *new* discoveries will come from research that, when that research started, had low or very low odds (a low or very low chance) of succeeding. Hence, if the scientific method is used to expand the frontiers of knowledge, research into areas that are outside the mainstream will yield the newest discoveries.<a href="#cite_note-mostRwrong-159">[128]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Basic_copyediting" title="Wikipedia:Basic copyediting">needs copy edit</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Science_of_complex_systems">Science of complex systems</h3></div> Science applied to complex systems can involve elements such as <a href="/wiki/Transdisciplinarity" title="Transdisciplinarity">transdisciplinarity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Systems_theory" title="Systems theory">systems theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Control_theory#Open-loop_and_closed-loop_(feedback)_control" title="Control theory">control theory</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Scientific_modelling" title="Scientific modelling">scientific modelling</a>. In general, the scientific method may be difficult to apply stringently to diverse, interconnected systems and large data sets. In particular, practices used within <a href="/wiki/Big_data" title="Big data">Big data</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Predictive_analytics" title="Predictive analytics">predictive analytics</a>, may be considered to be at odds with the scientific method,<a href="#cite_note-240">[196]</a> as some of the data may have been stripped of the parameters which might be material in alternative hypotheses for an explanation; thus the stripped data would only serve to support the <a href="/wiki/Null_hypothesis" title="Null hypothesis">null hypothesis</a> in the predictive analytics application. <a href="#CITEREFFleck1979">Fleck (1979)</a>, pp. 38–50 notes "a <a href="#startWithBugs">scientific discovery remains incomplete without considerations of the social practices</a> that condition it".<a href="#cite_note-bigDataCanBeIncomplete-241">[197]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relationship_with_mathematics">Relationship with mathematics</h2></div> Science is the process of gathering, comparing, and evaluating proposed models against <a href="/wiki/Observable" title="Observable">observables</a>. A model can be a simulation, mathematical or chemical formula, or set of proposed steps. Science is like mathematics in that researchers in both disciplines try to distinguish what is known from what is unknown at each stage of discovery. Models, in both science and mathematics, need to be internally consistent and also ought to be <a href="/wiki/Falsifiable" class="mw-redirect" title="Falsifiable">falsifiable</a> (capable of disproof). In mathematics, a statement need not yet be proved; at such a stage, that statement would be called a <a href="/wiki/Conjecture" title="Conjecture">conjecture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-242">[198]</a> Mathematical work and scientific work can inspire each other.<a href="#cite_note-ilSaggiatore-53">[40]</a> For example, the technical concept of <a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">time</a> arose in <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a>, and timelessness was a hallmark of a mathematical topic. But today, the <a href="/wiki/Poincar%C3%A9_conjecture" title="Poincaré conjecture">Poincaré conjecture</a> has been proved using time as a mathematical concept in which objects can flow (see <a href="/wiki/Ricci_flow" title="Ricci flow">Ricci flow</a>).<a href="#cite_note-243">[199]</a> Nevertheless, the connection between mathematics and reality (and so science to the extent it describes reality) remains obscure. <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Eugene Wigner</a>'s paper, "<a href="/wiki/The_Unreasonable_Effectiveness_of_Mathematics_in_the_Natural_Sciences" title="The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences">The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences</a>", is a very well-known account of the issue from a Nobel Prize-winning physicist. In fact, some observers (including some well-known mathematicians such as <a href="/wiki/Gregory_Chaitin" title="Gregory Chaitin">Gregory Chaitin</a>, and others such as <a href="/wiki/Where_Mathematics_Comes_From" title="Where Mathematics Comes From">Lakoff and Núñez</a>) have suggested that mathematics is the result of practitioner bias and human limitation (including cultural ones), somewhat like the post-modernist view of science.<a href="#cite_note-WMCF-244">[200]</a> <a href="/wiki/George_P%C3%B3lya" title="George Pólya">George Pólya</a>'s work on <a href="/wiki/Problem_solving" title="Problem solving">problem solving</a>,<a href="#cite_note-findIt-245">[201]</a> the construction of mathematical <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_proof" title="Mathematical proof">proofs</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Heuristic" title="Heuristic">heuristic</a><a href="#cite_note-246">[202]</a><a href="#cite_note-247">[203]</a> show that the mathematical method and the scientific method differ in detail, while nevertheless resembling each other in using iterative or recursive steps. <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td> </td> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/How_to_Solve_It" title="How to Solve It">Mathematical method</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="#Elements_of_the_scientific_method">Scientific method</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">1 </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Understanding" title="Understanding">Understanding</a> </td> <td><a href="#Characterizations">Characterization from experience and observation</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">2 </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Analysis" title="Analysis">Analysis</a> </td> <td><a href="#Hypothesis_development">Hypothesis: a proposed explanation</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">3 </th> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/synthesis" class="extiw" title="wikt:synthesis">Synthesis</a> </td> <td><a href="#Predictions_from_the_hypothesis">Deduction: prediction from the hypothesis</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">4 </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Review" title="Review">Review</a>/<a href="/wiki/Generalization" title="Generalization">Extend</a> </td> <td><a href="#Experiments">Test and experiment</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> In Pólya's view, understanding involves restating unfamiliar definitions in your own words, resorting to geometrical figures, and questioning what we know and do not know already; analysis, which Pólya takes from <a href="/wiki/Pappus_of_Alexandria" title="Pappus of Alexandria">Pappus</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPólya1957142-248">[204]</a> involves free and heuristic construction of plausible arguments, <a href="/wiki/Working_backward_from_the_goal" class="mw-redirect" title="Working backward from the goal">working backward from the goal</a>, and devising a plan for constructing the proof; synthesis is the strict <a href="/wiki/Euclid" title="Euclid">Euclidean</a> exposition of step-by-step details<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPólya1957144-249">[205]</a> of the proof; review involves reconsidering and re-examining the result and the path taken to it. Building on Pólya's work, <a href="/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos">Imre Lakatos</a> argued that mathematicians actually use contradiction, criticism, and revision as principles for improving their work.<a href="#cite_note-250">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-stillwell'sReviewOfGray'sBioOfPoincaré-251">[ν]</a> In like manner to science, where truth is sought, but certainty is not found, in <a href="/wiki/Proofs_and_Refutations" title="Proofs and Refutations">Proofs and Refutations</a>, what Lakatos tried to establish was that no theorem of <a href="/wiki/Informal_mathematics" title="Informal mathematics">informal mathematics</a> is final or perfect. This means that, in non-axiomatic mathematics, we should not think that a theorem is ultimately true, only that no <a href="/wiki/Counterexample" title="Counterexample">counterexample</a> has yet been found. Once a counterexample, i.e. an entity contradicting/not explained by the theorem is found, we adjust the theorem, possibly extending the domain of its validity. This is a continuous way our knowledge accumulates, through the logic and process of proofs and refutations. (However, if axioms are given for a branch of mathematics, this creates a logical system —Wittgenstein 1921 Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus 5.13; Lakatos claimed that proofs from such a system were <a href="/wiki/Tautology_(logic)" title="Tautology (logic)">tautological</a>, i.e. <a href="/wiki/Logical_truth" title="Logical truth">internally logically true</a>, by <a href="/wiki/String_rewriting_system" class="mw-redirect" title="String rewriting system">rewriting forms</a>, as shown by Poincaré, who demonstrated the technique of transforming tautologically true forms (viz. the <a href="/wiki/Euler_characteristic" title="Euler characteristic">Euler characteristic</a>) into or out of forms from <a href="/wiki/Homology_(mathematics)" title="Homology (mathematics)">homology</a>,<a href="#cite_note-eulerPoincaré-252">[207]</a> or more abstractly, from <a href="/wiki/Homological_algebra" title="Homological algebra">homological algebra</a>.<a href="#cite_note-253">[208]</a><a href="#cite_note-254">[209]</a><a href="#cite_note-stillwell'sReviewOfGray'sBioOfPoincaré-251">[ν]</a> Lakatos proposed an account of mathematical knowledge based on Polya's idea of <a href="/wiki/Heuristic" title="Heuristic">heuristics</a>. In Proofs and Refutations, Lakatos gave several basic rules for finding proofs and counterexamples to conjectures. He thought that mathematical '<a href="/wiki/Thought_experiment" title="Thought experiment">thought experiments</a>' are a valid way to discover mathematical conjectures and proofs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELakatos197655-256">[211]</a> <a href="/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss">Gauss</a>, when asked how he came about his <a href="/wiki/Theorem" title="Theorem">theorems</a>, once replied "durch planmässiges Tattonieren" (through <a href="/wiki/Constructivism_(mathematics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivism (mathematics)">systematic palpable experimentation</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackay1991100-257">[212]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empirical_limits_in_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical limits in science">Empirical limits in science</a> – Idea that knowledge comes only/mainly from sensory experiencePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_practices" class="mw-redirect" title="Evidence-based practices">Evidence-based practices</a> – Pragmatic methodologyPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodology" title="Methodology">Methodology</a> – Study of research methods</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metascience" title="Metascience">Metascience</a> – Scientific study of science</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_scientific_method" title="Outline of scientific method">Outline of scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">Quantitative research</a> – All procedures for the numerical representation of empirical facts</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_transparency" title="Research transparency">Research transparency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law">Scientific law</a> – Statement based on repeated empirical observations that describes some natural phenomenon</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testability" title="Testability">Testability</a> – Extent to which truthness or falseness of a hypothesis/declaration can be tested</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-alpha" style="column-width: 33em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-alhacenCharacterizes-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-alhacenCharacterizes_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-alhacenCharacterizes_15-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Optics" title="Book of Optics">Book of Optics</a> (circa 1027) After anatomical investigation of the human eye, and an exhaustive study of human visual perception, Alhacen characterizes the first postulate of <a href="/wiki/Euclid%27s_Optics" title="Euclid's Optics">Euclid's Optics</a> as 'superfluous and useless' (Book I, [6.54] —thereby overturning Euclid's, Ptolemy's, and Galen's <a href="/wiki/Emission_theory_(vision)" title="Emission theory (vision)">emission theory of vision, using logic and deduction from experiment. He showed Euclid's first postulate of Optics to be hypothetical only, and fails to account for his experiments.</a>), and deduces that light must enter the eye, in order for us to see. He describes the <a href="/wiki/Camera_obscura" title="Camera obscura">camera obscura</a> as part of this investigation. </li> <li id="cite_note-straightLinesOnly-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-straightLinesOnly_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-straightLinesOnly_16-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Optics" title="Book of Optics">Book of Optics</a> Book Seven, Chapter Two [2.1] p.220: — light travels through transparent bodies, such as air, water, glass, transparent stones, in straight lines. "Indeed, this is observable by means of experiment".<a href="#cite_note-smith2010-113">[92]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> The full title translation is from <a href="#CITEREFVoelkel2001">Voelkel (2001)</a>, p. 60. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kepler1604-31">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kepler1604_31-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kepler1604_31-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kepler1604_31-2">c</a> Kepler was driven to this experiment after observing the partial solar eclipse at Graz, July 10, 1600. He used Tycho Brahe's method of observation, which was to project the image of the Sun on a piece of paper through a pinhole aperture, instead of looking directly at the Sun. He disagreed with Brahe's conclusion that total eclipses of the Sun were impossible because there were historical accounts of total eclipses. Instead, he deduced that the size of the aperture controls the sharpness of the projected image (the larger the aperture, the more accurate the image – this fact is now fundamental for optical system design). <a href="#CITEREFVoelkel2001">Voelkel (2001)</a>, p. 61, notes that Kepler's 1604 experiments produced the first correct account of vision and the eye, because he realized he could not accurately write about astronomical observation by ignoring the eye. <a href="#CITEREFSmith2004">Smith (2004)</a>, p. 192 recounts how Kepler used Giambattista della Porta's water-filled glass spheres to model the eye, and using an aperture to represent the entrance pupil of the eye, showed that the entire scene at the entrance pupil-focused on a single point of the rear of the glass sphere (representing the retina of the eye). This completed Kepler's investigation of the optical train, as it satisfied his application to astronomy. </li> <li id="cite_note-particDev-37"><a href="#cite_ref-particDev_37-0">^</a> Sanches and Locke were both physicians. By his training in Rome and France, Sanches sought a method of science beyond that of the Scholastic Aristotelian school. Botanical gardens were added to the universities in Sanches' time to aid medical training before the 1600s. See Locke <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/John_Locke#An_Essay_Concerning_Human_Understanding_(1689)">(1689) An Essay Concerning Human Understanding</a> Berkeley served as foil to the materialist System of the World of Newton; Berkeley emphasizes that scientist should seek 'reduction to regularity'.<a href="#cite_note-idealism-35">[26]</a> Atherton (ed.) 1999 selects Locke, Berkeley, and Hume as part of the empiricist school.<a href="#cite_note-36">[27]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-deweySchool-42"><a href="#cite_ref-deweySchool_42-0">^</a> On Dewey's Laboratory school in 1902: Cowles 2020 notes that Dewey regarded the Lab school as a collaboration between teachers and students. The five-step exposition was taken as mandatory, rather than descriptive. Dismayed by the Procrustean interpretation, Dewey attempted to tone down his five-step scheme by re-naming the steps to phases. The edit was ignored. </li> <li id="cite_note-unification-56"><a href="#cite_ref-unification_56-0">^</a> The topics of study, as expressed in the vocabulary of its scientists, are approached by a "single unified method".<a href="#cite_note-cowles-41">[31]</a>: pp.8, 13, 33–35, 60  The topics are <a href="/wiki/Unification_(computer_science)" title="Unification (computer science)">unified</a> by its predicates, in a system of expressions. The unification process was formalized by <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Herbrand" title="Jacques Herbrand">Jacques Herbrand</a> in 1930.<a href="#cite_note-herbrand-55">[42]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-descartes-68"><a href="#cite_ref-descartes_68-0">^</a> "no opinion, however absurd and incredible, can be imagined, which has not been maintained by some of the philosophers". —Descartes<a href="#cite_note-discourseOnMethod-67">[52]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-leapIsInvolved-79"><a href="#cite_ref-leapIsInvolved_79-0">^</a> "A leap is involved in all thinking" —John Dewey<a href="#cite_note-78">[62]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> From the hypothesis, deduce valid forms using <a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning#Modus_ponens" title="Deductive reasoning">modus ponens</a>, or using <a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning#Modus_tollens" title="Deductive reasoning">modus tollens</a>. Avoid invalid forms such as <a href="/wiki/Affirming_the_consequent" title="Affirming the consequent">affirming the consequent</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-nextItemToSettle-98"><a href="#cite_ref-nextItemToSettle_98-0">^</a> The goal shifts: after observing the x-ray diffraction pattern of DNA,<a href="#cite_note-TeaTime-93">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-photo51Explained-92">[74]</a> and as time was of the essence,<a href="#cite_note-econ-95">[77]</a> Watson and Crick realize that fastest way to discover DNA's structure was not by mathematical analysis,<a href="#cite_note-reasonsFirstRule-96">[78]</a> but by <a href="#DNA-iterations">building physical models</a>.<a href="#cite_note-SameShape-97">[79]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Optics" title="Book of Optics">Book of Optics</a> Book II [3.52] to [3.66] Summary p.444 for Alhazen's experiments on color; pp.343—394 for his physiological experiments on the eye<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2001b-111">[91]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-crepusculis-120"><a href="#cite_ref-crepusculis_120-0">^</a> The Sun's rays are still visible at <a href="/wiki/Twilight" title="Twilight">twilight</a> in the morning and evening due to atmospheric refraction even when the depression angle of the sun is 18° below the horizon.<a href="#cite_note-brGoldstein-119">[98]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> In Two New Sciences, there are three 'reviewers': Simplicio, Sagredo, and Salviati, who serve as foil, antagonist, and protagonist. Galileo speaks for himself only briefly. But Einstein's 1905 papers were not peer-reviewed before their publication. </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> "What one does not in the least doubt one should not pretend to doubt; but a man should train himself to doubt," said Peirce in a brief intellectual autobiography.<a href="#cite_note-136">[112]</a> Peirce held that actual, genuine doubt originates externally, usually in surprise, but also that it is to be sought and cultivated, "provided only that it be the weighty and noble metal itself, and no counterfeit nor paper substitute".<a href="#cite_note-137">[113]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> The philosophy of knowledge arising through observation is also called <a href="/wiki/Inductivism" title="Inductivism">inductivism</a>. A radical proponent of this approach to knowledge was <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a> who took all knowledge – even mathematical knowledge – to arise from experience through induction. The inductivist approach is still common place, though Mill's extreme views are outdated today.<a href="#cite_note-Psillos_2013-150">[124]</a>: 35  </li> <li id="cite_note-Astronomy101-153"><a href="#cite_ref-Astronomy101_153-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Hipparchus" title="Hipparchus">Hipparchus</a> used his own observations of the stars, as well as the observations by Chaldean and Babylonian astronomers to estimate Earth's precession.<a href="#cite_note-astron101-152">[125]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-keplerNewton-155">^ <a href="#cite_ref-keplerNewton_155-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-keplerNewton_155-1">b</a> Isaac Newton (1727) <a href="/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica#Book_3,_De_mundi_systemate" title="Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica">On the System of the World</a> condensed Kepler's law of for the planetary motion of Mars, Galileo's law of falling bodies, the motion of the planets of the Solar system, etc. into consequences of his three laws of motion.<a href="#cite_note-systOfWorld-154">[126]</a> See Motte's translation (<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Mathematical_Principles_of_Natural_Philosophy_(1846)/The_System_of_the_World">1846</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-LeVerrier1859-156"><a href="#cite_ref-LeVerrier1859_156-0">^</a> The difference is approximately 43 arc-seconds per century. And the precession of Mercury's orbit is cited in <a href="/wiki/Tests_of_general_relativity" title="Tests of general relativity">Tests of general relativity</a>: U. Le Verrier (1859), (in French), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/comptesrendusheb49acad#page/378/mode/2up">"Lettre de M. Le Verrier à M. Faye sur la théorie de Mercure et sur le mouvement du périhélie de cette planète"</a>, Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences (Paris), vol. 49 (1859), pp.379–383. </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> ...simplified and (post-modern) philosophy notwithstanding.<a href="#CITEREFGauch_Jr2002">Gauch Jr (2002)</a>, p. 33 </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> ... and <a href="/wiki/John_Ioannidis" title="John Ioannidis">John Ioannidis</a>, in 2005,<a href="#cite_note-mostRwrong-159">[128]</a> has shown that not everybody respects the principles of statistical analysis; whether they be the principles of inference or otherwise.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For broader coverage of this topic, see <a href="#Relationship_with_statistics">§ Relationship with statistics</a>.</div> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> For instance, extrapolating from a single scientific observation, such as "This experiment yielded these results, so it should apply broadly," exemplifies inductive wishful thinking. <a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning#statistical_generalization" title="Inductive reasoning">Statistical generalisation</a> is a form of inductive reasoning. Conversely, assuming that a specific outcome will occur based on general trends observed across multiple experiments, as in "Most experiments have shown this pattern, so it will likely occur in this case as well," illustrates faulty <a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning#Probability_logic" title="Deductive reasoning">deductive probability logic</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> Occam's razor, sometimes referred to as "ontological parsimony", is roughly stated as: Given a choice between two theories, the simplest is the best. This suggestion commonly is attributed to William of Ockham in the 14th-century, although it probably predates him.<a href="#cite_note-Baker-180">[145]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-WeinertEddingtonEinstein-191">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WeinertEddingtonEinstein_191-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WeinertEddingtonEinstein_191-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Eddington" title="Arthur Eddington">Arthur Eddington</a>, 1920: "The relativity theory of physics reduces everything to relations; that is to say, it is structure, not material, which counts." — Weinert, giving the Einstein example and quoting: "Eddington, Space, Time and Gravitation (1920), 197"<a href="#cite_note-Weinert_2004-176">[143]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-unifiedMethod-202"><a href="#cite_ref-unifiedMethod_202-0">^</a> The topics of study, as expressed in the vocabulary of its scientists, are approached by a "single unified method".<a href="#cite_note-cowles-41">[31]</a>: pp.8, 13, 33–35, 60  A topic is <a href="/wiki/Unification_of_theories_in_physics" title="Unification of theories in physics">unified</a> by its <a href="/wiki/Predicate_variable" title="Predicate variable">predicates</a>, which describe a <a href="/wiki/System" title="System">system</a> of mathematical <a href="/wiki/Expression_(mathematics)" title="Expression (mathematics)">expressions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Knight1989-201">[161]</a>: 93–94, 113–117  The values which a <a href="/wiki/Predicate_(mathematical_logic)" title="Predicate (mathematical logic)">predicate</a> might take, then serve as <a href="/wiki/Witness_(mathematics)" title="Witness (mathematics)">witness</a> to the validity of a predicated expression (that is, true or false; 'predicted but not yet observed'; 'corroborates', etc.). </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a> Comparing 'epistemic cultures' with Fleck 1935, <a href="/wiki/Thought_collective" title="Thought collective">Thought collectives</a>, (denkkollektiven): Entstehung und Entwicklung einer wissenschaftlichen Tatsache: Einfǖhrung in die Lehre vom Denkstil und Denkkollektiv<a href="#cite_note-229">[186]</a> <a href="#CITEREFFleck1979">Fleck (1979)</a>, p. xxvii recognizes that <a href="#genesisOfScientificFact">facts have lifetimes</a>, flourishing only after incubation periods. His selected question for investigation (1934) was "<a href="/wiki/Thought_collective#predicateIsNotStatement" title="Thought collective">HOW, THEN, DID THIS EMPIRICAL FACT ORIGINATE</a> AND IN WHAT DOES IT CONSIST?".<a href="#cite_note-230">[187]</a> But by <a href="#genesisOfScientificFact">Fleck 1979, p.27</a>, the thought collectives within the respective fields will have to settle on common specialized terminology, publish their results and further intercommunicate with their colleagues using the common terminology, in order to progress.<a href="#cite_note-231">[188]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_revolution" title="Cognitive revolution">Cognitive revolution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Perceptual_control_theory#The_methodology_of_modeling,_and_PCT_as_model" title="Perceptual control theory">Perceptual control theory § The methodology of modeling, and PCT as model</a></div> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes:_Problem-solving_via_scientific_method">Notes: Problem-solving via scientific method</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-upper-alpha" style="column-width: 33em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-vacuum-14"><a href="#cite_ref-vacuum_14-0">^</a> Twenty-three hundred years ago, Aristotle proposed that a <a href="/wiki/Vacuum" title="Vacuum">vacuum</a> did not exist in nature; thirteen hundred years later, <a href="#alhazen">Alhazen disproved Aristotle's hypothesis</a>, using experiments on <a href="/wiki/Refraction" title="Refraction">refraction</a>,<a href="#cite_note-treatiseOnLight2-12">[12]</a> thus deducing the existence of <a href="/wiki/Outer_space" title="Outer space">outer space</a>.<a href="#cite_note-alhacenOnRefraction4.28-13">[13]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Alhazen" class="mw-redirect" title="Alhazen">Alhazen</a> argued the importance of forming questions and subsequently testing them: "How does light travel through transparent bodies? Light travels through transparent bodies in straight lines only... We have explained this exhaustively in our <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Optics" title="Book of Optics">Book of Optics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-straightLinesOnly-16">[b]</a> But let us now mention something to prove this convincingly: the fact that light travels in straight lines is clearly observed in the lights which enter into dark rooms through holes.... [T]he entering light will be clearly observable in the dust which fills the air.<a href="#cite_note-treatiseOnLight-17">[14]</a> <ul><li>He demonstrated his conjecture that "light travels through transparent bodies in straight lines only" by placing a straight stick or a taut thread next to the light beam, as quoted in <a href="#CITEREFSambursky1975">Sambursky (1975)</a>, p. 136 to prove that light travels in a straight line.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hockney" title="David Hockney">David Hockney</a> cites Alhazen several times as the likely source for the portraiture technique using the <a href="/wiki/Camera_obscura" title="Camera obscura">camera obscura</a>, which Hockney rediscovered with the aid of an optical suggestion from <a href="/wiki/Charles_M._Falco" title="Charles M. Falco">Charles M. Falco</a>. Kitab al-Manazir, which is Alhazen's <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Optics" title="Book of Optics">Book of Optics</a>, at that time denoted Opticae Thesaurus, Alhazen Arabis, was translated from Arabic into Latin for European use as early as 1270. Hockney cites Friedrich Risner's 1572 Basle edition of Opticae Thesaurus. Hockney quotes Alhazen as the first clear description of the camera obscura.<a href="#cite_note-truthSought4sake-18">[15]</a></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-aQuestion-63">^ <a href="#cite_ref-aQuestion_63-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-aQuestion_63-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-aQuestion_63-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-aQuestion_63-3">d</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Inquiry-based_learning" title="Inquiry-based learning">inquiry-based education</a> paradigm, the stage of "characterization, observation, definition, ..." is more briefly summed up under the rubric of a Question. The question at some stage might be as basic as the <a href="/wiki/5Ws" class="mw-redirect" title="5Ws">5Ws</a>, or is this answer true?, or who else might know this?, or can I ask them?, and so forth. The questions of the inquirer spiral until the goal is reached. </li> <li id="cite_note-introspection-195"><a href="#cite_ref-introspection_195-0">^</a> <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page%3APopular_Science_Monthly_Volume_12.djvu/300">Never fail to recognize an idea</a>... .— C. S. Peirce, ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE LOGIC OF SCIENCE, SECOND PAPER. —HOW TO MAKE OUR IDEAS CLEAR. Popular Science Monthly Volume 12, January 1878, p.286<a href="#cite_note-How-81">[64]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FRL-1.136-205"><a href="#cite_ref-FRL-1.136_205-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPeirce1899">Peirce (1899)</a> First rule of logic (F.R.L)<a href="#cite_note-reasonsFirstRule-96">[78]</a> Paragraph 1.136: From the first rule of logic, if we truly desire the goal of the inquiry we are not to waste our resources.<a href="#cite_note-econ-95">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-SuitableTest-168">[135]</a> — <a href="/wiki/Terence_Tao" title="Terence Tao">Terence Tao</a> wrote on the matter that not all approaches can be regarded as "equally suitable and deserving of equal resources" because such positions would "sap mathematics of its sense of direction and purpose".<a href="#cite_note-taoTime-204">[163]</a> </li> </ol></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-roman" style="column-width: 33em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Tanqih-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tanqih_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tanqih_20-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSabra2007">Sabra (2007)</a> recounts how <a href="/wiki/Kam%C4%81l_al-D%C4%ABn_al-F%C4%81ris%C4%AB" title="Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī">Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī</a> came by his manuscript copy of <a href="/wiki/Alhacen" class="mw-redirect" title="Alhacen">Alhacen</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Optics" title="Book of Optics">Book of Optics</a>, which by then was some two centuries old: al-Fārisī's project was to write an advanced optics treatise, but he could not understand optical <a href="/wiki/Refraction" title="Refraction">refraction</a> using his best resources. His mentor, <a href="/wiki/Qutb_al-Din_al-Shirazi" title="Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi">Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi</a> recalled having seen Alhacen's manuscript as a youth, and arranged to get al-Fārisī a copy "from a distant country". al-Fārisī is now remembered for his Commentary on Alhacen's Book of Optics in which he found a satisfactory explanation for the phenomenon of the <a href="/wiki/Rainbow" title="Rainbow">rainbow</a>: light rays from the sun are doubly refracted within the raindrops in the air, back to the observer.<a href="#cite_note-226">[183]</a> Refraction of the colors from the sun's light then forms the spread of colors in the rainbow. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes:_Philosophical_expressions_of_method">Notes: Philosophical expressions of method</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-greek" style="column-width: 33em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> His assertions in the Opus Majus that "theories supplied by reason should be verified by sensory data, aided by instruments, and corroborated by trustworthy witnesses"<a href="#cite_note-23">[18]</a> were (and still are) considered "one of the first important formulations of the scientific method on record".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBorlik2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidc_ShAgAAQBAJpgPA132_132]-24">[19]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-empirical-33"><a href="#cite_ref-empirical_33-0">^</a> ...an experimental approach was advocated by Galileo in 1638 with the publication of <a href="/wiki/Two_New_Sciences" title="Two New Sciences">Two New Sciences</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalileo_Galilei1638-32">[24]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> Popper, in his 1963 publication of Conjectures and Refutations argued that merely <a href="/wiki/Trial_and_error" title="Trial and error">Trial and Error</a> can stand to be called a 'universal method'.<a href="#cite_note-trialAndErr-43">[32]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-ethicalPosition-46">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ethicalPosition_46-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ethicalPosition_46-1">b</a> Lee Smolin, in his 2013 essay "There Is No Scientific Method",<a href="#cite_note-Smolin_2013-45">[33]</a> espouses two <a href="#ethicalPosition">ethical principles</a>. Firstly: "we agree to tell the truth and we agree to be governed by rational argument from public evidence". And secondly, that ..."when the evidence is not sufficient to decide from rational argument, whether one point of view is right or another point of view is right, we agree to encourage competition and diversification". Thus echoing <a href="#CITEREFPopper1963">Popper (1963)</a>, p. viii </li> <li id="cite_note-feedTheMachinery-108"><a href="#cite_ref-feedTheMachinery_108-0">^</a> The machinery of the mind can only transform knowledge, but never originate it, unless it be fed with facts of observation. —<a href="/wiki/C.S._Peirce" class="mw-redirect" title="C.S. Peirce">C.S. Peirce</a><a href="#cite_note-How-81">[64]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> "At the heart of science is an essential balance between two seemingly contradictory attitudes—an openness to new ideas, no matter how bizarre or counterintuitive, and the most ruthlessly skeptical scrutiny of all ideas, old and new. This is how deep truths are winnowed from deep nonsense." — <a href="/wiki/Carl_Sagan" title="Carl Sagan">Carl Sagan</a><a href="#cite_note-133">[110]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-macKay-146"><a href="#cite_ref-macKay_146-0">^</a> The scientific method requires testing and validation <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">a posteriori</a> before ideas are accepted.<a href="#cite_note-conjugatePairs-100">[81]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-invariantTheme-178">^ <a href="#cite_ref-invariantTheme_178-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-invariantTheme_178-1">b</a> Friedel Weinert in The Scientist as Philosopher (2004) noted the theme of invariance as a fundamental aspect of a scientific account of reality in many writings from around 1900 onward, such as works by <a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Henri Poincaré</a> (1902), <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Ernst Cassirer</a> (1920), <a href="/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born">Max Born</a> (1949 and 1953), <a href="/wiki/Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Paul Dirac</a> (1958), <a href="/wiki/Olivier_Costa_de_Beauregard" title="Olivier Costa de Beauregard">Olivier Costa de Beauregard</a> (1966), <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Eugene Wigner</a> (1967), <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Sklar" title="Lawrence Sklar">Lawrence Sklar</a> (1974), <a href="/wiki/Michael_Friedman_(philosopher)" title="Michael Friedman (philosopher)">Michael Friedman</a> (1983), <a href="/wiki/John_D._Norton" title="John D. Norton">John D. Norton</a> (1992), <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Maxwell" title="Nicholas Maxwell">Nicholas Maxwell</a> (1993), <a href="/wiki/Alan_Cook_(physicist)" title="Alan Cook (physicist)">Alan Cook</a> (1994), <a href="/wiki/Alistair_Cameron_Crombie" title="Alistair Cameron Crombie">Alistair Cameron Crombie</a> (1994), <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Morrison_(philosopher)" title="Margaret Morrison (philosopher)">Margaret Morrison</a> (1995), <a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Richard Feynman</a> (1997), <a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a> (2001), and <a href="/wiki/Tim_Maudlin" title="Tim Maudlin">Tim Maudlin</a> (2002).<a href="#cite_note-Weinert_2004-176">[143]</a> — <a href="/wiki/David_Deutsch" title="David Deutsch">Deutsch</a> in a 2009 TED talk proclaimed that "the search for hard-to-vary explanations is the origin of all progress".<a href="#cite_note-DD_TED-177">[144]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> Differing accounts of which elements constitute a good theory: <ul><li>Kuhn (1977) identified: accuracy; consistency (both internal and with other relevant currently accepted theories); scope (its consequences should extend beyond the data it is required to explain); simplicity (organizing otherwise confused and isolated phenomena); fruitfulness (for further research);<a href="#cite_note-174">[141]</a></li> <li>Colyvan (2001) listed simplicity/parsimony, unificatory/explanatory power, boldness/fruitfulness, and elegance;<a href="#cite_note-Colyvan-175">[142]</a></li> <li>Weinert (2004) noted the recurring theme of invariance;<a href="#cite_note-invariantTheme-178">[θ]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Hawking</a> (2010): simplicity/parsimony, unificatory/explanatory power, and elegance, but did not mention fruitfulness.<a href="#cite_note-Hawking-139">[114]</a></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pars_and_El-181"><a href="#cite_ref-Pars_and_El_181-0">^</a> ...Hawking & Mlodinow on criteria for a good theory: "The above criteria are obviously subjective. Elegance, for example, is not something easily measured, but it is highly prized among scientists." The idea of 'too baroque' is connected to 'simplicity': "a theory jammed with fudge factors is not very elegant. To paraphrase Einstein, a theory should be as simple as possible, but not simpler".<a href="#cite_note-Hawking-139">[114]</a> See also:<a href="#cite_note-Baker-180">[145]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> There is no universally agreed upon definition of the method of science. This was expressed with <a href="/wiki/Neurath%27s_boat" title="Neurath's boat">Neurath's boat</a> already in 1913. There is however a consensus that stating this somewhat nihilistic assertion without introduction and in too unexpected a fashion is counterproductive, confusing, and can even be damaging. There may never be one, too. As <a href="/wiki/Steven_Weinberg" title="Steven Weinberg">Weinberg</a> described it in 1995:<a href="#cite_note-Weinberg_1995-197">[158]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The fact that the standards of scientific success shift with time does not only make the philosophy of science difficult; it also raises problems for the public understanding of science. We do not have a fixed scientific method to rally around and defend.</blockquote> </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a> "The sociology of knowledge is concerned with "the relationship between human thought and the social context in which it arises."<a href="#cite_note-223">[181]</a> So, on this reading, the sociology of science may be taken to be considered with the analysis of the social context of scientific thought. But scientific thought, most sociologists concede, is distinguished from other modes of thought precisely by virtue of its immunity from social determination — insofar as it is governed by reason rather than by tradition, and insofar as it is rational it escapes determination by "non-logical" social forces." — M. D. King leading into his article on Reason, tradition, and the progressiveness of science (1971)<a href="#cite_note-King_JA1971-224">[182]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-stillwell'sReviewOfGray'sBioOfPoincaré-251">^ <a href="#cite_ref-stillwell'sReviewOfGray'sBioOfPoincaré_251-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stillwell'sReviewOfGray'sBioOfPoincaré_251-1">b</a> Stillwell's review (p. 381) of Poincaré's efforts on the <a href="/wiki/Euler_characteristic" title="Euler characteristic">Euler characteristic</a> notes that it took five iterations for Poincaré to arrive at the <a href="/wiki/Homology_sphere#Poincaré_homology_sphere" title="Homology sphere">Poincaré homology sphere</a>.<a href="#cite_note-stillwell-255">[210]</a> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-principia-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-principia_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-principia_1-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFNewton1999" class="citation book cs1">Newton, Isaac (1999) [1726 (3rd ed.)]. <a href="/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" title="Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica">Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica</a> [Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy]. The Principia: Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. Translated by Cohen, I. Bernard; Whitman, Anne; Budenz, Julia. Includes "A Guide to Newton's Principia" by I. Bernard Cohen, pp. 1–370. (The Principia itself is on pp. 371–946). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 791–796 ("Rules of Reasoning in Philosophy"); see also <a href="/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica#Rules_of_Reason" title="Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica">Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica#Rules of Reason</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-08817-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-08817-7"><bdi>978-0-520-08817-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophi%C3%A6+Naturalis+Principia+Mathematica&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+CA&rft.series=The+Principia%3A+Mathematical+Principles+of+Natural+Philosophy&rft.pages=791-796+%28%22Rules+of+Reasoning+in+Philosophy%22%29%3B+%27%27see+also%27%27+Philosophi%C3%A6+Naturalis+Principia+Mathematica%23Rules+of+Reason&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-520-08817-7&rft.aulast=Newton&rft.aufirst=Isaac&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160620062539/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/scientific-method">"scientific method"</a>, Oxford Dictionaries: British and World English, 2016, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/scientific-method">the original</a> on 2016-06-20, retrieved 2016-05-28</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=scientific+method&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionaries%3A+British+and+World+English&rft.date=2016&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxforddictionaries.com%2Fdefinition%2Fenglish%2Fscientific-method&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/383323">Oxford English Dictionary</a> (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231129112639/https://www.oed.com/dictionary/scientific-method_n">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-11-29. Retrieved 2018-05-31 – via OED Online.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oed.com%2Fview%2FEntry%2F383323&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NA-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NA_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NA_4-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeirce1908" class="citation cs1">Peirce, Charles Sanders (1908). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_Neglected_Argument_for_the_Reality_of_God">"A Neglected Argument for the Reality of God" </a>. Hibbert Journal. 7: 90–112 – via <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hibbert+Journal&rft.atitle=A+Neglected+Argument+for+the+Reality+of+God&rft.volume=7&rft.pages=90-112&rft.date=1908&rft.aulast=Peirce&rft.aufirst=Charles+Sanders&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> with added notes. Reprinted with previously unpublished part, Collected Papers v. 6, paragraphs 452–85, The Essential Peirce v. 2, pp. 434–450, and elsewhere. N.B. 435.30 'living institution': Hibbert J. mis-transcribed 'living institution': ("constitution" for "institution") </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPopper1959273-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPopper1959273_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPopper1959">Popper (1959)</a>, p. 273. </li> <li id="cite_note-allScience-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-allScience_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-allScience_6-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGauch2003">Gauch (2003)</a>, p. 3: "The scientific method 'is often misrepresented as a fixed sequence of steps,' rather than being seen for what it truly is, 'a highly variable and creative process' (AAAS 2000:18). The claim here is that science has general principles that must be mastered to increase productivity and enhance perspective, not that these principles provide a simple and automated sequence of steps to follow." </li> <li id="cite_note-Inductive_Science_1837-7"><a href="#cite_ref-Inductive_Science_1837_7-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a>, History of Inductive Science (1837), and in Philosophy of Inductive Science (1840) </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrauss2024" class="citation journal cs1">Krauss, Alexander (28 March 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10981393">"Redefining the scientific method: as the use of sophisticated scientific methods that extend our mind"</a>. PNAS Nexus. 3 (4): pgae112. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fpnasnexus%2Fpgae112">10.1093/pnasnexus/pgae112</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10981393">10981393</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38560527">38560527</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PNAS+Nexus&rft.atitle=Redefining+the+scientific+method%3A+as+the+use+of+sophisticated+scientific+methods+that+extend+our+mind&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=pgae112&rft.date=2024-03-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10981393%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F38560527&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fpnasnexus%2Fpgae112&rft.aulast=Krauss&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10981393&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DunbarLuck-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DunbarLuck_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DunbarLuck_9-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DunbarLuck_9-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DunbarLuck_9-3">d</a> Dunbar, K., & Fugelsang, J. (2005). Causal Thinking in Science: How Scientists and Students Interpret the Unexpected. In M. E. Gorman, R.D. Tweney, D. Gooding & A. Kincannon (eds.), Scientific and Technical Thinking. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. pp. 57–79. </li> <li id="cite_note-Serendip-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Serendip_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Serendip_10-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMertonBarberBarber2006" class="citation book cs1">Merton, Robert King; Barber, Elinor; Barber, Elinor G. (2006). "Accidental Discovery in Science". The Travels and Adventures of Serendipity: A Study in Sociological Semantics and the Sociology of Science. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0691126305" title="Special:BookSources/0691126305"><bdi>0691126305</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Accidental+Discovery+in+Science&rft.btitle=The+Travels+and+Adventures+of+Serendipity%3A+A+Study+in+Sociological+Semantics+and+the+Sociology+of+Science&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Princeton+Univ.+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0691126305&rft.aulast=Merton&rft.aufirst=Robert+King&rft.au=Barber%2C+Elinor&rft.au=Barber%2C+Elinor+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Asmis-11"><a href="#cite_ref-Asmis_11-0">^</a> Elizabeth Asmis (1985) Epicurus' Scientific Method. Cornell University Press </li> <li id="cite_note-treatiseOnLight2-12"><a href="#cite_ref-treatiseOnLight2_12-0">^</a> Alhacen (c.1035) Treatise on Light (رسالة في الضوء) as cited in <a href="/wiki/Shmuel_Sambursky" title="Shmuel Sambursky">Shmuel Sambursky</a>, ed. (1975) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/physicalthoughtf0000unse/page/136/mode/2up">Physical thought from the Presocratics to the quantum physicists : an anthology</a>, p.137 </li> <li id="cite_note-alhacenOnRefraction4.28-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-alhacenOnRefraction4.28_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-alhacenOnRefraction4.28_13-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith2010">Smith (2010)</a> Book 7, [4.28] p.270 </li> <li id="cite_note-treatiseOnLight-17"><a href="#cite_ref-treatiseOnLight_17-0">^</a> Alhazen, Treatise on Light (رسالة في الضوء), translated into English from German by M. Schwarz, from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/dmg/periodical/pageview/30949">"Abhandlung über das Licht"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191230190424/http://menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/dmg/periodical/pageview/30949">Archived</a> 2019-12-30 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, J. Baarmann (editor and translator from Arabic to German, 1882) <a href="/wiki/Zeitschrift_der_Deutschen_Morgenl%C3%A4ndischen_Gesellschaft" title="Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft">Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft</a> Vol 36 as quoted in <a href="#CITEREFSambursky1975">Sambursky (1975)</a>, p. 136. </li> <li id="cite_note-truthSought4sake-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-truthSought4sake_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-truthSought4sake_18-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-truthSought4sake_18-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFHockney2006">Hockney (2006)</a>, p. 240: "Truth is sought for its own sake. And those who are engaged upon the quest for anything for its own sake are not interested in other things. Finding the truth is difficult, and the road to it is rough." – <a href="/wiki/Alhazen" class="mw-redirect" title="Alhazen">Alhazen</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ibn_Al-Haytham" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Al-Haytham">Ibn Al-Haytham</a> 965 – c. 1040) <a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Ptolemy" class="mw-redirect" title="Critique of Ptolemy">Critique of Ptolemy</a>, translated by S. Pines, Actes X Congrès internationale d'histoire des sciences, Vol I Ithaca 1962, as quoted in <a href="#CITEREFSambursky1975">Sambursky (1975)</a>, p. 139. (This quotation is from Alhazen's critique of Ptolemy's books <a href="/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest">Almagest</a>, Planetary Hypotheses, and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mhLVHR5QAQkC&dq=Opticae+thesaurus+alhazen&pg=PA59">Ptolemy's Theory of Visual Perception: An English Translation of the Optics</a>. Translated by A. Mark Smith. American Philosophical Society. 1996. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780871698629" title="Special:BookSources/9780871698629"><bdi>9780871698629</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231129112635/https://books.google.com/books?id=mhLVHR5QAQkC&dq=Opticae+thesaurus+alhazen&pg=PA59#v=onepage&q=Opticae%20thesaurus%20alhazen&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-11-29. Retrieved 2021-11-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ptolemy%27s+Theory+of+Visual+Perception%3A+An+English+Translation+of+the+Optics&rft.pub=American+Philosophical+Society&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780871698629&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmhLVHR5QAQkC%26dq%3DOpticae%2Bthesaurus%2Balhazen%26pg%3DPA59&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988">) </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlikuzai2013154-21"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlikuzai2013154_21-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlikuzai2013">Alikuzai (2013)</a>, p. 154. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERozhanskayaLevinova1996-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERozhanskayaLevinova1996_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRozhanskayaLevinova1996">Rozhanskaya & Levinova (1996)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> Bacon, Opus Majus, Bk.&VI. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBorlik2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidc_ShAgAAQBAJpgPA132_132]-24"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBorlik2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidc_ShAgAAQBAJpgPA132_132]_24-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBorlik2011">Borlik (2011)</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c_ShAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA132">132</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInwood2003" class="citation book cs1">Inwood, Stephen (2003). The Forgotten Genius : The biography of Robert Hooke (1635–1703). San Francisco: MacAdam/Cage Pub. pp. 112–116. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-931561-56-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-931561-56-3"><bdi>978-1-931561-56-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/53006741">53006741</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Forgotten+Genius+%3A+The+biography+of+Robert+Hooke+%281635%E2%80%931703%29&rft.place=San+Francisco&rft.pages=112-116&rft.pub=MacAdam%2FCage+Pub.&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F53006741&rft.isbn=978-1-931561-56-3&rft.aulast=Inwood&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHooke1705" class="citation book cs1">Hooke, Robert (1705). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/b30454621_0001/page/3/mode/1up">"First general: The present state of natural philosophy and wherein it is deficient"</a>. In Waller, Richard (ed.). The posthumous works of Robert Hooke, M.D. S.R.S. Geom. Prof. Gresh. etc.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=First+general%3A+The+present+state+of+natural+philosophy+and+wherein+it+is+deficient&rft.btitle=The+posthumous+works+of+Robert+Hooke%2C+M.D.+S.R.S.+Geom.+Prof.+Gresh.+etc.&rft.date=1705&rft.aulast=Hooke&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fb30454621_0001%2Fpage%2F3%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation conference cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180527202632/http://www.wissensgeschichte-berlin.de/sites/default/files/2014_10_24_DellaPortaWS_Program_Abstracts.pdf">various papers</a> (PDF). The optics of Giovan Battista della Porta (1535–1615): A Reassessment Workshop at Technische Universität Berlin, 24–25 October 2014. 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"What Is the History of Medieval Optics Really about?". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 148 (2): 180–194. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1558283">1558283</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15338543">15338543</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+American+Philosophical+Society&rft.atitle=What+Is+the+History+of+Medieval+Optics+Really+about%3F&rft.volume=148&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=180-194&rft.date=2004-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1558283%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15338543&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=A.+Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalileo_Galilei1638-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalileo_Galilei1638_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalileo_Galilei1638_32-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGalileo_Galilei1638">Galileo Galilei (1638)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESanches1988-34"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanches1988_34-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSanches1988">Sanches (1988)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-idealism-35"><a href="#cite_ref-idealism_35-0">^</a> Lisa Downing, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/berkeley/#3.2.3">(Fall 2021) George Berkeley, 3.2.3 Scientific explanation</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> Margaret Atherton (ed.) 1999 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iifXAAAAMAAJ">The Empiricists</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGodfrey-Smith2003236-38"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGodfrey-Smith2003236_38-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGodfrey-Smith2003">Godfrey-Smith (2003)</a>, p. 236. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThurs2011-39">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThurs2011_39-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThurs2011_39-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThurs2011_39-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThurs2011_39-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFThurs2011">Thurs (2011)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-40">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_40-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_40-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAchinstein2004" class="citation book cs1">Achinstein, Peter (2004). 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.paul-rosenfels.org/Popper.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2017-10-13. <q>If we have made this our task, then there is no more rational procedure than the method of trial and error--of conjecture and refutation</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conjectures+and+Refutations&rft.pages=312-365&rft.date=1963&rft.au=Popper&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.paul-rosenfels.org%2FPopper.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smolin_2013-45">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Smolin_2013_45-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Smolin_2013_45-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmolin2013" class="citation web cs1">Smolin, Lee (May 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bigthink.com/in-their-own-words/there-is-no-scientific-method">"There is No Scientific Method"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160807052038/http://bigthink.com/in-their-own-words/there-is-no-scientific-method">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-08-07. Retrieved 2016-06-07.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=There+is+No+Scientific+Method&rft.date=2013-05&rft.aulast=Smolin&rft.aufirst=Lee&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbigthink.com%2Fin-their-own-words%2Fthere-is-no-scientific-method&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thurs2015-47">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Thurs2015_47-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thurs2015_47-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThurs2015" class="citation cs2">Thurs, Daniel P. (2015), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pWouCwAAQBAJ&q=newton%27s+apple+and+other+myths+about+science">"That the scientific method accurately reflects what scientists actually do"</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Ronald_L._Numbers" class="mw-redirect" title="Ronald L. Numbers">Numbers, Ronald L.</a>; Kampourakis, Kostas (eds.), Newton's Apple and Other Myths about Science, Harvard University Press, pp. 210–218, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-91547-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-91547-3"><bdi>978-0-674-91547-3</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231129112729/https://books.google.com/books?id=pWouCwAAQBAJ&q=newton%27s+apple+and+other+myths+about+science#v=snippet&q=newton's%20apple%20and%20other%20myths%20about%20science&f=false">archived</a> from the original on 2023-11-29, retrieved 2020-10-20, <q>It's probably best to get the bad news out of the way first, the so-called scientific method is a myth. ... If typical formulations were accurate, the only location true science would be taking place in would be grade-school classrooms.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=That+the+scientific+method+accurately+reflects+what+scientists+actually+do&rft.btitle=Newton%27s+Apple+and+Other+Myths+about+Science&rft.pages=210-218&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-674-91547-3&rft.aulast=Thurs&rft.aufirst=Daniel+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpWouCwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dnewton%2527s%2Bapple%2Band%2Bother%2Bmyths%2Babout%2Bscience&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-beliefCreatesReality-48">^ <a href="#cite_ref-beliefCreatesReality_48-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-beliefCreatesReality_48-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSnyder1984" class="citation book cs1">Snyder, Mark (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60146-X">"When Belief Creates Reality"</a>. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology Volume 18. Vol. 18. pp. 247–305. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0065-2601%2808%2960146-X">10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60146-X</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-015218-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-015218-6"><bdi>978-0-12-015218-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=When+Belief+Creates+Reality&rft.btitle=Advances+in+Experimental+Social+Psychology+Volume+18&rft.pages=247-305&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0065-2601%2808%2960146-X&rft.isbn=978-0-12-015218-6&rft.aulast=Snyder&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%2FS0065-2601%2808%2960146-X&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-narrativeFallacy-49">^ <a href="#cite_ref-narrativeFallacy_49-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-narrativeFallacy_49-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFTaleb2007">Taleb (2007)</a>, p. 72 lists ways to avoid the narrative fallacy and confirmation bias; the narrative fallacy being a substitute for explanation. </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNolaSankey2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nola" title="Robert Nola">Nola, Robert</a>; Sankey, Howard (2007). Theories of Scientific Method: An Introduction. Philosophy and science. Vol. 2. Montréal: <a href="/wiki/McGill%E2%80%93Queen%27s_University_Press" title="McGill–Queen's University Press">McGill–Queen's University Press</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aKjgBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1">1</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aKjgBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA300">300</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315711959">10.4324/9781315711959</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780773533448" title="Special:BookSources/9780773533448"><bdi>9780773533448</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/144602109">144602109</a>. <q>There is a large core of people who think there is such a thing as a scientific method that can be justified, although not all agree as to what this might be. But there are also a growing number of people who think that there is no method to be justified. For some, the whole idea is yesteryear's debate, the continuation of which can be summed up as yet more of the proverbial 'flogging a dead horse'. We beg to differ. ... We shall claim that Feyerabend did endorse various scientific values, did accept rules of method (on a certain understanding of what these are), and did attempt to justify them using a meta methodology somewhat akin to the principle of <a href="/wiki/Reflective_equilibrium" title="Reflective equilibrium">reflective equilibrium</a>.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theories+of+Scientific+Method%3A+An+Introduction&rft.place=Montr%C3%A9al&rft.series=Philosophy+and+science&rft.pages=1%2C+300&rft.pub=McGill%E2%80%93Queen%27s+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F144602109&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781315711959&rft.isbn=9780773533448&rft.aulast=Nola&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Sankey%2C+Howard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Staddon_2017_p.-51"><a href="#cite_ref-Staddon_2017_p._51-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStaddon2017" class="citation book cs1">Staddon, John (1 December 2017). Scientific Method: How Science Works, Fails to Work, and Pretends to Work. New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315100708">10.4324/9781315100708</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-315-10070-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-315-10070-8"><bdi>978-1-315-10070-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scientific+Method%3A+How+Science+Works%2C+Fails+to+Work%2C+and+Pretends+to+Work&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017-12-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781315100708&rft.isbn=978-1-315-10070-8&rft.aulast=Staddon&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStaddon2020" class="citation web cs1">Staddon, John (16 September 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/10161/21425/StaddonHistoryofScienceSept2020.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y">"Whatever Happened to History of Science?"</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210827092318/https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/10161/21425/StaddonHistoryofScienceSept2020.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2021-08-27. Retrieved 2021-08-27. <q>science is best understood through examples</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Whatever+Happened+to+History+of+Science%3F&rft.date=2020-09-16&rft.aulast=Staddon&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdukespace.lib.duke.edu%2Fdspace%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F10161%2F21425%2FStaddonHistoryofScienceSept2020.pdf%3Fsequence%3D2%26isAllowed%3Dy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ilSaggiatore-53">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ilSaggiatore_53-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ilSaggiatore_53-1">b</a> "Philosophy [i.e., physics] is written in this grand book – I mean the universe – which stands continually open to our gaze, but it cannot be understood unless one first learns to comprehend the language and interpret the characters in which it is written. It is written in the language of mathematics, and its characters are triangles, circles, and other geometrical figures, without which it is humanly impossible to understand a single word of it; without these, one is wandering around in a dark labyrinth." – Galileo Galilei, Il Saggiatore (<a href="/wiki/The_Assayer" title="The Assayer">The Assayer</a>, 1623), as translated by <a href="/wiki/Stillman_Drake" title="Stillman Drake">Stillman Drake</a> (1957), Discoveries and Opinions of Galileo pp. 237–238, as quoted by <a href="#CITEREFdi_Francia1981">di Francia (1981)</a>, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-allTheSciences-54"><a href="#cite_ref-allTheSciences_54-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGauch2003">Gauch (2003)</a>, p. xv: "The thesis of this book, as outlined in Chapter One, is that there are general principles applicable to all the sciences." </li> <li id="cite_note-herbrand-55"><a href="#cite_ref-herbrand_55-0">^</a> Maribel Fernández <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nms.kcl.ac.uk/maribel.fernandez/papers/slides-TCS-SOUP.pdf">(Dec 2007) Unification Algorithms</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-lindberg2007-57"><a href="#cite_ref-lindberg2007_57-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLindberg2007">Lindberg (2007)</a>, pp. 2–3: "There is a danger that must be avoided. ... If we wish to do justice to the historical enterprise, we must take the past for what it was. And that means we must resist the temptation to scour the past for examples or precursors of modern science. ...My concern will be with the beginnings of scientific theories, the methods by which they were formulated, and the uses to which they were put; ... " </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGauch20033-58"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGauch20033_58-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGauch2003">Gauch (2003)</a>, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGodfrey-Smith2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Godfrey-Smith" title="Peter Godfrey-Smith">Godfrey-Smith, Peter</a> (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=k23egtSWrb8C">Theory and Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science</a>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-30062-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-30062-7"><bdi>978-0-226-30062-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231129112726/https://books.google.com/books?id=k23egtSWrb8C">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-11-29. Retrieved 2020-05-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theory+and+Reality%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Philosophy+of+Science&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-226-30062-7&rft.aulast=Godfrey-Smith&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dk23egtSWrb8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brody-1993-60">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brody-1993_60-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brody-1993_60-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrody1993">Brody (1993)</a>, p. 10 calls this an <a href="#epistemicCycle">epistemic cycle</a>; these cycles can occur at high levels of abstraction. </li> <li id="cite_note-Fixation-61">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fixation_61-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fixation_61-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeirce1877" class="citation cs1">Peirce, Charles Sanders (1877). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Fixation_of_Belief">"The Fixation of Belief" </a>. Popular Science Monthly. 12: 1–15 – via <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Popular+Science+Monthly&rft.atitle=The+Fixation+of+Belief&rft.volume=12&rft.pages=1-15&rft.date=1877&rft.aulast=Peirce&rft.aufirst=Charles+Sanders&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988">. </li> <li id="cite_note-Vital-62"><a href="#cite_ref-Vital_62-0">^</a> Peirce, Charles S., Collected Papers v. 5, in paragraph 582, from 1898: "... [rational] inquiry of every type, fully carried out, has the vital power of self-correction and of growth. This is a property so deeply saturating its inmost nature that it may truly be said that there is but one thing needful for learning the truth, and that is a hearty and active desire to learn what is true." </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEinsteinInfeld1938">Einstein & Infeld (1938)</a>, p. 92: "To raise new questions, new possibilities, to regard old problems from a new angle, requires creative imagination and marks real advance in science." </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrawfordStucki1990" class="citation journal cs1">Crawford S, Stucki L (1990). "Peer review and the changing research record". Journal of the American Society for Information Science. 41 (3): 223–228. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F%28SICI%291097-4571%28199004%2941%3A3%3C223%3A%3AAID-ASI14%3E3.0.CO%3B2-3">10.1002/(SICI)1097-4571(199004)41:3<223::AID-ASI14>3.0.CO;2-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Society+for+Information+Science&rft.atitle=Peer+review+and+the+changing+research+record&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=223-228&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F%28SICI%291097-4571%28199004%2941%3A3%3C223%3A%3AAID-ASI14%3E3.0.CO%3B2-3&rft.aulast=Crawford&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Stucki%2C+L&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGauch2003esp._chapters_5–8-66"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGauch2003esp._chapters_5–8_66-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGauch2003">Gauch (2003)</a>, esp. chapters 5–8. </li> <li id="cite_note-discourseOnMethod-67"><a href="#cite_ref-discourseOnMethod_67-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> (1637) <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Discourse_on_the_Method/Part_2">Discourse on the Method/Part 2</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210901150801/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Discourse_on_the_Method/Part_2">Archived</a> 2021-09-01 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Part II </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCarty1985252-69"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCarty1985252_69-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcCarty1985">McCarty (1985)</a>, p. 252. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcElheny200434-70"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcElheny200434_70-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcElheny2004">McElheny (2004)</a>, p. 34. </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchusterPowers2005" class="citation book cs1">Schuster, Daniel P.; Powers, William J., eds. (2005). "Ch. 1". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=C7pZftbI0ZMC">Translational and Experimental Clinical Research</a>. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780781755658" title="Special:BookSources/9780781755658"><bdi>9780781755658</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231129112636/https://books.google.com/books?id=C7pZftbI0ZMC">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-11-29. Retrieved 2021-11-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ch.+1&rft.btitle=Translational+and+Experimental+Clinical+Research&rft.pub=Lippincott+Williams+%26+Wilkins&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780781755658&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DC7pZftbI0ZMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> This chapter also discusses the different types of research questions and how they are produced. </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> Andreas Vesalius, Epistola, Rationem, Modumque Propinandi Radicis Chynae Decocti (1546), p. 141. Quoted and translated in C.D. O'Malley, Andreas Vesalius of Brussels, (1964), p. 116. As quoted by <a href="#CITEREFBynumPorter2005">Bynum & Porter (2005)</a>, p. 597: "Andreas Vesalius" </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> Crick, Francis (1994), The Astonishing Hypothesis <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-19431-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-684-19431-7">0-684-19431-7</a> p. 20 </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcElheny2004">McElheny (2004)</a>, p. 40: October 1951 — "That's what a helix should look like!" Crick exclaimed in delight (This is the Cochran-Crick-Vand-Stokes theory of the transform of a helix). </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJudson1979">Judson (1979)</a>, p. 157. "'The structure that we propose is a three-chain structure, each chain being a helix' – Linus Pauling" </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcElheny2004">McElheny (2004)</a>, pp. 49–50: January 28, 1953 — Watson read Pauling's pre-print, and realized that in Pauling's model, DNA's phosphate groups had to be un-ionized. But DNA is an acid, which contradicts Pauling's model. </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEinstein1949" class="citation book cs1">Einstein, Albert (1949). The World as I See It. New York: Philosophical Library. pp. 24–28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+World+as+I+See+It&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=24-28&rft.pub=Philosophical+Library&rft.date=1949&rft.aulast=Einstein&rft.aufirst=Albert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDewey1910">Dewey (1910)</a>, p. 26 </li> <li id="cite_note-aristotleAbduction-80"><a href="#cite_ref-aristotleAbduction_80-0">^</a> <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Organon_(Owen)/Prior_Analytics/Book_2#Chapter_25">Aristotle (trans. 1853) Prior Analytics 2.25</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210910034741/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Organon_(Owen)/Prior_Analytics/Book_2#Chapter_25">Archived</a> 2021-09-10 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> via Wikisource </li> <li id="cite_note-How-81">^ <a href="#cite_ref-How_81-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-How_81-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-How_81-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-How_81-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeirce1877" class="citation cs1">Peirce, Charles Sanders (1877). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/How_to_Make_Our_Ideas_Clear">"How to Make Our Ideas Clear" </a>. Popular Science Monthly. 12: 286–302 – via <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Popular+Science+Monthly&rft.atitle=How+to+Make+Our+Ideas+Clear&rft.volume=12&rft.pages=286-302&rft.date=1877&rft.aulast=Peirce&rft.aufirst=Charles+Sanders&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlen199437–38-82"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGlen199437–38_82-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGlen1994">Glen (1994)</a>, pp. 37–38. </li> <li id="cite_note-platt-83"><a href="#cite_ref-platt_83-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlatt1964" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_R._Platt" title="John R. Platt">Platt, John R.</a> (16 October 1964). "Strong Inference". Science. 146 (3642): 347–. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1964Sci...146..347P">1964Sci...146..347P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.146.3642.347">10.1126/science.146.3642.347</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17739513">17739513</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Strong+Inference&rft.volume=146&rft.issue=3642&rft.pages=347-&rft.date=1964-10-16&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17739513&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.146.3642.347&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1964Sci...146..347P&rft.aulast=Platt&rft.aufirst=John+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-sn1987a-84"><a href="#cite_ref-sn1987a_84-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Leon_Lederman" class="mw-redirect" title="Leon Lederman">Leon Lederman</a>, for teaching <a href="/wiki/Physics_first" class="mw-redirect" title="Physics first">physics first</a>, illustrates how to avoid confirmation bias: <a href="/wiki/Ian_Shelton" title="Ian Shelton">Ian Shelton</a>, in Chile, was initially skeptical that <a href="/wiki/Supernova_1987a" class="mw-redirect" title="Supernova 1987a">supernova 1987a</a> was real, but possibly an artifact of instrumentation (null hypothesis), so he went outside and disproved his null hypothesis by observing SN 1987a with the naked eye. The <a href="/wiki/Kamiokande" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamiokande">Kamiokande</a> experiment, in Japan, independently observed <a href="/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino">neutrinos</a> from <a href="/wiki/SN_1987a" class="mw-redirect" title="SN 1987a">SN 1987a</a> at the same time. </li> <li id="cite_note-Crick_pp._137–138-85"><a href="#cite_ref-Crick_pp._137–138_85-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJudson1979">Judson (1979)</a>, pp. 137–138: "Watson did enough work on <a href="/wiki/Tobacco_mosaic_virus" title="Tobacco mosaic virus">Tobacco mosaic virus</a> to produce the diffraction pattern for a helix, per Crick's work on the transform of a helix." </li> <li id="cite_note-McElheny_2004_43-86"><a href="#cite_ref-McElheny_2004_43_86-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcElheny2004">McElheny (2004)</a>, p. 43: June 1952 — Watson had succeeded in getting X-ray pictures of TMV showing a diffraction pattern consistent with the transform of a helix. </li> <li id="cite_note-HelixTransform-87"><a href="#cite_ref-HelixTransform_87-0">^</a> Cochran W, Crick FHC and Vand V. (1952) "The Structure of Synthetic Polypeptides. I. The Transform of Atoms on a Helix", <a href="/wiki/Acta_Crystallographica" title="Acta Crystallographica">Acta Crystallogr.</a>, 5, 581–586. </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcElheny2004">McElheny (2004)</a>, p. 68: Nature April 25, 1953. </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> In March 1917, the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Astronomical_Society" title="Royal Astronomical Society">Royal Astronomical Society</a> announced that on May 29, 1919, the occasion of a <a href="/wiki/Total_eclipse" class="mw-redirect" title="Total eclipse">total eclipse</a> of the sun would afford favorable conditions for testing Einstein's <a href="/wiki/General_theory_of_relativity" class="mw-redirect" title="General theory of relativity">General theory of relativity</a>. One expedition, to <a href="/wiki/Sobral,_Cear%C3%A1" title="Sobral, Ceará">Sobral, Ceará</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>, and Eddington's expedition to the island of <a href="/wiki/Principe" class="mw-redirect" title="Principe">Principe</a> yielded a set of photographs, which, when compared to photographs taken at <a href="/wiki/Sobral,_Cear%C3%A1" title="Sobral, Ceará">Sobral</a> and at <a href="/wiki/Greenwich_Observatory" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenwich Observatory">Greenwich Observatory</a> showed that the deviation of light was measured to be 1.69 <a href="/wiki/Arc-second" class="mw-redirect" title="Arc-second">arc-seconds</a>, as compared to Einstein's desk prediction of 1.75 <a href="/wiki/Arc-second" class="mw-redirect" title="Arc-second">arc-seconds</a>. – Antonina Vallentin (1954), Einstein, as quoted by Samuel Rapport and Helen Wright (1965), Physics, New York: Washington Square Press, pp. 294–295. </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/photo51/">"The Secret of Photo 51"</a>. NOVA. PBS. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170831201252/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/photo51/">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-08-31. Retrieved 2017-09-11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NOVA&rft.atitle=The+Secret+of+Photo+51&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Fnova%2Fphoto51%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-photo51Explained-92">^ <a href="#cite_ref-photo51Explained_92-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-photo51Explained_92-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Cynthia_Wolberger" title="Cynthia Wolberger">Cynthia Wolberger</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2tMuMRY1oDo">(2021) Photograph 51 explained</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-TeaTime-93">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TeaTime_93-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-TeaTime_93-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcElheny2004">McElheny (2004)</a>, p. 52: Friday, January 30, 1953. Tea time — Franklin confronts Watson and his paper – "Of course it [Pauling's pre-print] is wrong. DNA is not a helix." However, Watson then visits Wilkins' office, sees <a href="/wiki/Photo_51" title="Photo 51">photo 51</a>, and immediately recognizes the diffraction pattern of a helical structure. But additional questions remained, requiring additional iterations of their research. For example, the number of strands in the backbone of the helix (Crick suspected 2 strands, but cautioned Watson to examine that more critically), the location of the base pairs (inside the backbone or outside the backbone), etc. One key point was that they realized that the quickest way to reach a result was not to continue a mathematical analysis, but to build a physical model. Later that evening — Watson urges Wilkins to begin model-building immediately. But Wilkins agrees to do so only after Franklin's departure. </li> <li id="cite_note-Watson_1968_167-94"><a href="#cite_ref-Watson_1968_167_94-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatson1968">Watson (1968)</a>, p. 167: "The instant I saw the picture my mouth fell open and my pulse began to race." Page 168 shows the X-shaped pattern of the B-form of <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>, clearly indicating crucial details of its helical structure to Watson and Crick. </li> <li id="cite_note-econ-95">^ <a href="#cite_ref-econ_95-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-econ_95-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-econ_95-2">c</a> Peirce, Charles S. (1902), Carnegie application, see MS L75.329330, from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cspeirce.com/menu/library/bycsp/l75/ver1/l75v1-08.htm#m27">Draft D</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110524021101/http://www.cspeirce.com/menu/library/bycsp/l75/ver1/l75v1-08.htm#m27">Archived</a> 2011-05-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> of Memoir 27: "Consequently, to discover is simply to expedite an event that would occur sooner or later, if we had not troubled ourselves to make the discovery. Consequently, the art of discovery is purely a question of economics. The economics of research is, so far as logic is concerned, the leading doctrine concerning the art of discovery. Consequently, the conduct of abduction, which is chiefly a question of heuretic and is the first question of heuretic, is to be governed by economical considerations." </li> <li id="cite_note-reasonsFirstRule-96">^ <a href="#cite_ref-reasonsFirstRule_96-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-reasonsFirstRule_96-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-reasonsFirstRule_96-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeirce1899" class="citation book cs1">Peirce, Charles S. (1899). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120106071421/http://www.princeton.edu/~batke/peirce/frl_99.htm">"F.R.L. [First Rule of Logic]"</a>. Collected Papers. v. 1. paragraphs 135–140. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.princeton.edu/~batke/peirce/frl_99.htm">the original</a> on 2012-01-06. Retrieved 2012-01-06. <q>... in order to learn, one must desire to learn ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=F.R.L.+%5BFirst+Rule+of+Logic%5D&rft.btitle=Collected+Papers&rft.series=v.+1&rft.pages=paragraphs+135-140&rft.date=1899&rft.aulast=Peirce&rft.aufirst=Charles+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.princeton.edu%2F~batke%2Fpeirce%2Ffrl_99.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-SameShape-97">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SameShape_97-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SameShape_97-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SameShape_97-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcElheny2004">McElheny (2004)</a>, pp. 57–59: Saturday, February 28, 1953 — Watson found the base-pairing mechanism which explained <a href="/wiki/Chargaff%27s_rules" title="Chargaff's rules">Chargaff's rules</a> using his cardboard models. </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill, John Stuart</a>, "A System of Logic", University Press of the Pacific, Honolulu, 2002, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4102-0252-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-4102-0252-6">1-4102-0252-6</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-conjugatePairs-100">^ <a href="#cite_ref-conjugatePairs_100-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-conjugatePairs_100-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-conjugatePairs_100-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-conjugatePairs_100-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacKay1969" class="citation book cs1">MacKay, Donald M. (1969). Information, Mechanism, and Meaning. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. pp. 1–4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-63032-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-63032-X"><bdi>0-262-63032-X</bdi></a>. <q>Invariably one came up against fundamental physical limits to the accuracy of measurement. ... The art of physical measurement seemed to be a matter of compromise, of choosing between reciprocally related uncertainties. ... Multiplying together the conjugate pairs of uncertainty limits mentioned, however, I found that they formed invariant products of not one but two distinct kinds. ... The first group of limits were calculable a priori from a specification of the instrument. The second group could be calculated only a posteriori from a specification of what was done with the instrument. ... In the first case each unit [of information] would add one additional dimension (conceptual category), whereas in the second each unit would add one additional atomic fact.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Information%2C+Mechanism%2C+and+Meaning&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pages=1-4&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=0-262-63032-X&rft.aulast=MacKay&rft.aufirst=Donald+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nsf-101"><a href="#cite_ref-nsf_101-0">^</a> National Science Foundation (NSF) (2021) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nsf.gov/oig/reports/">NSF Reports</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210817165231/https://www.nsf.gov/oig/reports/">Archived</a> 2021-08-17 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nsf.gov/news/">News</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210820162008/https://www.nsf.gov/news/">Archived</a> 2021-08-20 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-lhc-102"><a href="#cite_ref-lhc_102-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lhc-commissioning.web.cern.ch/lhc-commissioning/schedule/LHC-long-term.htm">"LHC long term schedule"</a>. lhc-commissioning.web.cern.ch. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200425105121/https://lhc-commissioning.web.cern.ch/lhc-commissioning/schedule/LHC-long-term.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-04-25. Retrieved 2021-08-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=lhc-commissioning.web.cern.ch&rft.atitle=LHC+long+term+schedule&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flhc-commissioning.web.cern.ch%2Flhc-commissioning%2Fschedule%2FLHC-long-term.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> (2021) </li> <li id="cite_note-ligo-103"><a href="#cite_ref-ligo_103-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/">"ligo.caltech.edu (1999) Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210901125538/https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-09-01. Retrieved 2021-08-30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ligo.caltech.edu+%281999%29+Laser+Interferometer+Gravitational-Wave+Observatory&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ligo.caltech.edu%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nif-104"><a href="#cite_ref-nif_104-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lasers.llnl.gov/about/what-is-nif">"NIF (2021) What Is the National Ignition Facility?"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170731064919/https://lasers.llnl.gov/about/what-is-nif">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-07-31. Retrieved 2021-08-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=NIF+%282021%29+What+Is+the+National+Ignition+Facility%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flasers.llnl.gov%2Fabout%2Fwhat-is-nif&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-iss-105"><a href="#cite_ref-iss_105-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/main/index.html">"ISS (2021) International Space Station"</a>. 12 January 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050907073730/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/main/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2005-09-07. Retrieved 2021-08-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ISS+%282021%29+International+Space+Station&rft.date=2015-01-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasa.gov%2Fmission_pages%2Fstation%2Fmain%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-jwst-106"><a href="#cite_ref-jwst_106-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jwst.nasa.gov/">"JWST (2021) WEBB Space Telescope"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120104225155/http://www.jwst.nasa.gov/">Archived</a> from the original on 2012-01-04. Retrieved 2021-08-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=JWST+%282021%29+WEBB+Space+Telescope&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jwst.nasa.gov%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-jwstDeploymentSeq-107"><a href="#cite_ref-jwstDeploymentSeq_107-0">^</a> James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RzGLKQ7_KZQ">(12 Nov 2021) James Webb Space Telescope Deployment Sequence (Nominal)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211223035530/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RzGLKQ7_KZQ">Archived</a> 2021-12-23 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> highlights the predictions from launch to day+29, </li> <li id="cite_note-Crutchfield-109"><a href="#cite_ref-Crutchfield_109-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://csc.ucdavis.edu/~chaos/chaos/talks/CSTheorySFIRetreat.pdf">"James Crutchfield (2003) "Complex Systems Theory?""</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210418204840/http://csc.ucdavis.edu/~chaos/chaos/talks/CSTheorySFIRetreat.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2021-04-18. Retrieved 2018-05-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=James+Crutchfield+%282003%29+%22Complex+Systems+Theory%3F%22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcsc.ucdavis.edu%2F~chaos%2Fchaos%2Ftalks%2FCSTheorySFIRetreat.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_J%C4%81bir_al-Harr%C4%81n%C4%AB_al-Batt%C4%81n%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Jābir al-Harrānī al-Battānī">al-Battani</a>, De Motu Stellarum <a href="/wiki/Latin_translations_of_the_12th_century" title="Latin translations of the 12th century">translation from Arabic to Latin in 1116</a>, as cited by E. S. Kennedy, A Survey of Islamic Astronomical Tables, (Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, New Series, 46, 2), Philadelphia, 1956, pp. 10–11, 32–34. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2001b-111">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2001b_111-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2001b_111-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith2001b">Smith (2001b)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-smith2010-113"><a href="#cite_ref-smith2010_113-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith2010">Smith (2010)</a>, p. 220 Book Seven covers refraction. </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcElheny2004">McElheny (2004)</a>, p. 53: The weekend (January 31 – February 1) — After seeing photo 51, Watson informed Bragg of the X-ray diffraction image of DNA in B form. Bragg permitted them to restart their research on DNA (that is, model building). </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcElheny2004">McElheny (2004)</a>, p. 54: Sunday, February 8, 1953 — Maurice Wilkes gave Watson and Crick permission to work on models, as Wilkes would not be building models until Franklin left DNA research. </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcElheny2004">McElheny (2004)</a>, p. 56: <a href="/wiki/Jerry_Donohue" title="Jerry Donohue">Jerry Donohue</a>, on sabbatical from Pauling's lab and visiting Cambridge, advises Watson that the textbook form of the base pairs was incorrect for DNA base pairs; rather, the keto form of the base pairs should be used instead. This form allowed the bases' hydrogen bonds to pair 'unlike' with 'unlike', rather than to pair 'like' with 'like', as Watson was inclined to model, based on the textbook statements. On February 27, 1953, Watson was convinced enough to make cardboard models of the nucleotides in their keto form. </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatson1968">Watson (1968)</a>, pp. 194–197: "Suddenly I became aware that an <a href="/wiki/Adenine" title="Adenine">adenine</a>-<a href="/wiki/Thymine" title="Thymine">thymine</a> pair held together by two <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bond" title="Hydrogen bond">hydrogen bonds</a> was identical in shape to a <a href="/wiki/Guanine" title="Guanine">guanine</a>-<a href="/wiki/Cytosine" title="Cytosine">cytosine</a> pair held together by at least two hydrogen bonds. ..." </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcElheny2004">McElheny (2004)</a>, p. 57: Saturday, February 28, 1953 — Watson tried 'like with like' and admitted these base pairs didn't have hydrogen bonds that line up. But after trying 'unlike with unlike', and getting <a href="/wiki/Jerry_Donohue" title="Jerry Donohue">Jerry Donohue</a>'s approval, the base pairs turned out to be identical in shape (as Watson stated above in his 1968 Double Helix memoir quoted above). Watson now felt confident enough to inform Crick. (Of course, 'unlike with unlike' increases the number of possible <a href="/wiki/Codon" class="mw-redirect" title="Codon">codons</a>, if this scheme were a <a href="/wiki/Genetic_code" title="Genetic code">genetic code</a>.) </li> <li id="cite_note-brGoldstein-119"><a href="#cite_ref-brGoldstein_119-0">^</a> Goldstein, Bernard R. (1977) <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Mu%27adh_al-Jayyani" title="Ibn Mu'adh al-Jayyani">Ibn Mu'adh</a>'s "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41133483">(1079) Treatise On Twilight and the Height of the Atmosphere</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220921011840/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41133483">Archived</a> 2022-09-21 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>" <a href="/wiki/Archive_for_History_of_Exact_Sciences" title="Archive for History of Exact Sciences">Archive for History of Exact Sciences</a> Vol. 17, No. 2 (21.VII.1977), pp. 97–118 (22 pages) JSTOR. (Treatise On Twilight was printed by F Risner in Opticae Thesaurus (1572) as Liber de crepusculis, but attributed to Alhazen rather than Ibn Mu'adh.) </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrider2006" class="citation journal cs1">Krider, E. Philip (January 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.2180176">"Benjamin Franklin and lightning rods"</a>. Physics Today. 59 (1): 42. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006PhT....59a..42K">2006PhT....59a..42K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.2180176">10.1063/1.2180176</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:110623159">110623159</a>. <q>On 6 August 1753, the Swedish scientist Georg Wilhelm Richmann was electrocuted in St. Petersburg ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+Today&rft.atitle=Benjamin+Franklin+and+lightning+rods&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=42&rft.date=2006-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A110623159%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.2180176&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006PhT....59a..42K&rft.aulast=Krider&rft.aufirst=E.+Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1063%252F1.2180176&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fyysika.ee/vorgustik/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/Reconstruction-of-Galileo-Galilei.pdf">"Reconstruction of Galileo Galilei's experiment – the inclined plane"</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140429075745/http://www.fyysika.ee/vorgustik/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/Reconstruction-of-Galileo-Galilei.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2014-04-29. Retrieved 2014-04-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Reconstruction+of+Galileo+Galilei%27s+experiment+%E2%80%93+the+inclined+plane&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fyysika.ee%2Fvorgustik%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2011%2F11%2FReconstruction-of-Galileo-Galilei.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIoannidis2005" class="citation journal cs1">Ioannidis, John P. A. (August 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1182327">"Why most published research findings are false"</a>. <a href="/wiki/PLOS_Medicine" title="PLOS Medicine">PLOS Medicine</a>. 2 (8): e124. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.0020124">10.1371/journal.pmed.0020124</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1182327">1182327</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16060722">16060722</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+Medicine&rft.atitle=Why+most+published+research+findings+are+false&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=e124&rft.date=2005-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1182327%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16060722&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.0020124&rft.aulast=Ioannidis&rft.aufirst=John+P.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1182327&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleck1979xxvii–xxviii-125"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFleck1979xxvii–xxviii_125-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFleck1979">Fleck (1979)</a>, pp. xxvii–xxviii. </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://grants.nih.gov/grants/policy/data_sharing/index.htm">NIH Data Sharing Policy</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120513171213/http://grants.nih.gov/grants/policy/data_sharing/index.htm">Archived</a> 2012-05-13 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>." </li> <li id="cite_note-Popper0-127"><a href="#cite_ref-Popper0_127-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarl_Raimund_Popper2002" class="citation book cs1">Karl Raimund Popper (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T76Zd20IYlgC&q=%22It+must+be+possible+for+an+empirical+scientific+system+to+be+refuted+by+experience%22&pg=PA18">The logic of scientific discovery</a> (Reprint of translation of 1935 Logik der Forschung ed.). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group. pp. 18, 280. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415278430" title="Special:BookSources/0415278430"><bdi>0415278430</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+logic+of+scientific+discovery&rft.pages=18%2C+280&rft.edition=Reprint+of+translation+of+1935+%27%27Logik+der+Forschung%27%27&rft.pub=Routledge%2FTaylor+%26+Francis+Group&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0415278430&rft.au=Karl+Raimund+Popper&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DT76Zd20IYlgC%26q%3D%2522It%2Bmust%2Bbe%2Bpossible%2Bfor%2Ban%2Bempirical%2Bscientific%2Bsystem%2Bto%2Bbe%2Brefuted%2Bby%2Bexperience%2522%26pg%3DPA18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Popper1-128"><a href="#cite_ref-Popper1_128-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarl_Popper" class="citation web cs1">Karl Popper. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130909021911/http://worthylab.tamu.edu/courses_files/popper_conjecturesandrefutations.pdf">"Science: Conjectures and refutations"</a> (PDF). Texas A&M University The motivation & cognition interface lab. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worthylab.tamu.edu/courses_files/popper_conjecturesandrefutations.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2013-09-09. Retrieved 2013-01-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Science%3A+Conjectures+and+refutations&rft.pub=Texas+A%26M+University+The+motivation+%26+cognition+interface+lab&rft.au=Karl+Popper&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworthylab.tamu.edu%2Fcourses_files%2Fpopper_conjecturesandrefutations.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> This lecture by Popper was first published as part of the book Conjectures and Refutations and is linked <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worthylab.tamu.edu/Courses.html">here</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGauch_Jr2002ch._1-129"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGauch_Jr2002ch._1_129-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGauch_Jr2002">Gauch Jr (2002)</a>, ch. 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-Anderson_1933_pp._491–494-130"><a href="#cite_ref-Anderson_1933_pp._491–494_130-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson1933" class="citation journal cs1">Anderson, Carl D. (15 March 1933). "The Positive Electron". Physical Review. 43 (6): 491–494. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1933PhRv...43..491A">1933PhRv...43..491A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.43.491">10.1103/PhysRev.43.491</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-899X">0031-899X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=The+Positive+Electron&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=491-494&rft.date=1933-03-15&rft.issn=0031-899X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRev.43.491&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1933PhRv...43..491A&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Carl+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hanson1958-131">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hanson1958_131-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hanson1958_131-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanson1958" class="citation cs2">Hanson, Norwood (1958), Patterns of Discovery, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-05197-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-05197-2"><bdi>978-0-521-05197-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Patterns+of+Discovery&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1958&rft.isbn=978-0-521-05197-2&rft.aulast=Hanson&rft.aufirst=Norwood&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lequeux_2021_pp._159–183-132"><a href="#cite_ref-Lequeux_2021_pp._159–183_132-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLequeux2021" class="citation book cs1">Lequeux, James (2021). "Urbain Jean Joseph Le Verrier: Predictions Leading to Discovery". Neptune: From Grand Discovery to a World Revealed. Historical & Cultural Astronomy. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 159–183. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-030-54218-4_5">10.1007/978-3-030-54218-4_5</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-54217-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-030-54217-7"><bdi>978-3-030-54217-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2509-310X">2509-310X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Urbain+Jean+Joseph+Le+Verrier%3A+Predictions+Leading+to+Discovery&rft.btitle=Neptune%3A+From+Grand+Discovery+to+a+World+Revealed&rft.place=Cham&rft.series=Historical+%26+Cultural+Astronomy&rft.pages=159-183&rft.pub=Springer+International+Publishing&rft.date=2021&rft.issn=2509-310X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-030-54218-4_5&rft.isbn=978-3-030-54217-7&rft.aulast=Lequeux&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSagan1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Carl_Sagan" title="Carl Sagan">Sagan, Carl</a> (1995). <a href="/wiki/The_Demon-Haunted_World" title="The Demon-Haunted World">The Demon-Haunted World</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Demon-Haunted+World&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Sagan&rft.aufirst=Carl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGodfrey-Smith200319–74-135"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGodfrey-Smith200319–74_135-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGodfrey-Smith2003">Godfrey-Smith (2003)</a>, pp. 19–74. </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKetner2009" class="citation book cs1">Ketner, Kenneth Laine (2009). "Charles Sanders Peirce: Interdisciplinary Scientist". The Logic of Interdisciplinarity. By Peirce, Charles S. Bisanz, Elize (ed.). Berlin: Akademie Verlag.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Charles+Sanders+Peirce%3A+Interdisciplinary+Scientist&rft.btitle=The+Logic+of+Interdisciplinarity&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Akademie+Verlag&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Ketner&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+Laine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeirce1905" class="citation magazine cs1">Peirce, Charles S. (October 1905). "Issues of Pragmaticism". The Monist. Vol. XV, no. 4. pp. 481–499, see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/monistquart15hegeuoft#page/484/mode/1up">p. 484</a>, and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/monistquart15hegeuoft#page/491/mode/1up">p. 491</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Monist&rft.atitle=Issues+of+Pragmaticism&rft.volume=XV&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=481-499%2C+see+p.+484%2C+and+p.+491&rft.date=1905-10&rft.aulast=Peirce&rft.aufirst=Charles+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> Reprinted in Collected Papers v. 5, paragraphs 438–463, see 443 and 451. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hawking-139">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hawking_139-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hawking_139-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hawking_139-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStephen_HawkingLeonard_Mlodinow2010" class="citation book cs1">Stephen Hawking; Leonard Mlodinow (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RoO9jkV-yzIC&pg=PA51">"What is reality?"</a>. The Grand Design. Random House Digital, Inc. pp. 51–52. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0553907070" title="Special:BookSources/978-0553907070"><bdi>978-0553907070</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=What+is+reality%3F&rft.btitle=The+Grand+Design&rft.pages=51-52&rft.pub=Random+House+Digital%2C+Inc&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0553907070&rft.au=Stephen+Hawking&rft.au=Leonard+Mlodinow&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRoO9jkV-yzIC%26pg%3DPA51&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> See also: <a href="/wiki/Model-dependent_realism" title="Model-dependent realism">model-dependent realism</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGauch_Jr200229–31-140"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGauch_Jr200229–31_140-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGauch_Jr2002">Gauch Jr (2002)</a>, pp. 29–31. </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNeedhamWang1954">Needham & Wang (1954)</a>, p. 166 shows how the 'flying gallop' image propagated from China to the West. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldhaberNieto2010940-142"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldhaberNieto2010940_142-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoldhaberNieto2010">Goldhaber & Nieto (2010)</a>, p. 940. </li> <li id="cite_note-mythIsAbelief-143"><a href="#cite_ref-mythIsAbelief_143-0">^</a> Ronald R. Sims (2003). Ethics and corporate social responsibility: Why giants fall. p. 21: "'A myth is a belief given uncritical acceptance by members of a group ...' – Weiss, Business Ethics p. 15." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldhaberNieto2010942-144">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldhaberNieto2010942_144-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldhaberNieto2010942_144-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoldhaberNieto2010">Goldhaber & Nieto (2010)</a>, p. 942. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELakatos19761–19-145"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELakatos19761–19_145-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLakatos1976">Lakatos (1976)</a>, pp. 1–19. </li> <li id="cite_note-SEP_SM-147"><a href="#cite_ref-SEP_SM_147-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHepburnAndersen2015" class="citation web cs1">Hepburn, Brian; Andersen, Hanne (13 November 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2021/entries/scientific-method">"Scientific Method"</a>. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 2024-04-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Scientific+Method&rft.date=2015-11-13&rft.aulast=Hepburn&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft.au=Andersen%2C+Hanne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fsum2021%2Fentries%2Fscientific-method&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gauch_Jr_2002_p30/ch4-148">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gauch_Jr_2002_p30/ch4_148-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gauch_Jr_2002_p30/ch4_148-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gauch_Jr_2002_p30/ch4_148-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFGauch_Jr2002">Gauch Jr (2002)</a>, Quotes from p. 30, expanded on in ch. 4: Gauch gives two simplified statements on what he calls "rational-knowledge claim". It is either "I hold belief X for reasons R with level of confidence C, where inquiry into X is within the domain of competence of method M that accesses the relevant aspects of reality" (inductive reasoning) or "I hold belief X because of presuppositions P." (deductive reasoning) </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.eso.org/public/news/eso2006/">"ESO Telescope Sees Star Dance Around Supermassive Black Hole, Proves Einstein Right"</a>. Science Release. <a href="/wiki/European_Southern_Observatory" title="European Southern Observatory">European Southern Observatory</a>. 16 April 2020. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200515210420/https://www.eso.org/public/news/eso2006/">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-05-15. Retrieved 2020-04-17.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Science+Release&rft.atitle=ESO+Telescope+Sees+Star+Dance+Around+Supermassive+Black+Hole%2C+Proves+Einstein+Right&rft.date=2020-04-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eso.org%2Fpublic%2Fnews%2Feso2006%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Psillos_2013-150"><a href="#cite_ref-Psillos_2013_150-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPsillos2013" class="citation book cs1">Psillos, Stathis (31 December 2013). "1. Reason and Science". Reason and Rationality. DE GRUYTER. pp. 33–52. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110325867.33">10.1515/9783110325867.33</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-032514-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-032514-0"><bdi>978-3-11-032514-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=1.+Reason+and+Science&rft.btitle=Reason+and+Rationality&rft.pages=33-52&rft.pub=DE+GRUYTER&rft.date=2013-12-31&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110325867.33&rft.isbn=978-3-11-032514-0&rft.aulast=Psillos&rft.aufirst=Stathis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-astron101-152"><a href="#cite_ref-astron101_152-0">^</a> Brad Snowder's Astronomy Pages <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://astro101.wwu.edu/a101_precession.html">( Precession of the Equinox</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-systOfWorld-154"><a href="#cite_ref-systOfWorld_154-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> (1727) <a href="/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica#Book_3,_De_mundi_systemate" title="Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica">On the System of the World</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Welsby_Weatherall_2022_pp._793–798-158"><a href="#cite_ref-Welsby_Weatherall_2022_pp._793–798_158-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWelsbyWeatherall2022" class="citation journal cs1">Welsby, Philip D; Weatherall, Mark (1 October 2022). "Statistics: an introduction to basic principles". Postgraduate Medical Journal. 98 (1164): 793–798. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fpostgradmedj-2020-139446">10.1136/postgradmedj-2020-139446</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0032-5473">0032-5473</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34039698">34039698</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Postgraduate+Medical+Journal&rft.atitle=Statistics%3A+an+introduction+to+basic+principles&rft.volume=98&rft.issue=1164&rft.pages=793-798&rft.date=2022-10-01&rft.issn=0032-5473&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34039698&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fpostgradmedj-2020-139446&rft.aulast=Welsby&rft.aufirst=Philip+D&rft.au=Weatherall%2C+Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-mostRwrong-159">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mostRwrong_159-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-mostRwrong_159-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-mostRwrong_159-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIoannidis2005" class="citation journal cs1">Ioannidis, John P.A. (1 August 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1182327">"Why Most Published Research Findings Are False"</a>. PLOS Medicine. 2 (8): e124. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.0020124">10.1371/journal.pmed.0020124</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1549-1277">1549-1277</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1182327">1182327</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16060722">16060722</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+Medicine&rft.atitle=Why+Most+Published+Research+Findings+Are+False&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=e124&rft.date=2005-08-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1182327%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1549-1277&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16060722&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.0020124&rft.aulast=Ioannidis&rft.aufirst=John+P.A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1182327&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gigerenzer_2015-162"><a href="#cite_ref-Gigerenzer_2015_162-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGigerenzer2015" class="citation book cs1">Gigerenzer, Gerd (31 March 2015). Risk Savvy. New York, New York: Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-312710-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-312710-9"><bdi>978-0-14-312710-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Risk+Savvy&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2015-03-31&rft.isbn=978-0-14-312710-9&rft.aulast=Gigerenzer&rft.aufirst=Gerd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> leads: (n=1000) only 21% of <a href="/wiki/Gynaecologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Gynaecologist">gynaecologists</a> got an example question on <a href="/wiki/Bayes%27_theorem" title="Bayes' theorem">Bayes' theorem</a> right. Book, including the assertion, introduced in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKremer2014" class="citation web cs1">Kremer, William (6 July 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-28166019">"Do doctors understand test results?"</a>. BBC News. Retrieved 2024-04-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Do+doctors+understand+test+results%3F&rft.date=2014-07-06&rft.aulast=Kremer&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fmagazine-28166019&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-prml-163"><a href="#cite_ref-prml_163-0">^</a> Christopher M. Bishop <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/research/uploads/prod/2006/01/Bishop-Pattern-Recognition-and-Machine-Learning-2006.pdf">(2006) Pattern Recognition and Machine Learning</a> pp. 21, 30, 55, 152, 161, 277, 360, 448, 580 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVoit2019-164">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVoit2019_164-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVoit2019_164-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVoit2019_164-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVoit2019_164-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVoit2019_164-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVoit2019_164-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVoit2019_164-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVoit2019_164-7">h</a> <a href="#CITEREFVoit2019">Voit 2019</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hempel_1966-165"><a href="#cite_ref-Hempel_1966_165-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHempel1966" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Hempel" title="Carl Gustav Hempel">Hempel, Carl Gustav</a> (1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/1966PhilosophyOfNaturalScienceCarlGHempel1/1966--Philosophy-of-Natural-Science--Carl-G-Hempel%20%281%29_djvu.txt">Philosophy Of Natural Science</a>. p. 7. Retrieved 2024-04-30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophy+Of+Natural+Science&rft.pages=7&rft.date=1966&rft.aulast=Hempel&rft.aufirst=Carl+Gustav&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2F1966PhilosophyOfNaturalScienceCarlGHempel1%2F1966--Philosophy-of-Natural-Science--Carl-G-Hempel%2520%25281%2529_djvu.txt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> Hempel illustrates this at <a href="/wiki/Ignaz_Semmelweis" title="Ignaz Semmelweis">Semmelweiss</a>’ experiments with childbed fever. </li> <li id="cite_note-novOrganon-166"><a href="#cite_ref-novOrganon_166-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Novum_Organum" title="Novum Organum">Novum Organum</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGauch2003159-167"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGauch2003159_167-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGauch2003">Gauch (2003)</a>, p. 159. </li> <li id="cite_note-SuitableTest-168">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SuitableTest_168-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SuitableTest_168-1">b</a> Peirce, Charles S., Carnegie application (L75, 1902), New Elements of Mathematics v. 4, pp. 37–38: "For it is not sufficient that a hypothesis should be a justifiable one. Any hypothesis that explains the facts is justified critically. But among justifiable hypotheses we have to select that one which is suitable for being tested by experiment." </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> Stanovich, Keith E. (2007). How to Think Straight About Psychology. Boston: Pearson Education. p. 123 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrody199344–45-170">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrody199344–45_170-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrody199344–45_170-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrody1993">Brody (1993)</a>, pp. 44–45. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hall08-171"><a href="#cite_ref-Hall08_171-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHallHallgrímsson2008" class="citation book cs1">Hall, B.K.; Hallgrímsson, B., eds. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/strickbergersevo0000hall/page/762">Strickberger's Evolution</a> (4th ed.). Jones & Bartlett. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/strickbergersevo0000hall/page/762">762</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7637-0066-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7637-0066-9"><bdi>978-0-7637-0066-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Strickberger%27s+Evolution&rft.pages=762&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Jones+%26+Bartlett&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-7637-0066-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstrickbergersevo0000hall%2Fpage%2F762&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cracraft05-172"><a href="#cite_ref-Cracraft05_172-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCracraftDonoghue2005" class="citation book cs1">Cracraft, J.; Donoghue, M.J., eds. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6lXTP0YU6_kC&q=Assembling+the+tree+of+life">Assembling the tree of life</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 592. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517234-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517234-8"><bdi>978-0-19-517234-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231129112730/https://books.google.com/books?id=6lXTP0YU6_kC&q=Assembling+the+tree+of+life#v=snippet&q=Assembling%20the%20tree%20of%20life&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-11-29. Retrieved 2020-10-20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Assembling+the+tree+of+life&rft.pages=592&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-517234-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6lXTP0YU6_kC%26q%3DAssembling%2Bthe%2Btree%2Bof%2Blife&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kuhn-173"><a href="#cite_ref-Kuhn_173-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a> formally stated this need for the "norms for rational theory choice". One of his discussions is reprinted in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas_S_Kuhn2002" class="citation book cs1">Thomas S Kuhn (1 November 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sXufWLnPp94C&pg=PA208">"Chapter 9: Rationality and Theory Choice"</a>. In James Conant, John Haugeland (ed.). The Road since Structure: Philosophical Essays, 1970–1993 (2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press. pp. 208 ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0226457990" title="Special:BookSources/0226457990"><bdi>0226457990</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+9%3A+Rationality+and+Theory+Choice&rft.btitle=The+Road+since+Structure%3A+Philosophical+Essays%2C+1970%E2%80%931993&rft.pages=208+%27%27ff%27%27&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2002-11-01&rft.isbn=0226457990&rft.au=Thomas+S+Kuhn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsXufWLnPp94C%26pg%3DPA208&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> Kuhn, T.S. (1977) Objectivity, Value Judgment, and Theory Choice. In: Kuhn, T.S., Ed., The Essential Tension—Selected Studies in Scientific Tradition and Change, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 320–339. </li> <li id="cite_note-Colyvan-175">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Colyvan_175-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Colyvan_175-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMark_Colyvan2001" class="citation book cs1">Mark Colyvan (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OBs-TSFopLkC&pg=PA78">The Indispensability of Mathematics</a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 78–79. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0195166612" title="Special:BookSources/0195166612"><bdi>0195166612</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Indispensability+of+Mathematics&rft.pages=78-79&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0195166612&rft.au=Mark+Colyvan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOBs-TSFopLkC%26pg%3DPA78&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Weinert_2004-176">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Weinert_2004_176-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Weinert_2004_176-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Weinert_2004_176-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeinert2004" class="citation book cs1">Weinert, Friedel (2004). "Invariance and reality". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cds.cern.ch/record/828852">The Scientist as Philosopher: Philosophical Consequences of Great Scientific Discoveries</a>. Berlin; New York: <a href="/wiki/Springer-Verlag" class="mw-redirect" title="Springer-Verlag">Springer-Verlag</a>. pp. 62–74 (72). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fb138529">10.1007/b138529</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3540205802" title="Special:BookSources/3540205802"><bdi>3540205802</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/53434974">53434974</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Invariance+and+reality&rft.btitle=The+Scientist+as+Philosopher%3A+Philosophical+Consequences+of+Great+Scientific+Discoveries&rft.place=Berlin%3B+New+York&rft.pages=62-74+%2872%29&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F53434974&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fb138529&rft.isbn=3540205802&rft.aulast=Weinert&rft.aufirst=Friedel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcds.cern.ch%2Frecord%2F828852&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DD_TED-177">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DD_TED_177-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DD_TED_177-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeutsch2009" class="citation audio-visual cs1">Deutsch, David (October 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ted.com/talks/david_deutsch_a_new_way_to_explain_explanation">A new way to explain explanation</a>. TED talk. Event occurs at 15:05min. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181104012430/https://www.ted.com/talks/david_deutsch_a_new_way_to_explain_explanation">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-11-04. Retrieved 2018-09-16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+new+way+to+explain+explanation&rft.pub=TED+talk&rft.date=2009-10&rft.aulast=Deutsch&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ted.com%2Ftalks%2Fdavid_deutsch_a_new_way_to_explain_explanation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> Also available from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=folTvNDL08A">YouTube</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221108112725/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=folTvNDL08A">Archived</a> 8 November 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Baker-180">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Baker_180-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Baker_180-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Baker_180-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaker,_Alan2010" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Baker, Alan (25 February 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2011/entries/simplicity/">"Simplicity"</a>. In Edward N. Zalta (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2011 Edition).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Simplicity&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy+%28Summer+2011+Edition%29&rft.date=2010-02-25&rft.au=Baker%2C+Alan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fsum2011%2Fentries%2Fsimplicity%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bird-182"><a href="#cite_ref-Bird_182-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBird,_Alexander2011" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Bird, Alexander (11 August 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/thomas-kuhn/#4.1">"§4.1 Methodological Incommensurability"</a>. In Edward N. Zalta (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2013 Edition).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%C2%A74.1+Methodological+Incommensurability&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy+%28Spring+2013+Edition%29&rft.date=2011-08-11&rft.au=Bird%2C+Alexander&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fthomas-kuhn%2F%234.1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Realism-183"><a href="#cite_ref-Realism_183-0">^</a> See <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStephen_HawkingLeonard_Mlodinow2010" class="citation book cs1">Stephen Hawking; Leonard Mlodinow (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RoO9jkV-yzIC&pg=PA9">The Grand Design</a>. Random House Digital, Inc. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0553907070" title="Special:BookSources/978-0553907070"><bdi>978-0553907070</bdi></a>. <q>It is a whole family of different theories, each of which is a good description of observations only in some range of physical situations...But just as there is no map that is a good representation of the earth's entire surface, there is no single theory that is a good representation of observations in all situations.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Grand+Design&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=Random+House+Digital%2C+Inc&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0553907070&rft.au=Stephen+Hawking&rft.au=Leonard+Mlodinow&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRoO9jkV-yzIC%26pg%3DPA9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies-184"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies_184-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFE_Brian_Davies2006" class="citation web cs1">E Brian Davies (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philsci-archive.pitt.edu/3083/1/EP3single.doc">"Epistemological pluralism"</a>. PhilSci Archive. p. 4. <q>Whatever might be the ultimate goals of some scientists, science, as it is currently practised, depends on multiple overlapping descriptions of the world, each of which has a domain of applicability. In some cases this domain is very large, but in others quite small.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PhilSci+Archive&rft.atitle=Epistemological+pluralism&rft.pages=4&rft.date=2006&rft.au=E+Brian+Davies&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphilsci-archive.pitt.edu%2F3083%2F1%2FEP3single.doc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGauch2003269-186"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGauch2003269_186-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGauch2003">Gauch (2003)</a>, p. 269. </li> <li id="cite_note-Krugman-187"><a href="#cite_ref-Krugman_187-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrugman1993" class="citation journal cs1">Krugman, Paul (1993). "How I Work". The American Economist. 37 (2). Sage Publications, Inc.: 25–31. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F056943459303700204">10.1177/056943459303700204</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0569-4345">0569-4345</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25603965">25603965</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Economist&rft.atitle=How+I+Work&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=25-31&rft.date=1993&rft.issn=0569-4345&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25603965%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F056943459303700204&rft.aulast=Krugman&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> ...I have already implicitly given my four basic rules for research. Let me now state them explicitly, then explain. Here are the rules: <ol><li>Listen to the Gentiles</li> <li>Question the question</li> <li>Dare to be silly</li> <li>Simplify, simplify</li></ol> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleck197927-188"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFleck197927_188-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFleck1979">Fleck (1979)</a>, p. 27. </li> <li id="cite_note-O&H_1995-189"><a href="#cite_ref-O&H_1995_189-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_OverwalleHeylighen1995" class="citation journal cs1">van Overwalle, Frank J.; Heylighen, Francis P. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pcp.vub.ac.be/Papers/Contrast&Invariance.html">"Relating covariation information to causal dimensions through principles of contrast and invariance"</a>. European Journal of Social Psychology. 25 (4): 435–455. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fejsp.2420250407">10.1002/ejsp.2420250407</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0046-2772">0046-2772</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+Social+Psychology&rft.atitle=Relating+covariation+information+to+causal+dimensions+through+principles+of+contrast+and+invariance&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=435-455&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fejsp.2420250407&rft.issn=0046-2772&rft.aulast=van+Overwalle&rft.aufirst=Frank+J.&rft.au=Heylighen%2C+Francis+P.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpcp.vub.ac.be%2FPapers%2FContrast%26Invariance.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wigner1967-190">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wigner1967_190-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wigner1967_190-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWigner1967" class="citation book cs1">Wigner, Eugene Paul (1967). Symmetries and reflections. Indiana University Press. p. 15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Symmetries+and+reflections&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Wigner&rft.aufirst=Eugene+Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> : Wigner also differentiates between geometrical invariance principles, and the "new" ones that arose in the wake of Einstein's theories of relativity that he calls dynamic invariance principles. </li> <li id="cite_note-Einstein1916-192"><a href="#cite_ref-Einstein1916_192-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEinstein1961" class="citation book cs1">Einstein, Albert (1961). Relativity: The Special and the General Theory (15th ed.). New York: Crown Publishers, Inc. pp. 75–79. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-517-88441-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-517-88441-6"><bdi>978-0-517-88441-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Relativity%3A+The+Special+and+the+General+Theory&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=75-79&rft.edition=15th&rft.pub=Crown+Publishers%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1961&rft.isbn=978-0-517-88441-6&rft.aulast=Einstein&rft.aufirst=Albert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeuth2004" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Keuth" class="extiw" title="de:Herbert Keuth">Keuth, Herbert</a> [in German] (2004) [Published in German 2000]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wxzoBfQYhYAC&pg=PA48">"From falsifiability to testability"</a>. The philosophy of Karl Popper (1st English ed.). Cambridge, UK; New York: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wxzoBfQYhYAC&pg=PA48">48–49</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521548304" title="Special:BookSources/9780521548304"><bdi>9780521548304</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/54503549">54503549</a>. <q>Consequently, the universal statements, which are contradicted by the basic statements, are not strictly refutable. Like singular statements and probability statements, they are empirically testable, but their tests do not have certain, definite results, do not result in strict verification or falsification but only in temporary acceptance or rejection.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=From+falsifiability+to+testability&rft.btitle=The+philosophy+of+Karl+Popper&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK%3B+New+York&rft.pages=48-49&rft.edition=1st+English&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F54503549&rft.isbn=9780521548304&rft.aulast=Keuth&rft.aufirst=Herbert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwxzoBfQYhYAC%26pg%3DPA48&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-l921-194"><a href="#cite_ref-l921_194-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrantz2005" class="citation book cs1">Krantz, S.G. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8mBdvAjk_gQC">Mathematical Apocrypha Redux: More Stories and Anecdotes of Mathematicians and the Mathematical</a>. MAA spectrum. Mathematical Association of America. p. 194. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88385-554-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88385-554-6"><bdi>978-0-88385-554-6</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2024-08-29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mathematical+Apocrypha+Redux%3A+More+Stories+and+Anecdotes+of+Mathematicians+and+the+Mathematical&rft.series=MAA+spectrum&rft.pages=194&rft.pub=Mathematical+Association+of+America&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-88385-554-6&rft.aulast=Krantz&rft.aufirst=S.G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8mBdvAjk_gQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-comprehensibility-196">^ <a href="#cite_ref-comprehensibility_196-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-comprehensibility_196-1">b</a> Einstein, Albert (1936, 1956) One may say "the eternal mystery of the world is its comprehensibility." From the article "Physics and Reality" (1936), reprinted in Out of My Later Years (1956). 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International Journal of Science Education. 25 (9): 1049–1079. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003IJSEd..25.1049O">2003IJSEd..25.1049O</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0950069032000032199">10.1080/0950069032000032199</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0950-0693">0950-0693</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Science+Education&rft.atitle=Attitudes+towards+science%3A+A+review+of+the+literature+and+its+implications&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=1049-1079&rft.date=2003&rft.issn=0950-0693&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F0950069032000032199&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003IJSEd..25.1049O&rft.aulast=Osborne&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft.au=Simon%2C+Shirley&rft.au=Collins%2C+Sue&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bauer_1992_p.-209"><a href="#cite_ref-Bauer_1992_p._209-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBauer1992" class="citation book cs1">Bauer, Henry H. 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"The Dogma of "The" Scientific Method". The American Biology Teacher. 64 (9): 645–646. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F4451400">10.2307/4451400</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-7685">0002-7685</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4451400">4451400</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Biology+Teacher&rft.atitle=The+Dogma+of+%22The%22+Scientific+Method&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=645-646&rft.date=2002-11-01&rft.issn=0002-7685&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4451400%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F4451400&rft.aulast=Wivagg&rft.aufirst=Dan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGauch2012" class="citation book cs1">Gauch, Hugh G. (2012). Scientific Method in Brief. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 7–10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107666726" title="Special:BookSources/9781107666726"><bdi>9781107666726</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scientific+Method+in+Brief&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=7-10&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781107666726&rft.aulast=Gauch&rft.aufirst=Hugh+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rudolph2005-213">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rudolph2005_213-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rudolph2005_213-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRudolph2005" class="citation journal cs1">Rudolph, John L. (2005). "Epistemology for the Masses: The Origins of "The Scientific Method" in American Schools". History of Education Quarterly. 45 (3). [History of Education Society, Wiley]: 341–376, quote on 366. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1748-5959.2005.tb00039.x">10.1111/j.1748-5959.2005.tb00039.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0018-2680">0018-2680</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20461985">20461985</a>. <q>In chapter six, Dewey analyzed what he called a "complete act of thought." Any such act, he wrote, consisted of the following five "logically distinct" steps: "(i) a felt difficulty; (ii) its location and definition; (iii) suggestion of possible solution; (iv) development by reasoning of the bearings of the suggestion; [and] (v) further observation and experiment leading to its acceptance or rejection."</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+of+Education+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Epistemology+for+the+Masses%3A+The+Origins+of+%22The+Scientific+Method%22+in+American+Schools&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=341-376%2C+quote+on+366&rft.date=2005&rft.issn=0018-2680&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20461985%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1748-5959.2005.tb00039.x&rft.aulast=Rudolph&rft.aufirst=John+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-SpieceColosi2000-214">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SpieceColosi2000_214-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SpieceColosi2000_214-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpieceColosi2000" class="citation journal cs1">Spiece, Kelly R.; Colosi, Joseph (1 January 2000). "Redefining the "Scientific Method"". The American Biology Teacher. 62 (1): 32–40. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F4450823">10.2307/4450823</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-7685">0002-7685</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4450823">4450823</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Biology+Teacher&rft.atitle=Redefining+the+%22Scientific+Method%22&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=32-40&rft.date=2000-01-01&rft.issn=0002-7685&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4450823%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F4450823&rft.aulast=Spiece&rft.aufirst=Kelly+R.&rft.au=Colosi%2C+Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-SchusterPowers2005-215">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SchusterPowers2005_215-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SchusterPowers2005_215-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchusterPowers2005" class="citation book cs1">Schuster, D.P.; Powers, W.J. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=C7pZftbI0ZMC&pg=PA3">Translational and Experimental Clinical Research</a>. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7817-5565-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7817-5565-8"><bdi>978-0-7817-5565-8</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2024-05-20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Translational+and+Experimental+Clinical+Research&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Lippincott+Williams+%26+Wilkins&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-7817-5565-8&rft.aulast=Schuster&rft.aufirst=D.P.&rft.au=Powers%2C+W.J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DC7pZftbI0ZMC%26pg%3DPA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> Schuster & Powers hold that sources for research questions are: attempts to explain the cause of novel observations, verifying the predictions of existing theory, literature sources, and technology. </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a> Traditionally 5, after Dewey's 1910 idea of a "complete act of thought". He held that thought-process best represented science (for education).<a href="#cite_note-Rudolph2005-213">[171]</a> These steps would end up being simplified and adjusted, often shortened to 4,<a href="#cite_note-SpieceColosi2000-214">[172]</a> or extended to include various practices.<a href="#cite_note-SchusterPowers2005-215">[173]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-StangorWalinga2014-217"><a href="#cite_ref-StangorWalinga2014_217-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStangorWalingaBC_Open_Textbook_ProjectBCcampus2014" class="citation book cs1">Stangor, Charles; Walinga, Jennifer; BC Open Textbook Project; BCcampus (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opentextbc.ca/introductiontopsychology/chapter/2-1-psychologists-use-the-scientific-method-to-guide-their-research/">Introduction to psychology</a>. [Victoria]: BCcampus, BC Open Textbook Project. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-77420-005-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-77420-005-6"><bdi>978-1-77420-005-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1014457300">1014457300</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+psychology&rft.place=%5BVictoria%5D&rft.pub=BCcampus%2C+BC+Open+Textbook+Project&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1014457300&rft.isbn=978-1-77420-005-6&rft.aulast=Stangor&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft.au=Walinga%2C+Jennifer&rft.au=BC+Open+Textbook+Project&rft.au=BCcampus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopentextbc.ca%2Fintroductiontopsychology%2Fchapter%2F2-1-psychologists-use-the-scientific-method-to-guide-their-research%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a> Specifically, the scientific method has featured in introductory science courses for biology,<a href="#cite_note-SpieceColosi2000-214">[172]</a> medicine,<a href="#cite_note-SchusterPowers2005-215">[173]</a> and psychology.<a href="#cite_note-StangorWalinga2014-217">[175]</a> Also, in education in general. </li> <li id="cite_note-Emden2021-219">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Emden2021_219-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Emden2021_219-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Emden2021_219-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEmden2021" class="citation journal cs1">Emden, Markus (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11191-021-00235-w">"Reintroducing "the" Scientific Method to Introduce Scientific Inquiry in Schools?: A Cautioning Plea Not to Throw Out the Baby with the Bathwater"</a>. Science & Education. 30 (5): 1037–1039. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11191-021-00235-w">10.1007/s11191-021-00235-w</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0926-7220">0926-7220</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+%26+Education&rft.atitle=Reintroducing+%22the%22+Scientific+Method+to+Introduce+Scientific+Inquiry+in+Schools%3F%3A+A+Cautioning+Plea+Not+to+Throw+Out+the+Baby+with+the+Bathwater&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1037-1039&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11191-021-00235-w&rft.issn=0926-7220&rft.aulast=Emden&rft.aufirst=Markus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs11191-021-00235-w&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-BrownKumar2013-220"><a href="#cite_ref-BrownKumar2013_220-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrownKumar2013" class="citation journal cs1">Brown, Ronald A.; Kumar, Alok (2013). "The Scientific Method: Reality or Myth?". Journal of College Science Teaching. 42 (4). National Science Teachers Association: 10–11. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0047-231X">0047-231X</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43631913">43631913</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+College+Science+Teaching&rft.atitle=The+Scientific+Method%3A+Reality+or+Myth%3F&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=10-11&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43631913%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0047-231X&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Ronald+A.&rft.au=Kumar%2C+Alok&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-IoannidouErduran2021-221"><a href="#cite_ref-IoannidouErduran2021_221-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIoannidouErduran2021" class="citation journal cs1">Ioannidou, Olga; Erduran, Sibel (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8550242">"Beyond Hypothesis Testing: Investigating the Diversity of Scientific Methods in Science Teachers' Understanding"</a>. Science & Education. 30 (2): 345–364. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11191-020-00185-9">10.1007/s11191-020-00185-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0926-7220">0926-7220</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8550242">8550242</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34720429">34720429</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+%26+Education&rft.atitle=Beyond+Hypothesis+Testing%3A+Investigating+the+Diversity+of+Scientific+Methods+in+Science+Teachers%27+Understanding&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=345-364&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8550242%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0926-7220&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34720429&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11191-020-00185-9&rft.aulast=Ioannidou&rft.aufirst=Olga&rft.au=Erduran%2C+Sibel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8550242&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-van_der_Ploeg_2016_pp._145–159-222"><a href="#cite_ref-van_der_Ploeg_2016_pp._145–159_222-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_der_Ploeg2016" class="citation journal cs1">van der Ploeg, Piet (8 June 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/44567891/1746197916648283.pdf">"Dewey versus 'Dewey' on democracy and education"</a> (PDF). Education, Citizenship and Social Justice. 11 (2). SAGE Publications: 145–159. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1746197916648283">10.1177/1746197916648283</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1746-1979">1746-1979</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Education%2C+Citizenship+and+Social+Justice&rft.atitle=Dewey+versus+%27Dewey%27+on+democracy+and+education&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=145-159&rft.date=2016-06-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1746197916648283&rft.issn=1746-1979&rft.aulast=van+der+Ploeg&rft.aufirst=Piet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpure.rug.nl%2Fws%2Ffiles%2F44567891%2F1746197916648283.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a> Here, King quotes <a href="/wiki/Peter_L._Berger" title="Peter L. Berger">Peter L. Berger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Luckmann" title="Thomas Luckmann">Thomas Luckman</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Social_Construction_of_Reality" title="The Social Construction of Reality">The Social Construction of Reality</a> (London, 1967), 16. </li> <li id="cite_note-King_JA1971-224"><a href="#cite_ref-King_JA1971_224-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKing1971" class="citation journal cs1">King, M. D. (1971). "Reason, Tradition, and the Progressiveness of Science". History and Theory. 10 (1). [Wesleyan University, Wiley]: 3–32. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2504396">10.2307/2504396</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1468-2303">1468-2303</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2504396">2504396</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+and+Theory&rft.atitle=Reason%2C+Tradition%2C+and+the+Progressiveness+of+Science&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3-32&rft.date=1971&rft.issn=1468-2303&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2504396%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2504396&rft.aulast=King&rft.aufirst=M.+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Connor,_J._J.Robertson,_E._F.1999" class="citation web cs1">O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F. (November 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Al-Farisi.html">"Kamal al-Din Abu'l Hasan Muhammad Al-Farisi"</a>. University of St. Andrews. Retrieved 2007-06-07.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Kamal+al-Din+Abu%27l+Hasan+Muhammad+Al-Farisi&rft.pub=University+of+St.+Andrews&rft.date=1999-11&rft.au=O%27Connor%2C+J.+J.&rft.au=Robertson%2C+E.+F.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk%2F~history%2FBiographies%2FAl-Farisi.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fleck_comp_w/Kuhn-227"><a href="#cite_ref-Fleck_comp_w/Kuhn_227-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarwood1986" class="citation journal cs1">Harwood, Jonathan (1986). "Ludwik Fleck and the Sociology of Knowledge". Social Studies of Science. 16 (1): 173–187. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F030631286016001009">10.1177/030631286016001009</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/285293">285293</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Studies+of+Science&rft.atitle=Ludwik+Fleck+and+the+Sociology+of+Knowledge&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=173-187&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F030631286016001009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F285293%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Harwood&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnorr-Cetina1999" class="citation book cs1">Knorr-Cetina, K. (1999). Epistemic cultures: how the sciences make knowledge. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-25893-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-25893-8"><bdi>978-0-674-25893-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/39539508">39539508</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Epistemic+cultures%3A+how+the+sciences+make+knowledge&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass.&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F39539508&rft.isbn=978-0-674-25893-8&rft.aulast=Knorr-Cetina&rft.aufirst=K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a> As cited in <a href="#CITEREFFleck1979">Fleck (1979)</a>, p. 27, <a href="#CITEREFFleck1979">Fleck (1979)</a>, pp. 38–50 </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFleck1979">Fleck (1979)</a>, p. xxviii </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFleck1979">Fleck (1979)</a>, p. 27 </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuhn2009" class="citation book cs1">Kuhn, Thomas S. (2009). <a href="/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions" title="The Structure of Scientific Revolutions">The Structure of Scientific Revolutions</a>. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. p. 113. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4432-5544-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4432-5544-8"><bdi>978-1-4432-5544-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Structure+of+Scientific+Revolutions&rft.place=Chicago%2C+IL&rft.pages=113&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4432-5544-8&rft.aulast=Kuhn&rft.aufirst=Thomas+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-234"><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a> Feyerabend, Paul K (1960) "Patterns of Discovery" The Philosophical Review (1960) vol. 69 (2) pp. 247–252 </li> <li id="cite_note-235"><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a> For example: <ul><li>Higher Superstition: The Academic Left and Its Quarrels with Science, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997</li> <li>Fashionable Nonsense: Postmodern Intellectuals' Abuse of Science, Picador. 1999</li> <li>The Sokal Hoax: The Sham That Shook the Academy, University of Nebraska Press, 2000 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8032-7995-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8032-7995-7">0-8032-7995-7</a></li> <li>A House Built on Sand: Exposing Postmodernist Myths About Science, Oxford University Press, 2000</li> <li>Intellectual Impostures, Economist Books, 2003</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tan_&_Tatsumura_2015-236"><a href="#cite_ref-Tan_&_Tatsumura_2015_236-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTanTatsumura2015" class="citation journal cs1">Tan, Sy; Tatsumura, Y (July 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4520913">"Alexander Fleming (1881–1955): Discoverer of penicillin"</a>. Singapore Medical Journal. 56 (7): 366–367. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.11622%2Fsmedj.2015105">10.11622/smedj.2015105</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4520913">4520913</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26243971">26243971</a>. <q>An uncovered Petri dish sitting next to an open window became contaminated with mould spores. Fleming observed that the bacteria in proximity to the mould colonies were dying, as evidenced by the dissolving and clearing of the surrounding agar gel. He was able to isolate the mould and identified it as a member of the Penicillium genus.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Singapore+Medical+Journal&rft.atitle=Alexander+Fleming+%281881%E2%80%931955%29%3A+Discoverer+of+penicillin&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=366-367&rft.date=2015-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4520913%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26243971&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.11622%2Fsmedj.2015105&rft.aulast=Tan&rft.aufirst=Sy&rft.au=Tatsumura%2C+Y&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4520913&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oliver,_J.E._1991-237">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Oliver,_J.E._1991_237-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oliver,_J.E._1991_237-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOliver1991" class="citation book cs1">Oliver, J. E. (1991). "Ch. 2: Strategy for Discovery". The Incomplete Guide to the Art of Discovery. New York: Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780231076203" title="Special:BookSources/9780231076203"><bdi>9780231076203</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ch.+2%3A+Strategy+for+Discovery&rft.btitle=The+Incomplete+Guide+to+the+Art+of+Discovery&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=9780231076203&rft.aulast=Oliver&rft.aufirst=J.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Anti-fragility-238"><a href="#cite_ref-Anti-fragility_238-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaleb" class="citation web cs1">Taleb, Nassim N. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130507124322/http://www.edge.org/q2011/q11_3.html">"Antifragility — or — The Property Of Disorder-Loving Systems"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.edge.org/q2011/q11_3.html">the original</a> on 2013-05-07.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Antifragility+%E2%80%94+or+%E2%80%94+The+Property+Of+Disorder-Loving+Systems&rft.aulast=Taleb&rft.aufirst=Nassim+N.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.edge.org%2Fq2011%2Fq11_3.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchaefer1984" class="citation journal cs1">Schaefer, Carl F (May 1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.asahq.org/anesthesiology/article/60/5/505/29253/Regarding-the-Misuse-of-t-Tests">"Regarding the Misuse of t Tests"</a>. Anesthesiology. 60 (5): 505. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2F00000542-198405000-00026">10.1097/00000542-198405000-00026</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6711862">6711862</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210829012031/https://pubs.asahq.org/anesthesiology/article/60/5/505/29253/Regarding-the-Misuse-of-t-Tests">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-08-29. Retrieved 2021-08-29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Anesthesiology&rft.atitle=Regarding+the+Misuse+of+t+Tests&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=505&rft.date=1984-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1097%2F00000542-198405000-00026&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F6711862&rft.aulast=Schaefer&rft.aufirst=Carl+F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubs.asahq.org%2Fanesthesiology%2Farticle%2F60%2F5%2F505%2F29253%2FRegarding-the-Misuse-of-t-Tests&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a> Anderson, Chris (2008) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uvm.edu/~pdodds/files/papers/others/2008/anderson2008a.pdf">The End of Theory: The Data Deluge Makes the Scientific Method Obsolete</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210502005844/http://www.uvm.edu/pdodds/files/papers/others/2008/anderson2008a.pdf">Archived</a> 2021-05-02 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Wired Magazine 16.07 </li> <li id="cite_note-bigDataCanBeIncomplete-241"><a href="#cite_ref-bigDataCanBeIncomplete_241-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Ludwik_Fleck" title="Ludwik Fleck">Ludwik Fleck</a> (1979) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://worldpece.org/sites/default/files/artifacts/media/pdf/fleck_et_al._-_2008_-_genesis_and_development_of_a_scientific_fact.pdf">Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210826194119/https://worldpece.org/sites/default/files/artifacts/media/pdf/fleck_et_al._-_2008_-_genesis_and_development_of_a_scientific_fact.pdf">Archived</a> 2021-08-26 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPólya1957">Pólya (1957)</a>, p. 131 in the section on 'Modern <a href="/wiki/Heuristic" title="Heuristic">heuristic</a>': "When we are working intensively, we feel keenly the progress of our work; we are elated when our progress is rapid, we are depressed when it is slow." </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a> Huai-Dong Cao and Xi-Ping Zhu <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/pdf/math/0612069.pdf">(3 Dec 2006) Hamilton-Perelman’s Proof of the Poincaré Conjecture and the Geometrization Conjecture</a> <ul><li>revised from H.D.Cao and X.P.Zhu Asian J. Math., 10(2) (2006), 165–492.</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-WMCF-244"><a href="#cite_ref-WMCF_244-0">^</a> George Lakoff and Rafael E. Núñez (2000) <a href="/wiki/Where_Mathematics_Comes_From" title="Where Mathematics Comes From">Where Mathematics Comes From</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-findIt-245"><a href="#cite_ref-findIt_245-0">^</a> "If you can't solve a problem, then there is an easier problem you can solve: find it." —<a href="#CITEREFPólya1957">Pólya (1957)</a>, p. 114 </li> <li id="cite_note-246"><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a> George Pólya (1954), Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning Volume I: Induction and Analogy in Mathematics. </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a> George Pólya (1954), Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning Volume II: Patterns of Plausible Reasoning. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPólya1957142-248"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPólya1957142_248-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPólya1957">Pólya (1957)</a>, p. 142. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPólya1957144-249"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPólya1957144_249-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPólya1957">Pólya (1957)</a>, p. 144. </li> <li id="cite_note-250"><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLakatos1976">Lakatos (1976)</a> documents the development, by generations of mathematicians, of <a href="/wiki/Euler%27s_formula_for_polyhedra" class="mw-redirect" title="Euler's formula for polyhedra">Euler's formula for polyhedra</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-eulerPoincaré-252"><a href="#cite_ref-eulerPoincaré_252-0">^</a> H.S.M. Coxeter (1973) Regular Polytopes <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780486614809" title="Special:BookSources/9780486614809">9780486614809</a>, Chapter IX "Poincaré's proof of Euler's formula" </li> <li id="cite_note-253"><a href="#cite_ref-253">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://faculty.math.illinois.edu/K-theory/0245/survey.pdf">"Charles A. Weibel (ca. 1995) History of Homological Algebra"</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210906014123/https://faculty.math.illinois.edu/K-theory/0245/survey.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2021-09-06. Retrieved 2021-08-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Charles+A.+Weibel+%28ca.+1995%29+History+of+Homological+Algebra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffaculty.math.illinois.edu%2FK-theory%2F0245%2Fsurvey.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-254"><a href="#cite_ref-254">^</a> Henri Poincaré, Sur l’<a href="/wiki/Analysis_Situs_(paper)" title="Analysis Situs (paper)">analysis situs</a>, Comptes rendusde l’Academie des Sciences 115 (1892), 633–636. as cited by <a href="#CITEREFLakatos1976">Lakatos (1976)</a>, p. 162 </li> <li id="cite_note-stillwell-255"><a href="#cite_ref-stillwell_255-0">^</a> John Stillwell, reviewer (Apr 2014). Notices of the AMS. 61 (4), pp. 378–383, on Jeremy Gray's (2013) Henri Poincaré: A Scientific Biography (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ams.org/notices/201404/rnoti-p378.pdf">PDF</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210704205514/http://www.ams.org/notices/201404/rnoti-p378.pdf">Archived</a> 2021-07-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELakatos197655-256"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELakatos197655_256-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLakatos1976">Lakatos (1976)</a>, p. 55. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackay1991100-257"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackay1991100_257-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMackay1991">Mackay (1991)</a>, p. 100. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 33em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlikuzai2013" class="citation book cs1">Alikuzai, Hamid Wahed (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-WRlAQAAQBAJ">A Concise History of Afghanistan in 25 Volumes</a>. Vol. 1. Trafford Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4907-1446-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4907-1446-2"><bdi>978-1-4907-1446-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231129112737/https://books.google.com/books?id=-WRlAQAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-11-29. Retrieved 2023-06-03.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+History+of+Afghanistan+in+25+Volumes&rft.pub=Trafford+Publishing&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-4907-1446-2&rft.aulast=Alikuzai&rft.aufirst=Hamid+Wahed&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-WRlAQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBorlik2011" class="citation cs2">Borlik, Todd Andrew (2011), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c_ShAgAAQBAJ">"'More than Art': Clockwork Automata, the Extemporizing Actor, and the Brazen Head in Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay"</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c_ShAgAAQBAJ">The Automaton in English Renaissance Literature</a>, Farnham: Ashgate Publishing, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-6865-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-6865-7"><bdi>978-0-7546-6865-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%27More+than+Art%27%3A+Clockwork+Automata%2C+the+Extemporizing+Actor%2C+and+the+Brazen+Head+in+Friar+Bacon+and+Friar+Bungay&rft.btitle=The+Automaton+in+English+Renaissance+Literature&rft.place=Farnham&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-6865-7&rft.aulast=Borlik&rft.aufirst=Todd+Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dc_ShAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBorn1949" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born">Born, Max</a> (1949), Natural Philosophy of Cause and Chance, Peter Smith</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Natural+Philosophy+of+Cause+and+Chance&rft.pub=Peter+Smith&rft.date=1949&rft.aulast=Born&rft.aufirst=Max&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988">, also published by Dover, 1964. From the Waynflete Lectures, 1948. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/naturalphilosoph032159mbp/naturalphilosoph032159mbp_djvu.txt">On the web. N.B.: the web version does not have the 3 addenda by Born, 1950, 1964, in which he notes that all knowledge is subjective. Born then proposes a solution in Appendix 3 (1964)</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrody1993" class="citation cs2">Brody, Thomas A. (1993), <a href="/wiki/Luis_de_la_Pe%C3%B1a" title="Luis de la Peña">Luis de la Peña</a>; Peter E. Hodgson (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zmHrCAAAQBAJ">The Philosophy Behind Physics</a>, Berlin; New York: Springer Verlag, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-55914-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-55914-8"><bdi>978-0-387-55914-8</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231129112726/https://books.google.com/books?id=zmHrCAAAQBAJ">archived</a> from the original on 2023-11-29, retrieved 2020-05-09</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Philosophy+Behind+Physics&rft.place=Berlin%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Springer+Verlag&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-387-55914-8&rft.aulast=Brody&rft.aufirst=Thomas+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzmHrCAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBruno1989" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Leonard_C._Bruno" title="Leonard C. Bruno">Bruno, Leonard C.</a> (1989), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/landmarksofscien0000brun">The Landmarks of Science</a>, Facts on File, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-2137-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-2137-6"><bdi>978-0-8160-2137-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Landmarks+of+Science&rft.pub=Facts+on+File&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-2137-6&rft.aulast=Bruno&rft.aufirst=Leonard+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flandmarksofscien0000brun&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBynumPorter2005" class="citation cs2">Bynum, W.F.; Porter, Roy (2005), Oxford Dictionary of Scientific Quotations, Oxford, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-858409-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-858409-4"><bdi>978-0-19-858409-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+Scientific+Quotations&rft.pub=Oxford&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-858409-4&rft.aulast=Bynum&rft.aufirst=W.F.&rft.au=Porter%2C+Roy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCowles2020" class="citation cs2">Cowles, Henry M. (2020), The Scientific Method: An Evolution of Thinking from Darwin to Dewey, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674976191" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674976191"><bdi>978-0674976191</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Scientific+Method%3A+An+Evolution+of+Thinking+from+Darwin+to+Dewey&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-0674976191&rft.aulast=Cowles&rft.aufirst=Henry+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> <ul><li>Reviewed in: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiskin2020" class="citation magazine cs1">Riskin, Jessica (2 July 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2020/07/02/just-use-your-thinking-pump/">"Just Use Your Thinking Pump!"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a>. Vol. LXVII, no. 11. pp. 48–50. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200624053814/https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2020/07/02/just-use-your-thinking-pump/">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-06-24. Retrieved 2020-06-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Review+of+Books&rft.atitle=Just+Use+Your+Thinking+Pump%21&rft.volume=LXVII&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=48-50&rft.date=2020-07-02&rft.aulast=Riskin&rft.aufirst=Jessica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nybooks.com%2Farticles%2F2020%2F07%2F02%2Fjust-use-your-thinking-pump%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDales1973" class="citation cs2">Dales, Richard C. (1973), The Scientific Achievement of the Middle Ages (The Middle Ages Series), University of Pennsylvania Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-1057-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-1057-6"><bdi>978-0-8122-1057-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Scientific+Achievement+of+the+Middle+Ages+%28The+Middle+Ages+Series%29&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-1057-6&rft.aulast=Dales&rft.aufirst=Richard+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDewey1910" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey, John</a> (1910), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_TE1IAAAAMAAJ">How we think</a>, Boston: <a href="/wiki/D._C._Heath_and_Company" title="D. C. Heath and Company">D. C. Heath and Company</a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/194219">194219</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+we+think&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=D.+C.+Heath+and+Company&rft.date=1910&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F194219&rft.aulast=Dewey&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbub_gb_TE1IAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> Public domain in the US. 236 pages</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFdi_Francia1981" class="citation cs2">di Francia, G. Toraldo (1981), The Investigation of the Physical World, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29925-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29925-1"><bdi>978-0-521-29925-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Investigation+of+the+Physical+World&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-521-29925-1&rft.aulast=di+Francia&rft.aufirst=G.+Toraldo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEinsteinInfeld1938" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Einstein, Albert</a>; <a href="/wiki/Leopold_Infeld" title="Leopold Infeld">Infeld, Leopold</a> (1938), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/evolutionofphysi00eins">The Evolution of Physics: from early concepts to relativity and quanta</a>, New York: Simon and Schuster, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-671-20156-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-671-20156-2"><bdi>978-0-671-20156-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Evolution+of+Physics%3A+from+early+concepts+to+relativity+and+quanta&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1938&rft.isbn=978-0-671-20156-2&rft.aulast=Einstein&rft.aufirst=Albert&rft.au=Infeld%2C+Leopold&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fevolutionofphysi00eins&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeynman1965" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Feynman, Richard</a> (1965), <a href="/wiki/The_Character_of_Physical_Law" title="The Character of Physical Law">The Character of Physical Law</a>, Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-56003-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-56003-0"><bdi>978-0-262-56003-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Character+of+Physical+Law&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=M.I.T.+Press&rft.date=1965&rft.isbn=978-0-262-56003-0&rft.aulast=Feynman&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFleck1979" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Ludwik_Fleck" title="Ludwik Fleck">Fleck, Ludwik</a> (1979), <a href="/wiki/Thought_collective#Genesis_and_Development_of_a_Scientific_Fact" title="Thought collective">Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact</a>, Univ. of Chicago, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-25325-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-25325-1"><bdi>978-0-226-25325-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genesis+and+Development+of+a+Scientific+Fact&rft.pub=Univ.+of+Chicago&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-226-25325-1&rft.aulast=Fleck&rft.aufirst=Ludwik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988">. (written in German, 1935, Entstehung und Entwickelung einer wissenschaftlichen Tatsache: Einführung in die Lehre vom Denkstil und Denkkollectiv) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0KAGUpaUaGYC&q=Ludwik+Fleck">English translation by Thaddeus J. Trenn and Fred Bradley, 1979</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230406020601/https://books.google.com/books?id=0KAGUpaUaGYC&q=Ludwik+Fleck">Archived</a> 2023-04-06 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Edited by Thaddeus J. Trenn and Robert K. Merton. Foreword by Robert K. Merton</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalileo_Galilei1638" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a> (1638), <a href="/wiki/Two_New_Sciences" title="Two New Sciences">Discorsi e Dimonstrazioni Matematiche, intorno a due nuoue scienze</a> [Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences] (in Italian and Latin), <a href="/wiki/Leiden" title="Leiden">Leiden</a>: <a href="/wiki/House_of_Elzevir" title="House of Elzevir">House of Elzevir</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Discorsi+e+Dimonstrazioni+Matematiche%2C+intorno+a+due+nuoue+scienze&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=House+of+Elzevir&rft.date=1638&rft.au=Galileo+Galilei&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988">. <ul><li>English translation: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalileo_Galilei2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a> (2003) [1914 by Macmillan]. Dialogues concerning two new sciences. Translated by Henry Crew & Alfonso de Salvio (reprint ed.). New York: Dover. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-60099-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-60099-4"><bdi>978-0-486-60099-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dialogues+concerning+two+new+sciences&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=Dover&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-486-60099-4&rft.au=Galileo+Galilei&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> Additional publication information is from the collection of first editions of the Library of Congress surveyed by <a href="#CITEREFBruno1989">Bruno (1989)</a>, pp. 261–264.</li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGauch_Jr2002" class="citation book cs1">Gauch Jr, Hugh G. (12 December 2002). Scientific Method in Practice. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo9780511815034.011">10.1017/cbo9780511815034.011</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-81689-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-81689-2"><bdi>978-0-521-81689-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scientific+Method+in+Practice&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002-12-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9780511815034.011&rft.isbn=978-0-521-81689-2&rft.aulast=Gauch+Jr&rft.aufirst=Hugh+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGauch2003" class="citation cs2">Gauch, Hugh G. Jr. (2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iVkugqNG9dAC">Scientific Method in Practice</a>, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-01708-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-01708-4"><bdi>978-0-521-01708-4</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231129113236/https://books.google.com/books?id=iVkugqNG9dAC">archived</a> from the original on 2023-11-29, retrieved 2020-05-09</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scientific+Method+in+Practice&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-521-01708-4&rft.aulast=Gauch&rft.aufirst=Hugh+G.+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiVkugqNG9dAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlen1994" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/William_Glen_(geologist_and_historian)" class="mw-redirect" title="William Glen (geologist and historian)">Glen, William</a>, ed. (1994), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/massextinctionde0000unse">The Mass-Extinction Debates: How Science Works in a Crisis</a>, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-2285-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-2285-8"><bdi>978-0-8047-2285-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mass-Extinction+Debates%3A+How+Science+Works+in+a+Crisis&rft.place=Stanford%2C+CA&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-2285-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmassextinctionde0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGodfrey-Smith2003" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Godfrey-Smith" title="Peter Godfrey-Smith">Godfrey-Smith, Peter</a> (2003), Theory and Reality: An introduction to the philosophy of science, University of Chicago Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-30063-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-30063-4"><bdi>978-0-226-30063-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theory+and+Reality%3A+An+introduction+to+the+philosophy+of+science&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-226-30063-4&rft.aulast=Godfrey-Smith&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldhaberNieto2010" class="citation cs2">Goldhaber, Alfred Scharff; Nieto, Michael Martin (January–March 2010), "Photon and graviton mass limits", <a href="/wiki/Rev._Mod._Phys." class="mw-redirect" title="Rev. Mod. Phys.">Rev. Mod. Phys.</a>, 82 (1): 939–979, <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/0809.1003">0809.1003</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010RvMP...82..939G">2010RvMP...82..939G</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FRevModPhys.82.939">10.1103/RevModPhys.82.939</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14395472">14395472</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Rev.+Mod.+Phys.&rft.atitle=Photon+and+graviton+mass+limits&rft.volume=82&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=939-979&rft.date=2010-01%2F2010-03&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F0809.1003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A14395472%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FRevModPhys.82.939&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010RvMP...82..939G&rft.aulast=Goldhaber&rft.aufirst=Alfred+Scharff&rft.au=Nieto%2C+Michael+Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHockney2006" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/David_Hockney" title="David Hockney">Hockney, David</a> (2006), Secret Knowledge: rediscovering the lost techniques of the old masters (expanded ed.), Penguin Publishing, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-200512-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-200512-6"><bdi>0-14-200512-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Secret+Knowledge%3A+rediscovering+the+lost+techniques+of+the+old+masters&rft.edition=expanded&rft.pub=Penguin+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-14-200512-6&rft.aulast=Hockney&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJevons1874" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/William_Stanley_Jevons" title="William Stanley Jevons">Jevons, William Stanley</a> (1874), The Principles of Science: A Treatise on Logic and Scientific Method, Dover Publications, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4304-8775-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4304-8775-3"><bdi>978-1-4304-8775-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Principles+of+Science%3A+A+Treatise+on+Logic+and+Scientific+Method&rft.pub=Dover+Publications&rft.date=1874&rft.isbn=978-1-4304-8775-3&rft.aulast=Jevons&rft.aufirst=William+Stanley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988">. 1877, 1879. Reprinted with a foreword by <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Nagel" class="mw-redirect" title="Ernst Nagel">Ernst Nagel</a>, New York, 1958.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJudson1979" class="citation cs2">Judson, Horace Freeland (1979), The Eighth Day of Creation, Simon and Schuster, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-671-22540-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-671-22540-5"><bdi>0-671-22540-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Eighth+Day+of+Creation&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=0-671-22540-5&rft.aulast=Judson&rft.aufirst=Horace+Freeland&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuhn1961" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Kuhn, Thomas S.</a> (1961), "The Function of Measurement in Modern Physical Science", Isis, 52 (2): 161–193, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F349468">10.1086/349468</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/228678">228678</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144294881">144294881</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Isis&rft.atitle=The+Function+of+Measurement+in+Modern+Physical+Science&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=161-193&rft.date=1961&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144294881%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F228678%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F349468&rft.aulast=Kuhn&rft.aufirst=Thomas+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLakatos1976" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos">Lakatos, Imre</a> (1976), John Worrall; Elie Zahar (eds.), <a href="/wiki/Proofs_and_Refutations" title="Proofs and Refutations">Proofs and Refutations</a>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29038-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29038-8"><bdi>978-0-521-29038-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Proofs+and+Refutations&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-521-29038-8&rft.aulast=Lakatos&rft.aufirst=Imre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindberg2007" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/David_C._Lindberg" title="David C. Lindberg">Lindberg, David C.</a> (2007), The Beginnings of Western Science, University of Chicago Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Beginnings+of+Western+Science&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Lindberg&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> 2nd edition 2007.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMackay1991" class="citation cs2">Mackay, Alan L., ed. (1991), Dictionary of Scientific Quotations, London: IOP Publishing Ltd, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7503-0106-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7503-0106-0"><bdi>978-0-7503-0106-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Scientific+Quotations&rft.place=London&rft.pub=IOP+Publishing+Ltd&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-7503-0106-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCarty1985" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Maclyn_McCarty" title="Maclyn McCarty">McCarty, Maclyn</a> (1985), The Transforming Principle: Discovering that genes are made of DNA, New York: W.W. Norton, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-30450-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-30450-3"><bdi>978-0-393-30450-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Transforming+Principle%3A+Discovering+that+genes+are+made+of+DNA&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-393-30450-3&rft.aulast=McCarty&rft.aufirst=Maclyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988">. Memoir of a researcher in the <a href="/wiki/Avery%E2%80%93MacLeod%E2%80%93McCarty_experiment" title="Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment">Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcElheny2004" class="citation cs2">McElheny, Victor K. (2004), Watson & DNA: Making a scientific revolution, Basic Books, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7382-0866-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7382-0866-4"><bdi>978-0-7382-0866-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Watson+%26+DNA%3A+Making+a+scientific+revolution&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-7382-0866-4&rft.aulast=McElheny&rft.aufirst=Victor+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoultonSchifferes1960" class="citation cs2">Moulton, Forest Ray; Schifferes, Justus J., eds. (1960), The Autobiography of Science (2nd ed.), Doubleday</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Autobiography+of+Science&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Doubleday&rft.date=1960&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeedhamWang1954" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Needham" title="Joseph Needham">Needham, Joseph</a>; <a href="/wiki/Wang_Ling_(historian)" title="Wang Ling (historian)">Wang, Ling (王玲)</a> (1954), <a href="/wiki/Science_and_Civilisation_in_China" title="Science and Civilisation in China">Science and Civilisation in China Vol. 1: Introductory Orientations</a>, Cambridge University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Civilisation+in+China+Vol.+1%3A+Introductory+Orientations&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1954&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft.au=Wang%2C+Ling+%28%E7%8E%8B%E7%8E%B2%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewton_transl1999" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton, Isaac</a> (1999) [1687, 1713, 1726], <a href="/wiki/Philosophiae_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica">Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica</a>, University of California Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-08817-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-08817-7"><bdi>978-0-520-08817-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophiae+Naturalis+Principia+Mathematica&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-520-08817-7&rft.aulast=Newton&rft.aufirst=Isaac&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988">, Third edition. From <a href="/wiki/I._Bernard_Cohen" title="I. Bernard Cohen">I. Bernard Cohen</a> and Anne Whitman's 1999 translation.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFØrsted1997" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Hans_Christian_%C3%98rsted" title="Hans Christian Ørsted">Ørsted, Hans Christian</a> (1997), Selected Scientific Works of Hans Christian Ørsted, Princeton, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-04334-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-04334-0"><bdi>978-0-691-04334-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Selected+Scientific+Works+of+Hans+Christian+%C3%98rsted&rft.pub=Princeton&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-691-04334-0&rft.aulast=%C3%98rsted&rft.aufirst=Hans+Christian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988">. Translated to English by Karen Jelved, Andrew D. Jackson, and Ole Knudsen, (translators 1997).</li> <li>Peirce, C.S. – see <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce_bibliography" title="Charles Sanders Peirce bibliography">Charles Sanders Peirce bibliography</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoincaré1905" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Poincaré, Henri</a> (1905), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.brocku.ca/MeadProject/Poincare/Poincare_1905_toc.html">Science and Hypothesis</a>, London: Walter Scott Publishing, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070929132850/http://www.brocku.ca/MeadProject/Poincare/Poincare_1905_toc.html">archived</a> from the original on 2007-09-29, retrieved 2007-08-01 – via The Mead Project</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Hypothesis&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Walter+Scott+Publishing&rft.date=1905&rft.aulast=Poincar%C3%A9&rft.aufirst=Henri&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.brocku.ca%2FMeadProject%2FPoincare%2FPoincare_1905_toc.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPólya1957" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/George_P%C3%B3lya" title="George Pólya">Pólya, George</a> (1957), <a href="/wiki/How_to_Solve_It" title="How to Solve It">How to Solve It</a> (2nd ed.), Princeton University Press, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/4140462">4140462</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+to+Solve+It&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1957&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F4140462&rft.aulast=P%C3%B3lya&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPólya2009" class="citation book cs1">Pólya, George (2009). Reprint. Ishi Press International. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-4-87187-830-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-4-87187-830-2"><bdi>978-4-87187-830-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/706968824">706968824</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reprint&rft.pub=Ishi+Press+International&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F706968824&rft.isbn=978-4-87187-830-2&rft.aulast=P%C3%B3lya&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988">}</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPopper1959" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper, Karl R.</a> (1959) [1934], <a href="/wiki/The_Logic_of_Scientific_Discovery" title="The Logic of Scientific Discovery">The Logic of Scientific Discovery</a> (English ed.)</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Logic+of+Scientific+Discovery&rft.edition=English&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Popper&rft.aufirst=Karl+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPopper1963" class="citation cs2">Popper, Karl R. (1963), Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge, Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-28594-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-28594-1"><bdi>0-415-28594-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conjectures+and+Refutations%3A+The+Growth+of+Scientific+Knowledge&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1963&rft.isbn=0-415-28594-1&rft.aulast=Popper&rft.aufirst=Karl+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPopper2005" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper, Karl R.</a> (2005) [1959, English ed.], <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130722012855/http://www.cosmopolitanuniversity.ac/library/LogicofScientificDiscoveryPopper1959.pdf">The Logic of Scientific Discovery</a> (PDF), Taylor & Francis e-Library, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-203-99462-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-203-99462-0"><bdi>0-203-99462-0</bdi></a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cosmopolitanuniversity.ac/library/LogicofScientificDiscoveryPopper1959.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2013-07-22</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Logic+of+Scientific+Discovery&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis+e-Library&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-203-99462-0&rft.aulast=Popper&rft.aufirst=Karl+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cosmopolitanuniversity.ac%2Flibrary%2FLogicofScientificDiscoveryPopper1959.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRozhanskayaLevinova1996" class="citation book cs1">Rozhanskaya, Mariam; Levinova, I. S. (1996). "Statics". In Rushdī, Rāshid (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/RoshdiRasheded.EncyclopediaOfTheHistoryOfArabicScienceVol.3Routledge1996/Qisar-Roshdi-Rashed-Encyclopedia-of-the-History-of-Arabic-Science/mode/2up">Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science</a>. Psychology Press. pp. 274–298. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-12411-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-12411-9"><bdi>978-0-415-12411-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Statics&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+History+of+Arabic+Science&rft.pages=274-298&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-415-12411-9&rft.aulast=Rozhanskaya&rft.aufirst=Mariam&rft.au=Levinova%2C+I.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FRoshdiRasheded.EncyclopediaOfTheHistoryOfArabicScienceVol.3Routledge1996%2FQisar-Roshdi-Rashed-Encyclopedia-of-the-History-of-Arabic-Science%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSabra2007" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/A._I._Sabra" title="A. I. Sabra">Sabra, A. I.</a> (2007), The "Commentary" That Saved the Text. The Hazardous Journey of Ibn al-Haytham's Arabic Optics, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20617660">20617660</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+%22Commentary%22+That+Saved+the+Text.+The+Hazardous+Journey+of+Ibn+al-Haytham%27s+Arabic+Optics&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20617660%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Sabra&rft.aufirst=A.+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSambursky1975" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Shmuel_Sambursky" title="Shmuel Sambursky">Sambursky, Shmuel</a>, ed. (1975), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/physicalthoughtf0000unse/">Physical Thought from the Presocratics to the Quantum Physicists</a>, Pica Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87663-712-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87663-712-8"><bdi>978-0-87663-712-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Physical+Thought+from+the+Presocratics+to+the+Quantum+Physicists&rft.pub=Pica+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0-87663-712-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fphysicalthoughtf0000unse%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988">. <ul><li>Reviewed in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoffmann1976" class="citation cs2">Hoffmann, Banesh (1976), "'Because it's there': Man's struggle to understand Nature", Physics Today, 29 (2): 51–53, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1976PhT....29b..51S">1976PhT....29b..51S</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.3023315">10.1063/1.3023315</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+Today&rft.atitle=%27Because+it%27s+there%27%3A+Man%27s+struggle+to+understand+Nature&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=51-53&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.3023315&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1976PhT....29b..51S&rft.aulast=Hoffmann&rft.aufirst=Banesh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988">.</li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSanches1988" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Sanches" title="Francisco Sanches">Sanches, Francisco</a> (1988) [1581], Limbrick, Elaine; Thomson, Douglas (eds.), That Nothing is Known (Quod nihil scitur), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-35077-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-35077-8"><bdi>978-0-521-35077-8</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/462156333">462156333</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=That+Nothing+is+Known+%28Quod+nihil+scitur%29&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F462156333&rft.isbn=978-0-521-35077-8&rft.aulast=Sanches&rft.aufirst=Francisco&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"> Critical edition.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2001a" class="citation journal cs1">Smith, A. Mark (2001a). "Alhacen's Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen's "De aspectibus", the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's "Kitāb al-Manāẓir": Volume One: Introduction and Latin text". Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. 91 (4): 1–337. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3657358">10.2307/3657358</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3657358">3657358</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+American+Philosophical+Society&rft.atitle=Alhacen%27s+Theory+of+Visual+Perception%3A+A+Critical+Edition%2C+with+English+Translation+and+Commentary%2C+of+the+First+Three+Books+of+Alhacen%27s+%22De+aspectibus%22%2C+the+Medieval+Latin+Version+of+Ibn+al-Haytham%27s+%22Kit%C4%81b+al-Man%C4%81%E1%BA%93ir%22%3A+Volume+One%3A+Introduction+and+Latin+text&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1-337&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3657358&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3657358%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=A.+Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2001b" class="citation journal cs1">Smith, A. Mark (2001b). "Alhacen's Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen's "De aspectibus", the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's "Kitāb al-Manāẓir": Volume Two: English translation". Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. 91 (5): 339–819. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3657357">10.2307/3657357</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3657357">3657357</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+American+Philosophical+Society&rft.atitle=Alhacen%27s+Theory+of+Visual+Perception%3A+A+Critical+Edition%2C+with+English+Translation+and+Commentary%2C+of+the+First+Three+Books+of+Alhacen%27s+%22De+aspectibus%22%2C+the+Medieval+Latin+Version+of+Ibn+al-Haytham%27s+%22Kit%C4%81b+al-Man%C4%81%E1%BA%93ir%22%3A+Volume+Two%3A+English+translation&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=339-819&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3657357&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3657357%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=A.+Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2010" class="citation journal cs1">Smith, A. Mark (2010). "ALHACEN ON REFRACTION: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of Book 7 of Alhacen's De Aspectibus. Volume One: Introduction and Latin Text. Volume Two: English Translation". Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. 100 (3). <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20787647">20787647</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+American+Philosophical+Society&rft.atitle=ALHACEN+ON+REFRACTION%3A+A+Critical+Edition%2C+with+English+Translation+and+Commentary%2C+of+Book+7+of+Alhacen%27s+De+Aspectibus.+Volume+One%3A+Introduction+and+Latin+Text.+Volume+Two%3A+English+Translation&rft.volume=100&rft.issue=3&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20787647%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=A.+Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThurs2011" class="citation book cs1">Thurs, Daniel (2011). "12. Scientific Methods". In Shank, Michael; Numbers, Ronald; Harrison, Peter (eds.). Wrestling with Nature: From Omens to Science. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 307–336. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-31783-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-31783-0"><bdi>978-0-226-31783-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=12.+Scientific+Methods&rft.btitle=Wrestling+with+Nature%3A+From+Omens+to+Science&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=307-336&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-226-31783-0&rft.aulast=Thurs&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaleb2007" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Nassim_Nicholas_Taleb" title="Nassim Nicholas Taleb">Taleb, Nassim Nicholas</a> (2007), <a href="/wiki/The_Black_Swan_(Taleb_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Black Swan (Taleb book)">The Black Swan</a>, Random House, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-6351-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-6351-2"><bdi>978-1-4000-6351-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Black+Swan&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4000-6351-2&rft.aulast=Taleb&rft.aufirst=Nassim+Nicholas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVoelkel2001" class="citation cs2">Voelkel, James R. (2001), Johannes Kepler and the New Astronomy, Oxford University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Johannes+Kepler+and+the+New+Astronomy&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Voelkel&rft.aufirst=James+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVoit2019" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eberhard_Voit" title="Eberhard Voit">Voit, Eberhard O.</a> (12 September 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6742218">"Perspective: Dimensions of the scientific method"</a>. PLOS Computational Biology. 15 (9): e1007279. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019PLSCB..15E7279V">2019PLSCB..15E7279V</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pcbi.1007279">10.1371/journal.pcbi.1007279</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1553-7358">1553-7358</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6742218">6742218</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31513575">31513575</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+Computational+Biology&rft.atitle=Perspective%3A+Dimensions+of+the+scientific+method&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=e1007279&rft.date=2019-09-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6742218%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019PLSCB..15E7279V&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31513575&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pcbi.1007279&rft.issn=1553-7358&rft.aulast=Voit&rft.aufirst=Eberhard+O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6742218&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatson1968" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/James_D._Watson" class="mw-redirect" title="James D. Watson">Watson, James D.</a> (1968), <a href="/wiki/The_Double_Helix" title="The Double Helix">The Double Helix</a>, New York: Atheneum, Library of Congress card number 68-16217</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Double+Helix&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Atheneum&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=James+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988">.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 33em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henry_H._Bauer" title="Henry H. Bauer">Bauer, Henry H.</a>, Scientific Literacy and the Myth of the Scientific Method, University of Illinois Press, Champaign, IL, 1992</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ian_Beardmore_Beveridge" title="William Ian Beardmore Beveridge">Beveridge, William I.B.</a>, The Art of Scientific Investigation, <a href="/wiki/Heinemann_(book_publisher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Heinemann (book publisher)">Heinemann</a>, Melbourne, Australia, 1950.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_J._Bernstein" title="Richard J. Bernstein">Bernstein, Richard J.</a>, Beyond Objectivism and Relativism: Science, Hermeneutics, and Praxis, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, PA, 1983.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_A._Brody" class="mw-redirect" title="Baruch A. Brody">Brody, Baruch A.</a> and Capaldi, Nicholas, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=d1heAAAAIAAJ">Science: Men, Methods, Goals: A Reader: Methods of Physical Science</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230413233902/https://books.google.com/books?id=d1heAAAAIAAJ">Archived</a> 2023-04-13 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, W.A. Benjamin, 1968</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_A._Brody" class="mw-redirect" title="Baruch A. Brody">Brody, Baruch A.</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Grandy" title="Richard Grandy">Grandy, Richard E.</a>, Readings in the Philosophy of Science, 2nd edition, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1989.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_W._Burks" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur W. Burks">Burks, Arthur W.</a>, Chance, Cause, Reason: An Inquiry into the Nature of Scientific Evidence, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, 1977.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Chalmers" title="Alan Chalmers">Chalmers, Alan</a>, <a href="/wiki/What_Is_This_Thing_Called_Science%3F" title="What Is This Thing Called Science?">What Is This Thing Called Science?</a>. Queensland University Press and Open University Press, 1976.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrick1988" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Crick, Francis</a> (1988), <a href="/wiki/What_Mad_Pursuit:_A_Personal_View_of_Scientific_Discovery" class="mw-redirect" title="What Mad Pursuit: A Personal View of Scientific Discovery">What Mad Pursuit: A Personal View of Scientific Discovery</a>, New York: Basic Books, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-09137-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-09137-9"><bdi>978-0-465-09137-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Mad+Pursuit%3A+A+Personal+View+of+Scientific+Discovery&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-465-09137-9&rft.aulast=Crick&rft.aufirst=Francis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrombie1953" class="citation cs2">Crombie, A.C. (1953), Robert Grosseteste and the Origins of Experimental Science 1100–1700, Oxford: Clarendon</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Robert+Grosseteste+and+the+Origins+of+Experimental+Science+1100%E2%80%931700&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon&rft.date=1953&rft.aulast=Crombie&rft.aufirst=A.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Earman" title="John Earman">Earman, John</a> (ed.), Inference, Explanation, and Other Frustrations: Essays in the Philosophy of Science, University of California Press, Berkeley & Los Angeles, CA, 1992.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas_C._van_Fraassen" class="mw-redirect" title="Bas C. van Fraassen">Fraassen, Bas C. van</a>, The Scientific Image, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1980.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFranklin2009" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/James_Franklin_(philosopher)" title="James Franklin (philosopher)">Franklin, James</a> (2009), What Science Knows: And How It Knows It, New York: Encounter Books, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59403-207-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59403-207-3"><bdi>978-1-59403-207-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Science+Knows%3A+And+How+It+Knows+It&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Encounter+Books&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-59403-207-3&rft.aulast=Franklin&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Gadamer, Hans-Georg</a>, Reason in the Age of Science, Frederick G. Lawrence (trans.), MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1981.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_N._Giere" class="mw-redirect" title="Ronald N. Giere">Giere, Ronald N.</a> (ed.), Cognitive Models of Science, vol. 15 in 'Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science', University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, MN, 1992.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Hacking" title="Ian Hacking">Hacking, Ian</a>, Representing and Intervening, Introductory Topics in the Philosophy of Natural Science, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1983.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Heisenberg, Werner</a>, Physics and Beyond, Encounters and Conversations, A.J. Pomerans (trans.), Harper and Row, New York, 1971, pp. 63–64.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerald_Holton" title="Gerald Holton">Holton, Gerald</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thematic_Origins_of_Scientific_Thought:_Kepler_to_Einstein" class="mw-redirect" title="Thematic Origins of Scientific Thought: Kepler to Einstein">Thematic Origins of Scientific Thought: Kepler to Einstein</a>, 1st edition 1973, revised edition, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1988.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karin_Knorr_Cetina" title="Karin Knorr Cetina">Karin Knorr Cetina</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnorr_Cetina1999" class="citation book cs1">Knorr Cetina, Karin (1999). <a href="/wiki/Epistemic_cultures" title="Epistemic cultures">Epistemic cultures: how the sciences make knowledge</a>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-25894-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-25894-5"><bdi>978-0-674-25894-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Epistemic+cultures%3A+how+the+sciences+make+knowledge&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-674-25894-5&rft.aulast=Knorr+Cetina&rft.aufirst=Karin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_S._Kuhn" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas S. Kuhn">Kuhn, Thomas S.</a>, The Essential Tension, Selected Studies in Scientific Tradition and Change, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, 1977.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Latour" title="Bruno Latour">Latour, Bruno</a>, Science in Action, How to Follow Scientists and Engineers through Society, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1987.</li> <li>Losee, John, A Historical Introduction to the Philosophy of Science, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1972. 2nd edition, 1980.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Maxwell" title="Nicholas Maxwell">Maxwell, Nicholas</a>, The Comprehensibility of the Universe: A New Conception of Science, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1998. Paperback 2003.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Maxwell" title="Nicholas Maxwell">Maxwell, Nicholas</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.paragonhouse.com/xcart/Understanding-Scientific-Progress-Aim-Oriented-Empiricism.html">Understanding Scientific Progress</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180220210819/http://www.paragonhouse.com/xcart/Understanding-Scientific-Progress-Aim-Oriented-Empiricism.html">Archived</a> 2018-02-20 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Paragon House, St. Paul, Minnesota, 2017.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcComas1998" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_McComas" title="William McComas">McComas, William F.</a>, ed. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140701110930/http://coehp.uark.edu/pase/TheMythsOfScience.pdf">"The Principal Elements of the Nature of Science: Dispelling the Myths"</a> (PDF). The Nature of Science in Science Education. Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 53–70. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://coehp.uark.edu/pase/TheMythsOfScience.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2014-07-01.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Nature+of+Science+in+Science+Education&rft.atitle=The+Principal+Elements+of+the+Nature+of+Science%3A+Dispelling+the+Myths&rft.pages=53-70&rft.date=1998&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcoehp.uark.edu%2Fpase%2FTheMythsOfScience.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheryl_Misak" title="Cheryl Misak">Misak, Cheryl J.</a>, Truth and the End of Inquiry, A Peircean Account of Truth, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1991.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naomi_Oreskes" title="Naomi Oreskes">Oreskes, Naomi</a>, "Masked Confusion: A trusted source of health information misleads the public by prioritizing rigor over reality", <a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a>, vol. 329, no. 4 (November 2023), pp. 90–91.</li> <li>Piattelli-Palmarini, Massimo (ed.), Language and Learning, The Debate between Jean Piaget and Noam Chomsky, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1980.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_R._Popper" class="mw-redirect" title="Karl R. Popper">Popper, Karl R.</a>, Unended Quest, An Intellectual Autobiography, Open Court, La Salle, IL, 1982.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Putnam, Hilary</a>, Renewing Philosophy, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1992.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Rorty, Richard</a>, Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1979.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wesley_C._Salmon" title="Wesley C. Salmon">Salmon, Wesley C.</a>, Four Decades of Scientific Explanation, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, MN, 1990.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abner_Shimony" title="Abner Shimony">Shimony, Abner</a>, Search for a Naturalistic World View: Vol. 1, Scientific Method and Epistemology, Vol. 2, Natural Science and Metaphysics, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1993.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Thagard" title="Paul Thagard">Thagard, Paul</a>, Conceptual Revolutions, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1992.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ziman" title="John Ziman">Ziman, John</a> (2000). Real Science: what it is, and what it means. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/40px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/60px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/80px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: <a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/The_Scientific_Method" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:The Scientific Method">The Scientific Method</a></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/40px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="33" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/60px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/80px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiversity has learning resources about <a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Thinking_Scientifically" class="extiw" title="v:Thinking Scientifically">Thinking Scientifically</a></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Scientific_method" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Scientific method">Scientific method</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about Scientific method <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Scientific+method">Resources in your library</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndersenHepburn" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hanne_Andersen_(philosopher)" title="Hanne Andersen (philosopher)">Andersen, Hanne</a>; Hepburn, Brian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/scientific-method/">"Scientific Method"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Scientific+Method&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Andersen&rft.aufirst=Hanne&rft.au=Hepburn%2C+Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fscientific-method%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/conf-ind">"Confirmation and Induction"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Confirmation+and+Induction&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fconf-ind&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+method" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/browse/scientific-method">Scientific method</a> at <a href="/wiki/PhilPapers" title="PhilPapers">PhilPapers</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.inphoproject.org/idea/1916">Scientific method</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Indiana_Philosophy_Ontology_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project">Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geo.sunysb.edu/esp/files/scientific-method.html">An Introduction to Science: Scientific Thinking and a scientific method</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180101173949/http://www.geo.sunysb.edu/esp/files/scientific-method.html">Archived</a> 2018-01-01 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by Steven D. Schafersman.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://teacher.nsrl.rochester.edu/phy_labs/AppendixE/AppendixE.html">Introduction to the scientific method</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Rochester" title="University of Rochester">University of Rochester</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://zenodo.org/record/6336021#.YmafclMpBKM">The scientific method from a philosophical perspective</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.galilean-library.org/theory.html">Theory-ladenness</a> by Paul Newall at The Galilean Library</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060428080832/http://pasadena.wr.usgs.gov/office/ganderson/es10/lectures/lecture01/lecture01.html">Lecture on Scientific Method by Greg Anderson</a> (archived 28 April 2006)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencemadesimple.com/scientific_method.html">Using the scientific method for designing science fair projects</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://emotionalcompetency.com/sci/booktoc.html">Scientific Methods an online book by Richard D. Jarrard</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b240PGCMwV0">Richard Feynman on the Key to Science</a> (one minute, three seconds), from the Cornell Lectures.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130121134726/http://www.dbskeptic.com/2010/03/14/what-it-means-to-be-scientifically-proven/">Lectures on the Scientific Method</a> by Nick Josh Karean, <a href="/wiki/Kevin_Padian" title="Kevin Padian">Kevin Padian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Shermer" title="Michael Shermer">Michael Shermer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins" title="Richard Dawkins">Richard Dawkins</a> (archived 21 January 2013).</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yk5IWzTfWeM">"How Do We Know What Is True?" (animated video; 2:52)</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_science" title="Template talk:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_science" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">A priori and a posteriori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mill%27s_Methods" title="Mill's Methods">Mill's Methods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensurability_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Commensurability (philosophy of science)">Commensurability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construct_(philosophy)" title="Construct (philosophy)">Construct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correlation" title="Correlation">Correlation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Correlation_function" title="Correlation function">function</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creative_synthesis" title="Creative synthesis">Creative synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">Empirical evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">Experiment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Design_of_experiments" title="Design of experiments">design</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explanatory_power" title="Explanatory power">Explanatory power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">Fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_method" title="Feminist method">Feminist method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_contextualism" title="Functional contextualism">Functional contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">Hypothesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_hypothesis" title="Alternative hypothesis">alternative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Null_hypothesis" title="Null hypothesis">null</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignoramus_et_ignorabimus" title="Ignoramus et ignorabimus">Ignoramus et ignorabimus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Inductive reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertheoretic_reduction" title="Intertheoretic reduction">Intertheoretic reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquiry" title="Inquiry">Inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">Observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">Paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_evidence" title="Scientific evidence">Scientific evidence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_practice" title="Evidence-based practice">Evidence-based practice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law">Scientific law</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_pluralism" title="Scientific pluralism">Scientific pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testability" title="Testability">Testability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">Theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theory_choice" title="Theory choice">choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory-ladenness" title="Theory-ladenness">ladenness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">scientific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underdetermination" title="Underdetermination">Underdetermination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_and_attribute_(research)" title="Variable and attribute (research)">Variable</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_variable" title="Control variable">control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependent_and_independent_variables" title="Dependent and independent variables">dependent and independent</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_science_articles" title="Index of philosophy of science articles">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_empiricism" title="Constructive empiricism">Constructive empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_realism" title="Constructive realism">Constructive realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivist epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological anarchism">Epistemological anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionism" title="Evolutionism">Evolutionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothetico-deductive_model" title="Hypothetico-deductive model">Hypothetico-deductive model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductionism" title="Inductionism">Inductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model-dependent_realism" title="Model-dependent realism">Model-dependent realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Received_view_of_theories" title="Received view of theories">Received view</a> / <a href="/wiki/Semantic_view_of_theories" title="Semantic view of theories">Semantic view of theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_essentialism" title="Scientific essentialism">Scientific essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_formalism" title="Scientific formalism">Scientific formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy of...</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_archaeology" title="Philosophy of archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of economics">Economics‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_linguistics" title="Philosophy of linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_research" title="Descriptive research">Descriptive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exact_sciences" title="Exact sciences">Exact sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_and_soft_science" title="Hard and soft science">Hard and soft science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-science" title="Non-science">Non-science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_science" title="Normative science">Normative science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protoscience" title="Protoscience">Protoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Questionable_cause" title="Questionable cause">Questionable cause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">Rhetoric of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Sociology of scientific knowledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_science" title="List of philosophers of science">Philosophers of science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Precursors" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Precursors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Henri Poincaré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Duhem" title="Pierre Duhem">Pierre Duhem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Rudolf Steiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Pearson" title="Karl Pearson">Karl Pearson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Windelband" title="Wilhelm Windelband">Wilhelm Windelband</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">C. D. Broad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Michael Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Hempel" title="Carl Gustav Hempel">Carl Gustav Hempel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos">Imre Lakatos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Hacking" title="Ian Hacking">Ian Hacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Laudan" title="Larry Laudan">Larry Laudan</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_science" title="Category:Philosophy of science">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, 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class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology" title="History of science and technology">and technology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropocene" title="Anthropocene">Anthropocene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuzzy_logic" title="Fuzzy logic">Fuzzy logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Luddism" title="Neo-Luddism">Neo-Luddism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Philosophy of social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology" title="Philosophy of technology">Philosophy of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpositivism" title="Postpositivism">Postpositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Religion and science</a></li> <li><a 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href="/wiki/Sociology_of_knowledge" title="Sociology of knowledge">Sociology of knowledge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">scientific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_history_of_science" title="Sociology of the history of science">Sociology of the history of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociotechnology" title="Sociotechnology">Sociotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strong_programme" title="Strong programme">Strong programme</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiscience" title="Antiscience">Antiscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliometrics" title="Bibliometrics">Bibliometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boundary-work" title="Boundary-work">Boundary-work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_hermeneutic" title="Double hermeneutic">Double hermeneutic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logology_(science)" title="Logology (science)">Logology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapping_controversies" title="Mapping controversies">Mapping controversies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metascience" title="Metascience">Metascience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">Paradigm shift</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_swan_events" class="mw-redirect" title="Black swan events">black swan events</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_science" title="Psychology of science">Psychology of science</a></li> <li>Science <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Citizen_science" title="Citizen science">citizen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_communication" title="Science communication">communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_education" title="Science education">education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normal_science" title="Normal science">normal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-colonial_science" title="Neo-colonial science">Neo-colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-normal_science" title="Post-normal science">post-normal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_wars" title="Science wars">wars</a></li></ul></li> <li>Scientific <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_community" title="Scientific community">community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_consensus" title="Scientific consensus">consensus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_controversy" title="Scientific controversy">controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_dissent" title="Scientific dissent">dissent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_enterprise" title="Scientific enterprise">enterprise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_literacy" title="Scientific literacy">literacy</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_misconduct" title="Scientific misconduct">misconduct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_priority" title="Scientific priority">priority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientocracy" title="Scientocracy">Scientocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientometrics" title="Scientometrics">Scientometrics</a></li> <li><a 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href="/wiki/Diffusion_of_innovations" title="Diffusion of innovations">diffusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disruptive_innovation" title="Disruptive innovation">disruptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_model_of_innovation" title="Linear model of innovation">linear model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_innovation_system" title="Technological innovation system">system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/User_innovation" title="User innovation">user</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leapfrogging" title="Leapfrogging">Leapfrogging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normalization_process_theory" title="Normalization process theory">Normalization process theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_salient" title="Reverse salient">Reverse salient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skunkworks_project" title="Skunkworks project">Skunkworks project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociotechnical_system" title="Sociotechnical system">Sociotechnical system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_change" title="Technical change">Technical change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technoscience" title="Technoscience">Technoscience</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_technoscience" title="Feminist technoscience">feminist</a></li></ul></li> <li>Technological <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technological_change" title="Technological change">change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_convergence" title="Technological convergence">convergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_determinism" title="Technological determinism">determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_revolution" title="Technological revolution">revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_transitions" title="Technological transitions">transitions</a></li></ul></li> <li>Technology <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technology_and_society" title="Technology and society">and 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Template:Citation"," 7.87% 183.422 36 Template:Sfnp"," 5.93% 138.160 16 Template:Efn-lg"," 4.99% 116.276 1 Template:Science"," 4.92% 114.587 1 Template:Sidebar"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.349","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":19539285,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\nanchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"Analysis\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAchinstein2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAikenhead1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlikuzai2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAndersenHepburn\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAnderson1933\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaker,_Alan2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBauer1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBird,_Alexander2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBorlik2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBorn1949\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrody1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrownKumar2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBruno1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBynumPorter2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCowles2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCracraftDonoghue2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrawfordStucki1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrick1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrombie1953\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDales1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeutsch2009\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFDewey1910\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFE_Brian_Davies2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEinstein1949\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEinstein1961\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEinsteinInfeld1938\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEmden2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFeynman1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFleck1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFranklin2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGalileo_Galilei1638\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGalileo_Galilei2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGauch2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGauch2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGauch_Jr2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGigerenzer2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGlen1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGodfrey-Smith2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGodfrey-Smith2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldhaberNieto2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHallHallgrímsson2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHanson1958\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarwood1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHempel1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHepburnAndersen2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHockney2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoffmann1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHooke1705\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInwood2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIoannidis2005\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFIoannidouErduran2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJevons1874\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJudson1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKarl_Popper\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKarl_Raimund_Popper2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKetner2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeuth2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKing1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKnorr-Cetina1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKnorr_Cetina1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrantz2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrauss2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKremer2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrider2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrugman1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuhn1961\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuhn2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLakatos1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLequeux2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindberg2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacKay1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMackay1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMark_Colyvan2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCarty1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcComas1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcComas1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcElheny2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcGill1937\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMertonBarberBarber2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoultonSchifferes1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeedhamWang1954\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeurath†Bonk2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNewton1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNewton_transl1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNolaSankey2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Connor,_J._J.Robertson,_E._F.1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOliver1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOsborneSimonCollins2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeirce1877\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFPeirce1899\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeirce1905\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeirce1908\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlatt1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPoincaré1905\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPopper1959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPopper1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPopper2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPsillos2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPólya1957\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPólya2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRiskin2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRozhanskayaLevinova1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRudolph2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSabra2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSagan1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSambursky1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSanches1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchaefer1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchickoreHangel2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchusterPowers2005\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2001a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2001b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmolin2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSnyder1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpieceColosi2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStaddon2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStaddon2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStangorWalingaBC_Open_Textbook_ProjectBCcampus2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStephen_HawkingLeonard_Mlodinow2010\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFTaleb\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaleb2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTanTatsumura2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTao2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomas_S_Kuhn2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThurs2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThurs2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVoelkel2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVoit2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWatson1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeinert2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWelsbyWeatherall2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWigner1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWivagg2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFdi_Francia1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_OverwalleHeylighen1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_der_Ploeg2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFØrsted1997\"] = 1,\n [\"Characterization\"] = 1,\n [\"Context\"] = 1,\n [\"Crucial_experiment\"] = 1,\n [\"DNA-experiments\"] = 1,\n [\"DNA-hypotheses\"] = 1,\n [\"DNA-iterations\"] = 1,\n [\"DNA-predictions\"] = 1,\n [\"Evaluation_and_improvement\"] = 1,\n [\"Hypothesis\"] = 1,\n [\"Prediction\"] = 1,\n [\"Process\"] = 1,\n [\"Testing\"] = 1,\n [\"aGuideline\"] = 1,\n [\"aModel\"] = 1,\n [\"alhazen\"] = 1,\n [\"critiquesOfFeyerabend\"] = 1,\n [\"epistemicCycle\"] = 1,\n [\"ethicalPosition\"] = 1,\n [\"genesisOfScientificFact\"] = 1,\n [\"i\u0026amp;d\"] = 1,\n [\"noLogicalBridge\"] = 1,\n [\"noMethod\"] = 1,\n [\"otherScientists\"] = 1,\n [\"polyaFirstUnderstand\"] = 1,\n [\"precession_of_Mercury\"] = 1,\n [\"proofsAndRefutations\"] = 1,\n [\"robustTheory\"] = 1,\n [\"startWithBugs\"] = 1,\n [\"suitableTest\"] = 1,\n [\"th-v-obs\"] = 1,\n [\"theTermSci\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"\\\"'\"] = 2,\n [\"Anchor\"] = 29,\n [\"Annotated link\"] = 7,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 9,\n [\"Broader\"] = 2,\n [\"Citation\"] = 49,\n [\"Cite AV media\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite IEP\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite SEP\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite arXiv\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 48,\n [\"Cite conference\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 31,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 19,\n [\"Cite wikisource\"] = 3,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Copy edit inline\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Scientific Method\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 32,\n [\"Efn-lg\"] = 16,\n [\"Efn-lr\"] = 2,\n [\"Efn-ua\"] = 8,\n [\"For timeline\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvid\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvp\"] = 52,\n [\"Hatnote\"] = 1,\n [\"Hatnote group\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 4,\n [\"InPho\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 2,\n [\"Library resources box\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 10,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 1,\n [\"Ndash\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist-lg\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist-lr\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist-ua\"] = 1,\n [\"Other uses\"] = 1,\n [\"PhilPapers\"] = 1,\n [\"Philosophy of science\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-vandalism\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 2,\n [\"Refn\"] = 4,\n [\"Rp\"] = 5,\n [\"Science\"] = 1,\n [\"Science and technology studies\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 6,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 8,\n [\"Sfnp\"] = 36,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Snd\"] = 3,\n [\"TOC limit\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 18,\n [\"Wikibooks\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikiquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikiversity\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","220","15.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","200","14.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","120","8.6"],["dataWrapper 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