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characteristics of Chinese culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_characteristics_of_Chinese_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abstract" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abstract"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Abstract</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abstract-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regional" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regional"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Regional</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regional-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Social structure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spiritual_values" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spiritual_values"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Spiritual values</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Spiritual_values-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Spiritual values subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Spiritual_values-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy_and_legalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy_and_legalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Philosophy and legalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophy_and_legalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hundred_Schools_of_Thought" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hundred_Schools_of_Thought"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Hundred Schools of Thought</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hundred_Schools_of_Thought-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Language</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Language-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Language subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Varieties_of_dialect_and_writing_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Varieties_of_dialect_and_writing_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Varieties of dialect and writing system</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Varieties_of_dialect_and_writing_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Calligraphy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Calligraphy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Calligraphy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Calligraphy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Literature</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Literature-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Literature subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Poetry_in_the_Tang_dynasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poetry_in_the_Tang_dynasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Poetry in the Tang dynasty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poetry_in_the_Tang_dynasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ci_in_Song_dynasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ci_in_Song_dynasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span><i>Ci</i> in Song dynasty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ci_in_Song_dynasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Qu_in_Yuan_dynasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Qu_in_Yuan_dynasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span><i>Qu</i> in Yuan dynasty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Qu_in_Yuan_dynasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_novels_in_Ming_dynasty_and_Qing_dynasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_novels_in_Ming_dynasty_and_Qing_dynasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.4</span> <span>The novels in Ming dynasty and Qing dynasty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_novels_in_Ming_dynasty_and_Qing_dynasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fashion_and_clothing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fashion_and_clothing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Fashion and clothing</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Fashion_and_clothing-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Fashion and clothing subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Fashion_and_clothing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pre-Qing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-Qing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Pre-Qing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-Qing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Qipao" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Qipao"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Qipao</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Qipao-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Arts</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Arts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Arts subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Arts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Chinese_lantern" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chinese_lantern"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Chinese lantern</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chinese_lantern-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chinese_hand_fan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chinese_hand_fan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2</span> <span>Chinese hand fan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chinese_hand_fan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carved_lacquer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carved_lacquer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.3</span> <span>Carved lacquer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carved_lacquer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Folding_screen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Folding_screen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.4</span> <span>Folding screen</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Folding_screen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chinese_jade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chinese_jade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.5</span> <span>Chinese jade</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chinese_jade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mythological_beings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mythological_beings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Mythological beings</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Mythological_beings-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Mythological beings subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Mythological_beings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Loong" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Loong"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Loong</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Loong-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fenghuang" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fenghuang"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>Fenghuang</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fenghuang-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Qilin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Qilin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.3</span> <span>Qilin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Qilin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Xuanwu" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Xuanwu"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.4</span> <span>Xuanwu</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Xuanwu-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Music,_instruments_and_dancing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Music,_instruments_and_dancing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Music, instruments and dancing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Music,_instruments_and_dancing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Architecture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Architecture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Architecture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Chinese_palace" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chinese_palace"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.1</span> <span>Chinese palace</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chinese_palace-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Paifang" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paifang"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.2</span> <span>Paifang</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paifang-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chinese_garden" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chinese_garden"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.3</span> <span>Chinese garden</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chinese_garden-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physical_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physical_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Physical culture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Physical_culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Physical culture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Physical_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Martial_arts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Martial_arts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.1</span> <span>Martial arts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Martial_arts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Leisure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Leisure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>Leisure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Leisure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cuisine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cuisine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>Cuisine</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Cuisine-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Cuisine subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Cuisine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tea_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tea_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17.1</span> <span>Tea culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tea_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Food_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Food_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17.2</span> <span>Food culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Food_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Major_subcultures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Major_subcultures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18</span> <span>Major subcultures</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Major_subcultures-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Major subcultures subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Major_subcultures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-North" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18.1</span> <span>North</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18.2</span> <span>South</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">19</span> <span>Gallery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">20</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">21</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">22</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">23</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Chinese culture</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 48 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-48" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">48 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B6%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%8A%D9%86" title="حضارة الصين – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حضارة الصين" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura_de_China" title="Cultura de China – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Cultura de China" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87in_m%C9%99d%C9%99niyy%C9%99ti" title="Çin mədəniyyəti – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Çin mədəniyyəti" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF" title="চীনা সংস্কৃতি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="চীনা সংস্কৃতি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9" title="Култура на Китай – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Култура на Китай" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura_xinesa" title="Cultura xinesa – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Cultura xinesa" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultur_i_Kina" title="Kultur i Kina – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kultur i Kina" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinesische_Kultur" title="Chinesische Kultur – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Chinesische Kultur" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiina_kultuur" title="Hiina kultuur – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Hiina kultuur" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%B5%CE%B6%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82_%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%B9%CF%84%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Κινεζικός πολιτισμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κινεζικός πολιτισμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura_de_China" title="Cultura de China – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Cultura de China" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%88ina_kulturo" title="Ĉina kulturo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ĉina kulturo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%87%D9%86%DA%AF_%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C" title="فرهنگ چینی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فرهنگ چینی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_chinoise" title="Culture chinoise – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Culture chinoise" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A4%91%EA%B5%AD%EC%9D%98_%EB%AC%B8%ED%99%94" title="중국의 문화 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="중국의 문화" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%89%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AB_%D5%B4%D5%B7%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B5%D5%A9" title="Չինաստանի մշակույթ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Չինաստանի մշակույթ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="चीन की संस्कृति – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="चीन की संस्कृति" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kineska_kultura" title="Kineska kultura – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kineska kultura" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budaya_Tionghoa" title="Budaya Tionghoa – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Budaya Tionghoa" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura_cinese" title="Cultura cinese – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Cultura cinese" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%A8%D7%91%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA" title="תרבות סינית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תרבות סינית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A9%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%99%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90" title="ჩინური კულტურა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ჩინური კულტურა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%9A%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D3%A9%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96" title="Қытай өнері – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Қытай өнері" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanus_cultus_Sericae" title="Humanus cultus Sericae – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Humanus cultus Sericae" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinijos_kult%C5%ABra" title="Kinijos kultūra – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Kinijos kultūra" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%ADnai_kult%C3%BAra" title="Kínai kultúra – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Kínai kultúra" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Кинеска култура – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Кинеска култура" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kebudayaan_Cina" title="Kebudayaan Cina – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kebudayaan Cina" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_cultuur" title="Chinese cultuur – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Chinese cultuur" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E6%96%87%E6%98%8E" title="中国文明 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="中国文明" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xitoy_madaniyati" title="Xitoy madaniyati – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Xitoy madaniyati" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9A%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%AD%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%9A%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B0" title="ਚੀਨੀ ਸੱਭਿਆਚਾਰ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਚੀਨੀ ਸੱਭਿਆਚਾਰ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%B1%DB%81%D8%AA%D9%84" title="چینی رہتل – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="چینی رہتل" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86_%DA%A9%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1" title="د چین کلتور – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د چین کلتور" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura_da_China" title="Cultura da China – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Cultura da China" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%8F" title="Культура Китая – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Культура Китая" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitajska_kultura" title="Kitajska kultura – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kitajska kultura" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Кинеска култура – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Кинеска култура" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiinalainen_kulttuuri" title="Kiinalainen kulttuuri – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kiinalainen kulttuuri" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinesisk_kultur" title="Kinesisk kultur – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kinesisk kultur" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81" title="சீனப் பண்பாடு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சீனப் பண்பாடு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87in_k%C3%BClt%C3%BCr%C3%BC" title="Çin kültürü – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Çin kültürü" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Китайська культура – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Китайська культура" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%AB%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%AA" title="چینی ثقافت – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="چینی ثقافت" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C4%83n_h%C3%B3a_Trung_Qu%E1%BB%91c" title="Văn hóa Trung Quốc – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Văn hóa Trung Quốc" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%8D%8E%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96" title="中华文化 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="中华文化" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96" title="中華文化 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="中華文化" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%8D%8E%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96" title="中华文化 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="中华文化" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q645917#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_culture" 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.mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:China" title="Category:China">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa"><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Culture of China">Culture of China</a></span></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image photo"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_China" title="Culture of China"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/China_satellite.png/250px-China_satellite.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/China_satellite.png/375px-China_satellite.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/China_satellite.png/500px-China_satellite.png 2x" data-file-width="1278" data-file-height="956" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption">Satellite image of China</div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">History</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Chinese_history" title="Timeline of Chinese history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_historiography" title="Chinese historiography">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_China" title="Military history of China">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Chinese_language" title="History of the Chinese language">Language</a></li> <li>Economic <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_China_before_1912" title="Economic history of China before 1912">before 1912</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Economic history of China (1912–1949)">1912–1949</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_China_(1949%E2%80%93present)" title="Economic history of China (1949–present)">1949–present</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Chinese_history" title="Ethnic groups in Chinese history">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_foreign_relations_of_China" title="History of foreign relations of China">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynasties_of_China" title="Dynasties of China">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs" title="List of Chinese monarchs">Monarchs</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_people" title="Chinese people">People</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sinosphere" title="Sinosphere">Sinosphere</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_China" title="Languages of China">Languages</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sinitic_languages" title="Sinitic languages">Sinitic languages</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Traditions" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditions">Traditions</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_values" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese values">Values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etiquette_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Etiquette in China">Etiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Marriage in China">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_funeral" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese funeral">Funerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_tea_ceremony" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese tea ceremony">Tea ceremony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_clothing" title="Chinese clothing">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Chinese_games&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of Chinese games (page does not exist)">Games</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:105%;line-height:1.6;"> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_mythology" title="Chinese mythology">Mythology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_folklore" title="Chinese folklore">folklore</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:105%;line-height:1.6;"> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_cuisine" title="Chinese cuisine">Cuisine</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:105%;line-height:1.6;"> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_festivals" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese festivals">Festivals</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">Religion</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucian_ritual_religion" title="Confucian ritual religion">Confucian religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_new_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese new religions">New religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_art" title="Chinese art">Art</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ikebana" title="Ikebana">Ikebana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonsai" title="Bonsai">Bonsai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_gardens" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese gardens">Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_pottery" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese pottery">Pottery</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_literature" title="Chinese literature">Literature</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manhua" title="Manhua">Manhua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_poetry" title="Chinese poetry">Poetry</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:105%;line-height:1.6;"> <a href="/wiki/Music_of_China" title="Music of China">Music</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_China" title="Theatre of China">performing arts</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Media_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of China">Media</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radio_in_China" title="Radio in China">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_China" title="Television in China">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_China" title="Cinema of China">Cinema</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_China" title="Sport in China">Sport</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_martial_arts" title="Chinese martial arts">Martial arts</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Monuments</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_China" title="List of World Heritage Sites in China">World Heritage Sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_architecture" title="Chinese architecture">Architecture</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Symbols</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_China" title="Flag of China">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Coat of arms of China">Coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_of_the_Volunteers" title="March of the Volunteers">National anthem</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Organisations</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_museums" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese museums">Museums</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/24px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:China" title="Portal:China">China portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Culture_of_China" title="Template:Culture of China"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Culture_of_China" title="Template talk:Culture of China"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Culture_of_China" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Culture of China"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table><p><b>Chinese culture</b> (<a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">simplified Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hans">中华文化</span>; <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">traditional Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hant">中華文化</span>; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Zhōnghuá wénhuà</span></i>) is one of the world's oldest cultures, originating thousands of years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The culture prevails across a large geographical region in <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a> with <a href="/wiki/Sinosphere" title="Sinosphere">Sinosphere</a> in whole and is extremely diverse, with customs and traditions varying greatly between <a href="/wiki/Counties" class="mw-redirect" title="Counties">counties</a>, <a href="/wiki/Province_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Province (China)">provinces</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cities_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Cities of China">cities</a>, <a href="/wiki/Towns" class="mw-redirect" title="Towns">towns</a>. The terms 'China' and the geographical landmass of 'China' have shifted across the centuries, before the name 'China' became commonplace in modernity. </p><p>Chinese civilization is historically considered a dominant culture of East Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> being one of the <a href="/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization#Ancient_China" title="Cradle of civilization">earliest ancient civilizations</a>, Chinese culture exerts profound influence on the philosophy, virtue, etiquette, and traditions of <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_ceramics" title="Chinese ceramics">ceramics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_architecture" title="Chinese architecture">architecture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese music">music</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Chinese_dance" title="History of Chinese dance">dance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_literature" title="Chinese literature">literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_martial_arts" title="Chinese martial arts">martial arts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_cuisine" title="Chinese cuisine">cuisine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_art" title="Chinese art">arts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">philosophy</a>, etiquette, <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">politics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">history</a> have had global influence, while its <a href="/wiki/Customs_and_etiquette_in_Chinese_dining" title="Customs and etiquette in Chinese dining">traditions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_holidays" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditional Chinese holidays">festivals</a> are celebrated, instilled, and practiced by people around the world.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on an unreliable source. (May 2022)">unreliable source?</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Identity">Identity</h2></div> <p>As early as the Zhou dynasty, the Chinese government divided Chinese people into <a href="/wiki/Four_occupations" title="Four occupations">four classes</a>: <a href="/wiki/Gentry" title="Gentry">gentry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Farmer" title="Farmer">farmer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Artisan" title="Artisan">craftsman</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Merchant" title="Merchant">merchant</a>. Gentry and farmers constituted the two major classes, while merchant and craftsmen were collected into the two minor. Theoretically, except for the position of the Emperor, nothing was hereditary.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>China's majority ethnic group, the <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han Chinese</a>, are an <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_people" title="East Asian people">East Asian</a> <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic group">ethnic group</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">nation</a>. They constitute approximately 92% of the population of China, 95% of <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Han_Taiwanese" title="Han Taiwanese">Han Taiwanese</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-Yearbook2015_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yearbook2015-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 76% of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Singaporean" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Singaporean">Singapore</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 23% of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Malaysian" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Malaysian">Malaysia</a>, and about 17% of the <a href="/wiki/World_population" title="World population">global population</a>, making them the <a href="/wiki/List_of_contemporary_ethnic_groups" title="List of contemporary ethnic groups">world's largest ethnic group</a>, numbering over 1.3 billion people. </p><p>In modern China, there are 56 officially labelled <a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_groups_in_China" title="List of ethnic groups in China">ethnic groups</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Throughout Chinese history, many non-Han foreigners like the Indo-Iranians became Han Chinese through assimilation, other groups retained their distinct ethnic identities, or faded away.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the same time, the Han Chinese majority has maintained distinct linguistic and regional cultural traditions throughout the ages. The term <i><a href="/wiki/Zhonghua_minzu" title="Zhonghua minzu">Zhonghua minzu</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">simplified Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hans">中华民族</span>; <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">traditional Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hant">中華民族</span>) has been used to describe the notion of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_nationalism" title="Chinese nationalism">Chinese nationalism</a> in general. Much of the traditional identity within the community has to do with distinguishing the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_surname" title="Chinese surname">family name</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_characteristics_of_Chinese_culture">The characteristics of Chinese culture</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:133px;max-width:133px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;;height:168px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Museum_f%C3%BCr_Ostasiatische_Kunst_Dahlem_Berlin_Mai_2006_041.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Museum_f%C3%BCr_Ostasiatische_Kunst_Dahlem_Berlin_Mai_2006_041.jpg/131px-Museum_f%C3%BCr_Ostasiatische_Kunst_Dahlem_Berlin_Mai_2006_041.jpg" decoding="async" width="131" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Museum_f%C3%BCr_Ostasiatische_Kunst_Dahlem_Berlin_Mai_2006_041.jpg/197px-Museum_f%C3%BCr_Ostasiatische_Kunst_Dahlem_Berlin_Mai_2006_041.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Museum_f%C3%BCr_Ostasiatische_Kunst_Dahlem_Berlin_Mai_2006_041.jpg/262px-Museum_f%C3%BCr_Ostasiatische_Kunst_Dahlem_Berlin_Mai_2006_041.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1429" data-file-height="1841" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Porcelain" title="Porcelain">Porcelain</a> is so often associated with China that it is often referred to as "china" in everyday English usage.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:255px;max-width:255px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;;height:168px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ningbo_City_God_Temple,_2021-10-23_07.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Ningbo_City_God_Temple%2C_2021-10-23_07.jpg/253px-Ningbo_City_God_Temple%2C_2021-10-23_07.jpg" decoding="async" width="253" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Ningbo_City_God_Temple%2C_2021-10-23_07.jpg/380px-Ningbo_City_God_Temple%2C_2021-10-23_07.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Ningbo_City_God_Temple%2C_2021-10-23_07.jpg/506px-Ningbo_City_God_Temple%2C_2021-10-23_07.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5472" data-file-height="3648" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Chinese shrine in Ningbo city</div></div></div></div></div> <p>The chapter discusses the contemporary situations in Chinese culture that relate to social structure, sociocultural change, and the relationship of these factors to the current state of mental health of the Chinese people. The chapter focuses on the issues of mind, body, and behavior. The cultural framework is of central concern to Chinese participants, whether they are social scientists, humanists, or clinical psychiatrists. Chinese culture appears to affect the state of body and health, parent–child interaction, social relationships, individual and group aspirations, models of health care services, and the patterns of disorders and methods of coping under the impact of migration, industrialization, and urbanization. The chapter focuses on the importance of the impact of cultural tradition upon perception, behavioral orientation, pathology, coping, and help-seeking. The mental health concerns that are relevant to the population of mainland China are related to the recent dramatic socialist revolution and particularly to the 10-year period of the Cultural Revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Abstract">Abstract</h2></div> <p>Chinese civilization is the only one that has preserved its historical continuity among the world's “cradles for four ancient civilizations.” In the long process of civilization evolution, the Chinese people, in the spirit of “continuous self-renewal,” “self-discipline and social commitment,” “inclusiveness to diversity,” and “realism and adaptation to changes,” created cultural traditions of abundant contents, sophisticated structures, and various forms. These traditions have since been nourishing, nurturing, and shaping the Chinese people and become internalized in the blood and soul of the Chinese nation.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Regional">Regional</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="List of regions of the People's Republic of China">List of regions of the People's Republic of China</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Dongyang_Luzhai_2015.05.24_15-53-48.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Dongyang Luzhai" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Dongyang_Luzhai_2015.05.24_15-53-48.jpg/200px-Dongyang_Luzhai_2015.05.24_15-53-48.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Dongyang_Luzhai_2015.05.24_15-53-48.jpg/300px-Dongyang_Luzhai_2015.05.24_15-53-48.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Dongyang_Luzhai_2015.05.24_15-53-48.jpg/400px-Dongyang_Luzhai_2015.05.24_15-53-48.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5472" data-file-height="3648" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Residence of the Lu Family in Dongyang, built in the Ming period.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fenghuang_old_town.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Fenghuang old town" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Fenghuang_old_town.JPG/200px-Fenghuang_old_town.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Fenghuang_old_town.JPG/300px-Fenghuang_old_town.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Fenghuang_old_town.JPG/400px-Fenghuang_old_town.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Fenghuang_County" title="Fenghuang County">Fenghuang County</a>, an ancient town that harbors many architectural remains of Ming and Qing styles.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Yixian_Hongcun_2016.09.09_17-27-03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Yixian Hongcun" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Yixian_Hongcun_2016.09.09_17-27-03.jpg/200px-Yixian_Hongcun_2016.09.09_17-27-03.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Yixian_Hongcun_2016.09.09_17-27-03.jpg/300px-Yixian_Hongcun_2016.09.09_17-27-03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Yixian_Hongcun_2016.09.09_17-27-03.jpg/400px-Yixian_Hongcun_2016.09.09_17-27-03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5472" data-file-height="3648" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Hongcun" title="Hongcun">Hongcun</a>, a village in Yi County in the historical Huizhou region of southern Anhui Province.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Xinye-9.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Xinye" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Xinye-9.jpg/200px-Xinye-9.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Xinye-9.jpg/300px-Xinye-9.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Xinye-9.jpg/400px-Xinye-9.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3991" data-file-height="2245" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Xinye_Village" title="Xinye Village">Xinye</a>, a village noted for its well-preserved Ming and Qing era architecture and ancient residential buildings.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E8%8A%B1%E6%88%8F%E6%A5%BC_%E5%B1%B1%E9%97%A8_%E5%89%AF%E6%9C%AC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/%E8%8A%B1%E6%88%8F%E6%A5%BC_%E5%B1%B1%E9%97%A8_%E5%89%AF%E6%9C%AC.jpg/200px-%E8%8A%B1%E6%88%8F%E6%A5%BC_%E5%B1%B1%E9%97%A8_%E5%89%AF%E6%9C%AC.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/%E8%8A%B1%E6%88%8F%E6%A5%BC_%E5%B1%B1%E9%97%A8_%E5%89%AF%E6%9C%AC.jpg/300px-%E8%8A%B1%E6%88%8F%E6%A5%BC_%E5%B1%B1%E9%97%A8_%E5%89%AF%E6%9C%AC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/%E8%8A%B1%E6%88%8F%E6%A5%BC_%E5%B1%B1%E9%97%A8_%E5%89%AF%E6%9C%AC.jpg/400px-%E8%8A%B1%E6%88%8F%E6%A5%BC_%E5%B1%B1%E9%97%A8_%E5%89%AF%E6%9C%AC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3840" data-file-height="2160" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Flower Theatre, a Qing period guildhall.</div></div></div></div></div> <p>During the 361 years of civil war after the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> (202 BC – 220 AD), there was a partial restoration of <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalism</a> when wealthy and powerful families emerged with large amounts of land and huge numbers of semi-serfs. They dominated important civilian and military positions of the government, making the positions available to members of their own families and clans.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> extended the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examination" title="Imperial examination">imperial examination</a> system as an attempt to eradicate this feudalism.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Traditional Chinese culture covers large geographical territories, where each region is usually divided into distinct sub-cultures. Each region is often represented by three ancestral items. For example, <a href="/wiki/Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong</a> is represented by <a href="/wiki/Chenpi" title="Chenpi">chenpi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ginger" title="Ginger">aged ginger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hay" title="Hay">hay</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ancient city of Lin'an (<a href="/wiki/Hangzhou" title="Hangzhou">Hangzhou</a>), is represented by <a href="/wiki/Tea_leaf" class="mw-redirect" title="Tea leaf">tea leaf</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bamboo_shoot" title="Bamboo shoot">bamboo shoot</a> <a href="/wiki/Trunk_(botany)" title="Trunk (botany)">trunk</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hickory_nut" class="mw-redirect" title="Hickory nut">hickory nut</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-xin1_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-xin1-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such distinctions give rise to the old Chinese proverb: "十里不同風, 百里不同俗/十里不同風": "praxis vary within ten <i><a href="/wiki/Li_(length)" class="mw-redirect" title="Li (length)">li</a></i>, customs vary within a hundred <i>li</i>". The 31 <a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_China" title="Administrative divisions of China">provincial-level divisions</a> of the <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">People's Republic of China</a> are grouped by its former administrative areas from 1949 to 1980, and are now known as traditional regions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Social_structure">Social structure</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Social_structure_of_China" title="Social structure of China">Social structure of China</a></div> <p>Since the <a href="/wiki/Three_Sovereigns_and_Five_Emperors" title="Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors">Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors</a> period, some form of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_sovereign" title="Chinese sovereign">Chinese monarch</a> has been the main ruler above all. Different periods of history have different names for the various positions within society. Conceptually each imperial or feudal period is similar, with the government and military officials ranking high in the <a href="/wiki/Social_hierarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Social hierarchy">hierarchy</a>, and the rest of the population under regular <a href="/wiki/Chinese_law" title="Chinese law">Chinese law</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mente_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mente-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From the late <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou dynasty</a> (1046–256 BCE) onwards, traditional Chinese society was organized into a hierarchic system of socio-economic classes known as the <a href="/wiki/Four_occupations" title="Four occupations">four occupations</a>. </p><p>However, this system did not cover all social groups and the distinctions between the groups became blurred after the <a href="/wiki/Commercialism" title="Commercialism">commercialization</a> of Chinese culture in the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> (960–1279 CE). <a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_China" title="History of education in China">Ancient Chinese education</a> also has a long history; ever since the <a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui dynasty</a> (581–618 CE), educated candidates prepared for the imperial examinations and exam graduates were drafted into government as <a href="/wiki/Scholar-bureaucrats" class="mw-redirect" title="Scholar-bureaucrats">scholar-bureaucrats</a>. This led to the creation of a <a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">meritocracy</a>, although success was available only to males who could afford test preparation. Imperial examinations required applicants to write essays and demonstrate mastery of the Confucian classics. Those who passed the highest level of the exam became elite scholar-officials known as <i><a href="/wiki/Jinshi_(imperial_examination)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jinshi (imperial examination)">jinshi</a></i>, a highly esteemed socio-economic position. A major mythological structure developed around the topic of the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examination_in_Chinese_mythology" title="Imperial examination in Chinese mythology">mythology of the imperial exams</a>. Trades and crafts were usually taught by a <a href="/wiki/Sifu" class="mw-redirect" title="Sifu">shifu</a>. The female historian <a href="/wiki/Ban_Zhao" title="Ban Zhao">Ban Zhao</a> wrote the <i><a href="/wiki/Lessons_for_Women" title="Lessons for Women">Lessons for Women</a></i> in the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> and outlined the <a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_and_imperial_China#Han_dynasty" title="Women in ancient and imperial China">four virtues women must abide by</a>, while scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Xi" title="Zhu Xi">Zhu Xi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cheng_Yi_(philosopher)" title="Cheng Yi (philosopher)">Cheng Yi</a> would expand on this. <a href="/wiki/Chinese_marriage" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese marriage">Chinese marriage</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taoist_sexual_practices" title="Taoist sexual practices">Taoist sexual practices</a> are some of the rituals and customs found in society.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>With the rise of European economic and military power beginning in the mid-19th century, non-Chinese systems of social and political organization gained adherents in China. Some of these would-be reformers totally rejected China's cultural legacy, while others sought to combine the strengths of Chinese and European cultures. In essence, the history of 20th-century China is one of experimentation with new systems of social, political, and economic organization that would allow for the reintegration of the nation in the wake of dynastic collapse.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Spiritual_values">Spiritual values</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_spiritual_world_concepts" title="Chinese spiritual world concepts">Chinese spiritual world concepts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_mythology" title="Chinese mythology">Chinese mythology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_China" title="Buddhism in China">Buddhism in China</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hanging_Monastery_02.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Hanging_Monastery_02.JPG/220px-Hanging_Monastery_02.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Hanging_Monastery_02.JPG/330px-Hanging_Monastery_02.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Hanging_Monastery_02.JPG/440px-Hanging_Monastery_02.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3488" data-file-height="2616" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hanging_Monastery" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanging Monastery">Hanging Monastery</a>, a temple with the combination of <a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:224px;max-width:224px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%B2%B3%E5%8D%97_%E6%B4%9B%E9%98%B3_%E9%BE%99%E9%97%A8%E7%9F%B3%E7%AA%9F_-_panoramio.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/%E6%B2%B3%E5%8D%97_%E6%B4%9B%E9%98%B3_%E9%BE%99%E9%97%A8%E7%9F%B3%E7%AA%9F_-_panoramio.jpg/220px-%E6%B2%B3%E5%8D%97_%E6%B4%9B%E9%98%B3_%E9%BE%99%E9%97%A8%E7%9F%B3%E7%AA%9F_-_panoramio.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/%E6%B2%B3%E5%8D%97_%E6%B4%9B%E9%98%B3_%E9%BE%99%E9%97%A8%E7%9F%B3%E7%AA%9F_-_panoramio.jpg/330px-%E6%B2%B3%E5%8D%97_%E6%B4%9B%E9%98%B3_%E9%BE%99%E9%97%A8%E7%9F%B3%E7%AA%9F_-_panoramio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/%E6%B2%B3%E5%8D%97_%E6%B4%9B%E9%98%B3_%E9%BE%99%E9%97%A8%E7%9F%B3%E7%AA%9F_-_panoramio.jpg/440px-%E6%B2%B3%E5%8D%97_%E6%B4%9B%E9%98%B3_%E9%BE%99%E9%97%A8%E7%9F%B3%E7%AA%9F_-_panoramio.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4352" data-file-height="3264" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The Fengxian cave (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 675 AD</span>) of the <a href="/wiki/Longmen_Grottoes" title="Longmen Grottoes">Longmen Grottoes</a>, commissioned by <a href="/wiki/Wu_Zetian" title="Wu Zetian">Wu Zetian</a>.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%B4%9B%E9%98%B3%E9%BE%99%E9%97%A8%E7%9F%B3%E7%AA%9F%EF%BC%8CLuo_Yang_Dragon_Gate_Grottoes_-_panoramio_(9).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Luo Yang Dragon Gate Grottoes" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/%E6%B4%9B%E9%98%B3%E9%BE%99%E9%97%A8%E7%9F%B3%E7%AA%9F%EF%BC%8CLuo_Yang_Dragon_Gate_Grottoes_-_panoramio_%289%29.jpg/220px-%E6%B4%9B%E9%98%B3%E9%BE%99%E9%97%A8%E7%9F%B3%E7%AA%9F%EF%BC%8CLuo_Yang_Dragon_Gate_Grottoes_-_panoramio_%289%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/%E6%B4%9B%E9%98%B3%E9%BE%99%E9%97%A8%E7%9F%B3%E7%AA%9F%EF%BC%8CLuo_Yang_Dragon_Gate_Grottoes_-_panoramio_%289%29.jpg/330px-%E6%B4%9B%E9%98%B3%E9%BE%99%E9%97%A8%E7%9F%B3%E7%AA%9F%EF%BC%8CLuo_Yang_Dragon_Gate_Grottoes_-_panoramio_%289%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/%E6%B4%9B%E9%98%B3%E9%BE%99%E9%97%A8%E7%9F%B3%E7%AA%9F%EF%BC%8CLuo_Yang_Dragon_Gate_Grottoes_-_panoramio_%289%29.jpg/440px-%E6%B4%9B%E9%98%B3%E9%BE%99%E9%97%A8%E7%9F%B3%E7%AA%9F%EF%BC%8CLuo_Yang_Dragon_Gate_Grottoes_-_panoramio_%289%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1108" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Inside a cave of <a href="/wiki/Longmen_Grottoes" title="Longmen Grottoes">Longmen Grottoes</a></div></div></div></div></div> <p>Most spiritual practices are derived from <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Chinese Buddhism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>. The relative influence of each school of practice is a subject of debate and other practices, such as <a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_China" title="Buddhism in China">Buddhism</a> and others, have been introduced.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <a href="/wiki/Reincarnation" title="Reincarnation">Reincarnation</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Rebirth_(Buddhism)" title="Rebirth (Buddhism)">rebirth</a> concepts are a reminder of the connection between real-life and the after-life. In Chinese <a href="/wiki/Business_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Business culture">business culture</a>, the concept of <i><a href="/wiki/Guanxi" title="Guanxi">guanxi</a></i>, indicating the primacy of relations over rules, has been well documented.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While many <a href="/wiki/Chinese_mythology#Important_deities,_spirits,_and_mythological_people" title="Chinese mythology">deities</a> are part of the tradition, some of the most recognized holy figures include <a href="/wiki/Guan_Yin" class="mw-redirect" title="Guan Yin">Guan Yin</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Jade_Emperor" title="Jade Emperor">Jade Emperor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Buddha</a>. </p><p>Chinese Buddhism has shaped some Chinese <a href="/wiki/Art" title="Art">art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_literature" title="Chinese literature">literature</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">philosophy</a>. The translation of a large body of foreign Buddhist scriptures into Chinese and the inclusion of these translations, together with works composed in China, into a printed canon had far-reaching implications for the dissemination of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Buddhism</a> throughout China. Chinese Buddhism is also marked by the interaction between <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_India" title="Religion in India">Indian religions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese folk religion</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">Religion in China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese folk religion</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fortune-telling#Eastern_fortune_telling" title="Fortune-telling">Fortune-telling § Eastern fortune telling</a></div> <p>During the Xia and Shang dynasties, Chinese religion was oriented to worshipping the supreme god <a href="/wiki/Shang_Di" class="mw-redirect" title="Shang Di">Shang Di</a>, with the king and diviners acting as priests and using <a href="/wiki/Oracle_bones" class="mw-redirect" title="Oracle bones">oracle bones</a>. The Zhou dynasty oriented religion to worshipping the broader concept of heaven. A large part of Chinese culture is based in the belief in a spiritual world. Countless <a href="/wiki/Methods_of_divination" title="Methods of divination">methods of divination</a> have helped answer questions, even serving as an alternative to medicine. <a href="/wiki/Chinese_folklore" title="Chinese folklore">Folklores</a> have helped fill the gap between things that cannot be explained. There is often a blurred line between myth, religion and unexplained phenomenon. Many of the stories have since evolved into <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_holidays" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditional Chinese holidays">traditional Chinese holidays</a>. Other concepts have extended beyond mythology into spiritual symbols such as <a href="/wiki/Door_god" class="mw-redirect" title="Door god">Door god</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_guardian_lions" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial guardian lions">Imperial guardian lions</a>. Along with the belief in the divine beings, there is belief in evil beings. Practices such as Taoist <a href="/wiki/Exorcism" title="Exorcism">exorcism</a> fighting <a href="/wiki/Mogwai_(Chinese_culture)" title="Mogwai (Chinese culture)">mogwai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jiangshi" title="Jiangshi">jiangshi</a> with peachwood swords are just some of the concepts passed down from generations. A few <a href="/wiki/Fortune-telling#Eastern_fortune_telling" title="Fortune-telling">Chinese fortune telling</a> rituals are still in use today after thousands of years of refinement. </p><p>Taoism, a religious or philosophical tradition of <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">Chinese</a> origin, emphasizes living in harmony with the <i><a href="/wiki/Tao" title="Tao">Tao</a></i> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%81%93" class="extiw" title="wikt:道">道</a></span></span>, literally "Way", <a href="/wiki/Taoism#Spelling_and_pronunciation" title="Taoism">also romanized as <i>Dao</i></a>). The <i>Tao</i> is a fundamental idea in most <a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese philosophical</a> schools; in Taoism, however, it denotes the principle that is the source, pattern and substance of everything that exists.<sup id="cite_ref-Pollard;_Rosenberg;_Tignor_2011_164_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pollard;_Rosenberg;_Tignor_2011_164-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Creel_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Creel-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Taoism differs from <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a> by not emphasizing rigid rituals and social order.<sup id="cite_ref-Pollard;_Rosenberg;_Tignor_2011_164_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pollard;_Rosenberg;_Tignor_2011_164-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Taoist ethics vary depending on the particular school, but in general tend to emphasize <i><a href="/wiki/Wu_wei" title="Wu wei">wu wei</a></i> (effortless action), "naturalness", simplicity, spontaneity, and the <a href="/wiki/Three_Treasures_(Taoism)" title="Three Treasures (Taoism)">Three Treasures</a>: 慈 "compassion", 儉/俭 "frugality", and 谦 "humility". The roots of Taoism can be traced back to at least the 4th century BCE. Early Taoism drew its cosmological notions from the <a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">School of Yinyang</a> (Naturalists), and was deeply influenced by one of China's oldest texts, the <i><a href="/wiki/I_Ching" title="I Ching">Yijing</a></i>, which expounds a philosophical system of human behavior in accordance with the alternating cycles of nature. The "<a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalist</a>" <a href="/wiki/Shen_Buhai" title="Shen Buhai">Shen Buhai</a> may also have been a major influence, expounding a <a href="/wiki/Realpolitik" title="Realpolitik">realpolitik</a> of wu wei.<sup id="cite_ref-Creel_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Creel-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i><a href="/wiki/Tao_Te_Ching" title="Tao Te Ching">Tao Te Ching</a></i>, a compact book containing teachings attributed to <a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh">老子</span>; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Lǎozǐ</span></i>; <a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn-wadegile">Lao Tzu</span></i>), is widely considered the keystone work of the Taoist tradition, together with the later <a href="/wiki/Zhuangzi_(book)" title="Zhuangzi (book)">writings of Zhuangzi</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy_and_legalism">Philosophy and legalism</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism (Chinese philosophy)</a></div> <p>Confucianism, also known as Ruism, was the official philosophy throughout most of <a href="/wiki/Imperial_era_of_Chinese_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial era of Chinese history">Imperial China</a>'s history, and mastery of Confucian texts was the primary criterion for <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examination" title="Imperial examination">entry into the imperial bureaucracy</a>. A number of more <a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">authoritarian</a> strains of thought have also been influential, such as <a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a>.There was often conflict between the philosophies, e.g. the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucians</a> believed Legalism departed from the original spirit of Confucianism. Examinations and a <a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">culture of merit</a> remain greatly valued in China today.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In recent years, a number of <a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucians</a> (not to be confused with Neo-Confucianism) have advocated that democratic ideals and human rights are quite compatible with traditional Confucian "Asian values".<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Confucianism is described as tradition, a philosophy, a religion, a humanistic or rationalistic religion, a way of governing, or simply a way of life.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Confucianism developed from what was later called the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Schools_of_Thought" title="Hundred Schools of Thought">Hundred Schools of Thought</a> from the teachings of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese philosopher</a> <a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a> (551–479 BCE), who considered himself a retransmitter of the values of the <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou dynasty</a> golden age of several centuries before.<sup id="cite_ref-Rickett,_Guanzi_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rickett,_Guanzi-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> (206 BCE – 220 CE), Confucian approaches edged out the "proto-Taoist" <a href="/wiki/Huang-Lao" class="mw-redirect" title="Huang-Lao">Huang-Lao</a>, as the official ideology, while the emperors mixed both with the realist techniques of Legalism. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hundred_Schools_of_Thought">Hundred Schools of Thought</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Schools_of_Thought" title="Hundred Schools of Thought">Hundred Schools of Thought</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Art_of_War" title="The Art of War">The Art of War</a>, and <a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">School of Naturalists</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Birth_Places_of_Chinese_Philosophers.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Birth_Places_of_Chinese_Philosophers.png/300px-Birth_Places_of_Chinese_Philosophers.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Birth_Places_of_Chinese_Philosophers.png/450px-Birth_Places_of_Chinese_Philosophers.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Birth_Places_of_Chinese_Philosophers.png/600px-Birth_Places_of_Chinese_Philosophers.png 2x" data-file-width="1585" data-file-height="1125" /></a><figcaption>Birthplaces of notable Chinese philosophers of the Hundred Schools of Thoughts in the Zhou dynasty.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Hundred Schools of Thought were philosophies and schools that flourished from the 6th century to 221 BC, during the <a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period" title="Spring and Autumn period">Spring and Autumn period</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States period</a> of ancient China.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While this period was fraught with chaos and bloody battles, it was an era of great cultural and intellectual expansion in China.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It came to be known as the Golden Age of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese philosophy</a> because a broad range of thoughts and ideas were developed and could be freely discussed. This phenomenon has been called the <i>Contention of a Hundred Schools of Thought</i> (百家爭鳴/百家争鸣; <i>bǎijiā zhēngmíng</i>; <i>pai-chia cheng-ming</i>; "hundred schools contend"). The thoughts and ideas discussed and refined during this period have profoundly influenced <a href="/wiki/Lifestyle_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lifestyle (sociology)">lifestyles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_consciousness" title="Social consciousness">social consciousness</a> up to the present day in China and across East Asia. The <a href="/wiki/Intellectual" title="Intellectual">intellectual</a> society of this era was characterized by itinerant scholars, who were often employed by various state rulers as advisers on the methods of government, war, and diplomacy. This period ended with the rise of the imperial <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin dynasty</a> and the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Burning_of_books_and_burying_of_scholars" title="Burning of books and burying of scholars">purge of dissent</a>. A traditional source for this period is the <i>Shiji</i>, or <i><a href="/wiki/Records_of_the_Grand_Historian" class="mw-redirect" title="Records of the Grand Historian">Records of the Grand Historian</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Sima_Qian" title="Sima Qian">Sima Qian</a>. The autobiographical section of the <i>Shiji</i>, the "Taishigong Zixu" (太史公自序), refers to the schools of thought described below. </p><p>Mohism was an <a href="/wiki/History_of_Science_and_Technology_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Science and Technology in China">ancient Chinese philosophy</a> of <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rational" class="mw-redirect" title="Rational">rational</a> thought and <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a> developed by the <a href="/wiki/Academic" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic">academic</a> <a href="/wiki/Scholars" class="mw-redirect" title="Scholars">scholars</a> who studied under the ancient Chinese philosopher <a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 470 BC</span>–<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 391 BC</span>). The philosophy is embodied in an eponymous book: the <i><a href="/wiki/Mozi_(book)" title="Mozi (book)">Mozi</a></i>. Another group is the School of the Military (兵家; <i>Bingjia</i>) that studied warfare and strategy; <a href="/wiki/Sunzi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunzi">Sunzi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sun_Bin" title="Sun Bin">Sun Bin</a> were influential leaders. The School of Naturalists was a <a href="/wiki/Warring_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Warring States">Warring States</a> era philosophy that synthesized the concepts of <a href="/wiki/Yin-yang" class="mw-redirect" title="Yin-yang">yin-yang</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Five_elements_(Chinese_philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Five elements (Chinese philosophy)">Five Elements</a>; <a href="/wiki/Zou_Yan" title="Zou Yan">Zou Yan</a> is considered the founder of this school.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His theory attempted to explain the universe in terms of basic forces in nature: the complementary agents of yin (dark, cold, female, negative) and yang (light, hot, male, positive) and the Five Elements or Five Phases (water, fire, wood, metal, and earth). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Language">Language</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_sinitic_languages_cropped-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Map_of_sinitic_languages_cropped-en.svg/220px-Map_of_sinitic_languages_cropped-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="333" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Map_of_sinitic_languages_cropped-en.svg/330px-Map_of_sinitic_languages_cropped-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Map_of_sinitic_languages_cropped-en.svg/440px-Map_of_sinitic_languages_cropped-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="620" /></a><figcaption>Range of Chinese dialect groups according to the <i>Language Atlas of China</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Spoken_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Spoken Chinese">Spoken Chinese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">Varieties of Chinese</a></div> <p>The ancient written standard was <a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese">Classical Chinese</a>. It was used for thousands of years, but was mostly used by scholars and intellectuals in the upper class society called "shi da fu (士大夫)". It was difficult, but possible, for ordinary people to enter this class by passing written exams. Calligraphy later became commercialized, and works by famous artists became prized possessions. <a href="/wiki/Chinese_literature" title="Chinese literature">Chinese literature</a> has a long past; the earliest classic work in Chinese, the <i><a href="/wiki/I_Ching" title="I Ching">I Ching</a></i> or "Book of Changes", dates to around 1000 BC. A flourishing of philosophy during the <a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States period</a> produced such noteworthy works as Confucius's <i><a href="/wiki/Analects" title="Analects">Analects</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Tao_Te_Ching" title="Tao Te Ching">Tao Te Ching</a></i>. (See also: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_classics" title="Chinese classics">Chinese classics</a>) Dynastic histories were often written, beginning with <a href="/wiki/Sima_Qian" title="Sima Qian">Sima Qian</a>'s seminal <i><a href="/wiki/Records_of_the_Grand_Historian" class="mw-redirect" title="Records of the Grand Historian">Records of the Grand Historian</a></i>, written from 109 BC to 91 BC. The Tang dynasty witnessed a <a href="/wiki/Chinese_poetry" title="Chinese poetry">poetic</a> flowering, while the <a href="/wiki/Four_Great_Classical_Novels" class="mw-redirect" title="Four Great Classical Novels">Four Great Classical Novels</a> of Chinese literature were written during the Ming and Qing dynasties. <a href="/wiki/Printmaking" title="Printmaking">Printmaking</a> in the form of <a href="/wiki/Movable_type" title="Movable type">movable type</a> was developed during the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a>. Academies of scholars sponsored by the empire were formed to comment on the classics in both printed and handwritten form. Members of royalty frequently participated in these discussions. </p><p>Chinese philosophers, writers and poets were highly respected and played key roles in preserving and promoting the culture of the empire. Some classical scholars, however, were noted for their daring depictions of the lives of the common people, often to the displeasure of authorities. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Varieties_of_dialect_and_writing_system">Varieties of dialect and writing system</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">Varieties of Chinese</a></div> <p>At the start of the 20th century, most of the population were still <a href="/wiki/Illiterate" class="mw-redirect" title="Illiterate">illiterate</a>, and the many languages spoken (<a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yue_Chinese" title="Yue Chinese">Yue</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a>), <a href="/wiki/Min_Nan" class="mw-redirect" title="Min Nan">Min Nan</a> (Ban-lam-gu), <a href="/wiki/Jin_Chinese" title="Jin Chinese">Jin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xiang_Chinese" title="Xiang Chinese">Xiang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gan_Chinese" title="Gan Chinese">Gan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Huizhou_Chinese" title="Huizhou Chinese">Hui</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pinghua" title="Pinghua">Ping</a> etc.) in different regions prevented spoken communication with people from other areas. However, the written language made communication possible, such as passing on official orders and documents throughout the entire region of China. Reformers set out to establish a national language, settling on the Beijing-based <a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Mandarin</a> as the spoken form. After the <a href="/wiki/May_4th_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="May 4th Movement">May 4th Movement</a>, Classical Chinese was quickly replaced by <a href="/wiki/Written_vernacular_Chinese" title="Written vernacular Chinese">written vernacular Chinese</a>, modeled after the vocabulary and grammar of the standard spoken language.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Calligraphy">Calligraphy</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_calligraphy" title="Chinese calligraphy">Chinese calligraphy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wang_Xianzi_Imitation_by_Tang_Dynasty.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Wang_Xianzi_Imitation_by_Tang_Dynasty.JPG/220px-Wang_Xianzi_Imitation_by_Tang_Dynasty.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Wang_Xianzi_Imitation_by_Tang_Dynasty.JPG/330px-Wang_Xianzi_Imitation_by_Tang_Dynasty.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Wang_Xianzi_Imitation_by_Tang_Dynasty.JPG/440px-Wang_Xianzi_Imitation_by_Tang_Dynasty.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2264" data-file-height="1894" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Chinese_calligraphy" title="Chinese calligraphy">Chinese calligraphy</a> written by the poet <a href="/wiki/Wang_Xizhi" title="Wang Xizhi">Wang Xizhi</a> (王羲之) of the <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(265%E2%80%93420)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jin dynasty (265–420)">Jin dynasty</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Chinese calligraphy is a form of writing (<a href="/wiki/Calligraphy" title="Calligraphy">calligraphy</a>), or, the artistic expression of human language in a tangible form. There are some general standardizations of the various <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_script_styles" class="mw-redirect" title="East Asian script styles">styles</a> of calligraphy in this tradition. Chinese calligraphy and <a href="/wiki/Ink_and_wash_painting" class="mw-redirect" title="Ink and wash painting">ink and wash painting</a> are closely related: they are accomplished using similar tools and techniques, and have a long history of shared artistry. Distinguishing features of Chinese painting and calligraphy include an emphasis on motion charged with dynamic life. According to Stanley-Baker, "Calligraphy is sheer life experienced through energy in motion that is registered as traces on silk or paper, with time and rhythm in shifting space its main ingredients."<sup id="cite_ref-Stanley-Barker_2010a_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanley-Barker_2010a-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Calligraphy has also led to the development of many forms of art in China, including <a href="/wiki/Chinese_seal" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese seal">seal</a> carving, ornate paperweights, and <a href="/wiki/Inkstone" title="Inkstone">inkstones</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Four_treasures_of_the_Study.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Four_treasures_of_the_Study.jpg/220px-Four_treasures_of_the_Study.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Four_treasures_of_the_Study.jpg/330px-Four_treasures_of_the_Study.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Four_treasures_of_the_Study.jpg/440px-Four_treasures_of_the_Study.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1067" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Four_Treasures_of_the_Study" title="Four Treasures of the Study">Four Treasures of the Study</a> – brush, ink, paper and ink stone in <a href="/wiki/Chinese_calligraphy" title="Chinese calligraphy">Chinese calligraphy</a> traditions.</figcaption></figure> <p>In China, calligraphy is referred to as <i>Shūfǎ</i> (書法/书法), literally "the way/method/law of writing".<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Japan it is referred to as <i>Shodō</i> (<span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">書道/书道</span></span>), literally "the way/principle of writing"; and in Korea as <i>Seoye</i> (서예; 書藝) literally "the skill/criterion<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of writing". Chinese calligraphy is normally regarded as one of the "arts" (Chinese 藝術/艺术 <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">yìshù</span></i>) in the countries where it is practised. Chinese calligraphy focuses not only on methods of writing but also on cultivating one's character (人品)<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and taught as a discipline (書法; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">shūfǎ</span></i>, "the rules of writing <a href="/wiki/Han_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Han characters">Han characters</a>"<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literature">Literature</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_literature" title="Chinese literature">Chinese literature</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou dynasty</a> is often regarded as the touchstone of Chinese cultural development. Concepts covered in the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_classic_texts" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese classic texts">Chinese classic texts</a> include <a href="/wiki/Chinese_poetry" title="Chinese poetry">poetry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_astrology" title="Chinese astrology">astrology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_astronomy" title="Chinese astronomy">astronomy</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_calendar" title="Chinese calendar">calendar</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_constellation" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese constellation">constellations</a>. Some of the most important early texts include the <i><a href="/wiki/I_Ching" title="I Ching">I Ching</a></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Classic_of_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Classic of History">Shujing</a></i> within the <a href="/wiki/Four_Books_and_Five_Classics" title="Four Books and Five Classics">Four Books and Five Classics</a>. Many Chinese concepts such as <a href="/wiki/Yin_and_Yang" class="mw-redirect" title="Yin and Yang">Yin and Yang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qi" title="Qi">Qi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Four_Pillars_of_Destiny" title="Four Pillars of Destiny">Four Pillars of Destiny</a> in relation to heaven and earth were theorized in the pre-imperial periods. By the end of the Qing dynasty, Chinese culture had embarked on a new era with <a href="/wiki/Written_vernacular_Chinese" title="Written vernacular Chinese">written vernacular Chinese</a> for the common citizens. <a href="/wiki/Hu_Shih" title="Hu Shih">Hu Shih</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lu_Xun" title="Lu Xun">Lu Xun</a> were considered pioneers in modern literature at that time. After the founding of the <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">People's Republic of China</a>, the study of Chinese modern literature gradually increased. Modern-era literature has influenced modern interpretations of nationhood and the creation of a sense of national spirit.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Poetry_in_the_Tang_dynasty">Poetry in the Tang dynasty</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tang_poetry" title="Tang poetry">Tang poetry</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%22Lan-ting_Xu%22_Preface_to_the_Poems_Composed_at_the_Orchid_Pavilion,_copy_by_an_artist_in_the_Tang_dynasty_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/%22Lan-ting_Xu%22_Preface_to_the_Poems_Composed_at_the_Orchid_Pavilion%2C_copy_by_an_artist_in_the_Tang_dynasty_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/400px-%22Lan-ting_Xu%22_Preface_to_the_Poems_Composed_at_the_Orchid_Pavilion%2C_copy_by_an_artist_in_the_Tang_dynasty_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/%22Lan-ting_Xu%22_Preface_to_the_Poems_Composed_at_the_Orchid_Pavilion%2C_copy_by_an_artist_in_the_Tang_dynasty_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/600px-%22Lan-ting_Xu%22_Preface_to_the_Poems_Composed_at_the_Orchid_Pavilion%2C_copy_by_an_artist_in_the_Tang_dynasty_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/%22Lan-ting_Xu%22_Preface_to_the_Poems_Composed_at_the_Orchid_Pavilion%2C_copy_by_an_artist_in_the_Tang_dynasty_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/800px-%22Lan-ting_Xu%22_Preface_to_the_Poems_Composed_at_the_Orchid_Pavilion%2C_copy_by_an_artist_in_the_Tang_dynasty_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4673" data-file-height="1560" /></a><figcaption>A Tang dynasty era copy of the preface to the <i><a href="/wiki/Lantingji_Xu" title="Lantingji Xu">Lantingji Xu</a></i> poems composed at the <a href="/wiki/Orchid_Pavilion_Gathering" title="Orchid Pavilion Gathering">Orchid Pavilion Gathering</a>, originally attributed to <a href="/wiki/Wang_Xizhi" title="Wang Xizhi">Wang Xizhi</a> (303–361 AD) of the <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(265%E2%80%93420)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jin dynasty (265–420)">Jin dynasty</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Tang poetry refers to <a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">poetry</a> written in or around the time of, or in the characteristic style of, China's <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> (18 June 618 – 4 June 907, including the 690–705 reign of <a href="/wiki/Wu_Zetian" title="Wu Zetian">Wu Zetian</a>) or that follows a certain style, often considered the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Age" title="Golden Age">Golden Age</a> of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_poetry" title="Chinese poetry">Chinese poetry</a>. During the Tang dynasty, poetry continued to be an important part of social life at all levels of society. Scholars were required to master poetry for the civil service exams, but the art was theoretically available to everyone.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This led to a large record of poetry and poets, a partial record of which survives today. Two of the most famous poets of the period were <a href="/wiki/Li_Bai" title="Li Bai">Li Bai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Du_Fu" title="Du Fu">Du Fu</a>. Tang poetry has had an ongoing influence on world literature and modern and quasi-modern poetry. The <i>Quantangshi</i> ("Complete Tang Poems") anthology compiled in the early eighteenth century includes over 48,900 poems written by over 2,200 authors.<sup id="cite_ref-columbia_14-15_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-columbia_14-15-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i>Quantangwen</i> (全唐文, "Complete Tang Prose"), despite its name, contains more than 1,500 <i><a href="/wiki/Fu_(poetry)" title="Fu (poetry)">fu</a></i> and is another widely consulted source for Tang poetry.<sup id="cite_ref-columbia_14-15_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-columbia_14-15-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite their names, these sources are not comprehensive, and the <a href="/wiki/Dunhuang_manuscripts" title="Dunhuang manuscripts">manuscripts discovered at Dunhuang</a> in the twentieth century included many <i>shi</i> and some <i>fu</i>, as well as variant readings of poems that were also included in the later anthologies.<sup id="cite_ref-columbia_14-15_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-columbia_14-15-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are also collections of individual poets' work, which generally can be dated earlier than the Qing anthologies, although few earlier than the eleventh century.<sup id="cite_ref-columbia_14-16_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-columbia_14-16-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only about a hundred Tang poets have such collected editions extant.<sup id="cite_ref-columbia_14-16_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-columbia_14-16-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another important source is anthologies of poetry compiled during the Tang dynasty, although only thirteen such anthologies survive in full or in part.<sup id="cite_ref-columbia_14-17_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-columbia_14-17-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many records of poetry, as well as other writings, were lost when the Tang capital of <a href="/wiki/Changan" class="mw-redirect" title="Changan">Changan</a> was damaged by war in the eighth and ninth centuries, so that while more than 50,000 Tang poems survive (more than any earlier period in Chinese history), this still likely represents only a small portion of the poetry that was actually produced during the period.<sup id="cite_ref-columbia_14-16_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-columbia_14-16-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many seventh-century poets are reported by the 721 imperial library catalog as having left behind massive volumes of poetry, of which only a tiny portion survives,<sup id="cite_ref-columbia_14-16_40-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-columbia_14-16-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and there are notable gaps in the poetic œuvres of even Li Bai and Du Fu, the two most celebrated Tang poets.<sup id="cite_ref-columbia_14-16_40-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-columbia_14-16-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ci_in_Song_dynasty"><i>Ci</i> in Song dynasty</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ci_(poetry)" title="Ci (poetry)">Ci (poetry)</a></div> <p>Ci (辭/辞) are a poetic form, a type of <a href="/wiki/Lyric_poetry" title="Lyric poetry">lyric poetry</a>, done in the tradition of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese_poetry" title="Classical Chinese poetry">Classical Chinese poetry</a>. <i>Ci</i> use a set of <a href="/wiki/Poetic_meter" class="mw-redirect" title="Poetic meter">poetic meters</a> derived from a base set of certain patterns, in fixed-rhythm, fixed-tone, and variable line-length formal types, or model examples: the rhythmic and tonal pattern of the <i>ci</i> are based upon certain, definitive musical song tunes. They are also known as <i>Changduanju</i> (長短句/长短句, "lines of irregular lengths") and <i>Shiyu</i> (詩餘/诗馀, "that which is beside poetry").Typically the number of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_character" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese character">characters</a> in each line and the arrangement of <a href="/wiki/Tonal_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Tonal language">tones</a> were determined by one of around 800 set patterns, each associated with a particular title, called <i>cípái</i> 詞牌/词牌. Originally they were written to be sung to a tune of that title, with set rhythm, <a href="/wiki/Rhyme" title="Rhyme">rhyme</a>, and tempo. The <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> was also a period of great scientific literature, and saw the creation of works such as <a href="/wiki/Su_Song" title="Su Song">Su Song</a>'s <i>Xin Yixiang Fayao</i> and <a href="/wiki/Shen_Kuo" title="Shen Kuo">Shen Kuo</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Dream_Pool_Essays" title="Dream Pool Essays">Dream Pool Essays</a></i>. There were also enormous works of historiography and large encyclopedias, such as <a href="/wiki/Sima_Guang" title="Sima Guang">Sima Guang</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Zizhi_Tongjian" title="Zizhi Tongjian">Zizhi Tongjian</a></i> of 1084 or the <i><a href="/wiki/Four_Great_Books_of_Song" title="Four Great Books of Song">Four Great Books of Song</a></i> fully compiled and edited by the 11th century. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Listing_of_noted_Confucianists" class="mw-redirect" title="Listing of noted Confucianists">Notable Confucianists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Listing_of_noted_Taoists" class="mw-redirect" title="Listing of noted Taoists">Taoists</a> and scholars of all classes have made significant contributions to and from documenting history to authoring saintly concepts that seem hundreds of years ahead of time. Although the oldest surviving textual examples of surviving <i>ci</i> are from 8th century CE <a href="/wiki/Dunhuang_manuscripts" title="Dunhuang manuscripts">Dunhuang manuscripts</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> beginning in the <a href="/wiki/Six_dynasties_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Six dynasties poetry">poetry</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Liang_dynasty" title="Liang dynasty">Liang dynasty</a>, the <i>ci</i> followed the tradition of the <i><a href="/wiki/Classic_of_Poetry" title="Classic of Poetry">Shi Jing</a></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Yuefu" title="Yuefu">yuefu</a></i>: they were lyrics which developed from anonymous popular songs into a sophisticated literary genre; although in the case of the <i>ci</i> form some of its fixed-rhythm patterns have an origin in <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>. The form was further developed in the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a>. Although the contributions of <a href="/wiki/Li_Bai" title="Li Bai">Li Bo</a> (also known as Li Po, 701 – 762) are fraught with historical doubt, certainly the Tang poet <a href="/wiki/Wen_Tingyun" title="Wen Tingyun">Wen Tingyun</a> (812–870) was a great master of the <i>ci</i>, writing it in its distinct and mature form.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the more notable practitioners and developers of this form was <a href="/wiki/Li_Houzhu" class="mw-redirect" title="Li Houzhu">Li Yu</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Tang" title="Southern Tang">Southern Tang</a> dynasty during the <a href="/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period">Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period</a>. However, the <i>ci</i> form of Classical Chinese poetry is especially associated with the <a href="/wiki/Song_poetry" title="Song poetry">poetry of the Song dynasty</a>, during which it was indeed a popular poetic form. A revival of the <i>ci</i> poetry form occurred during the end of the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> and the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> which was characterized by an exploration of the emotions connected with romantic love together with its valorization, often in a context of a brief poetic story narrative within a <i>ci</i> poem or a linked group of <i>ci</i> poems in an application of the <i><a href="/wiki/Chuanqi_(short_story)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chuanqi (short story)">chuanqi</a></i> form of short story tales to poetry.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Qu_in_Yuan_dynasty"><i>Qu</i> in Yuan dynasty</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Qu_(poetry)" title="Qu (poetry)">Qu (poetry)</a></div> <p>The <i>Qu</i> form of poetry is a type of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese_poetry_forms" title="Classical Chinese poetry forms">Classical Chinese poetry form</a>, consisting of words written in one of a number of certain, set <a href="/wiki/Tone_pattern" title="Tone pattern">tone patterns</a>, based upon the tunes of various songs. Thus <i><b>Qu</b></i> poems are lyrics with lines of varying longer and shorter lengths, set according to the certain and specific, fixed patterns of rhyme and tone of conventional musical pieces upon which they are based and after which these matched variations in lyrics (or individual <i><b>Qu</b></i> poems) generally take their name.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fixed-tone type of verse such as the <i><b>Qu</b></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Ci_(poetry)" title="Ci (poetry)">ci</a></i> together with the <i><a href="/wiki/Shi_(poetry)" title="Shi (poetry)">shi</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Fu_(poetry)" title="Fu (poetry)">fu</a></i> forms of poetry comprise the three main forms of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese_poetry" title="Classical Chinese poetry">Classical Chinese poetry</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Chinese_literature" title="Chinese literature">Chinese literature</a>, the <i><b>Qu</b></i> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh">曲</span>; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">qǔ</span></i>; <a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn-wadegile">chü</span></i>) form of poetry from the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a> may be called <i>Yuanqu</i> (元曲 P: <i>Yuánqǔ</i>, W: <i>Yüan-chü</i>). Qu may be derived from <a href="/wiki/Chinese_opera" title="Chinese opera">Chinese opera</a>, such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Zaju" title="Zaju">Zaju</a></i> (雜劇/杂剧), in which case these Qu may be referred to as <i><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Sanqu_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Sanqu poetry">sanqu</a></i> (散曲). The <i>San</i> in <i>Sanqu</i> refers to the detached status of the <i>Qu</i> lyrics of this verse form: in other words, rather than being embedded as part of an opera performance the lyrics stand separately on their own. Since the <i>Qu</i> became popular during the late <a href="/wiki/Southern_Song" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Song">Southern Song</a> dynasty, and reached a special height of popularity in the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_poetry" title="Yuan poetry">poetry</a> of the Yuan dynasty, therefore it is often called <i>Yuanqu</i> (元曲), specifying the type of <i>Qu</i> found in <a href="/wiki/Chinese_opera" title="Chinese opera">Chinese opera</a> typical of the Yuan dynasty era. Both <i>Sanqu</i> and <i>Ci</i> are lyrics written to fit a different melodies, but <i>Sanqu</i> differs from <i>Ci</i> in that it is more colloquial, and is allowed to contain <i>Chenzi</i> (襯字/衬字 "filler words" which are additional words to make a more complete meaning). <i>Sanqu</i> can be further divided into <i>Xiaoling</i> (小令) and <i>Santao</i> (散套), with the latter containing more than one melody. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_novels_in_Ming_dynasty_and_Qing_dynasty">The novels in Ming dynasty and Qing dynasty</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Four_Great_Classical_Novels" class="mw-redirect" title="Four Great Classical Novels">Four Great Classical Novels</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ming_Dynasty_wood_carving_books_in_Tian_Yi_Chamber_colllection.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Ming_Dynasty_wood_carving_books_in_Tian_Yi_Chamber_colllection.JPG/220px-Ming_Dynasty_wood_carving_books_in_Tian_Yi_Chamber_colllection.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Ming_Dynasty_wood_carving_books_in_Tian_Yi_Chamber_colllection.JPG/330px-Ming_Dynasty_wood_carving_books_in_Tian_Yi_Chamber_colllection.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Ming_Dynasty_wood_carving_books_in_Tian_Yi_Chamber_colllection.JPG/440px-Ming_Dynasty_wood_carving_books_in_Tian_Yi_Chamber_colllection.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>Ming dynasty wood carving books in the <a href="/wiki/Tian_Yi_Chamber" class="mw-redirect" title="Tian Yi Chamber">Tian Yi Chamber</a> collection</figcaption></figure> <p>The Four Great Classical<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or Classic Novels of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_literature" title="Chinese literature">Chinese literature</a><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are the four <a href="/wiki/Novels" class="mw-redirect" title="Novels">novels</a> commonly regarded by Chinese literary criticism to be the greatest and most influential of pre-modern Chinese fiction. Dating from the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a> dynasties, they are well known to most Chinese either directly or through their many adaptations to <a href="/wiki/Chinese_opera" title="Chinese opera">Chinese opera</a> and other forms of <a href="/wiki/Popular_culture" title="Popular culture">popular culture</a>. They are among the world's longest and oldest novels and are considered to be the pinnacle of China's literary achievement in classic novels, influencing the creation of many stories, plays, movies, games, and other forms of entertainment across other parts of East Asia. </p><p>Chinese fiction, rooted in narrative classics such as <i><a href="/wiki/A_New_Account_of_the_Tales_of_the_World" title="A New Account of the Tales of the World">Shishuo Xinyu</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Soushen_Ji" class="mw-redirect" title="Soushen Ji">Sou Shen Ji</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Wenyuan_Yinghua" title="Wenyuan Yinghua">Wenyuan Yinghua</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Great_Tang_Records_on_the_Western_Regions" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Tang Records on the Western Regions">Da Tang Xiyu Ji</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Miscellaneous_Morsels_from_Youyang" title="Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang">Youyang Zazu</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Taiping_Guangji" title="Taiping Guangji">Taiping Guangji</a></i>, and official histories, developed into the <a href="/wiki/Novel" title="Novel">novel</a> as early as the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a>. The novel as an extended prose narrative which realistically creates a believable world of its own evolved in China and in Europe from the 14th to 18th centuries, though a little earlier in China. Chinese audiences were more interested in history and were more historically minded. They appreciated relative optimism, moral humanism, and relative emphasis on collective behavior and the welfare of the society.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The rise of a money economy and urbanization beginning in the Song era led to a professionalization of entertainment which was further encouraged by the spread of printing, the rise of literacy, and education. In both China and Western Europe, the novel gradually became more autobiographical and serious in exploration of social, moral, and philosophical problems. Chinese fiction of the late <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> and early <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> was varied, self-conscious, and experimental. In China, however, there was no counterpart to the 19th-century European explosion of novels. The novels of the Ming and early Qing dynasties represented a pinnacle of classic Chinese fiction.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The scholar and literary critic <a href="/wiki/Andrew_H._Plaks" title="Andrew H. Plaks">Andrew H. Plaks</a> argues that <i>Romance of the Three Kingdoms</i>, <i>Water Margin</i>, <i>Journey to the West</i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Jin_Ping_Mei" title="Jin Ping Mei">The Golden Lotus</a></i> collectively constituted a technical breakthrough reflecting new cultural values and intellectual concerns. Their educated editors, authors, and commentators used the <a href="/wiki/Narrative" title="Narrative">narrative conventions</a> developed from <a href="/wiki/Huaben_(Chinese_novella)" class="mw-redirect" title="Huaben (Chinese novella)">earlier story-tellers</a>, such as the episodic structure, interspersed songs and folk sayings, or speaking directly to the reader, but they fashioned self-consciously ironic narratives whose seeming familiarity camouflaged a Neo-Confucian moral critique of late Ming decadence. Plaks explores the textual history of the novels (all published after their author's deaths, usually anonymously) and how the ironic and satiric devices of these novels paved the way for the great novels of the 18th century.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plaks further shows these Ming novels share formal characteristics. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fashion_and_clothing">Fashion and clothing</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_clothing" title="Chinese clothing">Chinese clothing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hanfu" title="Hanfu">Hanfu</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Qipao" class="mw-redirect" title="Qipao">Qipao</a></div> <p>China's fashion history covers hundreds of years with some of the most colorful and diverse arrangements. Different social classes in different eras boast different fashion trends, the color yellow was usually reserved for the emperor during China's Imperial era. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pre-Qing">Pre-Qing</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E7%AB%A0%E6%87%B7%E5%A4%AA%E5%AD%90%E5%A2%93%E5%A3%81%E7%95%AB%E7%A6%AE%E8%B3%93%E5%9C%96a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/%E7%AB%A0%E6%87%B7%E5%A4%AA%E5%AD%90%E5%A2%93%E5%A3%81%E7%95%AB%E7%A6%AE%E8%B3%93%E5%9C%96a.jpg/220px-%E7%AB%A0%E6%87%B7%E5%A4%AA%E5%AD%90%E5%A2%93%E5%A3%81%E7%95%AB%E7%A6%AE%E8%B3%93%E5%9C%96a.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="317" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/%E7%AB%A0%E6%87%B7%E5%A4%AA%E5%AD%90%E5%A2%93%E5%A3%81%E7%95%AB%E7%A6%AE%E8%B3%93%E5%9C%96a.jpg/330px-%E7%AB%A0%E6%87%B7%E5%A4%AA%E5%AD%90%E5%A2%93%E5%A3%81%E7%95%AB%E7%A6%AE%E8%B3%93%E5%9C%96a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/%E7%AB%A0%E6%87%B7%E5%A4%AA%E5%AD%90%E5%A2%93%E5%A3%81%E7%95%AB%E7%A6%AE%E8%B3%93%E5%9C%96a.jpg/440px-%E7%AB%A0%E6%87%B7%E5%A4%AA%E5%AD%90%E5%A2%93%E5%A3%81%E7%95%AB%E7%A6%AE%E8%B3%93%E5%9C%96a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="483" data-file-height="696" /></a><figcaption>Tang dynasty mural from <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Zhongzong_of_Tang" title="Emperor Zhongzong of Tang">Li Xian</a>'s tomb in <a href="/wiki/Qianling_Mausoleum" title="Qianling Mausoleum">Qianling</a> showing Han nobility clothing of the era.</figcaption></figure> <p>From the beginning of its history, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Chinese_clothing" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Chinese clothing">Han clothing</a> (especially in elite circles) was inseparable from <a href="/wiki/Silk" title="Silk">silk</a>, supposedly discovered by the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_Emperor" title="Yellow Emperor">Yellow Emperor's</a> consort, <a href="/wiki/Leizu" title="Leizu">Leizu</a>. The dynasty to follow the Shang, the <a href="/wiki/Western_Zhou_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Zhou dynasty">Western Zhou dynasty</a>, established a strict hierarchical society that used clothing as a status meridian, and inevitably, the height of one's rank influenced the ornateness of a costume. Such markers included the length of a skirt, the wideness of a sleeve and the degree of ornamentation. In addition to these class-oriented developments, Han Chinese clothing became looser, with the introduction of wide sleeves and jade decorations hung from the sash which served to keep the <i>yi</i> closed. The <i>yi</i> was essentially wrapped over, in a style known as <i>jiaoling youren</i>, or wrapping the right side over before the left, because of the initially greater challenge to the right-handed wearer (people of Zhongyuan discouraged <a href="/wiki/Left-handedness" class="mw-redirect" title="Left-handedness">left-handedness</a> like many other historical cultures, considering it unnatural, barbarian, uncivilized, and unfortunate). The <a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang dynasty</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1600 BC</span> – 1046 BC), developed the rudiments of Chinese clothing; it consisted of a <i>yi</i>, a narrow-cuffed, knee-length tunic tied with a sash, and a narrow, ankle-length skirt, called <i>chang</i>, worn with a <i><a href="/wiki/Bixi_(clothing)" title="Bixi (clothing)">bixi</a></i>, a length of fabric that reached the knees. Vivid primary colors and green were used, due to the degree of technology at the time. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Qipao">Qipao</h3></div> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a>, China's last imperial dynasty, a dramatic shift of clothing occurred, examples of which include the <a href="/wiki/Cheongsam" title="Cheongsam">cheongsam</a> (or qipao in Mandarin). The clothing of the era before the Qing dynasty is referred to as <a href="/wiki/Hanfu" title="Hanfu">Hanfu</a> or traditional <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese_clothing" class="mw-redirect" title="Han Chinese clothing">Han Chinese clothing</a>. Many symbols such as <a href="/wiki/Fenghuang" title="Fenghuang">phoenix</a> have been used for decorative as well as economic purposes. Among them were the <i><a href="/wiki/Banner_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Banner system">Banners</a></i> (<i>qí</i>), mostly Manchu, who as a group were called <i>Banner People</i> (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%97%97%E4%BA%BA" class="extiw" title="wikt:旗人">旗人</a> <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i>qí rén</i>). <a href="/wiki/Manchu" class="mw-redirect" title="Manchu">Manchu</a> women typically wore a one-piece dress that retrospectively came to be known as the <i>qípáo</i> (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%97%97%E8%A2%8D" class="extiw" title="wikt:旗袍">旗袍</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu</a>: <i>sijigiyan</i> or <i>banner gown</i>). The generic term for both the male and the female forms of Manchu dress, essentially similar garments, was <i>chángpáo</i> (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%95%BF%E8%A2%8D" class="extiw" title="wikt:长袍">長袍</a>/长袍). The <i>qipao</i> fitted loosely and hung straight down the body, or flared slightly in an A-line. Under the dynastic laws after 1636, all <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han Chinese</a> in the banner system were forced to adopt the Manchu male hairstyle of wearing a <a href="/wiki/Queue_(hairstyle)" title="Queue (hairstyle)">queue</a> as did all Manchu men and dress in Manchu <i>qipao.</i> However, the order for ordinary non-Banner Han civilians to wear Manchu clothing was lifted and only Han who served as officials were required to wear Manchu clothing, with the rest of the civilian Han population dressing however they wanted. Qipao covered most of the woman's body, revealing only the head, hands, and the tips of the toes. The baggy nature of the clothing also served to conceal the figure of the wearer regardless of age. With time, though, the <i>qipao</i> were tailored to become more form fitting and revealing. The modern version, which is now recognized popularly in China as the "standard" <i>qipao</i>, was first developed in <a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a> in the 1920s, partly under the influence of Beijing styles. People eagerly sought a more modernized style of dress and transformed the old <i>qipao</i> to suit their tastes. Slender and form fitting with a high cut, it had great differences from the traditional <i>qipao</i>. It was high-class <a href="/wiki/Courtesans" class="mw-redirect" title="Courtesans">courtesans</a> and celebrities in the city that would make these redesigned tight fitting <i>qipao</i> popular at that time. In Shanghai it was first known as <i>zansae</i> or "long dress" (長衫—Mandarin Chinese: chángshān; <a href="/wiki/Shanghainese" title="Shanghainese">Shanghainese</a>: <i>zansae</i>; Cantonese: <i>chèuhngsāam</i>), and it is this name that survives in English as the "cheongsam". Most Han civilian men eventually voluntarily adopted Manchu clothing while Han women continued wearing Han clothing. Until 1911, the changpao was required clothing for Chinese men of a certain class, but Han Chinese women continued to wear loose jacket and trousers, with an overskirt for formal occasions. The <i>qipao</i> was a new fashion item for Han Chinese women when they started wearing it around 1925.The original <i>qipao</i> was wide and loose. As hosiery in turn declined in later decades, cheongsams nowadays have come to be most commonly worn with bare legs. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Arts">Arts</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:132px;max-width:132px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;;height:254px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pine,_Plum_and_Cranes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Pine%2C_Plum_and_Cranes.jpg/130px-Pine%2C_Plum_and_Cranes.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Pine%2C_Plum_and_Cranes.jpg/195px-Pine%2C_Plum_and_Cranes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Pine%2C_Plum_and_Cranes.jpg/260px-Pine%2C_Plum_and_Cranes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="684" data-file-height="1336" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><i>Pine, Plum and Cranes</i>, 1759, by Shen Quan (1682–1760). Hanging scroll, ink and colour on silk. The <a href="/wiki/Forbidden_City" title="Forbidden City">Palace Museum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:156px;max-width:156px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;;height:254px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lin_Liang-Eagles.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Lin_Liang-Eagles.jpg/154px-Lin_Liang-Eagles.jpg" decoding="async" width="154" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Lin_Liang-Eagles.jpg/231px-Lin_Liang-Eagles.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Lin_Liang-Eagles.jpg/308px-Lin_Liang-Eagles.jpg 2x" data-file-width="976" data-file-height="1618" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Chinese <a href="/wiki/Ink_wash_painting" title="Ink wash painting">ink wash painting</a> called <i>Eagles</i> by <a href="/wiki/Lin_Liang" title="Lin Liang">Lin Liang</a> (1416–1480). Located at the <a href="/wiki/National_Palace_Museum" title="National Palace Museum">National Palace Museum</a> in <a href="/wiki/Taipei" title="Taipei">Taipei</a>.</div></div></div></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Arts_of_China" title="Arts of China">Arts of China</a></div> <p>Chinese art is <a href="/wiki/Visual_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Visual art">visual art</a> that, whether ancient or modern, originated in or is practiced in China or by Chinese artists. The Chinese art in the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of China">Republic of China</a> (Taiwan) and that of <a href="/wiki/Overseas_Chinese" title="Overseas Chinese">overseas Chinese</a> can also be considered part of Chinese art where it is based in or draws on Chinese heritage and Chinese culture. Early "<a href="/wiki/Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Stone Age</a> art" dates back to 10,000 BC, mostly consisting of simple <a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">pottery</a> and sculptures. After this early period Chinese art, like Chinese history, is typically classified by the succession of ruling <a href="/wiki/Dynasty" title="Dynasty">dynasties</a> of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_emperors" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese emperors">Chinese emperors</a>, most of which lasted several hundred years. </p><p>Chinese art has arguably the oldest continuous tradition in the world, and is marked by an unusual degree of continuity within, and consciousness of, that tradition, lacking an equivalent to the Western collapse and gradual recovery of classical styles. The media that have usually been classified in the West since the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Decorative_arts" title="Decorative arts">decorative arts</a> are extremely important in Chinese art, and much of the finest work was produced in large workshops or factories by essentially unknown artists, especially in <a href="/wiki/Chinese_ceramics" title="Chinese ceramics">Chinese ceramics</a>. </p><p>Different forms of art have swayed under the influence of great philosophers, teachers, religious figures and even political figures. Chinese art encompasses all facets of <a href="/wiki/Fine_art" title="Fine art">fine art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_art" title="Chinese folk art">folk art</a> and <a href="/wiki/Performance_art" title="Performance art">performance art</a>. <a href="/wiki/Chinese_ceramics" title="Chinese ceramics">Porcelain pottery</a> was one of the first forms of art in the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Palaeolithic_sites_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Palaeolithic sites in China">Palaeolithic</a> period. Early Chinese music and poetry was influenced by the <i><a href="/wiki/Classic_of_Poetry" title="Classic of Poetry">Book of Songs</a></i>, and the Chinese poet and statesman <a href="/wiki/Qu_Yuan" title="Qu Yuan">Qu Yuan</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Chinese_painting" title="Chinese painting">Chinese painting</a> became a highly appreciated art in court circles encompassing a wide variety of <a href="/wiki/Shan_shui" title="Shan shui">Shan shui</a> with specialized styles such as <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty_painting" title="Ming dynasty painting">Ming dynasty painting</a>. Early <a href="/wiki/List_of_traditional_Chinese_musical_instruments" class="mw-redirect" title="List of traditional Chinese musical instruments">Chinese music</a> was based on percussion instruments, which later gave away to stringed and reed instruments. By the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Paper_Cutting" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Paper Cutting">papercutting</a> became a new art form after the invention of paper. <a href="/wiki/Chinese_opera" title="Chinese opera">Chinese opera</a> would also be introduced and branched regionally in addition to other performance formats such as <a href="/wiki/Chinese_variety_arts" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese variety arts">variety arts</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chinese_lantern">Chinese lantern</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Paper_lantern" title="Paper lantern">Paper lantern</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sky_lantern" title="Sky lantern">Sky lantern</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Red_lanterns,_Spring_Festival,_Ditan_Park_Beijing.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Red_lanterns%2C_Spring_Festival%2C_Ditan_Park_Beijing.JPG/250px-Red_lanterns%2C_Spring_Festival%2C_Ditan_Park_Beijing.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Red_lanterns%2C_Spring_Festival%2C_Ditan_Park_Beijing.JPG/375px-Red_lanterns%2C_Spring_Festival%2C_Ditan_Park_Beijing.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Red_lanterns%2C_Spring_Festival%2C_Ditan_Park_Beijing.JPG/500px-Red_lanterns%2C_Spring_Festival%2C_Ditan_Park_Beijing.JPG 2x" data-file-width="772" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption>Red lanterns are hung from the trees during the Chinese New Year celebrations in Ditan Park (Temple of Earth) in Beijing.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Chinese paper lantern (紙燈籠, 纸灯笼) is a <a href="/wiki/Lantern" title="Lantern">lantern</a> made of thin, brightly colored paper.<sup id="cite_ref-freedictionary_lantern_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-freedictionary_lantern-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Paper lanterns come in various shapes and sizes, as well as various methods of construction. In their simplest form, they are simply a <a href="/wiki/Paper_bag" title="Paper bag">paper bag</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Candle" title="Candle">candle</a> placed inside, although more complicated <a href="/wiki/Lantern" title="Lantern">lanterns</a> consist of a collapsible <a href="/wiki/Bamboo" title="Bamboo">bamboo</a> or metal frame of hoops covered with tough <a href="/wiki/Paper" title="Paper">paper</a>. Sometimes, other lanterns can be made out of colored silk (usually red) or vinyl. Silk lanterns are also collapsible with a metal expander and are decorated with Chinese characters and/or designs. The vinyl lanterns are more durable; they can resist rain, sunlight, and wind. Paper lanterns do not last very long, they soon break, and silk lanterns last longer. The gold paper on them will soon fade away to a pale white, and the red silk will become a mix between pink and red. Often associated with <a href="/wiki/Festival" title="Festival">festivals</a>, paper lanterns are common in China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, and similarly in <a href="/wiki/Chinatown" title="Chinatown">Chinatowns</a> with large communities of <a href="/wiki/Overseas_Chinese" title="Overseas Chinese">Overseas Chinese</a>, where they are often hung outside of businesses to attract attention. In Japan <a href="/wiki/Traditional_lighting_equipment_of_Japan" title="Traditional lighting equipment of Japan">the traditional styles</a> include <i><a href="/wiki/Bonbori" class="mw-redirect" title="Bonbori">bonbori</a></i> and <i>chōchin</i> and there is a special style of lettering called <i><a href="/wiki/Edomoji" title="Edomoji">chōchin moji</a></i> used to write on them. Airborne paper lanterns are called <a href="/wiki/Sky_lanterns" class="mw-redirect" title="Sky lanterns">sky lanterns</a>, and are often released into the night sky for aesthetic effect at <a href="/wiki/Lantern_festival" class="mw-redirect" title="Lantern festival">lantern festivals</a>. </p><p>The Chinese sky lantern (天燈, 天灯), also known as <i>Kongming lantern</i>, is a small <a href="/wiki/Hot_air_balloon" title="Hot air balloon">hot air balloon</a> made of paper, with an opening at the bottom where a small fire is suspended. In Asia and elsewhere around the world, sky lanterns have been traditionally made for centuries, to be launched for play or as part of long-established festivities. The name "sky lantern" is a translation of the <a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Chinese</a> name but they have also been referred to as <i>sky candles</i> or <i>fire balloons</i>. The general design is a thin paper shell, which may be from about 30 <a href="/wiki/Centimetre" title="Centimetre">cm</a> to a couple of <a href="/wiki/Metre" title="Metre">metres</a> across, with an opening at the bottom. The opening is usually about 10 to 30 cm wide (even for the largest shells), and is surrounded by a stiff collar that serves to suspend the <a href="/wiki/Flame" title="Flame">flame</a> source and to keep it away from the walls. When lit, the flame heats the air inside the lantern, thus lowering its density and causing the lantern to rise into the air. The sky lantern is only airborne for as long as the flame stays alight, after which the lantern sinks back to the ground. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chinese_hand_fan">Chinese hand fan</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Non_electric_fan_aka_solfjader.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Non_electric_fan_aka_solfjader.jpg/220px-Non_electric_fan_aka_solfjader.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Non_electric_fan_aka_solfjader.jpg/330px-Non_electric_fan_aka_solfjader.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Non_electric_fan_aka_solfjader.jpg/440px-Non_electric_fan_aka_solfjader.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="1520" /></a><figcaption>A commercially produced scented wood folding fan, featuring a drawing of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Wall_of_China" title="Great Wall of China">Great Wall of China</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The oldest existing Chinese fans are a pair of woven <a href="/wiki/Bamboo" title="Bamboo">bamboo</a>, wood or paper side-mounted fans from the 2nd century BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Chinese_character" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese character">Chinese character</a> for "fan" (扇) is etymologically derived from a picture of feathers under a roof. A particular status and gender would be associated with a specific type of fan. During the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a>, famous artists were often commissioned to paint fans. The Chinese dancing fan was developed in the 7th century. The Chinese form of the hand fan was a row of feathers mounted in the end of a handle. In the later centuries, Chinese poems and four-word idioms were used to decorate the fans by using Chinese calligraphy pens. In ancient China, fans came in various shapes and forms (such as in a leaf, oval or a half-moon shape), and were made in different materials such as silk, bamboo, feathers, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Carved_lacquer">Carved lacquer</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lacquered_box_with_character_for_luck,_Qianlong_Period.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Lacquered_box_with_character_for_luck%2C_Qianlong_Period.JPG/220px-Lacquered_box_with_character_for_luck%2C_Qianlong_Period.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Lacquered_box_with_character_for_luck%2C_Qianlong_Period.JPG/330px-Lacquered_box_with_character_for_luck%2C_Qianlong_Period.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Lacquered_box_with_character_for_luck%2C_Qianlong_Period.JPG 2x" data-file-width="378" data-file-height="358" /></a><figcaption>Box with the character for "Spring" (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">春</span></span>), <a href="/wiki/Qianlong" class="mw-redirect" title="Qianlong">Qianlong</a> period, <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a>. <a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Museum" title="Nanjing Museum">Nanjing Museum</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Carved_lacquer" title="Carved lacquer">Carved lacquer</a></div> <p>Carved lacquer or <i>Qīdiāo</i> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh">漆雕</span>) is a distinctive Chinese form of decorated <a href="/wiki/Lacquerware" title="Lacquerware">lacquerware</a>. While lacquer has been used in China for at least 3,000 years,<sup id="cite_ref-Grove_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grove-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the technique of carving into very thick coatings of it appears to have been developed in the 12th century CE. It is extremely time-consuming to produce, and has always been a luxury product, essentially restricted to China,<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though imitated in <a href="/wiki/Japanese_lacquerware" title="Japanese lacquerware">Japanese lacquer</a> in somewhat different styles. The producing process is called <b>Diāoqī</b> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">雕漆</span></span>/彫漆, carving lacquer).Though most surviving examples are from the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a> dynasties, the main types of subject matter for the carvings were all begun under the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a>, and the development of both these and the technique of carving were essentially over by the early Ming. These types were the abstract <i>guri</i> or Sword-Pommel pattern, figures in a landscape, and birds and plants. To these some designs with religious symbols, animals, auspicious characters <i>(right)</i> and imperial dragons can be added.<sup id="cite_ref-Grove_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grove-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The objects made in the technique are a wide range of small types, but are mostly practical vessels or containers such as boxes, plates and trays. Some screens and pieces of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_furniture" title="Chinese furniture">Chinese furniture</a> were made. Carved lacquer is only rarely combined with painting in lacquer and other lacquer techniques.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Later Chinese writers dated the introduction of carved lacquer to the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> (618–906), and many modern writers have pointed to some late Tang pieces of armour found on the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a> by <a href="/wiki/Aurel_Stein" title="Aurel Stein">Aurel Stein</a> and now in the <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a>. These are red and black lacquer on <a href="/wiki/Camel" title="Camel">camel</a> hide, but the lacquer is very thin, "less than one millimeter in thickness", and the effect very different, with simple abstract shapes on a plain field and almost no impression of <a href="/wiki/Relief" title="Relief">relief</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The style of carving into thick lacquer used later is first seen in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Song" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Song">Southern Song</a> (1127–1279), following the development of techniques for making very thick lacquer.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is some evidence from literary sources that it had existed in the late Tang.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At first the style of decoration used is known as <i>guri</i> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">屈輪</span></span>/曲仑) from the Japanese word for the ring-pommel of a sword, where the same motifs were used in metal, and is often called the "Sword-Pommel pattern" in English. This style uses a family of repeated two-branched scrolling shapes cut with a rounded profile at the surface, but below that a "V" section through layers of lacquer in different colours (black, red and yellow, and later green), giving a "marbled" effect from the contrasted colours; this technique is called <i>tìxī</i> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">剔犀</span></span>/剃犀) in Chinese. This style continued to be used up to the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a>, especially on small boxes and jars with covers, though after the Song only red was often used, and the motifs were often carved with wider flat spaces at the bottom level to be exposed.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Folding_screen">Folding screen</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hofmobiliendepot_-_Chinesischer_Paravent.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Hofmobiliendepot_-_Chinesischer_Paravent.jpg/220px-Hofmobiliendepot_-_Chinesischer_Paravent.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Hofmobiliendepot_-_Chinesischer_Paravent.jpg/330px-Hofmobiliendepot_-_Chinesischer_Paravent.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Hofmobiliendepot_-_Chinesischer_Paravent.jpg/440px-Hofmobiliendepot_-_Chinesischer_Paravent.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4364" data-file-height="3388" /></a><figcaption>Chinese folding screen used at the Austrian imperial court, 18th century, the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Furniture_Collection" title="Imperial Furniture Collection">Imperial Furniture Collection</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Folding_screen" title="Folding screen">Folding screen</a></div> <p>A folding screen (<a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">simplified Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hans">屏风</span>; <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">traditional Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hant">屏風</span>) is a type of free-standing <a href="/wiki/Furniture" title="Furniture">furniture</a>. It consists of several frames or panels, which are often connected by <a href="/wiki/Hinge" title="Hinge">hinges</a> or by other means. It can be made in a variety of designs and with different kinds of materials. Folding screens have many practical and decorative uses. It originated from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient China">ancient China</a>, eventually spreading to the rest of East Asia, Europe, and other parts of the world. Screens date back to China during the Eastern <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou</a> period (771–256 BCE).<sup id="cite_ref-handler268_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-handler268-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-mazurkewich_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mazurkewich-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These were initially one-panel screens in contrast to folding screens.<sup id="cite_ref-needham-v5_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham-v5-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Folding screens were invented during the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> (206 BCE – 220 CE).<sup id="cite_ref-lee_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lee-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Depictions of those folding screens have been found in Han-era tombs, such as one in <a href="/wiki/Zhucheng" title="Zhucheng">Zhucheng</a>, Shandong Province.<sup id="cite_ref-handler268_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-handler268-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Folding screens were originally made from wooden panels and painted on <a href="/wiki/Lacquerware" title="Lacquerware">lacquered</a> surfaces, eventually folding screens made from paper or <a href="/wiki/Silk" title="Silk">silk</a> became popular too.<sup id="cite_ref-needham-v5_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham-v5-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even though folding screens were known to have been used since <a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">antiquity</a>, it became rapidly popular during the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> (618–907).<sup id="cite_ref-vgulik_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vgulik-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the Tang dynasty, folding screens were considered ideal ornaments for many painters to display their <a href="/wiki/Chinese_painting" title="Chinese painting">paintings</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_calligraphy" title="Chinese calligraphy">calligraphy</a> on.<sup id="cite_ref-mazurkewich_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mazurkewich-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-needham-v5_67-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham-v5-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many artists painted on paper or silk and applied it onto the folding screen.<sup id="cite_ref-mazurkewich_66-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mazurkewich-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were two distinct artistic folding screens mentioned in historical literature of the era. One of it was known as the <i><span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn-pinyin">huaping</i></span></i> (<a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">simplified Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hans">画屏</span>; <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">traditional Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hant">畫屏</span>; <abbr title="Literal translation"><small>lit.</small></abbr> 'painted folding screen') and the other was known as the <i><span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn-pinyin">shuping</i></span></i> (<a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">simplified Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hans">书屏</span>; <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">traditional Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hant">書屏</span>; <abbr title="Literal translation"><small>lit.</small></abbr> 'calligraphed folding screen').<sup id="cite_ref-needham-v5_67-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham-v5-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-vgulik_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vgulik-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was not uncommon for people to commission folding screens from artists, such as from Tang-era painter Cao Ba or <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song-era</a> painter <a href="/wiki/Guo_Xi" title="Guo Xi">Guo Xi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-mazurkewich_66-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mazurkewich-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The landscape paintings on folding screens reached its height during the Song dynasty (960–1279).<sup id="cite_ref-handler268_65-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-handler268-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Lacquerware" title="Lacquerware">lacquer techniques</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Coromandel_screen" class="mw-redirect" title="Coromandel screen">Coromandel screens</a>, which is known as <i><span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn-pinyin">kuǎncǎi</i></span></i> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">款彩</span></span> "incised colors"),<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> emerged during the late <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> (1368–1644)<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was applied to folding screens to create dark screens incised, painted, and inlaid with art of <a href="/wiki/Mother-of-pearl" class="mw-redirect" title="Mother-of-pearl">mother-of-pearl</a>, ivory, or other materials. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chinese_jade">Chinese jade</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_jade" title="Chinese jade">Chinese jade</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bi_with_two_dragons_and_grain_pattern.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Bi_with_two_dragons_and_grain_pattern.jpg/220px-Bi_with_two_dragons_and_grain_pattern.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Bi_with_two_dragons_and_grain_pattern.jpg/330px-Bi_with_two_dragons_and_grain_pattern.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Bi_with_two_dragons_and_grain_pattern.jpg/440px-Bi_with_two_dragons_and_grain_pattern.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>A Chinese jade named <a href="/wiki/Bi_(jade)" title="Bi (jade)">Bi</a>(璧) with a dual dragon motif, <a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States period</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Chinese jade (玉) refers to the <a href="/wiki/Jade" title="Jade">jade</a> <a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mined</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hardstone_carving" title="Hardstone carving">carved</a> in China from the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> onward. It is the primary <a href="/wiki/Hardstone" title="Hardstone">hardstone</a> of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_sculpture" title="Chinese sculpture">Chinese sculpture</a>. Although deep and bright green <a href="/wiki/Jadeite" title="Jadeite">jadeite</a> is better known in Europe, for most of China's history, jade has come in a variety of colors and white "mutton-fat" <a href="/wiki/Nephrite" title="Nephrite">nephrite</a> was the most highly praised and prized. Native sources in <a href="/wiki/Henan" title="Henan">Henan</a> and along the <a href="/wiki/Yangtze" title="Yangtze">Yangtze</a> were exploited since prehistoric times and have largely been exhausted; most Chinese jade today is extracted from the northwestern <a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Provinces of the People's Republic of China">province</a> of <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a>. Jade was prized for its <a href="/wiki/Scratch_hardness" title="Scratch hardness">hardness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Toughness" title="Toughness">durability</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yayue" title="Yayue">musical qualities</a>, and beauty.<sup id="cite_ref-fieryglo_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fieryglo-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In particular, its subtle, translucent colors and protective qualities<sup id="cite_ref-fieryglo_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fieryglo-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> caused it to become associated with Chinese conceptions of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_soul" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese soul">soul</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taoist_immortal" class="mw-redirect" title="Taoist immortal">immortality</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most prominent early use was the crafting of the <b>Six Ritual Jades</b>, found since the 3rd-millennium BC <a href="/wiki/Liangzhu_culture" title="Liangzhu culture">Liangzhu culture</a>: the <i><a href="/wiki/Jade_bi" class="mw-redirect" title="Jade bi">bi</a></i>, the <i><a href="/wiki/Jade_cong" class="mw-redirect" title="Jade cong">cong</a></i>, the <i><a href="/wiki/Huang_(jade)" title="Huang (jade)">huang</a></i>, the <i>hu</i>, the <i>gui</i>, and the <i>zhang</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although these items are so ancient that their original meaning is uncertain, by the time of the composition of the <i><a href="/wiki/Rites_of_Zhou" title="Rites of Zhou">Rites of Zhou</a></i>, they were thought to represent the <a href="/wiki/Tian" title="Tian">sky</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Di_(Chinese_concept)" title="Di (Chinese concept)">earth</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Four_Symbols_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Four Symbols (China)">four directions</a>. By the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a>, the royal family and prominent lords were buried entirely ensheathed in <a href="/wiki/Jade_burial_suits" class="mw-redirect" title="Jade burial suits">jade burial suits</a> sewn in gold thread, on the idea that it would preserve the body and the souls attached to it. Jade was also thought to combat fatigue in the living.<sup id="cite_ref-fieryglo_72-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fieryglo-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Han also greatly improved prior artistic treatment of jade.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These uses gave way after the <a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Kingdoms period">Three Kingdoms period</a> to <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Buddhist</a> practices and new developments in <a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Chinese_alchemy" title="Chinese alchemy">alchemy</a>. Nonetheless, jade remained part of <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine" title="Traditional Chinese medicine">traditional Chinese medicine</a> and an important artistic medium. Although its use never became widespread in <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, jade became important to the art of <a href="/wiki/Korean_jade_carving" title="Korean jade carving">Korea</a> and Southeast Asia. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mythological_beings">Mythological beings</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Loong">Loong</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Loong" class="mw-redirect" title="Loong">Loong</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E4%BC%8F%E7%BE%B2%E5%BA%99%E4%B9%8B%E9%BE%99.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/%E4%BC%8F%E7%BE%B2%E5%BA%99%E4%B9%8B%E9%BE%99.jpg/220px-%E4%BC%8F%E7%BE%B2%E5%BA%99%E4%B9%8B%E9%BE%99.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/%E4%BC%8F%E7%BE%B2%E5%BA%99%E4%B9%8B%E9%BE%99.jpg/330px-%E4%BC%8F%E7%BE%B2%E5%BA%99%E4%B9%8B%E9%BE%99.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/%E4%BC%8F%E7%BE%B2%E5%BA%99%E4%B9%8B%E9%BE%99.jpg/440px-%E4%BC%8F%E7%BE%B2%E5%BA%99%E4%B9%8B%E9%BE%99.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Relief of a <a href="/wiki/Chinese_dragon" title="Chinese dragon">dragon</a> in Fuxi Temple (Tianshui).</figcaption></figure> <p>Loongs, also known as Chinese Dragon, are <a href="/wiki/Legendary_creature" title="Legendary creature">legendary creatures</a> in <a href="/wiki/Chinese_mythology" title="Chinese mythology">Chinese mythology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_folklore" title="Chinese folklore">Chinese folklore</a>, and East Asian culture. Chinese dragons have many <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_life_forms" title="Outline of life forms">animal-like forms</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Bixi_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bixi (mythology)">turtles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chiwen" title="Chiwen">fish</a>, but are most commonly depicted as <a href="/wiki/Snake" title="Snake">snake</a>-like with four legs. They traditionally symbolize potent and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/auspicious" class="extiw" title="wikt:auspicious">auspicious</a> powers, particularly control over water, rainfall, typhoons, and floods. The dragon is also a symbol of power, strength, and good luck for people who are worthy of it. During the days of Imperial China, the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">Emperor of China</a> usually used the dragon as a symbol of his imperial power and strength.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on an unreliable source. (July 2014)">unreliable source?</span></a></i>]</sup> They are also the symbol and representative for the <a href="/wiki/Son_of_Heaven" title="Son of Heaven">Son of Heaven</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Mandate_of_Heaven" title="Mandate of Heaven">Mandate of Heaven</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Celestial_Empire" title="Celestial Empire">Celestial Empire</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Tributary_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Tributary System">Chinese Tributary System</a> during the <a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">history of China</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fenghuang">Fenghuang</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fenghuang" title="Fenghuang">Fenghuang</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E4%BC%8F%E7%BE%B2%E5%BA%99%E4%B9%8B%E5%87%A4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/%E4%BC%8F%E7%BE%B2%E5%BA%99%E4%B9%8B%E5%87%A4.jpg/220px-%E4%BC%8F%E7%BE%B2%E5%BA%99%E4%B9%8B%E5%87%A4.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/%E4%BC%8F%E7%BE%B2%E5%BA%99%E4%B9%8B%E5%87%A4.jpg/330px-%E4%BC%8F%E7%BE%B2%E5%BA%99%E4%B9%8B%E5%87%A4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/%E4%BC%8F%E7%BE%B2%E5%BA%99%E4%B9%8B%E5%87%A4.jpg/440px-%E4%BC%8F%E7%BE%B2%E5%BA%99%E4%B9%8B%E5%87%A4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Relief of a <a href="/wiki/Fenghuang" title="Fenghuang">fenghuang</a> in Fuxi Temple (Tianshui). They are mythological birds of East Asia that reign over all other birds.</figcaption></figure> <p>Fenghuang (鳳凰) are <a href="/wiki/Chinese_mythology" title="Chinese mythology">mythological</a> birds found in Chinese and East Asian mythology that reign over all other birds. The <a href="/wiki/Male" title="Male">males</a> were originally called <i><b>feng</b></i> and the <a href="/wiki/Female" title="Female">females</a> <i><b>huang</b></i> but such a distinction of gender is often no longer made and they are blurred into a single feminine entity so that the bird can be paired with the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_dragon" title="Chinese dragon">Chinese dragon</a>, which is traditionally deemed male. The fenghuang is also called the "August Rooster" (<a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">simplified Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hans">鹍鸡</span>; <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">traditional Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hant">鶤雞 or 鵾雞</span>; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">yùnjī or kūnjī</span></i>; <a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn-wadegile">yün<sup>4</sup>-chi<sup>1</sup> or k'un<sup>1</sup>-chi<sup>1</sup></span></i>) since it sometimes takes the place of the <a href="/wiki/Rooster_(zodiac)" title="Rooster (zodiac)">Rooster</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_zodiac" title="Chinese zodiac">Chinese zodiac</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In the Western world, it is commonly called the Chinese phoenix or simply Phoenix, although mythological similarities with the Western <a href="/wiki/Phoenix_(mythology)" title="Phoenix (mythology)">phoenix</a> are superficial<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Qilin">Qilin</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Qilin" title="Qilin">Qilin</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ming_Tomb_Entrance_detail1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Ming_Tomb_Entrance_detail1.jpg/220px-Ming_Tomb_Entrance_detail1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Ming_Tomb_Entrance_detail1.jpg/330px-Ming_Tomb_Entrance_detail1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Ming_Tomb_Entrance_detail1.jpg/440px-Ming_Tomb_Entrance_detail1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Gilin with the head and scaly body of a dragon, tail of a lion and cloven hoofs like a deer. Its body enveloped in sacred flames. Detail from Entrance of General Zu Dashou Tomb (Ming Tomb).</figcaption></figure> <p>The Qilin (<span class="IPA" lang="cmn-Latn-fonipa" style="white-space:nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">[tɕʰǐ.lǐn]</a></span>; <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh">麒麟</span>), or Kirin in Japanese, is a <a href="/wiki/Mythical" class="mw-redirect" title="Mythical">mythical</a> hooved <a href="/wiki/Chimera_(mythology)" title="Chimera (mythology)">chimerical</a> creature in Chinese culture, said to appear with the imminent arrival or passing of a <a href="/wiki/Xian_(Taoism)" title="Xian (Taoism)">sage</a> or illustrious ruler.<sup id="cite_ref-britannica1_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britannica1-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Qilin is a specific type of the <i>lin</i> mythological family of one-horned beasts. The earliest references to the <i>qilin</i> are in the 5th century BC <i><a href="/wiki/Zuo_Zhuan" title="Zuo Zhuan">Zuo Zhuan</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>qilin</i> made appearances in a variety of subsequent Chinese works of history and fiction, such as <a href="/wiki/Fengshen_Yanyi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fengshen Yanyi">Feng Shen Bang</a>. <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Han" title="Emperor Wu of Han">Emperor Wu of Han</a> apparently captured a live <i>qilin</i> in 122 BC, although <a href="/wiki/Sima_Qian" title="Sima Qian">Sima Qian</a> was skeptical of this.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="WP:CIRCULAR (January 2018)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Xuanwu">Xuanwu</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Black_Tortoise" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Tortoise">Xuanwu</a></div> <p>Xuanwu (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>:玄武) is one of the <a href="/wiki/Four_Symbols_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Four Symbols (China)">Four Symbols</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_constellations" title="Chinese constellations">Chinese constellations</a>. Despite its English name, it is usually depicted as a <a href="/wiki/Turtle" title="Turtle">turtle</a> entwined together with a <a href="/wiki/Snake_in_Chinese_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Snake in Chinese mythology">snake</a>. It is known as Genbu in <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a> and Hyeonmu in <a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a>. It represents the <a href="/wiki/North" title="North">north</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Winter" title="Winter">winter</a> season. In Japan, it is one of the four guardian spirits that protect Kyoto and it is said that it protects the city on the north. Represented by the <a href="/wiki/Kenkun_Shrine" title="Kenkun Shrine">Kenkun Shrine</a>, which is located on top of Mt Funaoka in Kyoto. The creature's name is identical to that of the important <a href="/wiki/Taoist" class="mw-redirect" title="Taoist">Taoist</a> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_mythology" title="Chinese mythology">god</a> <a href="/wiki/Xuanwu_(god)" title="Xuanwu (god)">Xuanwu</a>, who is sometimes (as in <i><a href="/wiki/Journey_to_the_West" title="Journey to the West">Journey to the West</a></i>) portrayed in the company of a turtle and snake. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Music,_instruments_and_dancing"><span id="Music.2C_instruments_and_dancing"></span>Music, instruments and dancing</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Music_of_China" title="Music of China">Music of China</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_musical_instruments" title="List of Chinese musical instruments">List of Chinese musical instruments</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dance_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Dance of China">Dance of China</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:YEAR_OF_THE_MONKEY_IN_DUBLIN_(CHINESE_POETRY_ON_THE_DART_TO_CELEBRATE_THE_NEW_CHINESE_YEAR)-111425_(24150640974).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/YEAR_OF_THE_MONKEY_IN_DUBLIN_%28CHINESE_POETRY_ON_THE_DART_TO_CELEBRATE_THE_NEW_CHINESE_YEAR%29-111425_%2824150640974%29.jpg/220px-YEAR_OF_THE_MONKEY_IN_DUBLIN_%28CHINESE_POETRY_ON_THE_DART_TO_CELEBRATE_THE_NEW_CHINESE_YEAR%29-111425_%2824150640974%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/YEAR_OF_THE_MONKEY_IN_DUBLIN_%28CHINESE_POETRY_ON_THE_DART_TO_CELEBRATE_THE_NEW_CHINESE_YEAR%29-111425_%2824150640974%29.jpg/330px-YEAR_OF_THE_MONKEY_IN_DUBLIN_%28CHINESE_POETRY_ON_THE_DART_TO_CELEBRATE_THE_NEW_CHINESE_YEAR%29-111425_%2824150640974%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/YEAR_OF_THE_MONKEY_IN_DUBLIN_%28CHINESE_POETRY_ON_THE_DART_TO_CELEBRATE_THE_NEW_CHINESE_YEAR%29-111425_%2824150640974%29.jpg/440px-YEAR_OF_THE_MONKEY_IN_DUBLIN_%28CHINESE_POETRY_ON_THE_DART_TO_CELEBRATE_THE_NEW_CHINESE_YEAR%29-111425_%2824150640974%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5373" data-file-height="4791" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Guzheng" title="Guzheng">Guzheng</a>, a type of Chinese instrument.</figcaption></figure> <p>Music and dance were closely associated in the very early periods of China. The <a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">music</a> of China dates back to the <a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">dawn of Chinese civilization</a> with documents and artifacts providing evidence of a well-developed musical culture as early as the <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou dynasty</a> (1122 BCE – 256 BCE). The earliest music of the Zhou dynasty recorded in ancient Chinese texts includes the ritual music called <i><a href="/wiki/Yayue" title="Yayue">yayue</a></i> and each piece may be associated with a dance. Some of the oldest written music dates back to <a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a>'s time. The first major well-documented flowering of Chinese music was exemplified through the popularization of the <a href="/wiki/Guqin" title="Guqin"><i>qin</i></a> (plucked instrument with seven strings) during the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a>, although the instrument is known to have played a major role before the Han dynasty. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bianlian.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Bianlian.JPG/220px-Bianlian.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Bianlian.JPG/330px-Bianlian.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Bianlian.JPG/440px-Bianlian.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2302" data-file-height="1644" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bian_Lian" class="mw-redirect" title="Bian Lian">Bian Lian</a>("Face-Changing") Performer</figcaption></figure> <p>There are many <a href="/wiki/Musical_instrument" title="Musical instrument">musical instruments</a> that are integral to Chinese culture, such as the <a href="/wiki/Xun_(instrument)" title="Xun (instrument)">Xun</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ocarina" title="Ocarina">Ocarina</a>-type instrument that is also integral in Native American cultures), <a href="/wiki/Guzheng" title="Guzheng">Guzheng</a> (zither with movable bridges), <a href="/wiki/Guqin" title="Guqin">guqin</a> (bridgeless zither), <a href="/wiki/Sheng_(instrument)" title="Sheng (instrument)">sheng</a> and <a href="/wiki/Xiao_(flute)" title="Xiao (flute)">xiao</a> (vertical flute), the <a href="/wiki/Erhu" title="Erhu">erhu</a> (alto fiddle or bowed lute), <a href="/wiki/Pipa" title="Pipa">pipa</a> (pear-shaped plucked lute), and many others. </p><p>Dance in China is a highly varied art form, consisting of many modern and traditional dance genres. The dances cover a wide range, from folk dances to performances in opera and ballet, and may be used in public celebrations, rituals and ceremonies. There are also 56 officially recognized <a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_groups_in_China" title="List of ethnic groups in China">ethnic groups in China</a>, and each ethnic minority group in China also has its own folk dances. The best known Chinese dances today are the <a href="/wiki/Dragon_dance" title="Dragon dance">Dragon dance</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Lion_Dance" class="mw-redirect" title="Lion Dance">Lion Dance</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Architecture">Architecture</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_architecture" title="Chinese architecture">Chinese architecture</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:242px;max-width:242px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:126px;max-width:126px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;;height:165px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Dingzhou_Liaodi_Pagoda_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Dingzhou_Liaodi_Pagoda_3.jpg/124px-Dingzhou_Liaodi_Pagoda_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="124" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Dingzhou_Liaodi_Pagoda_3.jpg/186px-Dingzhou_Liaodi_Pagoda_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Dingzhou_Liaodi_Pagoda_3.jpg/248px-Dingzhou_Liaodi_Pagoda_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2736" data-file-height="3648" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Liaodi_Pagoda" title="Liaodi Pagoda">Liaodi Pagoda</a>, Song dynasty</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:112px;max-width:112px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;;height:165px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:People%27s_Republic_of_China_Beijing_Tianningsi_Tianing_Temple_David_McBride_Photography-0045_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/People%27s_Republic_of_China_Beijing_Tianningsi_Tianing_Temple_David_McBride_Photography-0045_02.jpg/110px-People%27s_Republic_of_China_Beijing_Tianningsi_Tianing_Temple_David_McBride_Photography-0045_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/People%27s_Republic_of_China_Beijing_Tianningsi_Tianing_Temple_David_McBride_Photography-0045_02.jpg/165px-People%27s_Republic_of_China_Beijing_Tianningsi_Tianing_Temple_David_McBride_Photography-0045_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/People%27s_Republic_of_China_Beijing_Tianningsi_Tianing_Temple_David_McBride_Photography-0045_02.jpg/220px-People%27s_Republic_of_China_Beijing_Tianningsi_Tianing_Temple_David_McBride_Photography-0045_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2336" data-file-height="3504" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The Pagoda of <a href="/wiki/Tianning_Temple_(Beijing)" title="Tianning Temple (Beijing)">Tianing Temple</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao dynasty</a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:119px;max-width:119px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;;height:156px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hohhot_White_Pagoda_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Hohhot_White_Pagoda_2.jpg/117px-Hohhot_White_Pagoda_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="117" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Hohhot_White_Pagoda_2.jpg/176px-Hohhot_White_Pagoda_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Hohhot_White_Pagoda_2.jpg/234px-Hohhot_White_Pagoda_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3888" data-file-height="5184" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The Ten Thousand Copies of the Huayan Sutra Pagoda, commonly known as the White Pagoda, Liao dynasty</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:119px;max-width:119px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;;height:156px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Poyang_Yongfu_Si_Ta_2017.11.25_10-04-37.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Poyang_Yongfu_Si_Ta_2017.11.25_10-04-37.jpg/117px-Poyang_Yongfu_Si_Ta_2017.11.25_10-04-37.jpg" decoding="async" width="117" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Poyang_Yongfu_Si_Ta_2017.11.25_10-04-37.jpg/176px-Poyang_Yongfu_Si_Ta_2017.11.25_10-04-37.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Poyang_Yongfu_Si_Ta_2017.11.25_10-04-37.jpg/234px-Poyang_Yongfu_Si_Ta_2017.11.25_10-04-37.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="4000" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Poyang Yongfu Temple Pagoda, Song dynasty</div></div></div></div></div> <p>Chinese architecture is a style of <a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">architecture</a> that has taken shape through the ages and influenced the architecture of East Asia for many centuries. The structural principles of Chinese architecture have remained largely unchanged, the main changes being only the decorative details. Since the Tang dynasty, Chinese architecture has had a major influence on the architectural styles of East Asia such as <a href="/wiki/Japanese_architecture" title="Japanese architecture">Japan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Korean_architecture" title="Korean architecture">Korea</a>. Chinese architecture, examples for which can be found from more than 2,000 years ago, is almost as old as Chinese civilization and has long been an important hallmark of Chinese culture. There are certain features common to Chinese architecture, regardless of specific regions, different provinces or use. The most important is <a href="/wiki/Symmetry" title="Symmetry">symmetry</a>, which connotes a sense of grandeur as it applies to everything from palaces to farmhouses. One notable exception is in the design of gardens, which tends to be as asymmetrical as possible. Like Chinese scroll paintings, the principle underlying the garden's composition is to create enduring flow, to let the patron wander and enjoy the garden without prescription, as in nature herself. <a href="/wiki/Feng_shui" title="Feng shui">Feng shui</a> has played a very important part in structural development. The Chinese garden is a landscape garden style which has evolved over three thousand years. It includes both the vast gardens of the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">Chinese emperors</a> and members of the imperial family, built for pleasure and to impress, and the more intimate gardens created by scholars, poets, former government officials, soldiers and merchants, made for reflection and escape from the outside world. They create an idealized miniature landscape, which is meant to express the harmony that should exist between <a href="/wiki/Man_and_nature" class="mw-redirect" title="Man and nature">man and nature</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Michel_Baridon_p._348_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Michel_Baridon_p._348-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A typical Chinese garden is enclosed by walls and includes one or more ponds, rock works, trees and flowers, and an assortment of halls and pavilions within the garden, connected by winding paths and zig-zag galleries. By moving from structure to structure, visitors can view a series of carefully composed scenes, unrolling like a scroll of landscape paintings. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chinese_palace">Chinese palace</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_palace" title="Chinese palace">Chinese palace</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:212px;max-width:212px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:210px;max-width:210px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;;height:223px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Corner_towers_of_the_Forbidden_City_3335.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A trout" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Corner_towers_of_the_Forbidden_City_3335.jpg/208px-Corner_towers_of_the_Forbidden_City_3335.jpg" decoding="async" width="208" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Corner_towers_of_the_Forbidden_City_3335.jpg/312px-Corner_towers_of_the_Forbidden_City_3335.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Corner_towers_of_the_Forbidden_City_3335.jpg/416px-Corner_towers_of_the_Forbidden_City_3335.jpg 2x" data-file-width="675" data-file-height="725" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Corner tower of the <a href="/wiki/Forbidden_City" title="Forbidden City">Forbidden City</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>. It symbols imperial class in ancient China.</div></div></div></div></div> <p>The Chinese palace is an imperial complex where the royal court and the civil government resided. Its structures are considerable and elaborate. The Chinese character <i>gong</i> (宮; meaning "palace") represents two connected rooms (呂) under a roof (宀). Originally the character applied to any residence or mansion, but it was used in reference to solely the imperial residence since the <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin dynasty</a> (3rd century BC). A Chinese palace is composed of many buildings. It has large areas surrounded by walls and moats. It contains large halls (殿) for ceremonies and official business, as well as smaller buildings, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_temple" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese temple">temples</a>, towers, residences, galleries, courtyards, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_garden" title="Chinese garden">gardens</a>, and outbuildings. Apart from the main imperial palace, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_dynasties" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese dynasties">Chinese dynasties</a> also had several other imperial palaces in the capital city where the empress, crown prince, or other members of the imperial family dwelled. There also existed palaces outside of the capital city called "away palaces" (離宮/离宫) where the emperors resided when traveling. Empress dowager <a href="/wiki/Empress_Dowager_Cixi" title="Empress Dowager Cixi">Cixi</a> (慈禧太后) built the <a href="/wiki/Summer_Palace" title="Summer Palace">Summer Palace</a> or Yiheyuan (頤和園/颐和园 – "The Garden of Nurtured Harmony") near the <a href="/wiki/Old_Summer_Palace" title="Old Summer Palace">Old Summer Palace</a>, but on a much smaller scale than the Old Summer Palace.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Paifang">Paifang</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Paifang" title="Paifang">Paifang</a></div> <p><i>Paifang</i>, also known as a <i>Pailou</i>, is a traditional style of <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">Chinese</a> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_architecture" title="Chinese architecture">architectural</a> <a href="/wiki/Arch" title="Arch">arch</a> or gateway structure that is related to the <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">Indian</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Torana" title="Torana">Torana</a></i> from which it is derived.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The word <i>paifang</i> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh">牌坊</span>; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">páifāng</span></i>) was originally a collective term for the top two levels of administrative division and subdivisions of ancient Chinese cities. The largest division within a city in ancient China was a <i>fang</i> (<span lang="zh">坊</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">fāng</span></i>), equivalent to a current day <a href="/wiki/Ward_(electoral_subdivision)" title="Ward (electoral subdivision)">ward</a>. Each fang was enclosed by walls or fences, and the gates of these enclosures were shut and guarded every night. Each fang was further divided into several <i>pai</i> (<span lang="zh">牌</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">pái</span></i>; 'placard'), which is equivalent to a current day (unincorporated) community. Each pai, in turn, contained an area including several <a href="/wiki/Hutong" title="Hutong">hutongs</a> (alleyways). This system of urban administrative division and subdivision reached an elaborate level during the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a>, and continued in the following dynasties. For example, during the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a> was divided into a total of 36 fangs. Originally, the word <i>paifang</i> referred to the gate of a fang and the marker for an entrance of a building complex or a town; but by the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a>, a paifang had evolved into a purely decorative monument. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chinese_garden">Chinese garden</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_garden" title="Chinese garden">Chinese garden</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jichang_Yuan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Jichang_Yuan.jpg/200px-Jichang_Yuan.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Jichang_Yuan.jpg/300px-Jichang_Yuan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Jichang_Yuan.jpg/400px-Jichang_Yuan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jichang_Garden" title="Jichang Garden">Jichang Garden</a> in <a href="/wiki/Wuxi" title="Wuxi">Wuxi</a> (1506–1521), built during the Ming dynasty, is an exemplary work of South Chinese style garden.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Chinese garden is a landscape garden style which has evolved over the years.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It includes both the vast gardens of the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">Chinese emperors</a> and members of the imperial family, built for pleasure and to impress, and the more intimate gardens created by scholars, poets, former government officials, soldiers and merchants, made for reflection and escape from the outside world. They create an idealized miniature landscape, which is meant to express the harmony that should exist between man and nature.<sup id="cite_ref-Michel_Baridon_p._348_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Michel_Baridon_p._348-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A typical Chinese garden is enclosed by walls and includes one or more ponds, rock works, trees and flowers, and an assortment of halls and pavilions within the garden, connected by winding paths and zig-zag galleries. By moving from structure to structure, visitors can view a series of carefully composed scenes, unrolling like a scroll of landscape paintings. The earliest recorded Chinese gardens were created in the valley of the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_River" title="Yellow River">Yellow River</a>, during the <a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang dynasty</a> (1600–1046 BC). These gardens were large enclosed parks where the kings and nobles hunted game, or where fruit and vegetables were grown. Early inscriptions from this period, carved on tortoise shells, have three Chinese characters for garden, <i>you</i>, <i>pu</i> and <i>yuan</i>. <i>You</i> was a royal garden where birds and animals were kept, while pu was a garden for plants. During the <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin dynasty</a> (221–206 BC), <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%9C%92" class="extiw" title="wikt:園">yuan</a></i> became the character for all gardens.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yellow_Register_Archives_of_the_Ming_Dynasty,_Nanjing_(flickr_1559896574).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Yellow_Register_Archives_of_the_Ming_Dynasty%2C_Nanjing_%28flickr_1559896574%29.jpg/220px-Yellow_Register_Archives_of_the_Ming_Dynasty%2C_Nanjing_%28flickr_1559896574%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Yellow_Register_Archives_of_the_Ming_Dynasty%2C_Nanjing_%28flickr_1559896574%29.jpg/330px-Yellow_Register_Archives_of_the_Ming_Dynasty%2C_Nanjing_%28flickr_1559896574%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Yellow_Register_Archives_of_the_Ming_Dynasty%2C_Nanjing_%28flickr_1559896574%29.jpg/440px-Yellow_Register_Archives_of_the_Ming_Dynasty%2C_Nanjing_%28flickr_1559896574%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Moon_gate" title="Moon gate">Moon gate</a> in a Chinese garden</figcaption></figure> <p>The old character for <i>yuan</i> is a small picture of a garden; it is enclosed in a square which can represent a wall, and has symbols which can represent the plan of a structure, a small square which can represent a pond, and a symbol for a plantation or a pomegranate tree.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the <i>Shiji</i>, one of the most famous features of this garden was the <i>Wine Pool and Meat Forest</i> (酒池肉林). A large pool, big enough for several small boats, was constructed on the palace grounds, with inner linings of polished oval shaped stones from the sea shores. The pool was then filled with wine. A small island was constructed in the middle of the pool, where trees were planted, which had skewers of roasted meat hanging from their branches. King Zhou and his friends and concubines drifted in their boats, drinking the wine with their hands and eating the roasted meat from the trees. Later Chinese philosophers and historians cited this garden as an example of decadence and bad taste.<sup id="cite_ref-Che_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Che-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 11">: 11 </span></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period" title="Spring and Autumn period">Spring and Autumn period</a> (722–481 BC), in 535 BC, the <i>Terrace of Shanghua</i>, with lavishly decorated palaces, was built by <a href="/wiki/King_Jing_of_Zhou_(Gui)" title="King Jing of Zhou (Gui)">King Jing</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou dynasty</a>. In 505 BC, an even more elaborate garden, the <i>Terrace of Gusu</i>, was begun. It was located on the side of a mountain, and included a series of terraces connected by galleries, along with a lake where boats in the form of blue dragons navigated. From the highest terrace, a view extended as far as <a href="/wiki/Lake_Tai" title="Lake Tai">Lake Tai</a>, the Great Lake.<sup id="cite_ref-Che_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Che-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 12">: 12 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physical_culture">Physical culture</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Traditional_games_of_China" title="Traditional games of China">Traditional games of China</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Martial_arts">Martial arts</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_martial_arts" title="Chinese martial arts">Chinese martial arts</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_martial_arts" title="List of Chinese martial arts">List of Chinese martial arts</a></div> <p>China is one of the <a href="/wiki/Origins_of_Asian_martial_arts" title="Origins of Asian martial arts">main birthplaces</a> of Eastern martial arts. Chinese martial arts, often named under the <a href="/wiki/Umbrella_term" class="mw-redirect" title="Umbrella term">umbrella terms</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Kung_fu_(term)" title="Kung fu (term)">kung fu</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Wushu_(sport)" title="Wushu (sport)">wushu</a></i>, are the <a href="/wiki/Styles_of_Chinese_martial_arts" title="Styles of Chinese martial arts">several hundred fighting styles</a> that have developed over the centuries in China. These fighting styles are often classified according to common traits, identified as <i>"families"</i> (家; <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn"><i>jiā</i></i></span>), <i>"sects"</i> (派; <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn"><i>pài</i></i></span>) or <i>"schools"</i> (门/門; <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn"><i>mén</i></i></span>) of martial arts. Examples of such traits include <i><a href="/wiki/Shaolin_kung_fu" title="Shaolin kung fu">Shaolinquan</a></i> (<span lang="zh">少林拳</span>) physical exercises involving <a href="/wiki/Five_Animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Animals">Five Animals</a> (<span lang="zh">五形</span>) mimicry, or training methods inspired by <a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophies" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese philosophies">Old Chinese philosophies</a>, religions and legends. Styles that focus on <a href="/wiki/Qi" title="Qi">qi</a> manipulation are called <i>"<a href="/wiki/Internal_martial_arts" class="mw-redirect" title="Internal martial arts">internal</a> "</i>(內家拳/内家拳; <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn"><i>nèijiāquán</i></i></span>), while others that concentrate on improving muscle and cardiovascular fitness are called <i>"<a href="/wiki/External_martial_arts" class="mw-redirect" title="External martial arts">external</a>"</i> (外家拳; <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn"><i>wàijiāquán</i></i></span>). Geographical association, as in "<i>northern"(</i>北拳; <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn"><i>běiquán</i></i></span>) and <i>"southern"</i> (南拳; <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn"><i>nánquán</i></i></span>), is another popular classification method. </p><p>Chinese martial arts are collectively given the name <a href="/wiki/Kung_Fu" class="mw-redirect" title="Kung Fu">Kung Fu</a> (gong) "achievement" or "merit", and (fu) "man", thus "human achievement") or (previously and in some modern contexts) <a href="/wiki/Wushu_(term)" class="mw-redirect" title="Wushu (term)">Wushu</a> ("martial arts" or "military arts"). China also includes the home to the well-respected <a href="/wiki/Shaolin_Monastery" title="Shaolin Monastery">Shaolin Monastery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wudang_Mountains" title="Wudang Mountains">Wudang Mountains</a>. The first generation of art started more for the purpose of survival and warfare than art. Over time, some art forms have branched off, while others have retained a distinct Chinese flavor. Regardless, China has produced some of the most renowned martial artists including <a href="/wiki/Wong_Fei_Hung" class="mw-redirect" title="Wong Fei Hung">Wong Fei Hung</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_martial_arts#Notable_practitioners" title="Chinese martial arts">many others</a>. The arts have also co-existed with a variety of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Chinese_melee_weapons&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Chinese melee weapons (page does not exist)">weapons</a> including the more standard <a href="/wiki/Eighteen_Arms_of_Wushu" title="Eighteen Arms of Wushu">18 arms</a>. Legendary and controversial moves like <a href="/wiki/Dim_Mak" class="mw-redirect" title="Dim Mak">Dim Mak</a> are also praised and talked about within the culture. Martial arts schools also teach the art of <a href="/wiki/Lion_dance" title="Lion dance">lion dance</a>, which has evolved from a pugilistic display of Kung Fu to an entertaining dance performance. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Leisure">Leisure</h2></div> <p>A number of <a href="/wiki/Category:Chinese_games" title="Category:Chinese games">games</a> and pastimes are popular within Chinese culture. The most common game is <a href="/wiki/Mahjong" title="Mahjong">Mahjong</a>. The same pieces are used for other styled games such as <a href="/wiki/Mahjong_solitaire" title="Mahjong solitaire">Shanghai Solitaire</a>. Others include <a href="/wiki/Pai_gow" title="Pai gow">pai gow</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pai_gow_poker" title="Pai gow poker">pai gow poker</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Chinese_dominoes" title="Chinese dominoes">bone domino</a> games. <a href="/wiki/Weiqi" class="mw-redirect" title="Weiqi">Weiqi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Xiangqi" title="Xiangqi">xiangqi</a> are also popular. Ethnic games like <a href="/wiki/Chinese_yo-yo" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese yo-yo">Chinese yo-yo</a> are also part of the culture where it is performed during social events. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Qigong" title="Qigong">Qigong</a> is the practice of spiritual, physical, and medical techniques. It is as a form of exercise and although it is commonly used among the elderly, any one of any age can practice it during their free time. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cuisine">Cuisine</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_cuisine" title="Chinese cuisine">Chinese cuisine</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:VegetableSpringRolls.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/VegetableSpringRolls.JPG/220px-VegetableSpringRolls.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/VegetableSpringRolls.JPG/330px-VegetableSpringRolls.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/VegetableSpringRolls.JPG/440px-VegetableSpringRolls.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4928" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Spring_rolls" class="mw-redirect" title="Spring rolls">Spring rolls</a> are a large variety of filled, rolled appetizers or dim sum found in Chinese cuisine. <a href="/wiki/Spring_rolls" class="mw-redirect" title="Spring rolls">Spring rolls</a> are the main dishes in Chinese Spring Festival (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_New_Year" title="Chinese New Year">Chinese New Year</a>).</figcaption></figure> <p>Chinese cuisine is a very important part of Chinese culture, which includes cuisine originating from the diverse regions of China, as well as from Chinese people in other parts of the world. Because of the <a href="/wiki/Overseas_Chinese" title="Overseas Chinese">Chinese diaspora</a> and historical power of the country, Chinese cuisine has influenced many other cuisines in <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>, with modifications made to cater to local palates.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Seasoning" title="Seasoning">Seasoning</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_cooking_techniques" title="Chinese cooking techniques">cooking techniques</a> of Chinese provinces depend on differences in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Chinese_cuisine" title="History of Chinese cuisine">historical background</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_groups_in_China" title="List of ethnic groups in China">ethnic groups</a>. Geographic features including mountains, rivers, forests and deserts also have a strong effect on the local available ingredients, considering climate of China varies from <a href="/wiki/Tropical_savanna_climate" title="Tropical savanna climate">tropical</a> in the south to <a href="/wiki/Subarctic_climate" title="Subarctic climate">subarctic</a> in the northeast. <a href="/wiki/Chinese_aristocrat_cuisine" title="Chinese aristocrat cuisine">Imperial, royal and noble preference</a> also plays a role in the change of Chinese cuisines. Because of imperial expansion and trading, ingredients and cooking techniques from other cultures are integrated into Chinese cuisines over time. The most praised "Four Major Cuisines" are <a href="/wiki/Sichuan_cuisine" title="Sichuan cuisine">Chuan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shandong_cuisine" title="Shandong cuisine">Lu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cantonese_cuisine" title="Cantonese cuisine">Yue</a> and <a href="/wiki/Huaiyang_cuisine" title="Huaiyang cuisine">Huaiyang</a>, representing West, North, South and East China cuisine correspondingly.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern "Eight Cuisines" of China<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are <a href="/wiki/Anhui_cuisine" title="Anhui cuisine">Anhui</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cantonese_cuisine" title="Cantonese cuisine">Cantonese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fujian_cuisine" title="Fujian cuisine">Fujian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hunan_cuisine" title="Hunan cuisine">Hunan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jiangsu_cuisine" title="Jiangsu cuisine">Jiangsu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shandong_cuisine" title="Shandong cuisine">Shandong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sichuan_cuisine" title="Sichuan cuisine">Sichuan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Zhejiang_cuisine" title="Zhejiang cuisine">Zhejiang</a> cuisines.<sup id="cite_ref-beautyfujian_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-beautyfujian-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Color, smell and taste are the three traditional aspects used to describe Chinese food,<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as the meaning, appearance and nutrition of the food. Cooking should be appraised from ingredients used, cuttings, cooking time and seasoning. It is considered inappropriate to use knives on the dining table. <a href="/wiki/Chopsticks" title="Chopsticks">Chopsticks</a> are the main eating utensils for Chinese food, which can be used to cut and pick up food. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tea_culture">Tea culture</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_tea" title="Chinese tea">Chinese tea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_tea_culture" title="Chinese tea culture">Chinese tea culture</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_tea_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="History of tea in China">History of tea in China</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:China_tea.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/China_tea.jpg/220px-China_tea.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/China_tea.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="259" data-file-height="194" /></a><figcaption>A traditional <a href="/wiki/Chinese_tea_culture" title="Chinese tea culture">Chinese tea culture</a> (茶艺，茶藝) set and three <a href="/wiki/Gaiwan" title="Gaiwan">gaiwan</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The practice of drinking <a href="/wiki/Tea" title="Tea">tea</a> has a long history in China, having originated there.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The history of tea in China is long and complex, for the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_people" title="Chinese people">Chinese</a> have enjoyed tea for millennia. Scholars hailed the brew as a cure for a variety of ailments; the nobility considered the consumption of good tea as a mark of their status, and the common people simply enjoyed its flavour. In 2016, the discovery of the earliest known physical evidence of tea from the mausoleum of <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Jing_of_Han" title="Emperor Jing of Han">Emperor Jing of Han</a> in <a href="/wiki/Xi%27an" title="Xi'an">Xi'an</a> was announced, indicating that tea from the genus <i><a href="/wiki/Camellia" title="Camellia">Camellia</a></i> was drunk by <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> emperors as early as 2nd century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tea then became a popular drink in the Tang (618–907) and Song (960–1279) Dynasties.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although tea originated in China, during the Tang dynasty, Chinese tea generally represents tea leaves which have been processed using methods inherited from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient China">ancient China</a>. According to popular legend, tea was discovered by Chinese Emperor <a href="/wiki/Shen_Nong" class="mw-redirect" title="Shen Nong">Shen Nong</a> in 2737 BCE when a leaf from a nearby shrub fell into water the emperor was boiling.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tea is deeply woven into the history and culture of China. The beverage is considered one of the <a href="/wiki/Seven_necessities" title="Seven necessities">seven necessities</a> of Chinese life, along with firewood, rice, oil, salt, soy sauce and vinegar.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period" title="Spring and Autumn period">Spring and Autumn period</a>, Chinese tea was used for medicinal purposes and it was the period when the Chinese people first enjoyed the juice extracted from the tea leaves that they chewed.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Chinese tea culture refers to how tea is prepared as well as the occasions when people consume tea in China. Tea culture in China differs from that in European countries such as <a href="/wiki/British_tea_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="British tea culture">Britain</a> and other Asian countries like <a href="/wiki/Tea_in_Japan" class="mw-redirect" title="Tea in Japan">Japan</a> in preparation, taste, and the occasions when people consume tea. Even today, tea is consumed regularly, both at casual and formal occasions. In addition to being a popular beverage, tea is used in <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine" title="Traditional Chinese medicine">traditional Chinese medicine</a>, as well as in Chinese cuisine. <a href="/wiki/Green_tea" title="Green tea">Green tea</a> is one of the main teas originating in China. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Food_culture">Food culture</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Manchu_Han_Imperial_Feast" class="mw-redirect" title="Manchu Han Imperial Feast">Manchu Han Imperial Feast</a> and <a href="/wiki/Customs_and_etiquette_in_Chinese_dining" title="Customs and etiquette in Chinese dining">Customs and etiquette in Chinese dining</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spoon_and_chopsticks.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Spoon_and_chopsticks.jpg/170px-Spoon_and_chopsticks.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Spoon_and_chopsticks.jpg/255px-Spoon_and_chopsticks.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Spoon_and_chopsticks.jpg/340px-Spoon_and_chopsticks.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="3008" /></a><figcaption>Photo showing serving chopsticks (<i>gongkuai</i>) on the far right, personal chopsticks (<i>putongkuai</i>) in the middle, and a spoon. Serving chopsticks are usually more ornate than the personal ones.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Chinese_aristocrat_cuisine" title="Chinese aristocrat cuisine">Imperial, royal and noble preference</a> played a role in the changes in Chinese cuisines over time.<sup id="cite_ref-kf_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kf-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of imperial expansion and trading, ingredients and cooking techniques from other cultures were integrated into Chinese cuisines over time. The overwhelmingly large variety of Chinese cuisine comes mainly from the practice of the dynastic periods, when <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">emperors</a> would host banquets with over 100 dishes per meal.<sup id="cite_ref-Kong_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kong-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A countless number of imperial kitchen staff and <a href="/wiki/Concubines" class="mw-redirect" title="Concubines">concubines</a> were involved in the food preparation process. Over time, many dishes became part of the everyday citizen's cuisine. Some of the highest quality restaurants with recipes close to the dynastic periods include Fangshan restaurant in <a href="/wiki/Beihai_Park" title="Beihai Park">Beihai Park</a> <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a> and the Oriole Pavilion.<sup id="cite_ref-Kong_99-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kong-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Arguably all branches of <a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_Hong_Kong#Eastern_Styles" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuisine of Hong Kong">Hong Kong eastern style</a> are in some ways rooted from the original dynastic cuisines. </p><p><i>Manhan Quanxi</i>, literally <i>Manchu Han Imperial Feast</i> was one of the grandest meals ever documented in Chinese cuisine. It consisted of at least 108 unique dishes from the <a href="/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Manchu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han Chinese</a> culture during the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a>, and it is only reserved and intended for the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">emperors</a>. The meal was held for three whole days, across six banquets. The culinary skills consisted of cooking methods from all over <a href="/wiki/Late_Imperial_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Imperial China">Imperial China</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hoover_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoover-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the <a href="/wiki/Qing_conquest_of_the_Ming" class="mw-redirect" title="Qing conquest of the Ming">Manchus conquered China</a> and founded the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a>, the Manchu and Han Chinese peoples struggled for power. The <a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor" title="Kangxi Emperor">Kangxi Emperor</a> wanted to resolve the disputes so he held a banquet during his 66th birthday celebrations. The banquet consisted of Manchu and Han dishes, with officials from both ethnic groups attending the banquet together. After the <a href="/wiki/Wuchang_Uprising" title="Wuchang Uprising">Wuchang Uprising</a>, common people learned about the imperial banquet. The original meal was served in the <a href="/wiki/Forbidden_City" title="Forbidden City">Forbidden City</a> in <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hoover_100-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoover-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Major_subcultures">Major subcultures</h2></div> <p>Chinese culture consists of many subcultures. In China, the cultural difference between adjacent provinces (and, in some cases, adjacent counties within the same province) can often be as big as than that between adjacent European nations.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, the concept of <i><a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese_subgroups" title="Han Chinese subgroups">Han Chinese subgroups</a></i> (漢族民系/汉族民系, literally "Han ethnic lineage") was born, used for classifying these subgroups within the greater Han ethnicity. These subgroups are, as a general rule, classified based on linguistic differences. </p><p>Using this linguistic classification, some of the well-known subcultures within China include: </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North">North</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hui_people#Culture" title="Hui people">Hui culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beijing#Culture" title="Beijing">Culture of Beijing</a> (京)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shandong_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Shandong dialect">Culture of Shandong</a> (魯/鲁)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gansu#Culture" title="Gansu">Culture of Gansu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_China#Culture" title="Northeast China">Dongbei culture</a> (東北/东北)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaanxi" title="Shaanxi">Shaanxi</a> culture</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Shanxi" class="mw-redirect" title="Music of Shanxi">Jin culture</a> (晉/晋)<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhongyuan_culture" title="Zhongyuan culture">Zhongyuan culture</a> (豫)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South">South</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haipai_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Haipai culture">Haipai culture</a> (海)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakka_culture" title="Hakka culture">Hakka culture</a> (客)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hokkien_culture" title="Hokkien culture">Hokkien culture</a> (閩)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Hong_Kong" title="Culture of Hong Kong">Hong Kong culture</a> (港)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hubei#Culture" title="Hubei">Hubei culture</a> (楚)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huizhou,_Anhui#culture" title="Huizhou, Anhui">Huizhou culture</a> (徽)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Hunan" title="Culture of Hunan">Hunanese culture</a> (湘)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Jiangxi" title="Culture of Jiangxi">Jiangxi culture</a> (贛)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiangnan" title="Jiangnan">Jiangnan</a> culture</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingnan_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Lingnan culture">Lingnan culture</a> (粵/粤)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Macau" title="Culture of Macau">Macanese culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sichuanese_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Sichuanese culture">Sichuanese culture</a> (蜀)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Taiwan" title="Culture of Taiwan">Taiwanese culture</a> (台)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teochew_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Teochew culture">Teochew culture</a> (潮)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wenzhou#Culture_and_demographics" title="Wenzhou">Wenzhou culture</a> (欧)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuyue_culture" title="Wuyue culture">Wuyue culture</a> (吳/吴)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 188.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 186.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Beijingreddoorpic2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A traditional red Chinese door with Imperial guardian lion knocker"><img alt="A traditional red Chinese door with Imperial guardian lion knocker" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Beijingreddoorpic2.jpg/280px-Beijingreddoorpic2.jpg" decoding="async" width="187" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Beijingreddoorpic2.jpg/420px-Beijingreddoorpic2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Beijingreddoorpic2.jpg/560px-Beijingreddoorpic2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A traditional red Chinese door with <a href="/wiki/Imperial_guardian_lion" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial guardian lion">Imperial guardian lion</a> knocker</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 92.666666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 90.666666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Evl53201b_pic.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Journey to the West (西遊記/西游记)"><img alt="Journey to the West (西遊記/西游记)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Evl53201b_pic.jpg/136px-Evl53201b_pic.jpg" decoding="async" width="91" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Evl53201b_pic.jpg/204px-Evl53201b_pic.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Evl53201b_pic.jpg/272px-Evl53201b_pic.jpg 2x" data-file-width="324" data-file-height="500" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Journey_to_the_West" title="Journey to the West">Journey to the West</a> (西遊記/西游记)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 212px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Changsha_opera_performance.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Xiqu performance"><img alt="Xiqu performance" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Changsha_opera_performance.jpg/315px-Changsha_opera_performance.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Changsha_opera_performance.jpg/473px-Changsha_opera_performance.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Changsha_opera_performance.jpg/630px-Changsha_opera_performance.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1280" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_opera" title="Chinese opera">Xiqu</a> performance</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 126px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 124px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_New_Year_Lion_Dance.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Lion dance (舞狮)"><img alt="Lion dance (舞狮)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Chinese_New_Year_Lion_Dance.jpg/186px-Chinese_New_Year_Lion_Dance.jpg" decoding="async" width="124" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Chinese_New_Year_Lion_Dance.jpg/279px-Chinese_New_Year_Lion_Dance.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Chinese_New_Year_Lion_Dance.jpg/372px-Chinese_New_Year_Lion_Dance.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1419" data-file-height="1600" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Lion_dance" title="Lion dance">Lion dance</a> (舞狮)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 198px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 196px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Singapore_Dragon-used-for-traditional-dragondance-01.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Dragon dance (舞龙)"><img alt="Dragon dance (舞龙)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Singapore_Dragon-used-for-traditional-dragondance-01.jpg/294px-Singapore_Dragon-used-for-traditional-dragondance-01.jpg" decoding="async" width="196" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Singapore_Dragon-used-for-traditional-dragondance-01.jpg/441px-Singapore_Dragon-used-for-traditional-dragondance-01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Singapore_Dragon-used-for-traditional-dragondance-01.jpg/588px-Singapore_Dragon-used-for-traditional-dragondance-01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5088" data-file-height="3634" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Dragon_dance" title="Dragon dance">Dragon dance</a> (舞龙)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 188.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 186.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wuyi_palace.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Taoist architecture in China"><img alt="Taoist architecture in China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Wuyi_palace.jpg/280px-Wuyi_palace.jpg" decoding="async" width="187" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Wuyi_palace.jpg/420px-Wuyi_palace.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Wuyi_palace.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="375" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Taoist architecture in China</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 106.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 104.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Liao_Dynasty_Avalokitesvara_Statue_Clear.jpeg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wooden sculpture of Guanyin"><img alt="Wooden sculpture of Guanyin" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Liao_Dynasty_Avalokitesvara_Statue_Clear.jpeg/157px-Liao_Dynasty_Avalokitesvara_Statue_Clear.jpeg" decoding="async" width="105" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Liao_Dynasty_Avalokitesvara_Statue_Clear.jpeg/236px-Liao_Dynasty_Avalokitesvara_Statue_Clear.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Liao_Dynasty_Avalokitesvara_Statue_Clear.jpeg/315px-Liao_Dynasty_Avalokitesvara_Statue_Clear.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="1280" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Wooden sculpture of <a href="/wiki/Guanyin" title="Guanyin">Guanyin</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 198px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 196px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E5%BF%A0%E7%B8%A3%E4%B8%81%E6%88%BF%E9%9B%99%E9%97%9502.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Que pillar gates of Chongqing that once belonged to a temple dedicated to the Warring States period general Ba Manzi"><img alt="Que pillar gates of Chongqing that once belonged to a temple dedicated to the Warring States period general Ba Manzi" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/%E5%BF%A0%E7%B8%A3%E4%B8%81%E6%88%BF%E9%9B%99%E9%97%9502.jpg/294px-%E5%BF%A0%E7%B8%A3%E4%B8%81%E6%88%BF%E9%9B%99%E9%97%9502.jpg" decoding="async" width="196" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/%E5%BF%A0%E7%B8%A3%E4%B8%81%E6%88%BF%E9%9B%99%E9%97%9502.jpg/442px-%E5%BF%A0%E7%B8%A3%E4%B8%81%E6%88%BF%E9%9B%99%E9%97%9502.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/%E5%BF%A0%E7%B8%A3%E4%B8%81%E6%88%BF%E9%9B%99%E9%97%9502.jpg/589px-%E5%BF%A0%E7%B8%A3%E4%B8%81%E6%88%BF%E9%9B%99%E9%97%9502.jpg 2x" data-file-width="758" data-file-height="541" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Que_(tower)" title="Que (tower)">Que pillar gates</a> of <a href="/wiki/Chongqing" title="Chongqing">Chongqing</a> that once belonged to a <a href="/wiki/Chinese_temple" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese temple">temple</a> dedicated to the <a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States period</a> general <a href="/wiki/Ba_Manzi" title="Ba Manzi">Ba Manzi</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 260px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 258px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nine-Dragons1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title=""Nine Dragons" handscroll section, by Chen Rong(1244 CE), Song dynasty. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston"><img alt=""Nine Dragons" handscroll section, by Chen Rong(1244 CE), Song dynasty. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Nine-Dragons1.jpg/387px-Nine-Dragons1.jpg" decoding="async" width="258" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Nine-Dragons1.jpg/580px-Nine-Dragons1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Nine-Dragons1.jpg/773px-Nine-Dragons1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="435" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">"Nine Dragons" handscroll section, by <a href="/wiki/Chen_Rong_(painter)" title="Chen Rong (painter)">Chen Rong</a>(1244 CE), <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a>. <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Fine_Arts,_Boston" title="Museum of Fine Arts, Boston">Museum of Fine Arts, Boston</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 187.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 185.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_-_Hair_Ornament_-_Walters_8614.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Hair Ornament, China, c. 19th century"><img alt="Hair Ornament, China, c. 19th century" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Chinese_-_Hair_Ornament_-_Walters_8614.jpg/278px-Chinese_-_Hair_Ornament_-_Walters_8614.jpg" decoding="async" width="186" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Chinese_-_Hair_Ornament_-_Walters_8614.jpg/417px-Chinese_-_Hair_Ornament_-_Walters_8614.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Chinese_-_Hair_Ornament_-_Walters_8614.jpg/556px-Chinese_-_Hair_Ornament_-_Walters_8614.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1799" data-file-height="1360" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Hair Ornament, China, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 19th century</span></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 212.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Koi_feeding,_National_Arboretum.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Koi Pond is a signature scenery depicted in Chinese gardens"><img alt="Koi Pond is a signature scenery depicted in Chinese gardens" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Koi_feeding%2C_National_Arboretum.jpg/316px-Koi_feeding%2C_National_Arboretum.jpg" decoding="async" width="211" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Koi_feeding%2C_National_Arboretum.jpg/474px-Koi_feeding%2C_National_Arboretum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Koi_feeding%2C_National_Arboretum.jpg/632px-Koi_feeding%2C_National_Arboretum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Koi_Pond" class="mw-redirect" title="Koi Pond">Koi Pond</a> is a signature scenery depicted in Chinese gardens</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 106.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 104.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tea_leaves_steeping_in_a_zhong_%C4%8Daj_05.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Oolong tea leaves steeping in a gaiwan"><img alt="Oolong tea leaves steeping in a gaiwan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Tea_leaves_steeping_in_a_zhong_%C4%8Daj_05.jpg/157px-Tea_leaves_steeping_in_a_zhong_%C4%8Daj_05.jpg" decoding="async" width="105" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Tea_leaves_steeping_in_a_zhong_%C4%8Daj_05.jpg/236px-Tea_leaves_steeping_in_a_zhong_%C4%8Daj_05.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Tea_leaves_steeping_in_a_zhong_%C4%8Daj_05.jpg/315px-Tea_leaves_steeping_in_a_zhong_%C4%8Daj_05.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Oolong_tea" class="mw-redirect" title="Oolong tea">Oolong tea</a> leaves steeping in a <a href="/wiki/Gaiwan" title="Gaiwan">gaiwan</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 164px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 162px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_lacquerware_table.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ming table in the Victoria and Albert Museum, 1425–1436"><img alt="Ming table in the Victoria and Albert Museum, 1425–1436" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Chinese_lacquerware_table.jpg/243px-Chinese_lacquerware_table.jpg" decoding="async" width="162" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Chinese_lacquerware_table.jpg/365px-Chinese_lacquerware_table.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Chinese_lacquerware_table.jpg/486px-Chinese_lacquerware_table.jpg 2x" data-file-width="566" data-file-height="489" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_lacquerware_table" title="Chinese lacquerware table">Ming table</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Victoria_and_Albert_Museum" title="Victoria and Albert Museum">Victoria and Albert Museum</a>, 1425–1436</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 212px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Zhu-Ye-Qing-Tea-03.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Zhu-Ye-Qing-Tea"><img alt="Zhu-Ye-Qing-Tea" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Zhu-Ye-Qing-Tea-03.jpg/315px-Zhu-Ye-Qing-Tea-03.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Zhu-Ye-Qing-Tea-03.jpg/473px-Zhu-Ye-Qing-Tea-03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Zhu-Ye-Qing-Tea-03.jpg/630px-Zhu-Ye-Qing-Tea-03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4135" data-file-height="2757" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Zhu-Ye-Qing-Tea</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 212px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Dragon_Tea_Pot,_Republic_of_China_Era.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Dragon Tea Pot, Republic of China"><img alt="Dragon Tea Pot, Republic of China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Dragon_Tea_Pot%2C_Republic_of_China_Era.jpg/315px-Dragon_Tea_Pot%2C_Republic_of_China_Era.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Dragon_Tea_Pot%2C_Republic_of_China_Era.jpg/473px-Dragon_Tea_Pot%2C_Republic_of_China_Era.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Dragon_Tea_Pot%2C_Republic_of_China_Era.jpg/630px-Dragon_Tea_Pot%2C_Republic_of_China_Era.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4752" data-file-height="3168" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Dragon Tea Pot, Republic of China </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 212px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tea_Pots,_Republic_of_China.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Tea Pots, Republic of China"><img alt="Tea Pots, Republic of China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Tea_Pots%2C_Republic_of_China.jpg/315px-Tea_Pots%2C_Republic_of_China.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Tea_Pots%2C_Republic_of_China.jpg/473px-Tea_Pots%2C_Republic_of_China.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Tea_Pots%2C_Republic_of_China.jpg/630px-Tea_Pots%2C_Republic_of_China.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4752" data-file-height="3168" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Tea Pots, Republic of China</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 177.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 175.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Laoshan_green_tea.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Laoshan green tea"><img alt="Laoshan green tea" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Laoshan_green_tea.jpg/263px-Laoshan_green_tea.jpg" decoding="async" width="176" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Laoshan_green_tea.jpg/394px-Laoshan_green_tea.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Laoshan_green_tea.jpg/525px-Laoshan_green_tea.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2400" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Laoshan green tea</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 188.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 186.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tea_caddy,_Chinese_-_Indianapolis_Museum_of_Art_-_DSC00646.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Tea caddy, Chinese - Indianapolis Museum of Art"><img alt="Tea caddy, Chinese - Indianapolis Museum of Art" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Tea_caddy%2C_Chinese_-_Indianapolis_Museum_of_Art_-_DSC00646.JPG/280px-Tea_caddy%2C_Chinese_-_Indianapolis_Museum_of_Art_-_DSC00646.JPG" decoding="async" width="187" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Tea_caddy%2C_Chinese_-_Indianapolis_Museum_of_Art_-_DSC00646.JPG/420px-Tea_caddy%2C_Chinese_-_Indianapolis_Museum_of_Art_-_DSC00646.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Tea_caddy%2C_Chinese_-_Indianapolis_Museum_of_Art_-_DSC00646.JPG/560px-Tea_caddy%2C_Chinese_-_Indianapolis_Museum_of_Art_-_DSC00646.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4320" data-file-height="3240" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Tea caddy, Chinese - Indianapolis Museum of Art </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 232.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:China_Tea_(2511287770).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Chinese tea"><img alt="Chinese tea" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/China_Tea_%282511287770%29.jpg/346px-China_Tea_%282511287770%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="231" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/China_Tea_%282511287770%29.jpg/519px-China_Tea_%282511287770%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/China_Tea_%282511287770%29.jpg/692px-China_Tea_%282511287770%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1186" data-file-height="720" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Chinese tea</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 212px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Main_hall_and_tea_house_in_Dunedin_Chinese_Garden.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Main hall and tea house in Dunedin Chinese Garden"><img alt="Main hall and tea house in Dunedin Chinese Garden" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Main_hall_and_tea_house_in_Dunedin_Chinese_Garden.jpg/315px-Main_hall_and_tea_house_in_Dunedin_Chinese_Garden.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Main_hall_and_tea_house_in_Dunedin_Chinese_Garden.jpg/473px-Main_hall_and_tea_house_in_Dunedin_Chinese_Garden.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Main_hall_and_tea_house_in_Dunedin_Chinese_Garden.jpg/630px-Main_hall_and_tea_house_in_Dunedin_Chinese_Garden.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4896" data-file-height="3264" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Main hall and tea house in Dunedin Chinese Garden</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 142px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 140px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:China,_Chinese_Export_--_European_Market,_18th_century_-_Tea_Caddy_(lid)_-_1958.213.b_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Chinese Export—European Market, 18th century - Tea Caddy (lid)"><img alt="Chinese Export—European Market, 18th century - Tea Caddy (lid)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/China%2C_Chinese_Export_--_European_Market%2C_18th_century_-_Tea_Caddy_%28lid%29_-_1958.213.b_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.jpg/210px-China%2C_Chinese_Export_--_European_Market%2C_18th_century_-_Tea_Caddy_%28lid%29_-_1958.213.b_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/China%2C_Chinese_Export_--_European_Market%2C_18th_century_-_Tea_Caddy_%28lid%29_-_1958.213.b_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.jpg/315px-China%2C_Chinese_Export_--_European_Market%2C_18th_century_-_Tea_Caddy_%28lid%29_-_1958.213.b_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/China%2C_Chinese_Export_--_European_Market%2C_18th_century_-_Tea_Caddy_%28lid%29_-_1958.213.b_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.jpg/420px-China%2C_Chinese_Export_--_European_Market%2C_18th_century_-_Tea_Caddy_%28lid%29_-_1958.213.b_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="2400" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Chinese Export—European Market, 18th century - Tea Caddy (lid)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 212px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tea_Pots.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ancient China's Tea Pots"><img alt="Ancient China's Tea Pots" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Tea_Pots.jpg/315px-Tea_Pots.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Tea_Pots.jpg/473px-Tea_Pots.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Tea_Pots.jpg/630px-Tea_Pots.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4752" data-file-height="3168" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Ancient China's Tea Pots</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 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.reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Also known more simply as the <b>Four Classic Novels</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">There are currently some projects in China to rebuild the Imperial Gardens, but this appears as a colossal undertaking, and no rebuilding has started.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rthk.org.hk/rthk/radio5/hellosunrise/p103810_3491_73880.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 5 June 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 June</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=RTHK.org&rft.atitle=1%2F4%2F2008+three+treasures&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rthk.org.hk%2Frthk%2Fradio5%2Fhellosunrise%2Fp103810_3491_73880.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-xin1-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-xin1_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110718131331/http://big5.xinhuanet.com/gate/big5/news.xinhuanet.com/comments/2009-03/19/content_11034304.htm">"說三與三寶"</a> [Say "Three" and "Three Treasures"]. <i>Xinhuanet.com</i>. 19 March 2009. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://big5.xinhuanet.com/gate/big5/news.xinhuanet.com/comments/2009-03/19/content_11034304.htm">the original</a> on 18 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 June</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Xinhuanet.com&rft.atitle=%E8%AA%AA%E4%B8%89%E8%88%87%E4%B8%89%E5%AF%B6&rft.date=2009-03-19&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbig5.xinhuanet.com%2Fgate%2Fbig5%2Fnews.xinhuanet.com%2Fcomments%2F2009-03%2F19%2Fcontent_11034304.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mente-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mente_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mente, Boye De. [2000] (2000). The Chinese Have a Word for it: The Complete Guide to Chinese thought and Culture. McGraw-Hill Professional. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-658-01078-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-658-01078-6">0-658-01078-6</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alon, Ilan, ed. (2003), Chinese Culture, Organizational Behavior, and International Business Management, Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Publishers.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pollard;_Rosenberg;_Tignor_2011_164-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pollard;_Rosenberg;_Tignor_2011_164_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pollard;_Rosenberg;_Tignor_2011_164_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPollardRosenbergTignor2011" class="citation book cs1">Pollard, Elizabeth; Clifford; Robert; Rosenberg; Tignor (2011). <i>Worlds Together Worlds Apart</i>. New York, New York: Norton. p. 164. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-91847-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-91847-2"><bdi>978-0-393-91847-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Worlds+Together+Worlds+Apart&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.pages=164&rft.pub=Norton&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-393-91847-2&rft.aulast=Pollard&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth%3B+Clifford%3B+Robert&rft.au=Rosenberg&rft.au=Tignor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+culture" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Creel-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Creel_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Creel_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCreel1970" class="citation book cs1">Creel (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5p6EBnx4_W0C&pg=PA48"><i>What Is Taoism?</i></a>. University of Chicago Press. pp. 48, 62–63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-12047-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-12047-8"><bdi>978-0-226-12047-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230901025357/https://books.google.com/books?id=5p6EBnx4_W0C&pg=PA48">Archived</a> from the original on 1 September 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 October</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Is+Taoism%3F&rft.pages=48%2C+62-63&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=978-0-226-12047-8&rft.au=Creel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5p6EBnx4_W0C%26pg%3DPA48&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenard2010" class="citation book cs1">Benard, Elisabeth Anne (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-E5LZeR7QKwC&pg=PA92"><i>Chinnamastā, the Aweful Buddhist and Hindu Tantric Goddess</i></a>. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1748-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1748-7"><bdi>978-81-208-1748-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231022223031/https://books.google.com/books?id=-E5LZeR7QKwC&pg=PA92">Archived</a> from the original on 22 October 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 October</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinnamast%C4%81%2C+the+Aweful+Buddhist+and+Hindu+Tantric+Goddess&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass+Publishers&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-81-208-1748-7&rft.aulast=Benard&rft.aufirst=Elisabeth+Anne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-E5LZeR7QKwC%26pg%3DPA92&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChingGuisso1991" class="citation book cs1">Ching, Julia; Guisso, R. W. L. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ynfrlFZcUG8C&pg=PA75"><i>Sages and Filial Sons: Mythology and Archaeology in Ancient China</i></a>. Chinese University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-962-201-469-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-962-201-469-5"><bdi>978-962-201-469-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231022223032/https://books.google.com/books?id=ynfrlFZcUG8C&pg=PA75#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 22 October 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 October</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sages+and+Filial+Sons%3A+Mythology+and+Archaeology+in+Ancient+China&rft.pub=Chinese+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-962-201-469-5&rft.aulast=Ching&rft.aufirst=Julia&rft.au=Guisso%2C+R.+W.+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DynfrlFZcUG8C%26pg%3DPA75&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bary, Theodore de. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050311041507/http://www.columbia.edu/cu/ccba/cear/issues/fall97/graphics/special/debary/debary.htm">"Constructive Engagement with Asian Values"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.columbia.edu/cu/ccba/cear/issues/fall97/graphics/special/debary/debary.htm">the original</a> on 11 March 2005.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Constructive+Engagement+with+Asian+Values&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.columbia.edu%2Fcu%2Fccba%2Fcear%2Fissues%2Ffall97%2Fgraphics%2Fspecial%2Fdebary%2Fdebary.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+culture" class="Z3988"></span>. Columbia University.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYao2000" class="citation book cs1">Yao (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tAE2OJ9bPG0C"><i>An Introduction to Confucianism</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 38–47. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-64430-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-64430-3"><bdi>978-0-521-64430-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230426010842/https://books.google.com/books?id=tAE2OJ9bPG0C">Archived</a> from the original on 26 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 October</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Confucianism&rft.pages=38-47&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-521-64430-3&rft.au=Yao&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtAE2OJ9bPG0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rickett,_Guanzi-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rickett,_Guanzi_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rickett, Guanzi – "all early Chinese political thinkers were basically committed to a reestablishment of the golden age of the past as early Zhou propaganda described it."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/112694/Chinese-philosophy#ref171469">"Chinese philosophy"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150502233005/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/112694/Chinese-philosophy#ref171469">Archived</a> 2 May 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Encyclopædia Britannica, Retrieved 4 June 2014</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=91219343">Graham, A.C., <i>Disputers of the Tao: Philosophical Argument in Ancient China</i> (Open Court 1993).</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120120040622/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=91219343">Archived</a> 20 January 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8126-9087-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8126-9087-7">0-8126-9087-7</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/607826/Zou-Yan">"Zou Yan"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150426150251/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/607826/Zou-Yan">Archived</a> from the original on 26 April 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 March</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Zou+Yan&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F607826%2FZou-Yan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wurm, Li, Baumann, Lee (1987) <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (March 2019)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRamsey1987" class="citation book cs1">Ramsey, S. Robert (1987). <i>The Languages of China</i>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton,_New_Jersey" title="Princeton, New Jersey">Princeton, New Jersey</a>: <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. pp. 3–16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-01468-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-01468-5"><bdi>978-0-691-01468-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Languages+of+China&rft.place=Princeton%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pages=3-16&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-691-01468-5&rft.aulast=Ramsey&rft.aufirst=S.+Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stanley-Barker_2010a-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stanley-Barker_2010a_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stanley-Baker (2010) <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (March 2019)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">書 being here used as in 楷书/楷書, etc, and meaning "writing style".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang_Li2000" class="citation book cs1">Wang Li; et al. (2000). <i>王力古漢語字典</i>. Beijing: 中華書局. p. 1118. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/7-101-01219-1" title="Special:BookSources/7-101-01219-1"><bdi>7-101-01219-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E7%8E%8B%E5%8A%9B%E5%8F%A4%E6%BC%A2%E8%AA%9E%E5%AD%97%E5%85%B8&rft.place=Beijing&rft.pages=1118&rft.pub=%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%9B%B8%E5%B1%80&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=7-101-01219-1&rft.au=Wang+Li&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vincentpoon.com/shodo-and-calligraphy.html">"Shodo and Calligraphy"</a>. <i>Vincent's Calligraphy</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200506143816/http://www.vincentpoon.com/shodo-and-calligraphy.html">Archived</a> from the original on 6 May 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 May</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Vincent%27s+Calligraphy&rft.atitle=Shodo+and+Calligraphy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.vincentpoon.com%2Fshodo-and-calligraphy.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shu Xincheng 舒新城, ed. Cihai (辭海 "Sea of Words"). 3 vols. Shanghai: Zhonghua. 1936.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jing-Schmidt, p. 256 <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (March 2019)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-columbia_14-15-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-columbia_14-15_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-columbia_14-15_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-columbia_14-15_39-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Paragraph 15 in Paul W. Kroll "Poetry of the T'ang Dynasty", chapter 14 in Mair 2001.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-columbia_14-16-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-columbia_14-16_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-columbia_14-16_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-columbia_14-16_40-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-columbia_14-16_40-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-columbia_14-16_40-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Paragraph 16 in Paul W. Kroll "Poetry of the T'ang Dynasty", chapter 14 in Mair 2001.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-columbia_14-17-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-columbia_14-17_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paragraph 17 in Paul W. Kroll "Poetry of the T'ang Dynasty", chapter 14 in Mair 2001.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frankel, p. 216 <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (March 2019)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Davis, p. lxvii <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (March 2019)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zhang, pp. 76–80 <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (March 2019)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yip, pp. 306–308 <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (March 2019)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShep2011" class="citation cs2">Shep, Sydney J. (2011), "Paper and Print Technology", <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bvFSRPx2uokC"><i>The Encyclopedia of the Novel</i></a>, <i>Encyclopedia of Literature</i>, Vol. 2, <a href="/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wiley & Sons">John Wiley & Sons</a>, p. 596, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-6184-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-6184-8"><bdi>978-1-4051-6184-8</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231022223032/https://books.google.com/books?id=bvFSRPx2uokC">archived</a> from the original on 22 October 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 October</span> 2017</span>, <q><i>Dream of the Red Chamber</i>... is considered one of China's four great classical novels...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Paper+and+Print+Technology&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+the+Novel&rft.series=%27%27Encyclopedia+of+Literature%27%27%2C+Vol.+2&rft.pages=596&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-6184-8&rft.aulast=Shep&rft.aufirst=Sydney+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbvFSRPx2uokC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLi2016" class="citation cs2">Li Xiaobing (2016), "Literature and Drama", <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XJDcCgAAQBAJ"><i>Modern China</i></a>, Understanding Modern Nations, Sta Barbara: ABC-CLIO, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XJDcCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA269">269</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61069-626-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61069-626-5"><bdi>978-1-61069-626-5</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231022223032/https://books.google.com/books?id=XJDcCgAAQBAJ">archived</a> from the original on 22 October 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 June</span> 2020</span>, <q><i>Romance of the Three Kingdoms</i>, <i>Outlaws of the Marsh</i>, <i>A Dream of Red Mansions</i>, and <i>Journey to the West</i> have become the Four Great Classic Novels of Chinese literature.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Literature+and+Drama&rft.btitle=Modern+China&rft.place=Sta+Barbara&rft.series=Understanding+Modern+Nations&rft.pages=269&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-61069-626-5&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Xiaobing&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXJDcCgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClineTakács2015" class="citation cs2">Cline, Eric; Takács, Sarolta Anna, eds. (2015), "Language and Writing: Chinese Literature", <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SPcvCgAAQBAJ"><i>The Ancient World, </i>Vol. V<i><span></span></i></a>, Routledge, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SPcvCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA508">508</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-45839-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-45839-5"><bdi>978-1-317-45839-5</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231022223032/https://books.google.com/books?id=SPcvCgAAQBAJ">archived</a> from the original on 22 October 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 June</span> 2020</span>, <q>Chinese authors finally produced novels during the Yuan dynasty... when two of China's 'Four Classic Novels' – <i>Water Margin</i> and <i>Romance of the Three Kingdoms</i> – were published.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Language+and+Writing%3A+Chinese+Literature&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+World%2C+Vol.+V&rft.pages=508&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-317-45839-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSPcvCgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ropp, 1990, p. 310-311 <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (March 2019)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ropp, 1990, p. 311 <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (March 2019)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Andrew H. Plaks, <i>Four Masterworks of the Ming Novel</i> (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1987), esp. pp. 497–98.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-freedictionary_lantern-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-freedictionary_lantern_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Chinese+lantern">"Chinese lantern"</a>. The Free Dictionary. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140518063819/http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Chinese+lantern">Archived</a> from the original on 18 May 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 May</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chinese+lantern&rft.pub=The+Free+Dictionary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thefreedictionary.com%2FChinese%2Blantern&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aboutdecorativestyle.com/articles/history_fans.htm">"articles – brief history of fans"</a>. <i>aboutdecorativestyle.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170622012142/http://www.aboutdecorativestyle.com/articles/history_fans.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 22 June 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 January</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=aboutdecorativestyle.com&rft.atitle=articles+%E2%80%93+brief+history+of+fans&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aboutdecorativestyle.com%2Farticles%2Fhistory_fans.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hand-fan.org/chinese_hand_fans.html">"Chinese Hand Fans"</a>. <i>hand-fan.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190202022038/http://www.hand-fan.org/chinese_hand_fans.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2 February 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 January</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=hand-fan.org&rft.atitle=Chinese+Hand+Fans&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hand-fan.org%2Fchinese_hand_fans.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grove-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Grove_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grove_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Grove <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (June 2023)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grove; Cinnabar <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (June 2023)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Watt and Ford, p. 3 <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (June 2023)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Watt and Ford, pp. 6–7 (p. 7 quoted) <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (June 2023)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171107015234/http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=228794&partId=1&searchText=Lacquer+armour+aurel+Stein&page=1">"armour / 盔甲 (MAS 621)"</a>. <i>Collection online</i>. The British Museum. See "Curator's comments". Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=228794&partId=1&searchText=Lacquer+armour+aurel+Stein&page=1">the original</a> on 7 November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Collection+online&rft.atitle=armour+%2F+%E7%9B%94%E7%94%B2+%28MAS+621%29&rft.pages=See+%22Curator%27s+comments%22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britishmuseum.org%2Fresearch%2Fcollection_online%2Fcollection_object_details.aspx%3FobjectId%3D228794%26partId%3D1%26searchText%3DLacquer%2Barmour%2Baurel%2BStein%26page%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kuwayama, pp. 13–14 <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (June 2023)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>; Rawson, p. 175 <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (June 2023)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>; Grove, "Tang" <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (June 2023)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Watt and Ford, p. 7 <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (June 2023)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>; Rawson, p. 175 <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (June 2023)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kuwayama, pp. 13–14 <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (June 2023)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Watt and Ford, pp. 26–27, 46–61, 60 for the use of green <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (June 2023)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>; Rawson, p. 178 <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (June 2023)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>; Grove, "Song" <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (June 2023)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>; Kuwayama, pp. 13–17 on the Song <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (June 2023)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-handler268-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-handler268_65-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-handler268_65-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-handler268_65-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHandler2007" class="citation book cs1">Handler, Sarah (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-EKkblrm6sUC"><i>Austere luminosity of Chinese classical furniture</i></a>. University of California Press. pp. 268–271, 275, 277. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-21484-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-21484-2"><bdi>978-0-520-21484-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231022223109/https://books.google.com/books?id=-EKkblrm6sUC">Archived</a> from the original on 22 October 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 October</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Austere+luminosity+of+Chinese+classical+furniture&rft.pages=268-271%2C+275%2C+277&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-520-21484-2&rft.aulast=Handler&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-EKkblrm6sUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mazurkewich-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mazurkewich_66-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mazurkewich_66-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mazurkewich_66-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mazurkewich_66-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMazurkewichOng2006" class="citation book cs1">Mazurkewich, Karen; Ong, A. Chester (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xswA02E02KwC"><i>Chinese Furniture: A Guide to Collecting Antiques</i></a>. Tuttle Publishing. pp. 144–146. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8048-3573-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8048-3573-2"><bdi>978-0-8048-3573-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231022223033/https://books.google.com/books?id=xswA02E02KwC">Archived</a> from the original on 22 October 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 October</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+Furniture%3A+A+Guide+to+Collecting+Antiques&rft.pages=144-146&rft.pub=Tuttle+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8048-3573-2&rft.aulast=Mazurkewich&rft.aufirst=Karen&rft.au=Ong%2C+A.+Chester&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxswA02E02KwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-needham-v5-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-needham-v5_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-needham-v5_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-needham-v5_67-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-needham-v5_67-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeedhamTsien1985" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Needham" title="Joseph Needham">Needham, Joseph</a>; <a href="/wiki/Tsien_Tsuen-hsuin" title="Tsien Tsuen-hsuin">Tsien, Tsuen-hsuin</a> (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Lx-9mS6Aa4wC"><i>Paper and printing, Volume 5</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 120. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-08690-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-08690-5"><bdi>978-0-521-08690-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231022223514/https://books.google.com/books?id=Lx-9mS6Aa4wC">Archived</a> from the original on 22 October 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 October</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Paper+and+printing%2C+Volume+5&rft.pages=120&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-521-08690-5&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft.au=Tsien%2C+Tsuen-hsuin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLx-9mS6Aa4wC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lee-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lee_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeeYi,_Ŏ-ryŏngHolstein,_John1999" class="citation book cs1">Lee, O-Young; Yi, Ŏ-ryŏng; Holstein, John (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9SZtiaK7-0YC"><i>Things Korean</i></a>. Tuttle Publishing. p. 135. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8048-2129-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8048-2129-2"><bdi>978-0-8048-2129-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231022223515/https://books.google.com/books?id=9SZtiaK7-0YC">Archived</a> from the original on 22 October 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 October</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Things+Korean&rft.pages=135&rft.pub=Tuttle+Publishing&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-8048-2129-2&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=O-Young&rft.au=Yi%2C+%C5%8E-ry%C5%8Fng&rft.au=Holstein%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9SZtiaK7-0YC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-vgulik-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-vgulik_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-vgulik_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_Gulik1981" class="citation book cs1">van Gulik, Robert Hans (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZqkLAQAAMAAJ"><i>Chinese pictorial art as viewed by the connoisseur: notes on the means and methods of traditional Chinese connoisseurship of pictorial art, based upon a study of the art of mounting scrolls in China and Japan</i></a>. Hacker Art Books. p. 159. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87817-264-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87817-264-1"><bdi>978-0-87817-264-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231022223519/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZqkLAQAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 22 October 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 October</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+pictorial+art+as+viewed+by+the+connoisseur%3A+notes+on+the+means+and+methods+of+traditional+Chinese+connoisseurship+of+pictorial+art%2C+based+upon+a+study+of+the+art+of+mounting+scrolls+in+China+and+Japan&rft.pages=159&rft.pub=Hacker+Art+Books&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-87817-264-1&rft.aulast=van+Gulik&rft.aufirst=Robert+Hans&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZqkLAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF張世南_(Zhang_Shi'nan)1200s" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">張世南 (Zhang Shi'nan) (1200s). <a class="external text" href="https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E9%81%8A%E5%AE%A6%E7%B4%80%E8%81%9E/%E5%8D%B705">"5"</a>. <i>遊宦紀聞 (yóuhuàn jìwén)</i> (in Chinese). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170206120942/https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E9%81%8A%E5%AE%A6%E7%B4%80%E8%81%9E/%E5%8D%B705">Archived</a> from the original on 6 February 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 October</span> 2017</span>. <q><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">款謂陰字，是凹入者，刻畫成之</span></span> (<i>kuǎn</i> are inscriptions that are <a href="/wiki/Intaglio_(sculpture)" class="mw-redirect" title="Intaglio (sculpture)">counter-relief</a>, achieved by carving)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=5&rft.btitle=%E9%81%8A%E5%AE%A6%E7%B4%80%E8%81%9E+%28y%C3%B3uhu%C3%A0n+j%C3%ACw%C3%A9n%29&rft.date=1200&rft.au=%E5%BC%B5%E4%B8%96%E5%8D%97+%28Zhang+Shi%27nan%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzh.wikisource.org%2Fwiki%2F%25E9%2581%258A%25E5%25AE%25A6%25E7%25B4%2580%25E8%2581%259E%2F%25E5%258D%25B705&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClunas1997" class="citation book cs1">Clunas, Craig (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Q06pemllwx0C"><i>Pictures and visuality in early modern China</i></a>. London: <a href="/wiki/Reaktion_Books" title="Reaktion Books">Reaktion Books</a>. p. 61. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86189-008-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-86189-008-5"><bdi>978-1-86189-008-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231022223517/https://books.google.com/books?id=Q06pemllwx0C">Archived</a> from the original on 22 October 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 October</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pictures+and+visuality+in+early+modern+China&rft.place=London&rft.pages=61&rft.pub=Reaktion+Books&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-1-86189-008-5&rft.aulast=Clunas&rft.aufirst=Craig&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQ06pemllwx0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-fieryglo-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-fieryglo_72-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-fieryglo_72-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-fieryglo_72-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Fiero, Gloria K. <i>The Humanistic Tradition</i> 6th Ed, Vol. I. McGraw-Hill, 2010.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pope-Henessey, Chapter II. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (March 2019)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pope-Henessey, Chapter IV. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (March 2019)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_WatsonChuimei_Ho2007" class="citation book cs1">William Watson; Chuimei Ho (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lYYvsRdxsX4C&pg=PA77"><i>Arts of China, 1600–1900</i></a>. Yale University Press. p. 77. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-10735-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-10735-7"><bdi>978-0-300-10735-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231022223518/https://books.google.com/books?id=lYYvsRdxsX4C&pg=PA77#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 22 October 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 October</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arts+of+China%2C+1600%E2%80%931900&rft.pages=77&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-300-10735-7&rft.au=William+Watson&rft.au=Chuimei+Ho&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlYYvsRdxsX4C%26pg%3DPA77&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIngersoll2013" class="citation book cs1">Ingersoll, Ernest; et al. (2013). <i>The Illustrated Book of Dragons and Dragon Lore</i>. Chiang Mai: Cognoscenti Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Illustrated+Book+of+Dragons+and+Dragon+Lore&rft.place=Chiang+Mai&rft.pub=Cognoscenti+Books&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Ingersoll&rft.aufirst=Ernest&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-britannica1-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-britannica1_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/110049/qilin">"qilin (Chinese mythology)"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111019041800/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/110049/qilin">Archived</a> from the original on 19 October 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 July</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=qilin+%28Chinese+mythology%29&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F110049%2Fqilin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chinaknowledge.de/Literature/Classics/chunqiuzuozhuan.html">"Chinese Literature – Chunqiu-Zuozhuan 春秋左傳, Gongyangzhuan 公羊傳, Guliangzhuan 穀梁傳 (www.chinaknowledge.de)"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070206152519/http://www.chinaknowledge.de/Literature/Classics/chunqiuzuozhuan.html">Archived</a> from the original on 6 February 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 January</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chinese+Literature+%E2%80%93+Chunqiu-Zuozhuan+%E6%98%A5%E7%A7%8B%E5%B7%A6%E5%82%B3%2C+Gongyangzhuan+%E5%85%AC%E7%BE%8A%E5%82%B3%2C+Guliangzhuan+%E7%A9%80%E6%A2%81%E5%82%B3+%28www.chinaknowledge.de%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chinaknowledge.de%2FLiterature%2FClassics%2Fchunqiuzuozhuan.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://engine.cqvip.com/content/tu/98575x/2001/000/002/gc13_tu1_5337044.pdf">古建上的主要装饰纹样——麒麟古建园林技术－作者:徐华铛</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070930201732/http://engine.cqvip.com/content/tu/98575x/2001/000/002/gc13_tu1_5337044.pdf">Archived</a> 30 September 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/s:%E5%8F%B2%E8%A8%98/%E5%8D%B7028" class="extiw" title="zh:s:史記/卷028">zh:s:史記/卷028</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Michel_Baridon_p._348-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Michel_Baridon_p._348_81-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Michel_Baridon_p._348_81-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Michel Baridon, <i>Les Jardins – paysagistes, jardiners, poḕts</i>. p. 348</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFA.H._Longhurst1995" class="citation book cs1">A.H. Longhurst (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gs1sFlMGy2AC&pg=PA17"><i>Story of the Stupa</i></a>. Asian Educational Services. pp. 17–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-206-0160-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-206-0160-4"><bdi>978-81-206-0160-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231022223518/https://books.google.com/books?id=gs1sFlMGy2AC&pg=PA17#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 22 October 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 November</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Story+of+the+Stupa&rft.pages=17-&rft.pub=Asian+Educational+Services&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-81-206-0160-4&rft.au=A.H.+Longhurst&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dgs1sFlMGy2AC%26pg%3DPA17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michel Baridon, <i>Les Jardins - paysagistes, jardiners, poḕts</i>. p. 348</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Feng Chaoxiong, <i>The Classical Gardens of Suzhou</i>, preface, and Bing Chiu, <i>Jardins de Chine, ou la quete du paradis</i>, Editions de La Martiniere, Paris 2010, p. 10–11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tong Jun, Records of Jiang Gardens, cited in Feng Chanoxiong, <i>The Classical Gardens of Suzhou</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Che-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Che_87-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Che_87-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Che Bing Chiu, "Jardins de Chine, ou la quete du paradis"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMa2015" class="citation journal cs1">Ma, Guansheng (December 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jef.2015.11.004">"Food, eating behavior, and culture in Chinese society"</a>. <i>Journal of Ethnic Foods</i>. <b>2</b> (4): 195–199. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jef.2015.11.004">10.1016/j.jef.2015.11.004</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Ethnic+Foods&rft.atitle=Food%2C+eating+behavior%2C+and+culture+in+Chinese+society&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=195-199&rft.date=2015-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jef.2015.11.004&rft.aulast=Ma&rft.aufirst=Guansheng&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.jef.2015.11.004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cits.net/china-travel-guide/four-major-cuisines-in-china.html">"Four Major Cuisines in China"</a>. <i>CITS</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170111004157/http://www.cits.net/china-travel-guide/four-major-cuisines-in-china.html">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 January</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CITS&rft.atitle=Four+Major+Cuisines+in+China&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cits.net%2Fchina-travel-guide%2Ffour-major-cuisines-in-china.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="1" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/cuisine_drink/cuisine/eight_cuisines.htm">"Eight Cuisines of China – Shandong & Guangdong"</a>. <i>TravelChinaGuide.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110828122551/http://www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/cuisine_drink/cuisine/eight_cuisines.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 28 August 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 November</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=TravelChinaGuide.com&rft.atitle=Eight+Cuisines+of+China+%E2%80%93+Shandong+%26+Guangdong&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.travelchinaguide.com%2Fintro%2Fcuisine_drink%2Fcuisine%2Feight_cuisines.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-beautyfujian-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-beautyfujian_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130731165745/http://beautyfujian.com/Fujian/Fujian_Cuisine.html">"Fujian Cuisine.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://beautyfujian.com/">Beautyfujian.com</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110710001538/http://beautyfujian.com/">Archived</a> 10 July 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Accessed June 2011.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This standard starts from <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> in the 6th century by <a href="/wiki/Bai_Juyi" title="Bai Juyi">Bai Juyi</a> from the <i>Preface of <a href="/wiki/Lychee" title="Lychee">Lychee</a> Diagram</i>: After leaving branch...for four and five days, the color, smell and taste (of lychee) will be gone. (《荔枝圖序》：「若離本枝......四五日外，色、香、味盡去矣」。）</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFE.1994" class="citation book cs1">E., Strassberg, Richard (1994). <i>Inscribed landscapes : travel writing from imperial China</i>. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-91486-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-91486-5"><bdi>978-0-520-91486-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/44957693">44957693</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inscribed+landscapes+%3A+travel+writing+from+imperial+China&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F44957693&rft.isbn=978-0-520-91486-5&rft.aulast=E.&rft.aufirst=Strassberg%2C+Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+culture" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHouyuan_Lu2016" class="citation journal cs1">Houyuan Lu; et al. (7 January 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4704058">"Earliest tea as evidence for one branch of the Silk Road across the Tibetan Plateau"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a></i>. <b>6</b>: 18955. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016NatSR...618955L">2016NatSR...618955L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsrep18955">10.1038/srep18955</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4704058">4704058</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26738699">26738699</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Earliest+tea+as+evidence+for+one+branch+of+the+Silk+Road+across+the+Tibetan+Plateau&rft.volume=6&rft.pages=18955&rft.date=2016-01-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4704058%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26738699&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fsrep18955&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016NatSR...618955L&rft.au=Houyuan+Lu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4704058&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiu2012" class="citation book cs1">Liu, Tong (2012). <i>Chinese Tea</i>. The United States of America: Cambridge University Press. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-18680-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-18680-3"><bdi>978-0-521-18680-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+Tea&rft.place=The+United+States+of+America&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-521-18680-3&rft.aulast=Liu&rft.aufirst=Tong&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110816121220/http://en.radio86.com/lifestyle-china/tea-and-chinese-way-life">"Tea and the Chinese way of life"</a>. radio86.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://en.radio86.com/lifestyle-china/tea-and-chinese-way-life">the original</a> on 16 August 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 January</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tea+and+the+Chinese+way+of+life&rft.pub=radio86.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fen.radio86.com%2Flifestyle-china%2Ftea-and-chinese-way-life&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120804163552/http://ketang.dict.cn/item/4e981f95acf0a3c9df000098">"Notes on Chinese Culture – Food and Drinks (08) – Chinese Tea"</a>. dict.cn. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ketang.dict.cn/item/4e981f95acf0a3c9df000098">the original</a> on 4 August 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 January</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Notes+on+Chinese+Culture+%E2%80%93+Food+and+Drinks+%2808%29+%E2%80%93+Chinese+Tea&rft.pub=dict.cn&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fketang.dict.cn%2Fitem%2F4e981f95acf0a3c9df000098&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kf-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kf_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF徐文苑2005" class="citation book cs1">徐文苑 (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PnTM8uUWyHEC&q=%E5%AD%94%E5%BA%9C%E8%8F%9C%E7%9A%84%E7%89%B9%E7%82%B9&pg=PA85"><i>Origin of Confucian cuisine</i></a>. 清华大学出版社有限公司. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7-81082-370-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-7-81082-370-8"><bdi>978-7-81082-370-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231022223519/https://books.google.com/books?id=PnTM8uUWyHEC&q=%E5%AD%94%E5%BA%9C%E8%8F%9C%E7%9A%84%E7%89%B9%E7%82%B9&pg=PA85#v=snippet&q=%E5%AD%94%E5%BA%9C%E8%8F%9C%E7%9A%84%E7%89%B9%E7%82%B9&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 22 October 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 January</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Origin+of+Confucian+cuisine&rft.pub=%E6%B8%85%E5%8D%8E%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A6%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE%E6%9C%89%E9%99%90%E5%85%AC%E5%8F%B8&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-7-81082-370-8&rft.au=%E5%BE%90%E6%96%87%E8%8B%91&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPnTM8uUWyHEC%26q%3D%25E5%25AD%2594%25E5%25BA%259C%25E8%258F%259C%25E7%259A%2584%25E7%2589%25B9%25E7%2582%25B9%26pg%3DPA85&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kong-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kong_99-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kong_99-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kong, Foong, Ling. [2002]. The Food of Asia. Tuttle Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7946-0146-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-7946-0146-4">0-7946-0146-4</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hoover-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hoover_100-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hoover_100-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoover, Michael. Stokes, Lisa, Odham. (1999). City on Fire: Hong Kong Cinema. Verso publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85984-203-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-85984-203-8">1-85984-203-8</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livescience.com/28823-chinese-culture.html">"Chinese Culture: Customs & Traditions of China"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Live_Science" title="Live Science">Live Science</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170909053045/https://www.livescience.com/28823-chinese-culture.html">Archived</a> from the original on 9 September 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Live+Science&rft.atitle=Chinese+Culture%3A+Customs+%26+Traditions+of+China&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.livescience.com%2F28823-chinese-culture.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kknews.cc/history/9zvzpq.html">晉語的使用範圍與歷史起源</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged July 2021">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210322075215/https://kknews.cc/culture/qyozppo.html">"晉語是中國北方的唯一一個非官話方言，但是否歸屬官話"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kknews.cc/culture/qyozppo.html">the original</a> on 22 March 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E6%99%89%E8%AA%9E%E6%98%AF%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%8C%97%E6%96%B9%E7%9A%84%E5%94%AF%E4%B8%80%E4%B8%80%E5%80%8B%E9%9D%9E%E5%AE%98%E8%A9%B1%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80%EF%BC%8C%E4%BD%86%E6%98%AF%E5%90%A6%E6%AD%B8%E5%B1%AC%E5%AE%98%E8%A9%B1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fkknews.cc%2Fculture%2Fqyozppo.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+culture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kknews.cc/culture/aenxvv.html">山西方言與山西文化</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged July 2021">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Culture_of_China" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Culture of China">Culture of China</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Chinese_proverbs" class="extiw" title="q:Chinese proverbs">Chinese proverbs</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li>Aspect of Chinese culture, Chang Zonglin. 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style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_New_Year" title="Chinese New Year">Chinese New Year</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Culture of China</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dashuhua" title="Dashuhua">Dashuhua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nian" title="Nian">Nian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lion_dance" title="Lion dance">Lion dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dragon_dance" title="Dragon dance">Dragon dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Year_picture" title="New Year picture">New Year picture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_envelope" title="Red envelope">Red envelope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reunion_dinner" title="Reunion dinner">Reunion dinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fireworks" 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