CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Herbivore - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"edf88675-6dde-42d0-81a5-4011742b719a","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Herbivore","wgTitle":"Herbivore","wgCurRevisionId":1258869688,"wgRevisionId":1258869688,"wgArticleId":44568,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["CS1 maint: location missing publisher","CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024","CS1 maint: others","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Wikipedia pages semi-protected against vandalism","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from August 2008","Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from August 2015","Articles with unsourced statements from March 2015", "Articles with unsourced statements from August 2015","Commons category link is on Wikidata","Webarchive template wayback links","Use dmy dates from August 2019","Herbivory","Herbivorous animals","Ecology terminology","Animals by eating behaviors"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Herbivore","wgRelevantArticleId":44568,"wgIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRestrictionEdit":["autoconfirmed"],"wgRestrictionMove":["autoconfirmed"],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false, "wgWMEPageLength":60000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q59099","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","ext.math.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready", "ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.math.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/White-tailed_deer_%28Odocoileus_virginianus%29_grazing_-_20050809.jpg/1200px-White-tailed_deer_%28Odocoileus_virginianus%29_grazing_-_20050809.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="900"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/White-tailed_deer_%28Odocoileus_virginianus%29_grazing_-_20050809.jpg/800px-White-tailed_deer_%28Odocoileus_virginianus%29_grazing_-_20050809.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="600"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/White-tailed_deer_%28Odocoileus_virginianus%29_grazing_-_20050809.jpg/640px-White-tailed_deer_%28Odocoileus_virginianus%29_grazing_-_20050809.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="480"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Herbivore - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbivore"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbivore"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Herbivore rootpage-Herbivore skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Herbivore" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Herbivore" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Herbivore" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Herbivore" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Etymology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Etymology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Etymology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Etymology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Definition_and_related_terms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Definition_and_related_terms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Definition and related terms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Definition_and_related_terms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution_of_herbivory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution_of_herbivory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Evolution of herbivory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolution_of_herbivory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Food_chain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Food_chain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Food chain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Food_chain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Feeding_strategies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Feeding_strategies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Feeding strategies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Feeding_strategies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plant-herbivore_interactions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plant-herbivore_interactions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Plant-herbivore interactions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Plant-herbivore_interactions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Plant-herbivore interactions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Plant-herbivore_interactions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Herbivore_offense" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Herbivore_offense"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Herbivore offense</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Herbivore_offense-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plant_defense" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plant_defense"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Plant defense</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plant_defense-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Predator–prey_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Predator–prey_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Predator–prey theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Predator–prey_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mutualism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mutualism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Mutualism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mutualism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Impacts</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Impacts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Impacts subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Impacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Trophic_cascades_and_environmental_degradation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trophic_cascades_and_environmental_degradation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Trophic cascades and environmental degradation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trophic_cascades_and_environmental_degradation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_impacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_impacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Economic impacts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_impacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Herbivore</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 90 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-90" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">90 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbivoor" title="Herbivoor – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Herbivoor" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B4%D8%A8_(%D8%AD%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86)" title="عاشب (حيوان) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="عاشب (حيوان)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbivorismo" title="Herbivorismo – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Herbivorismo" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herb%C3%ADvoru" title="Herbívoru – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Herbívoru" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitofaqlar" title="Fitofaqlar – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Fitofaqlar" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%A3%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%80" title="তৃণভোজী – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="তৃণভোজী" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Фітафагія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Фітафагія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%8F%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE" title="Растителноядно животно – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Растителноядно животно" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biljo%C5%BEderi" title="Biljožderi – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Biljožderi" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geotdebrer" title="Geotdebrer – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Geotdebrer" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbivorisme" title="Herbivorisme – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Herbivorisme" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%BDlo%C5%BEravec" title="Býložravec – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Býložravec" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llysysydd" title="Llysysydd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Llysysydd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plante%C3%A6der" title="Planteæder – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Planteæder" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pflanzenfresser" title="Pflanzenfresser – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Pflanzenfresser" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbivoor" title="Herbivoor – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Herbivoor" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CF%85%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%86%CE%AC%CE%B3%CE%BF" title="Φυτοφάγο – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Φυτοφάγο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herb%C3%ADvoro" title="Herbívoro – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Herbívoro" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbovorulo" title="Herbovorulo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Herbovorulo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarjale" title="Belarjale – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Belarjale" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C_(%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86)" title="گیاه‌خواری (جانوران) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="گیاه‌خواری (جانوران)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plantu%C3%A1tar" title="Plantuátar – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Plantuátar" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Herbivore" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbivoar" title="Herbivoar – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Herbivoar" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luibhiteoir" title="Luibhiteoir – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Luibhiteoir" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herb%C3%ADvoro" title="Herbívoro – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Herbívoro" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B4%88%EC%8B%9D_%EB%8F%99%EB%AC%BC" title="초식 동물 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="초식 동물" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%96%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%86%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Ֆիտոֆագեր – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ֆիտոֆագեր" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biljo%C5%BEderi" title="Biljožderi – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Biljožderi" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbivoro" title="Herbivoro – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Herbivoro" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbivor" title="Herbivor – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Herbivor" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurta%C3%A6ta" title="Jurtaæta – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Jurtaæta" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erbivoro" title="Erbivoro – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Erbivoro" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%95%D7%9B%D7%9C%D7%99-%D7%A6%D7%9E%D7%97%D7%99%D7%9D" title="אוכלי-צמחים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אוכלי-צמחים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A8rbivor" title="Hèrbivor – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Hèrbivor" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B9%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%B3%E0%B3%81" title="ಸಸ್ಯಾಹಾರಿಗಳು – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಸಸ್ಯಾಹಾರಿಗಳು" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A4%E1%83%90%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ფიტოფაგია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ფიტოფაგია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%B3" title="Фитофаг – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Фитофаг" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwelsdebrer" title="Gwelsdebrer – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Gwelsdebrer" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mlamani" title="Mlamani – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mlamani" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88biv%C3%B2" title="Èbivò – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Èbivò" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbivora" title="Herbivora – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Herbivora" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C4%81l%C4%93d%C4%81ji" title="Zālēdāji – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Zālēdāji" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDol%C4%97d%C5%BEiai" title="Žolėdžiai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Žolėdžiai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%B6v%C3%A9nyev%C5%91" title="Növényevő – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Növényevő" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE" title="Растителнојадно животно – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Растителнојадно животно" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%AD%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D" title="സസ്യഭുക്ക് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സസ്യഭുക്ക്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erbivoru" title="Erbivoru – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Erbivoru" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbivor" title="Herbivor – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Herbivor" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%A8%D0%B2%D1%81%D3%A9%D0%BD_%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%B6%D1%8D%D1%8D%D0%BB%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%BD" title="Өвсөн тэжээлтэн – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Өвсөн тэжээлтэн" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbivoor" title="Herbivoor – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Herbivoor" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80" title="साकाहारी – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="साकाहारी" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8D%89%E9%A3%9F%E5%8B%95%E7%89%A9" title="草食動物 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="草食動物" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planteetere" title="Planteetere – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Planteetere" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planteetar" title="Planteetar – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Planteetar" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erbiv%C3%B2r" title="Erbivòr – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Erbivòr" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitofaglar" title="Fitofaglar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Fitofaglar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%AA%DB%92_%DA%A9%DA%BE%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%92" title="پتے کھانے – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="پتے کھانے" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%A7%DA%9A%D9%87_%D8%AE%D9%88%DA%93%D9%88%D9%86%DA%A9%D9%8A" title="واښه خوړونکي – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="واښه خوړونکي" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitofag" title="Fitofag – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Fitofag" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herb%C3%ADvoro" title="Herbívoro – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Herbívoro" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erbivore" title="Erbivore – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Erbivore" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yura_mikhuq" title="Yura mikhuq – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Yura mikhuq" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Фитофагия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Фитофагия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%83" title="शाकाहाराः प्राणिनः – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="शाकाहाराः प्राणिनः" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yerbivore" title="Yerbivore – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Yerbivore" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barngr%C3%ABn%C3%ABsit" title="Barngrënësit – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Barngrënësit" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Herbivore" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bylino%C5%BEravec" title="Bylinožravec – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Bylinožravec" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rastlinojedec" title="Rastlinojedec – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Rastlinojedec" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhircun" title="Dhircun – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Dhircun" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AE%DB%86%D8%B1" title="گیاخۆر – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="گیاخۆر" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D1%99%D0%BE%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B4" title="Биљојед – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Биљојед" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbivor" title="Herbivor – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Herbivor" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A9rbivora" title="Hérbivora – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Hérbivora" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasvinsy%C3%B6j%C3%A4" title="Kasvinsyöjä – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kasvinsyöjä" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A4xt%C3%A4tare" title="Växtätare – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Växtätare" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbiboro" title="Herbiboro – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Herbiboro" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0_%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A3%E0%AE%BF" title="தாவர உண்ணி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="தாவர உண்ணி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%AE%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA_%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%87%D1%8B_%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Үсемлек ашаучы хайваннар – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Үсемлек ашаучы хайваннар" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A7%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B7%E0%B8%8A" title="สัตว์กินพืช – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สัตว์กินพืช" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otoburlar" title="Otoburlar – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Otoburlar" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%97%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%96" title="Рослиноїдні – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Рослиноїдні" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%B1" title="نباتات خور – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="نباتات خور" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BB%99ng_v%E1%BA%ADt_%C4%83n_c%E1%BB%8F" title="Động vật ăn cỏ – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Động vật ăn cỏ" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erbiboro" title="Erbiboro – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Erbiboro" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%A3%9F%E8%8D%89%E5%8A%A8%E7%89%A9" title="食草动物 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="食草动物" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%A3%9F%E8%8D%89%E5%8B%95%E7%89%A9" title="食草動物 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="食草動物" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Va%C5%9Fwerdo%C4%9F" title="Vaşwerdoğ – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Vaşwerdoğ" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E9%A3%9F%E6%80%A7%E5%8A%A8%E7%89%A9" title="植食性动物 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="植食性动物" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q59099#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Herbivore" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Herbivore"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-viewsource" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Herbivore&action=edit" title="This page is protected.
You can view its source [e]" accesskey="e"><span>View source</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Herbivore&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Herbivore"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-viewsource" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Herbivore&action=edit"><span>View source</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Herbivore&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Herbivore" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Herbivore" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Herbivore&oldid=1258869688" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Herbivore&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Herbivore&id=1258869688&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FHerbivore"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FHerbivore"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Herbivore&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Herbivore&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Herbivores" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q59099" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected due to vandalism"><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Organism that eats mostly or exclusively plant material</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about anatomically and physiologically adapted diets to plants. For the Japanese social phenomenon, see <a href="/wiki/Herbivore_men" title="Herbivore men">Herbivore men</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:White-tailed_deer_(Odocoileus_virginianus)_grazing_-_20050809.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/White-tailed_deer_%28Odocoileus_virginianus%29_grazing_-_20050809.jpg/250px-White-tailed_deer_%28Odocoileus_virginianus%29_grazing_-_20050809.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/White-tailed_deer_%28Odocoileus_virginianus%29_grazing_-_20050809.jpg/375px-White-tailed_deer_%28Odocoileus_virginianus%29_grazing_-_20050809.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/White-tailed_deer_%28Odocoileus_virginianus%29_grazing_-_20050809.jpg/500px-White-tailed_deer_%28Odocoileus_virginianus%29_grazing_-_20050809.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Deer" title="Deer">deer</a> and two fawns feeding on foliage</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Caterpillar_feeding_on_leaf_-_20140906_121127_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Caterpillar_feeding_on_leaf_-_20140906_121127_%28cropped%29.jpg/250px-Caterpillar_feeding_on_leaf_-_20140906_121127_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Caterpillar_feeding_on_leaf_-_20140906_121127_%28cropped%29.jpg/375px-Caterpillar_feeding_on_leaf_-_20140906_121127_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Caterpillar_feeding_on_leaf_-_20140906_121127_%28cropped%29.jpg/500px-Caterpillar_feeding_on_leaf_-_20140906_121127_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1039" data-file-height="504" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Sawfly" title="Sawfly">sawfly</a> larva feeding on a leaf</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Land_Snail_radula_tracks.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Land_Snail_radula_tracks.jpg/250px-Land_Snail_radula_tracks.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Land_Snail_radula_tracks.jpg/375px-Land_Snail_radula_tracks.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Land_Snail_radula_tracks.jpg/500px-Land_Snail_radula_tracks.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2174" data-file-height="1634" /></a><figcaption>Tracks made by terrestrial gastropods with their <a href="/wiki/Radula" title="Radula">radulas</a>, scraping <a href="/wiki/Green_algae" title="Green algae">green algae</a> from a surface inside a greenhouse</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>herbivore</b> is an <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animal</a> anatomically and physiologically <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolved</a> to feed on <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a>, especially upon <a href="/wiki/Vascular_tissue" title="Vascular tissue">vascular tissues</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Foliage" class="mw-redirect" title="Foliage">foliage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">fruits</a> or <a href="/wiki/Seed" title="Seed">seeds</a>, as the main component of its <a href="/wiki/Diet_(nutrition)" title="Diet (nutrition)">diet</a>. These more broadly also encompass animals that eat <a href="/wiki/Non-vascular_plant" title="Non-vascular plant">non-vascular</a> <a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">autotrophs</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Moss" title="Moss">mosses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lichen" title="Lichen">lichens</a>, but do not include those feeding on <a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">decomposed</a> <a href="/wiki/Detritus" title="Detritus">plant matters</a> (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Detritivore" title="Detritivore">detritivores</a>) or <a href="/wiki/Macrofungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrofungi">macrofungi</a> (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Fungivore" title="Fungivore">fungivores</a>). </p><p>As a result of their plant-based diet, herbivorous animals typically have <a href="/wiki/Mouth" title="Mouth">mouth</a> structures (<a href="/wiki/Jaw" title="Jaw">jaws</a> or <a href="/wiki/Arthropod_mouthparts" title="Arthropod mouthparts">mouthparts</a>) well <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adapted</a> to <a href="/wiki/Comminution" title="Comminution">mechanically break down</a> plant materials, and their <a href="/wiki/Digestive_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Digestive system">digestive systems</a> have special <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Amylase" title="Amylase">amylase</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cellulase" title="Cellulase">cellulase</a>) to digest <a href="/wiki/Polysaccharide" title="Polysaccharide">polysaccharides</a>. <a href="/wiki/Grazing_(behaviour)" title="Grazing (behaviour)">Grazing</a> herbivores such as <a href="/wiki/Horse" title="Horse">horses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cattle" title="Cattle">cattles</a> have wide flat-<a href="/wiki/Crown_(tooth)" title="Crown (tooth)">crowned</a> <a href="/wiki/Teeth" class="mw-redirect" title="Teeth">teeth</a> that are better adapted for grinding <a href="/wiki/Grass" class="mw-redirect" title="Grass">grass</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tree_bark" class="mw-redirect" title="Tree bark">tree bark</a> and other tougher <a href="/wiki/Lignin" title="Lignin">lignin</a>-containing materials, and many of them evolved <a href="/wiki/Ruminant" title="Ruminant">rumination</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cecotrope" title="Cecotrope">cecotropic</a> behaviors to better extract nutrients from plants. A large percentage of herbivores also have mutualistic <a href="/wiki/Gut_flora" class="mw-redirect" title="Gut flora">gut flora</a> made up of <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protozoan" class="mw-redirect" title="Protozoan">protozoans</a> that help to <a href="/wiki/Biodegradation" title="Biodegradation">degrade</a> the <a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a> in plants,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whose heavily <a href="/wiki/Cross-link" title="Cross-link">cross-linking</a> <a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">polymer</a> structure makes it far more difficult to digest than the <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a>- and <a href="/wiki/Fat" title="Fat">fat</a>-rich animal <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">tissues</a> that <a href="/wiki/Carnivore" title="Carnivore">carnivores</a> eat.<sup id="cite_ref-Moran_2006_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moran_2006-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div> <p>Herbivore is the anglicized form of a modern Latin coinage, <i>herbivora</i>, cited in <a href="/wiki/Charles_Lyell" title="Charles Lyell">Charles Lyell</a>'s 1830 <i><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_Geology" title="Principles of Geology">Principles of Geology</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-OED_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OED-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Owen" title="Richard Owen">Richard Owen</a> employed the anglicized term in an 1854 work on fossil teeth and skeletons.<sup id="cite_ref-OED_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OED-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Herbivora</i> is derived from Latin <i>herba</i> 'small plant, herb'<sup id="cite_ref-OLD1_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OLD1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i>vora</i>, from <i>vorare</i> 'to eat, devour'.<sup id="cite_ref-OLD2_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OLD2-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition_and_related_terms">Definition and related terms</h2></div> <p>Herbivory is a form of <a href="/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">consumption</a> in which an <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organism</a> principally <a href="/wiki/Eating" title="Eating">eats</a> <a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">autotrophs</a><sup id="cite_ref-MAAA_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MAAA-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a> and photosynthesizing <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>. More generally, organisms that feed on <a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">autotrophs</a> in general are known as <b>primary consumers</b>. Herbivory is usually limited to animals that eat plants. Insect herbivory can cause a variety of physical and metabolic alterations in the way the host plant interacts with itself and other surrounding biotic factors.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fungi, bacteria, and protists that feed on living plants are usually termed <a href="/wiki/Phytopathology" class="mw-redirect" title="Phytopathology">plant pathogens</a> (plant diseases), while fungi and <a href="/wiki/Microbes" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbes">microbes</a> that feed on dead plants are described as <a href="/wiki/Saprotroph" class="mw-redirect" title="Saprotroph">saprotrophs</a>. Flowering plants that obtain nutrition from other living plants are usually termed <a href="/wiki/Parasitic_plant" title="Parasitic plant">parasitic plants</a>. There is, however, no single exclusive and definitive ecological classification of consumption patterns; each textbook has its own variations on the theme.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolution_of_herbivory">Evolution of herbivory<span class="anchor" id="evolution"></span></h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Viburnum_lesquereuxii_fossil.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Viburnum_lesquereuxii_fossil.jpg/220px-Viburnum_lesquereuxii_fossil.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Viburnum_lesquereuxii_fossil.jpg/330px-Viburnum_lesquereuxii_fossil.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Viburnum_lesquereuxii_fossil.jpg/440px-Viburnum_lesquereuxii_fossil.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1432" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossil</a> <i>Viburnum lesquereuxii</i> leaf with evidence of insect herbivory; Dakota Sandstone (<a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a>) of Ellsworth County, Kansas. Scale bar is 10 mm.</figcaption></figure> <p>The understanding of herbivory in geological time comes from three sources: fossilized plants, which may preserve evidence of defence (such as spines), or herbivory-related damage; the observation of plant debris in fossilised <a href="/wiki/Coprolite" title="Coprolite">animal faeces</a>; and the construction of herbivore mouthparts.<sup id="cite_ref-Labandeira1998_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Labandeira1998-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although herbivory was long thought to be a <a href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a> phenomenon, fossils have shown that plants were being consumed by arthropods within less than 20 million years after the first land plants evolved.<sup id="cite_ref-Labandeira2007_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Labandeira2007-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Insects fed on the spores of early Devonian plants, and the <a href="/wiki/Rhynie_chert" title="Rhynie chert">Rhynie chert</a> also provides evidence that organisms fed on plants using a "pierce and suck" technique.<sup id="cite_ref-Labandeira1998_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Labandeira1998-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the next 75 million years<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2008)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>, plants evolved a range of more complex organs, such as roots and seeds. There is no evidence of any organism being fed upon until the middle-late <a href="/wiki/Mississippian_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Mississippian age">Mississippian</a>, <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=330.9">330.9</a> million years ago</span>. There was a gap of 50 to 100 million years between the time each organ evolved and the time organisms evolved to feed upon them; this may be due to the low levels of oxygen during this period, which may have suppressed evolution.<sup id="cite_ref-Labandeira2007_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Labandeira2007-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further than their arthropod status, the identity of these early herbivores is uncertain.<sup id="cite_ref-Labandeira2007_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Labandeira2007-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hole feeding and skeletonization are recorded in the early <a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">Permian</a>, with surface fluid feeding evolving by the end of that period.<sup id="cite_ref-Labandeira1998_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Labandeira1998-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Herbivory among four-limbed terrestrial vertebrates, the <a href="/wiki/Tetrapods" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetrapods">tetrapods</a>, developed in the <a href="/wiki/Late_Carboniferous" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Carboniferous">Late Carboniferous</a> (307–299 million years ago).<sup id="cite_ref-SahneyBentonFerry2010RainforestCollapse_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SahneyBentonFerry2010RainforestCollapse-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The oldest known example being <a href="/wiki/Desmatodon" title="Desmatodon">Desmatodon</a> hesperis.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early tetrapods were large amphibious <a href="/wiki/Piscivores" class="mw-redirect" title="Piscivores">piscivores</a>. While amphibians continued to feed on fish and insects, some reptiles began exploring two new food types, tetrapods (carnivory) and plants (herbivory). The entire <a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">dinosaur</a> order <a href="/wiki/Ornithischia" title="Ornithischia">ornithischia</a> was composed of herbivorous dinosaurs.<sup id="cite_ref-SahneyBentonFerry2010RainforestCollapse_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SahneyBentonFerry2010RainforestCollapse-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Carnivory was a natural transition from insectivory for medium and large tetrapods, requiring minimal adaptation. In contrast, a complex set of adaptations was necessary for feeding on highly fibrous plant materials.<sup id="cite_ref-SahneyBentonFerry2010RainforestCollapse_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SahneyBentonFerry2010RainforestCollapse-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">Arthropods</a> evolved herbivory in four phases, changing their approach to it in response to changing plant communities.<sup id="cite_ref-Labandeira2006_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Labandeira2006-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tetrapod herbivores made their first appearance in the fossil record of their jaws near the Permio-Carboniferous boundary, approximately 300 million years ago. The earliest evidence of their herbivory has been attributed to <a href="/wiki/Occlusion_(dentistry)" title="Occlusion (dentistry)">dental occlusion</a>, the process in which teeth from the upper jaw come in contact with teeth in the lower jaw is present. The evolution of dental occlusion led to a drastic increase in plant food processing and provides evidence about feeding strategies based on tooth wear patterns. Examination of <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylogenetic">phylogenetic</a> frameworks of tooth and jaw morphologes has revealed that dental occlusion developed independently in several lineages tetrapod herbivores. This suggests that evolution and spread occurred simultaneously within various lineages.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Food_chain">Food chain</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leaf_mining.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Leaf_mining.jpg/220px-Leaf_mining.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Leaf_mining.jpg/330px-Leaf_mining.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Leaf_mining.jpg/440px-Leaf_mining.jpg 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="384" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Leaf_miner" title="Leaf miner">Leaf miners</a> feed on leaf tissue between the epidermal layers, leaving visible trails</figcaption></figure> <p>Herbivores form an important link in the food chain because they consume plants to digest the carbohydrates <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthetically</a> produced by a plant. <a href="/wiki/Carnivore" title="Carnivore">Carnivores</a> in turn consume herbivores for the same reason, while <a href="/wiki/Omnivore" title="Omnivore">omnivores</a> can obtain their nutrients from either plants or animals. Due to a herbivore's ability to survive solely on tough and fibrous plant matter, they are termed the primary consumers in the food cycle (chain). Herbivory, carnivory, and omnivory can be regarded as special cases of <a href="/wiki/Consumer%E2%80%93resource_interactions" title="Consumer–resource interactions">consumer–resource interactions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Feeding_strategies">Feeding strategies</h2></div> <p>Two herbivore feeding strategies are <a href="/wiki/Grazing" title="Grazing">grazing</a> (e.g. cows) and <a href="/wiki/Browsing_(herbivory)" title="Browsing (herbivory)">browsing</a> (e.g. moose). For a terrestrial mammal to be called a grazer, at least 90% of the forage has to be grass, and for a browser at least 90% tree leaves and twigs. An intermediate feeding strategy is called "mixed-feeding".<sup id="cite_ref-Janis_(1990)_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Janis_(1990)-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In their daily need to take up energy from forage, herbivores of different body mass may be selective in choosing their food.<sup id="cite_ref-Belovsky_(1997)_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Belovsky_(1997)-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Selective" means that herbivores may choose their forage source depending on, e.g., season or food availability, but also that they may choose high quality (and consequently highly nutritious) forage before lower quality. The latter especially is determined by the body mass of the herbivore, with small herbivores selecting for high-quality forage, and with increasing body mass animals are less selective.<sup id="cite_ref-Belovsky_(1997)_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Belovsky_(1997)-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several theories attempt to explain and quantify the relationship between animals and their food, such as <a href="/wiki/Kleiber%27s_law" title="Kleiber's law">Kleiber's law</a>, Holling's disk equation and the marginal value theorem (see below). </p><p>Kleiber's law describes the relationship between an animal's size and its feeding strategy, saying that larger animals need to eat less food per unit weight than smaller animals.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kleiber's law states that the metabolic rate (q<sub>0</sub>) of an animal is the mass of the animal (M) raised to the 3/4 power: q<sub>0</sub>=M<sup>3/4</sup> </p><p>Therefore, the mass of the animal increases at a faster rate than the metabolic rate.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Herbivores employ numerous types of feeding strategies. Many herbivores do not fall into one specific feeding strategy, but employ several strategies and eat a variety of plant parts. </p> <table class="wikitable" style="margin:auto;"> <caption>Types of feeding strategies </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Feeding Strategy </th> <th>Diet </th> <th>Examples </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Algivore" class="mw-redirect" title="Algivore">Algivores</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">Algae</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Krill" title="Krill">Krill</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crabs" class="mw-redirect" title="Crabs">crabs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sea_snail" title="Sea snail">sea snail</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sea_urchin" title="Sea urchin">sea urchin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parrotfish" title="Parrotfish">parrotfish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Surgeonfish" class="mw-redirect" title="Surgeonfish">surgeonfish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flamingo" title="Flamingo">flamingo</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Frugivore" title="Frugivore">Frugivores</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">Fruit</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ruffed_lemur" title="Ruffed lemur">Ruffed lemurs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Orangutan" title="Orangutan">orangutans</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Folivore" title="Folivore">Folivores</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">Leaves</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Koala" title="Koala">Koalas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gorilla" title="Gorilla">gorillas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Red_colobus" title="Red colobus">red colobuses</a>, many <a href="/wiki/Leaf_beetle" title="Leaf beetle">leaf beetles</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nectarivore" title="Nectarivore">Nectarivores</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nectar" title="Nectar">Nectar</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Honey_possum" title="Honey possum">Honey possums</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hummingbird" title="Hummingbird">hummingbirds</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Granivore" class="mw-redirect" title="Granivore">Granivores</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Seed" title="Seed">Seeds</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_honeycreeper" title="Hawaiian honeycreeper">Hawaiian honeycreepers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bean_weevil" title="Bean weevil">bean weevils</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Graminivore" title="Graminivore">Graminivores</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Poaceae" title="Poaceae">Grass</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Horse" title="Horse">Horses</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Palynivore" title="Palynivore">Palynivores</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">Pollen</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bee" title="Bee">Bees</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mucivore&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mucivore (page does not exist)">Mucivores</a> </td> <td>Plant fluids, i.e. <a href="/wiki/Sap" title="Sap">sap</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aphid" title="Aphid">Aphids</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Xylophage" class="mw-redirect" title="Xylophage">Xylophages</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">Wood</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Termite" title="Termite">Termites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Longhorn_beetle" title="Longhorn beetle">longicorn beetles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ambrosia_beetle" title="Ambrosia beetle">ambrosia beetles</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Optimal_foraging_theory" title="Optimal foraging theory">Optimal foraging theory</a> is a model for predicting animal behavior while looking for food or other resources, such as shelter or water. This model assesses both individual movement, such as animal behavior while looking for food, and distribution within a habitat, such as dynamics at the population and community level. For example, the model would be used to look at the browsing behavior of a deer while looking for food, as well as that deer's specific location and movement within the forested habitat and its interaction with other deer while in that habitat.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This model has been criticized as circular and untestable. Critics have pointed out that its proponents use examples that fit the theory, but do not use the model when it does not fit the reality.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other critics point out that animals do not have the ability to assess and maximize their potential gains, therefore the optimal foraging theory is irrelevant and derived to explain trends that do not exist in nature.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Holling's disk equation models the efficiency at which predators consume prey. The model predicts that as the number of prey increases, the amount of time predators spend handling prey also increases, and therefore the efficiency of the predator decreases.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2015)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In 1959, S. Holling proposed an equation to model the rate of return for an optimal diet: Rate (R )=Energy gained in foraging (Ef)/(time searching (Ts) + time handling (Th))<br /><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle R=Ef/(Ts+Th)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>R</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>E</mi> <mi>f</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>T</mi> <mi>s</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>T</mi> <mi>h</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle R=Ef/(Ts+Th)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3715d914155f9d97109c6a3dd28527ac0d396414" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:19.431ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle R=Ef/(Ts+Th)}"></span> </p><p>Where s=cost of search per unit time f=rate of encounter with items, h=handling time, e=energy gained per encounter. </p><p>In effect, this would indicate that a herbivore in a dense forest would spend more time handling (eating) the vegetation because there was so much vegetation around than a herbivore in a sparse forest, who could easily browse through the forest vegetation. According to the Holling's disk equation, a herbivore in the sparse forest would be more efficient at eating than the herbivore in the dense forest. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Marginal_value_theorem" title="Marginal value theorem">marginal value theorem</a> describes the balance between eating all the food in a patch for immediate energy, or moving to a new patch and leaving the plants in the first patch to regenerate for future use. The theory predicts that absent complicating factors, an animal should leave a resource patch when the rate of payoff (amount of food) falls below the average rate of payoff for the entire area.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to this theory, an animal should move to a new patch of food when the patch they are currently feeding on requires more energy to obtain food than an average patch. Within this theory, two subsequent parameters emerge, the Giving Up Density (GUD) and the Giving Up Time (GUT). The Giving Up Density (GUD) quantifies the amount of food that remains in a patch when a forager moves to a new patch.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Giving Up Time (GUT) is used when an animal continuously assesses the patch quality.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Plant-herbivore_interactions">Plant-herbivore interactions</h2></div> <p>Interactions between plants and herbivores can play a prevalent role in <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystem</a> dynamics such <a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">community</a> structure and functional processes.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plant <a href="/wiki/Species_diversity" title="Species diversity">diversity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Species_distribution" title="Species distribution">distribution</a> is often driven by herbivory, and it is likely that trade-offs between plant <a href="/wiki/Competition_(biology)" title="Competition (biology)">competitiveness</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plant_defense_against_herbivory" title="Plant defense against herbivory">defensiveness</a>, and between colonization and mortality allow for coexistence between species in the presence of herbivores.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the effects of herbivory on plant diversity and richness is variable. For example, increased abundance of herbivores such as deer decrease plant diversity and <a href="/wiki/Species_richness" title="Species richness">species richness</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while other large mammalian herbivores like bison control dominant species which allows other species to flourish.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plant-herbivore interactions can also operate so that plant communities mediate herbivore communities.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plant communities that are more diverse typically sustain greater herbivore richness by providing a greater and more diverse set of resources.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Coevolution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">phylogenetic</a> correlation between herbivores and plants are important aspects of the influence of herbivore and plant interactions on communities and ecosystem functioning, especially in regard to herbivorous insects.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is apparent in the <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adaptations</a> plants develop to <a href="/wiki/Plant_tolerance_to_herbivory" title="Plant tolerance to herbivory">tolerate</a> and/or <a href="/wiki/Plant_defense_against_herbivory" title="Plant defense against herbivory">defend</a> from insect herbivory and the <a href="/wiki/Herbivore_adaptations_to_plant_defense" title="Herbivore adaptations to plant defense">responses of herbivores</a> to overcome these adaptations. The evolution of antagonistic and mutualistic plant-herbivore interactions are not mutually exclusive and may co-occur.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plant phylogeny has been found to facilitate the colonization and community assembly of herbivores, and there is evidence of phylogenetic linkage between plant <a href="/wiki/Beta_diversity" title="Beta diversity">beta diversity</a> and phylogenetic <a href="/wiki/Beta_diversity" title="Beta diversity">beta diversity</a> of insect <a href="/wiki/Clade" title="Clade">clades</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Butterfly" title="Butterfly">butterflies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These types of eco-evolutionary feedbacks between plants and herbivores are likely the main driving force behind plant and herbivore diversity.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_39-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Abiotic factors such as <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">biogeographical features</a> also impact plant-herbivore communities and interactions. For example, in temperate freshwater wetlands herbivorous waterfowl communities change according to season, with species that eat above-ground vegetation being abundant during summer, and species that forage below-ground being present in winter months.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These seasonal herbivore communities differ in both their assemblage and functions within the <a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">wetland ecosystem</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such differences in herbivore modalities can potentially lead to trade-offs that influence species traits and may lead to additive effects on <a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">community</a> composition and ecosystem functioning.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_36-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Seasonal changes and environmental gradients such as elevation and <a href="/wiki/Latitudinal_gradients_in_species_diversity" title="Latitudinal gradients in species diversity">latitude</a> often affect the <a href="/wiki/Palatability" title="Palatability">palatability</a> of plants which in turn influences herbivore community assemblages and vice versa.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examples include a decrease in abundance of leaf-chewing larvae in the fall when hardwood leaf palatability decreases due to increased <a href="/wiki/Tannin" title="Tannin">tannin</a> levels which results in a decline of arthropod <a href="/wiki/Species_richness" title="Species richness">species richness</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and increased palatability of plant communities at higher elevations where <a href="/wiki/Grasshopper" title="Grasshopper">grasshoppers</a> abundances are lower.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_32-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Climatic stressors such as <a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">ocean acidification</a> can lead to responses in plant-herbivore interactions in relation to palatability as well.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Herbivore_offense">Herbivore offense</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aphid-sap.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Aphid-sap.jpg/220px-Aphid-sap.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Aphid-sap.jpg/330px-Aphid-sap.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Aphid-sap.jpg/440px-Aphid-sap.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="683" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Aphid" title="Aphid">Aphids</a> are fluid feeders on <a href="/wiki/Plant_sap" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant sap">plant sap</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Herbivore_adaptations_to_plant_defense" title="Herbivore adaptations to plant defense">Herbivore adaptations to plant defense</a></div> <p>The myriad defenses displayed by plants means that their herbivores need a variety of skills to overcome these defenses and obtain food. These allow herbivores to increase their feeding and use of a host plant. Herbivores have three primary strategies for dealing with plant defenses: choice, herbivore modification, and plant modification. </p><p>Feeding choice involves which plants a herbivore chooses to consume. It has been suggested that many herbivores feed on a variety of plants to balance their nutrient uptake and to avoid consuming too much of any one type of defensive chemical. This involves a tradeoff however, between foraging on many plant species to avoid toxins or specializing on one type of plant that can be detoxified.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Herbivore modification is when various adaptations to body or digestive systems of the herbivore allow them to overcome plant defenses. This might include detoxifying <a href="/wiki/Secondary_metabolite" title="Secondary metabolite">secondary metabolites</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Karban,_R_2002_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Karban,_R_2002-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> sequestering toxins unaltered,<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or avoiding toxins, such as through the production of large amounts of <a href="/wiki/Saliva" title="Saliva">saliva</a> to reduce effectiveness of defenses. Herbivores may also utilize symbionts to evade plant defenses. For example, some aphids use bacteria in their gut to provide essential <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acids</a> lacking in their sap diet.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Plant modification occurs when herbivores manipulate their plant prey to increase feeding. For example, some caterpillars roll leaves to reduce the effectiveness of plant defenses activated by sunlight.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plant_defense">Plant defense</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Plant_defense_against_herbivory" title="Plant defense against herbivory">Plant defense against herbivory</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Plant_tolerance_to_herbivory" title="Plant tolerance to herbivory">Plant tolerance to herbivory</a></div> <p>A plant defense is a trait that increases plant fitness when faced with herbivory. This is measured relative to another plant that lacks the defensive trait. Plant defenses increase survival and/or reproduction (fitness) of plants under pressure of predation from herbivores. </p><p>Defense can be divided into two main categories, tolerance and resistance. Tolerance is the ability of a plant to withstand damage without a reduction in fitness.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This can occur by diverting herbivory to non-essential plant parts, resource allocation, compensatory growth, or by rapid regrowth and recovery from herbivory.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Resistance refers to the ability of a plant to reduce the amount of damage it receives from herbivores.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This can occur via avoidance in space or time,<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> physical defenses, or chemical defenses. Defenses can either be constitutive, always present in the plant, or induced, produced or translocated by the plant following damage or stress.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Physical, or mechanical, defenses are barriers or structures designed to deter herbivores or reduce intake rates, lowering overall herbivory. <a href="/wiki/Thorns,_spines,_and_prickles" title="Thorns, spines, and prickles">Thorns</a> such as those found on roses or acacia trees are one example, as are the spines on a cactus. Smaller hairs known as <a href="/wiki/Trichomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Trichomes">trichomes</a> may cover leaves or stems and are especially effective against invertebrate herbivores.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, some plants have <a href="/wiki/Waxes" class="mw-redirect" title="Waxes">waxes</a> or <a href="/wiki/Resins" class="mw-redirect" title="Resins">resins</a> that alter their texture, making them difficult to eat. Also the incorporation of <a href="/wiki/Silica" class="mw-redirect" title="Silica">silica</a> into cell walls is analogous to that of the role of <a href="/wiki/Lignin" title="Lignin">lignin</a> in that it is a compression-resistant structural component of cell walls; so that plants with their cell walls impregnated with silica are thereby afforded a measure of protection against herbivory.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Chemical defenses are <a href="/wiki/Secondary_metabolites" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary metabolites">secondary metabolites</a> produced by the plant that deter herbivory. There are a wide variety of these in nature and a single plant can have hundreds of different chemical defenses. Chemical defenses can be divided into two main groups, carbon-based defenses and nitrogen-based defenses.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>Carbon-based defenses include <a href="/wiki/Terpenes" class="mw-redirect" title="Terpenes">terpenes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polyphenol" title="Polyphenol">phenolics</a>. Terpenes are derived from 5-carbon isoprene units and comprise essential oils, carotenoids, resins, and latex. They can have several functions that disrupt herbivores such as inhibiting <a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">adenosine triphosphate (ATP)</a> formation, molting <a href="/wiki/Hormones" class="mw-redirect" title="Hormones">hormones</a>, or the nervous system.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Phenolics combine an aromatic carbon ring with a hydroxyl group. There are several different phenolics such as lignins, which are found in cell walls and are very indigestible except for specialized microorganisms; <a href="/wiki/Tannins" class="mw-redirect" title="Tannins">tannins</a>, which have a bitter taste and bind to proteins making them indigestible; and furanocumerins, which produce free radicals disrupting DNA, protein, and lipids, and can cause skin irritation.</li> <li>Nitrogen-based defenses are synthesized from amino acids and primarily come in the form of <a href="/wiki/Alkaloids" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkaloids">alkaloids</a> and cyanogens. Alkaloids include commonly recognized substances such as <a href="/wiki/Caffeine" title="Caffeine">caffeine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nicotine" title="Nicotine">nicotine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Morphine" title="Morphine">morphine</a>. These compounds are often bitter and can inhibit DNA or RNA synthesis or block nervous system signal transmission. Cyanogens get their name from the <a href="/wiki/Cyanide" title="Cyanide">cyanide</a> stored within their tissues. This is released when the plant is damaged and inhibits cellular respiration and electron transport.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ol> <p>Plants have also changed features that enhance the probability of attracting natural enemies to herbivores. Some emit semiochemicals, odors that attract natural enemies, while others provide food and housing to maintain the natural enemies' presence, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Ant" title="Ant">ants</a> that reduce herbivory.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A given plant species often has many types of defensive mechanisms, mechanical or chemical, constitutive or induced, which allow it to escape from herbivores.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Predator–prey_theory"><span id="Predator.E2.80.93prey_theory"></span>Predator–prey theory</h3></div> <p>According to the theory of <a href="/wiki/Predator" class="mw-redirect" title="Predator">predator</a>–prey interactions, the relationship between herbivores and plants is cyclic.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When prey (plants) are numerous their predators (herbivores) increase in numbers, reducing the prey population, which in turn causes predator number to decline.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The prey population eventually recovers, starting a new cycle. This suggests that the population of the herbivore fluctuates around the carrying capacity of the food source, in this case, the plant. </p><p>Several factors play into these fluctuating populations and help stabilize predator-prey dynamics. For example, spatial heterogeneity is maintained, which means there will always be pockets of plants not found by herbivores. This stabilizing dynamic plays an especially important role for specialist herbivores that feed on one species of plant and prevents these specialists from wiping out their food source.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prey defenses also help stabilize predator-prey dynamics, and for more information on these relationships see the section on Plant Defenses. Eating a second prey type helps herbivores' populations stabilize.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alternating between two or more plant types provides population stability for the herbivore, while the populations of the plants oscillate.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_62-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This plays an important role for generalist herbivores that eat a variety of plants. Keystone herbivores keep vegetation populations in check and allow for a greater diversity of both herbivores and plants.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_63-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When an invasive herbivore or plant enters the system, the balance is thrown off and the diversity can collapse to a monotaxon system.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_63-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The back and forth relationship of plant defense and herbivore offense drives <a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">coevolution</a> between plants and herbivores, resulting in a "coevolutionary arms race".<sup id="cite_ref-Karban,_R_2002_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Karban,_R_2002-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The escape and radiation mechanisms for coevolution, presents the idea that adaptations in herbivores and their host plants, has been the driving force behind <a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">speciation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ehrlich_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ehrlich-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Thompson_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thompson-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mutualism">Mutualism</h3></div> <p>While much of the interaction of herbivory and plant defense is negative, with one individual reducing the fitness of the other, some is beneficial. This beneficial herbivory takes the form of <a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">mutualisms</a> in which both partners benefit in some way from the interaction. <a href="/wiki/Seed_dispersal" title="Seed dispersal">Seed dispersal</a> by herbivores and <a href="/wiki/Pollination" title="Pollination">pollination</a> are two forms of mutualistic herbivory in which the herbivore receives a food resource and the plant is aided in reproduction.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plants can also be indirectly affected by herbivores through <a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycle" title="Nutrient cycle">nutrient recycling</a>, with plants benefiting from herbivores when nutrients are recycled very efficiently.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another form of plant-herbivore mutualism is physical changes to the environment and/or plant community structure by herbivores which serve as <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_engineer" title="Ecosystem engineer">ecosystem engineers</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Wallowing" title="Wallowing">wallowing</a> by bison.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Swans form a mutual relationship with the plant species that they <a href="/wiki/Forage" title="Forage">forage</a> by digging and disturbing the sediment which removes competing plants and subsequently allows colonization of other plant species.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_31-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_36-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Impacts">Impacts</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mixed_feeding_shoal_herbivorous_fish.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Mixed_feeding_shoal_herbivorous_fish.jpg/220px-Mixed_feeding_shoal_herbivorous_fish.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Mixed_feeding_shoal_herbivorous_fish.jpg/330px-Mixed_feeding_shoal_herbivorous_fish.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Mixed_feeding_shoal_herbivorous_fish.jpg/440px-Mixed_feeding_shoal_herbivorous_fish.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Mixed feeding shoal of <a href="/wiki/Herbivorous_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbivorous fish">herbivorous fish</a> on a <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">coral reef</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trophic_cascades_and_environmental_degradation">Trophic cascades and environmental degradation</h3></div> <p>When herbivores are affected by <a href="/wiki/Trophic_cascade" title="Trophic cascade">trophic cascades</a>, plant communities can be indirectly affected.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Often these effects are felt when predator populations decline and herbivore populations are no longer limited, which leads to intense herbivore foraging which can suppress plant communities.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the size of herbivores having an effect on the amount of energy intake that is needed, larger herbivores need to forage on higher quality or more plants to gain the optimal amount of nutrients and energy compared to smaller herbivores.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">Environmental degradation</a> from <a href="/wiki/White-tailed_deer" title="White-tailed deer">white-tailed deer</a> (<i>Odocoileus virginianus</i>) in the US alone has the potential to both change vegetative communities<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> through over-browsing and cost <a href="/wiki/Forest_restoration" title="Forest restoration">forest restoration</a> projects upwards of $750 million annually. Another example of a trophic cascade involved plant-herbivore interactions are <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">coral reef</a> ecosystems. <a href="/wiki/Herbivorous_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbivorous fish">Herbivorous fish</a> and marine animals are important <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a> and seaweed grazers, and in the absence of plant-eating fish, corals are outcompeted and seaweeds deprive corals of sunlight.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_impacts">Economic impacts</h3></div> <p>Agricultural crop damage by the same species totals approximately $100 million every year. Insect crop damages also contribute largely to annual crop losses in the U.S.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Herbivores also affect economics through the revenue generated by hunting and ecotourism. For example, the hunting of herbivorous game species such as white-tailed deer, cottontail rabbits, antelope, and elk in the U.S. contributes greatly to the billion-dollar annually, hunting industry.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <a href="/wiki/Ecotourism" title="Ecotourism">Ecotourism</a> is a major source of revenue, particularly in Africa, where many large mammalian herbivores such as elephants, zebras, and giraffes help to bring in the equivalent of millions of US dollars to various nations annually.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Herbivores" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Herbivores">Herbivores</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carnivore" title="Carnivore">Carnivore</a> and <a href="/wiki/Omnivore" title="Omnivore">omnivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer-resource_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Consumer-resource systems">Consumer-resource systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feeding_behaviours" title="List of feeding behaviours">List of feeding behaviours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_herbivorous_animals" title="List of herbivorous animals">List of herbivorous animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant-based_diet" title="Plant-based diet">Plant-based diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productivity_(ecology)" title="Productivity (ecology)">Productivity (ecology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seed_predation" title="Seed predation">Seed predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tritrophic_interactions_in_plant_defense" title="Tritrophic interactions in plant defense">Tritrophic interactions in plant defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veganism" title="Veganism">Veganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetarianism" title="Vegetarianism">Vegetarianism</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"symbiosis." The Columbia Encyclopedia. New York: Columbia University Press, 2008. Credo Reference. Web. 17 September 2012.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Moran_2006-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Moran_2006_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMoran2006" class="citation journal cs1">Moran, N.A. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2006.09.019">"Symbiosis"</a>. <i>Current Biology</i>. <b>16</b> (20): 866–871. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006CBio...16.R866M">2006CBio...16.R866M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2006.09.019">10.1016/j.cub.2006.09.019</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17055966">17055966</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Biology&rft.atitle=Symbiosis&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=20&rft.pages=866-871&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17055966&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cub.2006.09.019&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006CBio...16.R866M&rft.aulast=Moran&rft.aufirst=N.A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.cub.2006.09.019&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-OED-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-OED_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-OED_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">J.A. Simpson and E.S.C. Weiner, eds. (2000) <i>The Oxford English Dictionary</i>, vol. 8, p. 155.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-OLD1-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-OLD1_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">P.G.W. Glare, ed. (1990) <i>The Oxford Latin Dictionary</i>, p. 791.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-OLD2-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-OLD2_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">P.G.W. Glare, ed. (1990) <i>The Oxford Latin Dictionary</i>, p. 2103.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MAAA-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MAAA_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Abraham, Martin A. A. Sustainability Science and Engineering, Volume 1. page 123. Publisher: Elsevier 2006. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0444517128" title="Special:BookSources/978-0444517128">978-0444517128</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeschiuttaScholzGoldsteinBucci2018" class="citation journal cs1">Peschiutta, María Laura; Scholz, Fabián Gustavo; Goldstein, Guillermo; Bucci, Sandra Janet (1 January 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1146609X17301972">"Herbivory alters plant carbon assimilation, patterns of biomass allocation and nitrogen use efficiency"</a>. <i>Acta Oecologica</i>. <b>86</b>: 9–16. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018AcO....86....9P">2018AcO....86....9P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.actao.2017.11.007">10.1016/j.actao.2017.11.007</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11336%2F86217">11336/86217</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1146-609X">1146-609X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Acta+Oecologica&rft.atitle=Herbivory+alters+plant+carbon+assimilation%2C+patterns+of+biomass+allocation+and+nitrogen+use+efficiency&rft.volume=86&rft.pages=9-16&rft.date=2018-01-01&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11336%2F86217&rft.issn=1146-609X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.actao.2017.11.007&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018AcO....86....9P&rft.aulast=Peschiutta&rft.aufirst=Mar%C3%ADa+Laura&rft.au=Scholz%2C+Fabi%C3%A1n+Gustavo&rft.au=Goldstein%2C+Guillermo&rft.au=Bucci%2C+Sandra+Janet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS1146609X17301972&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCannicciBurrowsFratiniSmith2008" class="citation journal cs1">Cannicci, Stefano; Burrows, Damien; Fratini, Sara; Smith, Thomas J.; Offenberg, Joachim; Dahdouh-Guebas, Farid (1 August 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S030437700800017X">"Faunal impact on vegetation structure and ecosystem function in mangrove forests: A review"</a>. <i>Aquatic Botany</i>. Mangrove Ecology – Applications in Forestry and Costal Zone Management. <b>89</b> (2): 186–200. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008AqBot..89..186C">2008AqBot..89..186C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.aquabot.2008.01.009">10.1016/j.aquabot.2008.01.009</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0304-3770">0304-3770</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Aquatic+Botany&rft.atitle=Faunal+impact+on+vegetation+structure+and+ecosystem+function+in+mangrove+forests%3A+A+review&rft.volume=89&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=186-200&rft.date=2008-08-01&rft.issn=0304-3770&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.aquabot.2008.01.009&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008AqBot..89..186C&rft.aulast=Cannicci&rft.aufirst=Stefano&rft.au=Burrows%2C+Damien&rft.au=Fratini%2C+Sara&rft.au=Smith%2C+Thomas+J.&rft.au=Offenberg%2C+Joachim&rft.au=Dahdouh-Guebas%2C+Farid&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS030437700800017X&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas, Peter & Packham, John. Ecology of Woodlands and Forests: Description, Dynamics and Diversity. Publisher: Cambridge University Press 2007. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521834520" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521834520">978-0521834520</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sterner, Robert W.; Elser, James J.; and Vitousek, Peter. Ecological Stoichiometry: The Biology of Elements from Molecules to the Biosphere. Publisher: Princeton University Press 2002. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691074917" title="Special:BookSources/978-0691074917">978-0691074917</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Likens Gene E. Lake Ecosystem Ecology: A Global Perspective. Publisher: Academic Press 2010. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0123820020" title="Special:BookSources/978-0123820020">978-0123820020</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Labandeira1998-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Labandeira1998_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Labandeira1998_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Labandeira1998_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLabandeira,_C.C.1998" class="citation journal cs1">Labandeira, C.C. (1998). "Early History of Arthropod And Vascular Plant Associations 1". <i>Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences</i>. <b>26</b> (1): 329–377. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998AREPS..26..329L">1998AREPS..26..329L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.earth.26.1.329">10.1146/annurev.earth.26.1.329</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Earth+and+Planetary+Sciences&rft.atitle=Early+History+of+Arthropod+And+Vascular+Plant+Associations+1&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=329-377&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.earth.26.1.329&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1998AREPS..26..329L&rft.au=Labandeira%2C+C.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Labandeira2007-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Labandeira2007_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Labandeira2007_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Labandeira2007_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLabandeira,_C.2007" class="citation journal cs1">Labandeira, C. (June 2007). "The origin of herbivory on land: Initial patterns of plant tissue consumption by arthropods". <i>Insect Science</i>. <b>14</b> (4): 259–275. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007InsSc..14..259L">2007InsSc..14..259L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1744-7917.2007.00141.x-i1">10.1111/j.1744-7917.2007.00141.x-i1</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:86335068">86335068</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Insect+Science&rft.atitle=The+origin+of+herbivory+on+land%3A+Initial+patterns+of+plant+tissue+consumption+by+arthropods&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=259-275&rft.date=2007-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A86335068%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1744-7917.2007.00141.x-i1&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007InsSc..14..259L&rft.au=Labandeira%2C+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SahneyBentonFerry2010RainforestCollapse-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SahneyBentonFerry2010RainforestCollapse_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SahneyBentonFerry2010RainforestCollapse_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SahneyBentonFerry2010RainforestCollapse_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSahneyBentonFalcon-Lang2010" class="citation journal cs1">Sahney, Sarda; Benton, Michael J.; Falcon-Lang, Howard J. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/38/12/1079">"Rainforest collapse triggered Pennsylvanian tetrapod diversification in Euramerica"</a>. <i>Geology</i>. <b>38</b> (12): 1079–1082. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010Geo....38.1079S">2010Geo....38.1079S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1130%2FG31182.1">10.1130/G31182.1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geology&rft.atitle=Rainforest+collapse+triggered+Pennsylvanian+tetrapod+diversification+in+Euramerica&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=1079-1082&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1130%2FG31182.1&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010Geo....38.1079S&rft.aulast=Sahney&rft.aufirst=Sarda&rft.au=Benton%2C+Michael+J.&rft.au=Falcon-Lang%2C+Howard+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgeology.geoscienceworld.org%2Fcgi%2Fcontent%2Fabstract%2F38%2F12%2F1079&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.231566">A comprehensive phylogeny and revised taxonomy of Diadectomorpha with a discussion on the origin of tetrapod herbivory</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Labandeira2006-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Labandeira2006_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLabandeira,_C.C.2005" class="citation journal cs1">Labandeira, C.C. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080626205148/http://www.geologica-acta.com:8080/geoacta/pdf/vol0404a01.pdf">"The four phases of plant-arthropod associations in deep time"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Geologica Acta</i>. <b>4</b> (4): 409–438. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geologica-acta.com:8080/geoacta/pdf/vol0404a01.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(Free full text)</span> on 26 June 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 May</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geologica+Acta&rft.atitle=The+four+phases+of+plant-arthropod+associations+in+deep+time&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=409-438&rft.date=2005&rft.au=Labandeira%2C+C.C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.geologica-acta.com%3A8080%2Fgeoacta%2Fpdf%2Fvol0404a01.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReisz2006" class="citation cs2">Reisz, Robert R. (2006), "Origin of dental occlusion in tetrapods: Signal for terrestrial vertebrate evolution?", <i>Journal of Experimental Zoology Part B: Molecular and Developmental Evolution</i>, <b>306B</b> (3): 261–277, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006JEZB..306..261R">2006JEZB..306..261R</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fjez.b.21115">10.1002/jez.b.21115</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16683226">16683226</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Experimental+Zoology+Part+B%3A+Molecular+and+Developmental+Evolution&rft.atitle=Origin+of+dental+occlusion+in+tetrapods%3A+Signal+for+terrestrial+vertebrate+evolution%3F&rft.volume=306B&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=261-277&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16683226&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fjez.b.21115&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006JEZB..306..261R&rft.aulast=Reisz&rft.aufirst=Robert+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGetz2011" class="citation journal cs1">Getz, W (February 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3032891">"Biomass transformation webs provide a unified approach to consumer-resource modelling"</a>. <i>Ecology Letters</i>. <b>14</b> (2): 113–124. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011EcolL..14..113G">2011EcolL..14..113G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1461-0248.2010.01566.x">10.1111/j.1461-0248.2010.01566.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3032891">3032891</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21199247">21199247</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecology+Letters&rft.atitle=Biomass+transformation+webs+provide+a+unified+approach+to+consumer-resource+modelling&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=113-124&rft.date=2011-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3032891%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21199247&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1461-0248.2010.01566.x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011EcolL..14..113G&rft.aulast=Getz&rft.aufirst=W&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3032891&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Janis_(1990)-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Janis_(1990)_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJanis1990" class="citation book cs1">Janis, Christine M. (1990). "Chapter 13: Correlation of cranial and dental variables with body size in ungulates and macropodoids". In Damuth, John; MacFadden, Bruce J. (eds.). <i>Body Size in Mammalian Paleobiology: Estimation and Biological Implications</i>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 255–299. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-36099-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-36099-4"><bdi>0-521-36099-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+13%3A+Correlation+of+cranial+and+dental+variables+with+body+size+in+ungulates+and+macropodoids&rft.btitle=Body+Size+in+Mammalian+Paleobiology%3A+Estimation+and+Biological+Implications&rft.pages=255-299&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-521-36099-4&rft.aulast=Janis&rft.aufirst=Christine+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Belovsky_(1997)-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Belovsky_(1997)_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belovsky_(1997)_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBelovsky,_G.E.1997" class="citation journal cs1">Belovsky, G.E. (November 1997). "Optimal foraging and community structure: The allometry of herbivore food selection and competition". <i>Evolutionary Ecology</i>. <b>11</b> (6): 641–672. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997EvEco..11..641B">1997EvEco..11..641B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1018430201230">10.1023/A:1018430201230</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:23873922">23873922</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Evolutionary+Ecology&rft.atitle=Optimal+foraging+and+community+structure%3A+The+allometry+of+herbivore+food+selection+and+competition&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=641-672&rft.date=1997-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A23873922%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2FA%3A1018430201230&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1997EvEco..11..641B&rft.au=Belovsky%2C+G.E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNugentChallies1988" class="citation journal cs1">Nugent, G.; Challies, C. N. (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://newzealandecology.org/nzje/1765">"Diet and Food Preferences of White-Tailed Deer in Northeastern Stewart-Island"</a>. <i>New Zealand Journal of Ecology</i>. <b>11</b>: 61–73.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Zealand+Journal+of+Ecology&rft.atitle=Diet+and+Food+Preferences+of+White-Tailed+Deer+in+Northeastern+Stewart-Island&rft.volume=11&rft.pages=61-73&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Nugent&rft.aufirst=G.&rft.au=Challies%2C+C.+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnewzealandecology.org%2Fnzje%2F1765&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKie1999" class="citation journal cs1">Kie, John G. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1383163">"Optimal Foraging & Risk of Predation: Effects on Behavior & Social Structure in Ungulates"</a>. <i>Journal of Mammalogy</i>. <b>80</b> (4): 1114–1129. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1383163">10.2307/1383163</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1383163">1383163</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Mammalogy&rft.atitle=Optimal+Foraging+%26+Risk+of+Predation%3A+Effects+on+Behavior+%26+Social+Structure+in+Ungulates&rft.volume=80&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1114-1129&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1383163&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1383163%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Kie&rft.aufirst=John+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.2307%252F1383163&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPierceOllason1987" class="citation journal cs1">Pierce, G. J.; Ollason, J. G. (May 1987). "Eight reasons why optimal foraging theory is a complete waste of time". <i>Oikos</i>. <b>49</b> (1): 111–118. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1987Oikos..49..111P">1987Oikos..49..111P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3565560">10.2307/3565560</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3565560">3565560</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:87270733">87270733</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oikos&rft.atitle=Eight+reasons+why+optimal+foraging+theory+is+a+complete+waste+of+time&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=111-118&rft.date=1987-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3565560&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A87270733%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3565560%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1987Oikos..49..111P&rft.aulast=Pierce&rft.aufirst=G.+J.&rft.au=Ollason%2C+J.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStearnsSchmid-Hempel1987" class="citation journal cs1">Stearns, S. C.; Schmid-Hempel, P. (May 1987). "Evolutionary insights should not be wasted". <i>Oikos</i>. <b>49</b> (1): 118–125. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1987Oikos..49..118S">1987Oikos..49..118S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3565561">10.2307/3565561</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3565561">3565561</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oikos&rft.atitle=Evolutionary+insights+should+not+be+wasted&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=118-125&rft.date=1987-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3565561%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3565561&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1987Oikos..49..118S&rft.aulast=Stearns&rft.aufirst=S.+C.&rft.au=Schmid-Hempel%2C+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis1986" class="citation journal cs1">Lewis, A. C. (16 May 1986). "Memory constraints and flower choice in Pieris rapae". <i>Science</i>. <b>232</b> (4752): 863–865. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1986Sci...232..863L">1986Sci...232..863L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.232.4752.863">10.1126/science.232.4752.863</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17755969">17755969</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:20010229">20010229</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Memory+constraints+and+flower+choice+in+Pieris+rapae&rft.volume=232&rft.issue=4752&rft.pages=863-865&rft.date=1986-05-16&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.232.4752.863&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A20010229%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17755969&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1986Sci...232..863L&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=A.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJanetosCole1981" class="citation journal cs1">Janetos, A. C.; Cole, B. J. (October 1981). "Imperfectly optimal animals". <i>Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol</i>. <b>9</b> (3): 203–209. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1981BEcoS...9..203J">1981BEcoS...9..203J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf00302939">10.1007/bf00302939</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:23501715">23501715</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Behav.+Ecol.+Sociobiol.&rft.atitle=Imperfectly+optimal+animals&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=203-209&rft.date=1981-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A23501715%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fbf00302939&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1981BEcoS...9..203J&rft.aulast=Janetos&rft.aufirst=A.+C.&rft.au=Cole%2C+B.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStephens1986" class="citation book cs1">Stephens, David W. (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/13902831"><i>Foraging theory</i></a>. J. R. Krebs. Princeton, New Jersey. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-08441-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-08441-6"><bdi>0-691-08441-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/13902831">13902831</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foraging+theory&rft.place=Princeton%2C+New+Jersey&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F13902831&rft.isbn=0-691-08441-6&rft.aulast=Stephens&rft.aufirst=David+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F13902831&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharnov1976" class="citation journal cs1">Charnov, Eric L. (1 April 1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalrepository.unm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1008&context=biol_fsp">"Optimal foraging, the marginal value theorem"</a>. <i>Theoretical Population Biology</i>. <b>9</b> (2): 129–136. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1976TPBio...9..129C">1976TPBio...9..129C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0040-5809%2876%2990040-X">10.1016/0040-5809(76)90040-X</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0040-5809">0040-5809</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1273796">1273796</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Theoretical+Population+Biology&rft.atitle=Optimal+foraging%2C+the+marginal+value+theorem&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=129-136&rft.date=1976-04-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0040-5809%2876%2990040-X&rft.issn=0040-5809&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F1273796&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1976TPBio...9..129C&rft.aulast=Charnov&rft.aufirst=Eric+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigitalrepository.unm.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1008%26context%3Dbiol_fsp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrownKotlerMitchell1997" class="citation journal cs1">Brown, Joel S.; Kotler, Burt P.; Mitchell, William A. (1 November 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1018442503955">"Competition between birds and mammals: A comparison of giving-up densities between crested larks and gerbils"</a>. <i>Evolutionary Ecology</i>. <b>11</b> (6): 757–771. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997EvEco..11..757B">1997EvEco..11..757B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1018442503955">10.1023/A:1018442503955</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1573-8477">1573-8477</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:25400875">25400875</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Evolutionary+Ecology&rft.atitle=Competition+between+birds+and+mammals%3A+A+comparison+of+giving-up+densities+between+crested+larks+and+gerbils&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=757-771&rft.date=1997-11-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2FA%3A1018442503955&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A25400875%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1573-8477&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1997EvEco..11..757B&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Joel+S.&rft.au=Kotler%2C+Burt+P.&rft.au=Mitchell%2C+William+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1023%2FA%3A1018442503955&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBreedBowdenGarryWeicker1996" class="citation journal cs1">Breed, Michael D.; Bowden, Rachel M.; Garry, Melissa F.; Weicker, Aric L. (1 September 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02213547">"Giving-up time variation in response to differences in nectar volume and concentration in the giant tropical ant,Paraponera clavata (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)"</a>. <i>Journal of Insect Behavior</i>. <b>9</b> (5): 659–672. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996JIBeh...9..659B">1996JIBeh...9..659B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02213547">10.1007/BF02213547</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1572-8889">1572-8889</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:42555491">42555491</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Insect+Behavior&rft.atitle=Giving-up+time+variation+in+response+to+differences+in+nectar+volume+and+concentration+in+the+giant+tropical+ant%2CParaponera+clavata+%28Hymenoptera%3A+Formicidae%29&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=659-672&rft.date=1996-09-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF02213547&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A42555491%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1572-8889&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1996JIBeh...9..659B&rft.aulast=Breed&rft.aufirst=Michael+D.&rft.au=Bowden%2C+Rachel+M.&rft.au=Garry%2C+Melissa+F.&rft.au=Weicker%2C+Aric+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%2FBF02213547&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_31-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_31-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSandstenKlaassen2008" class="citation journal cs1">Sandsten, Håkan; Klaassen, Marcel (12 March 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2373415">"Swan foraging shapes spatial distribution of two submerged plants, favouring the preferred prey species"</a>. <i>Oecologia</i>. <b>156</b> (3): 569–576. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008Oecol.156..569S">2008Oecol.156..569S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00442-008-1010-5">10.1007/s00442-008-1010-5</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0029-8549">0029-8549</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2373415">2373415</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18335250">18335250</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oecologia&rft.atitle=Swan+foraging+shapes+spatial+distribution+of+two+submerged+plants%2C+favouring+the+preferred+prey+species&rft.volume=156&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=569-576&rft.date=2008-03-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2373415%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008Oecol.156..569S&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18335250&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00442-008-1010-5&rft.issn=0029-8549&rft.aulast=Sandsten&rft.aufirst=H%C3%A5kan&rft.au=Klaassen%2C+Marcel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2373415&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_32-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_32-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDescombesMarchonPradervandBilat2016" class="citation journal cs1">Descombes, Patrice; Marchon, Jérémy; Pradervand, Jean-Nicolas; Bilat, Julia; Guisan, Antoine; Rasmann, Sergio; Pellissier, Loïc (17 October 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1365-2745.12664">"Community-level plant palatability increases with elevation as insect herbivore abundance declines"</a>. <i>Journal of Ecology</i>. <b>105</b> (1): 142–151. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1365-2745.12664">10.1111/1365-2745.12664</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-0477">0022-0477</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:88658391">88658391</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Ecology&rft.atitle=Community-level+plant+palatability+increases+with+elevation+as+insect+herbivore+abundance+declines&rft.volume=105&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=142-151&rft.date=2016-10-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A88658391%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0022-0477&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1365-2745.12664&rft.aulast=Descombes&rft.aufirst=Patrice&rft.au=Marchon%2C+J%C3%A9r%C3%A9my&rft.au=Pradervand%2C+Jean-Nicolas&rft.au=Bilat%2C+Julia&rft.au=Guisan%2C+Antoine&rft.au=Rasmann%2C+Sergio&rft.au=Pellissier%2C+Lo%C3%AFc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252F1365-2745.12664&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLubchenco1978" class="citation journal cs1">Lubchenco, Jane (January 1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1086/283250">"Plant Species Diversity in a Marine Intertidal Community: Importance of Herbivore Food Preference and Algal Competitive Abilities"</a>. <i>The American Naturalist</i>. <b>112</b> (983): 23–39. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1978ANat..112...23L">1978ANat..112...23L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F283250">10.1086/283250</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-0147">0003-0147</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:84801707">84801707</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Naturalist&rft.atitle=Plant+Species+Diversity+in+a+Marine+Intertidal+Community%3A+Importance+of+Herbivore+Food+Preference+and+Algal+Competitive+Abilities&rft.volume=112&rft.issue=983&rft.pages=23-39&rft.date=1978-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F283250&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A84801707%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0003-0147&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1978ANat..112...23L&rft.aulast=Lubchenco&rft.aufirst=Jane&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1086%2F283250&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGleesonWilson1986" class="citation journal cs1">Gleeson, Scott K.; Wilson, David Sloan (April 1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3565460">"Equilibrium Diet: Optimal Foraging and Prey Coexistence"</a>. <i>Oikos</i>. <b>46</b> (2): 139. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1986Oikos..46..139G">1986Oikos..46..139G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3565460">10.2307/3565460</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0030-1299">0030-1299</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3565460">3565460</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oikos&rft.atitle=Equilibrium+Diet%3A+Optimal+Foraging+and+Prey+Coexistence&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=139&rft.date=1986-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3565460&rft.issn=0030-1299&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3565460%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1986Oikos..46..139G&rft.aulast=Gleeson&rft.aufirst=Scott+K.&rft.au=Wilson%2C+David+Sloan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.2307%2F3565460&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlffRitchie1998" class="citation journal cs1">Olff, Han; Ritchie, Mark E. (July 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0169-5347(98)01364-0">"Effects of herbivores on grassland plant diversity"</a>. <i>Trends in Ecology & Evolution</i>. <b>13</b> (7): 261–265. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998TEcoE..13..261O">1998TEcoE..13..261O</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0169-5347%2898%2901364-0">10.1016/s0169-5347(98)01364-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11370%2F3e3ec5d4-fa03-4490-94e3-66534b3fe62f">11370/3e3ec5d4-fa03-4490-94e3-66534b3fe62f</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0169-5347">0169-5347</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21238294">21238294</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Ecology+%26+Evolution&rft.atitle=Effects+of+herbivores+on+grassland+plant+diversity&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=261-265&rft.date=1998-07&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11370%2F3e3ec5d4-fa03-4490-94e3-66534b3fe62f&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1998TEcoE..13..261O&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21238294&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fs0169-5347%2898%2901364-0&rft.issn=0169-5347&rft.aulast=Olff&rft.aufirst=Han&rft.au=Ritchie%2C+Mark+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1016%2Fs0169-5347%2898%2901364-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_36-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_36-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_36-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHiddingNoletde_Boerde_Vries2009" class="citation journal cs1">Hidding, Bert; Nolet, Bart A.; de Boer, Thijs; de Vries, Peter P.; Klaassen, Marcel (10 September 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2776151">"Above- and below-ground vertebrate herbivory may each favour a different subordinate species in an aquatic plant community"</a>. <i>Oecologia</i>. <b>162</b> (1): 199–208. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00442-009-1450-6">10.1007/s00442-009-1450-6</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0029-8549">0029-8549</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2776151">2776151</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19756762">19756762</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oecologia&rft.atitle=Above-+and+below-ground+vertebrate+herbivory+may+each+favour+a+different+subordinate+species+in+an+aquatic+plant+community&rft.volume=162&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=199-208&rft.date=2009-09-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2776151%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0029-8549&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19756762&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00442-009-1450-6&rft.aulast=Hidding&rft.aufirst=Bert&rft.au=Nolet%2C+Bart+A.&rft.au=de+Boer%2C+Thijs&rft.au=de+Vries%2C+Peter+P.&rft.au=Klaassen%2C+Marcel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2776151&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArceseSchusterCampbellBarber2014" class="citation journal cs1">Arcese, P.; Schuster, R.; Campbell, L.; Barber, A.; Martin, T. G. (11 September 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fddi.12241">"Deer density and plant palatability predict shrub cover, richness, diversity and aboriginal food value in a North American archipelago"</a>. <i>Diversity and Distributions</i>. <b>20</b> (12): 1368–1378. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014DivDi..20.1368A">2014DivDi..20.1368A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fddi.12241">10.1111/ddi.12241</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1366-9516">1366-9516</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:86779418">86779418</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Diversity+and+Distributions&rft.atitle=Deer+density+and+plant+palatability+predict+shrub+cover%2C+richness%2C+diversity+and+aboriginal+food+value+in+a+North+American+archipelago&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=1368-1378&rft.date=2014-09-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fddi.12241&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A86779418%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1366-9516&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014DivDi..20.1368A&rft.aulast=Arcese&rft.aufirst=P.&rft.au=Schuster%2C+R.&rft.au=Campbell%2C+L.&rft.au=Barber%2C+A.&rft.au=Martin%2C+T.+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fddi.12241&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollins1998" class="citation journal cs1">Collins, S. L. (1 May 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.280.5364.745">"Modulation of Diversity by Grazing and Mowing in Native Tallgrass Prairie"</a>. <i>Science</i>. <b>280</b> (5364): 745–747. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998Sci...280..745C">1998Sci...280..745C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.280.5364.745">10.1126/science.280.5364.745</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075">0036-8075</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9563952">9563952</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Modulation+of+Diversity+by+Grazing+and+Mowing+in+Native+Tallgrass+Prairie&rft.volume=280&rft.issue=5364&rft.pages=745-747&rft.date=1998-05-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.280.5364.745&rft.issn=0036-8075&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9563952&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1998Sci...280..745C&rft.aulast=Collins&rft.aufirst=S.+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1126%2Fscience.280.5364.745&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_39-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_39-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPellissierNdiribeDubuisPradervand2013" class="citation journal cs1">Pellissier, Loïc; Ndiribe, Charlotte; Dubuis, Anne; Pradervand, Jean-Nicolas; Salamin, Nicolas; Guisan, Antoine; Rasmann, Sergio (2013). "Turnover of plant lineages shapes herbivore phylogenetic beta diversity along ecological gradients". <i>Ecology Letters</i>. <b>16</b> (5): 600–608. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013EcolL..16..600P">2013EcolL..16..600P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fele.12083">10.1111/ele.12083</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23448096">23448096</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecology+Letters&rft.atitle=Turnover+of+plant+lineages+shapes+herbivore+phylogenetic+beta+diversity+along+ecological+gradients&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=600-608&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23448096&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fele.12083&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013EcolL..16..600P&rft.aulast=Pellissier&rft.aufirst=Lo%C3%AFc&rft.au=Ndiribe%2C+Charlotte&rft.au=Dubuis%2C+Anne&rft.au=Pradervand%2C+Jean-Nicolas&rft.au=Salamin%2C+Nicolas&rft.au=Guisan%2C+Antoine&rft.au=Rasmann%2C+Sergio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTilman1997" class="citation journal cs1">Tilman, D. (29 August 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.277.5330.1300">"The Influence of Functional Diversity and Composition on Ecosystem Processes"</a>. <i>Science</i>. <b>277</b> (5330): 1300–1302. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.277.5330.1300">10.1126/science.277.5330.1300</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075">0036-8075</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=The+Influence+of+Functional+Diversity+and+Composition+on+Ecosystem+Processes&rft.volume=277&rft.issue=5330&rft.pages=1300-1302&rft.date=1997-08-29&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.277.5330.1300&rft.issn=0036-8075&rft.aulast=Tilman&rft.aufirst=D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1126%2Fscience.277.5330.1300&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitterFarrellFutuyma1991" class="citation journal cs1">Mitter, Charles; Farrell, Brian; Futuyma, Douglas J. (September 1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0169-5347(91)90007-k">"Phylogenetic studies of insect-plant interactions: Insights into the genesis of diversity"</a>. <i>Trends in Ecology & Evolution</i>. <b>6</b> (9): 290–293. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1991TEcoE...6..290M">1991TEcoE...6..290M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0169-5347%2891%2990007-k">10.1016/0169-5347(91)90007-k</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0169-5347">0169-5347</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21232484">21232484</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Ecology+%26+Evolution&rft.atitle=Phylogenetic+studies+of+insect-plant+interactions%3A+Insights+into+the+genesis+of+diversity&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=290-293&rft.date=1991-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0169-5347%2891%2990007-k&rft.issn=0169-5347&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21232484&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1991TEcoE...6..290M&rft.aulast=Mitter&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft.au=Farrell%2C+Brian&rft.au=Futuyma%2C+Douglas+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1016%2F0169-5347%2891%2990007-k&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_MazancourtLoreauDieckmann2001" class="citation journal cs1">de Mazancourt, Claire; Loreau, Michel; Dieckmann, Ulf (August 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1086/321306">"Can the Evolution of Plant Defense Lead to Plant-Herbivore Mutualism?"</a>. <i>The American Naturalist</i>. <b>158</b> (2): 109–123. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001ANat..158..109D">2001ANat..158..109D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F321306">10.1086/321306</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-0147">0003-0147</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18707340">18707340</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15722747">15722747</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Naturalist&rft.atitle=Can+the+Evolution+of+Plant+Defense+Lead+to+Plant-Herbivore+Mutualism%3F&rft.volume=158&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=109-123&rft.date=2001-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A15722747%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001ANat..158..109D&rft.issn=0003-0147&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F321306&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18707340&rft.aulast=de+Mazancourt&rft.aufirst=Claire&rft.au=Loreau%2C+Michel&rft.au=Dieckmann%2C+Ulf&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1086%2F321306&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarrellDussourdMitter1991" class="citation journal cs1">Farrell, Brian D.; Dussourd, David E.; Mitter, Charles (October 1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1086/285258">"Escalation of Plant Defense: Do Latex and Resin Canals Spur Plant Diversification?"</a>. <i>The American Naturalist</i>. <b>138</b> (4): 881–900. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1991ANat..138..881F">1991ANat..138..881F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F285258">10.1086/285258</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-0147">0003-0147</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:86725259">86725259</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Naturalist&rft.atitle=Escalation+of+Plant+Defense%3A+Do+Latex+and+Resin+Canals+Spur+Plant+Diversification%3F&rft.volume=138&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=881-900&rft.date=1991-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F285258&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A86725259%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0003-0147&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1991ANat..138..881F&rft.aulast=Farrell&rft.aufirst=Brian+D.&rft.au=Dussourd%2C+David+E.&rft.au=Mitter%2C+Charles&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1086%2F285258&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPenningsSilliman2005" class="citation journal cs1">Pennings, Steven C.; Silliman, Brian R. (September 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1890/04-1022">"LINKING BIOGEOGRAPHY AND COMMUNITY ECOLOGY: LATITUDINAL VARIATION IN PLANT–HERBIVORE INTERACTION STRENGTH"</a>. <i>Ecology</i>. <b>86</b> (9): 2310–2319. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005Ecol...86.2310P">2005Ecol...86.2310P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1890%2F04-1022">10.1890/04-1022</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0012-9658">0012-9658</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecology&rft.atitle=LINKING+BIOGEOGRAPHY+AND+COMMUNITY+ECOLOGY%3A+LATITUDINAL+VARIATION+IN+PLANT%E2%80%93HERBIVORE+INTERACTION+STRENGTH&rft.volume=86&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=2310-2319&rft.date=2005-09&rft.issn=0012-9658&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1890%2F04-1022&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005Ecol...86.2310P&rft.aulast=Pennings&rft.aufirst=Steven+C.&rft.au=Silliman%2C+Brian+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1890%2F04-1022&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFutuymaGould1979" class="citation journal cs1">Futuyma, Douglas J.; Gould, Fred (March 1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1942571">"Associations of Plants and Insects in Deciduous Forest"</a>. <i>Ecological Monographs</i>. <b>49</b> (1): 33–50. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979EcoM...49...33F">1979EcoM...49...33F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1942571">10.2307/1942571</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0012-9615">0012-9615</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1942571">1942571</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecological+Monographs&rft.atitle=Associations+of+Plants+and+Insects+in+Deciduous+Forest&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=33-50&rft.date=1979-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1942571&rft.issn=0012-9615&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1942571%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1979EcoM...49...33F&rft.aulast=Futuyma&rft.aufirst=Douglas+J.&rft.au=Gould%2C+Fred&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.2307%2F1942571&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPooreGraba-LandryFavretSheppard_Brennand2013" class="citation journal cs1">Poore, Alistair G. B.; Graba-Landry, Alexia; Favret, Margaux; Sheppard Brennand, Hannah; Byrne, Maria; Dworjanyn, Symon A. (15 May 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00442-013-2683-y">"Direct and indirect effects of ocean acidification and warming on a marine plant–herbivore interaction"</a>. <i>Oecologia</i>. <b>173</b> (3): 1113–1124. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013Oecol.173.1113P">2013Oecol.173.1113P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00442-013-2683-y">10.1007/s00442-013-2683-y</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0029-8549">0029-8549</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23673470">23673470</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:10990079">10990079</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oecologia&rft.atitle=Direct+and+indirect+effects+of+ocean+acidification+and+warming+on+a+marine+plant%E2%80%93herbivore+interaction&rft.volume=173&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=1113-1124&rft.date=2013-05-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A10990079%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013Oecol.173.1113P&rft.issn=0029-8549&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00442-013-2683-y&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23673470&rft.aulast=Poore&rft.aufirst=Alistair+G.+B.&rft.au=Graba-Landry%2C+Alexia&rft.au=Favret%2C+Margaux&rft.au=Sheppard+Brennand%2C+Hannah&rft.au=Byrne%2C+Maria&rft.au=Dworjanyn%2C+Symon+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1007%2Fs00442-013-2683-y&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDearingMangioneKarasov2000" class="citation journal cs1">Dearing, M.D.; Mangione, A.M.; Karasov, W.H. (May 2000). "Diet breadth of mammalian herbivores: nutrient versus detoxification constraints". <i>Oecologia</i>. <b>123</b> (3): 397–405. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000Oecol.123..397D">2000Oecol.123..397D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs004420051027">10.1007/s004420051027</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28308595">28308595</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:914899">914899</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oecologia&rft.atitle=Diet+breadth+of+mammalian+herbivores%3A+nutrient+versus+detoxification+constraints&rft.volume=123&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=397-405&rft.date=2000-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs004420051027&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A914899%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28308595&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000Oecol.123..397D&rft.aulast=Dearing&rft.aufirst=M.D.&rft.au=Mangione%2C+A.M.&rft.au=Karasov%2C+W.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Karban,_R_2002-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Karban,_R_2002_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Karban,_R_2002_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarbanAgrawal2002" class="citation journal cs1">Karban, R.; Agrawal, A.A. (November 2002). "Herbivore Offense". <i>Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics</i>. <b>33</b> (1): 641–664. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002AnRES..33..641K">2002AnRES..33..641K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.ecolsys.33.010802.150443">10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.33.010802.150443</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Ecology+and+Systematics&rft.atitle=Herbivore+Offense&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=641-664&rft.date=2002-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.ecolsys.33.010802.150443&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002AnRES..33..641K&rft.aulast=Karban&rft.aufirst=R.&rft.au=Agrawal%2C+A.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNishida2002" class="citation journal cs1">Nishida, R. (January 2002). "Sequestration of Defensive Substances from Plants by Lepidoptera". <i>Annual Review of Entomology</i>. <b>47</b>: 57–92. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.ento.47.091201.145121">10.1146/annurev.ento.47.091201.145121</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11729069">11729069</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Entomology&rft.atitle=Sequestration+of+Defensive+Substances+from+Plants+by+Lepidoptera&rft.volume=47&rft.pages=57-92&rft.date=2002-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.ento.47.091201.145121&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11729069&rft.aulast=Nishida&rft.aufirst=R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDouglas1998" class="citation journal cs1">Douglas, A.E. (January 1998). "Nutritional Interactions in Insect–Microbial Symbioses: Aphids and Their Symbiotic Bacteria Buchnera". <i>Annual Review of Entomology</i>. <b>43</b>: 17–37. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.ento.43.1.17">10.1146/annurev.ento.43.1.17</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15012383">15012383</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Entomology&rft.atitle=Nutritional+Interactions+in+Insect%E2%80%93Microbial+Symbioses%3A+Aphids+and+Their+Symbiotic+Bacteria+Buchnera&rft.volume=43&rft.pages=17-37&rft.date=1998-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.ento.43.1.17&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15012383&rft.aulast=Douglas&rft.aufirst=A.E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSagers1992" class="citation journal cs1">Sagers, C.L. (1992). "Manipulation of host plant quality: herbivores keep leaves in the dark". <i>Functional Ecology</i>. <b>6</b> (6): 741–743. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992FuEco...6..741S">1992FuEco...6..741S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2389971">10.2307/2389971</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2389971">2389971</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Functional+Ecology&rft.atitle=Manipulation+of+host+plant+quality%3A+herbivores+keep+leaves+in+the+dark&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=741-743&rft.date=1992&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2389971%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2389971&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1992FuEco...6..741S&rft.aulast=Sagers&rft.aufirst=C.L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCallSt_Clair2018" class="citation journal cs1">Call, Anson; St Clair, Samuel B (1 October 2018). Ryan, Michael (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/treephys/article/38/10/1476/5048677">"Timing and mode of simulated ungulate herbivory alter aspen defense strategies"</a>. <i>Tree Physiology</i>. <b>38</b> (10): 1476–1485. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Ftreephys%2Ftpy071">10.1093/treephys/tpy071</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1758-4469">1758-4469</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29982736">29982736</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Tree+Physiology&rft.atitle=Timing+and+mode+of+simulated+ungulate+herbivory+alter+aspen+defense+strategies&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=1476-1485&rft.date=2018-10-01&rft.issn=1758-4469&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29982736&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Ftreephys%2Ftpy071&rft.aulast=Call&rft.aufirst=Anson&rft.au=St+Clair%2C+Samuel+B&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Ftreephys%2Farticle%2F38%2F10%2F1476%2F5048677&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHawkesSullivan2001" class="citation journal cs1">Hawkes, Christine V.; Sullivan, Jon J. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1890%2F0012-9658%282001%29082%5B2045%3ATIOHOP%5D2.0.CO%3B2">"The Impact of Herbivory on Plants in Different Resource Conditions: A Meta-Analysis"</a>. <i>Ecology</i>. <b>82</b> (7): 2045–2058. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1890%2F0012-9658%282001%29082%5B2045%3ATIOHOP%5D2.0.CO%3B2">10.1890/0012-9658(2001)082[2045:TIOHOP]2.0.CO;2</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecology&rft.atitle=The+Impact+of+Herbivory+on+Plants+in+Different+Resource+Conditions%3A+A+Meta-Analysis&rft.volume=82&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=2045-2058&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1890%2F0012-9658%282001%29082%5B2045%3ATIOHOP%5D2.0.CO%3B2&rft.aulast=Hawkes&rft.aufirst=Christine+V.&rft.au=Sullivan%2C+Jon+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1890%252F0012-9658%25282001%2529082%255B2045%253ATIOHOP%255D2.0.CO%253B2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMilchunasNoy-Meir2002" class="citation journal cs1">Milchunas, D.G.; Noy-Meir, I. (October 2002). "Grazing refuges, external avoidance of herbivory and plant diversity". <i>Oikos</i>. <b>99</b> (1): 113–130. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002Oikos..99..113M">2002Oikos..99..113M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1034%2Fj.1600-0706.2002.990112.x">10.1034/j.1600-0706.2002.990112.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oikos&rft.atitle=Grazing+refuges%2C+external+avoidance+of+herbivory+and+plant+diversity&rft.volume=99&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=113-130&rft.date=2002-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1034%2Fj.1600-0706.2002.990112.x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002Oikos..99..113M&rft.aulast=Milchunas&rft.aufirst=D.G.&rft.au=Noy-Meir%2C+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdwardsWratten1985" class="citation journal cs1">Edwards, P.J.; Wratten, S.D. (March 1985). "Induced plant defences against insect grazing: fact or artefact?". <i>Oikos</i>. <b>44</b> (1): 70–74. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1985Oikos..44...70E">1985Oikos..44...70E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3544045">10.2307/3544045</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3544045">3544045</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oikos&rft.atitle=Induced+plant+defences+against+insect+grazing%3A+fact+or+artefact%3F&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=70-74&rft.date=1985-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3544045%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3544045&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1985Oikos..44...70E&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=P.J.&rft.au=Wratten%2C+S.D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPillemerTingey1976" class="citation journal cs1">Pillemer, E.A.; Tingey, W.M. (6 August 1976). "Hooked Trichomes: A Physical Plant Barrier to a Major Agricultural Pest". <i>Science</i>. <b>193</b> (4252): 482–484. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1976Sci...193..482P">1976Sci...193..482P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.193.4252.482">10.1126/science.193.4252.482</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17841820">17841820</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:26751736">26751736</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Hooked+Trichomes%3A+A+Physical+Plant+Barrier+to+a+Major+Agricultural+Pest&rft.volume=193&rft.issue=4252&rft.pages=482-484&rft.date=1976-08-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.193.4252.482&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A26751736%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17841820&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1976Sci...193..482P&rft.aulast=Pillemer&rft.aufirst=E.A.&rft.au=Tingey%2C+W.M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEpstein1994" class="citation journal cs1">Epstein, E (4 January 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC42876">"The anomaly of silicon in plant biology"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>91</b> (1): 11–17. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994PNAS...91...11E">1994PNAS...91...11E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.91.1.11">10.1073/pnas.91.1.11</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424">0027-8424</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC42876">42876</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11607449">11607449</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+anomaly+of+silicon+in+plant+biology.&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=11-17&rft.date=1994-01-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC42876%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1994PNAS...91...11E&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11607449&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.91.1.11&rft.issn=0027-8424&rft.aulast=Epstein&rft.aufirst=E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC42876&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bio.libretexts.org/Workbench/General_Ecology_Ecology/Chapter_16%3A_Antagonistic_Interactions/16.3%3A_Herbivory">"16.3: Herbivory"</a>. <i>Biology LibreTexts</i>. 21 July 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 April</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Biology+LibreTexts&rft.atitle=16.3%3A+Herbivory&rft.date=2022-07-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbio.libretexts.org%2FWorkbench%2FGeneral_Ecology_Ecology%2FChapter_16%253A_Antagonistic_Interactions%2F16.3%253A_Herbivory&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLangenheim1994" class="citation journal cs1">Langenheim, J.H. (June 1994). "Higher plant terpenoids: a phytocentric overview of their ecological roles". <i>Journal of Chemical Ecology</i>. <b>20</b> (6): 1223–1280. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994JCEco..20.1223L">1994JCEco..20.1223L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02059809">10.1007/BF02059809</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24242340">24242340</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:25360410">25360410</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Chemical+Ecology&rft.atitle=Higher+plant+terpenoids%3A+a+phytocentric+overview+of+their+ecological+roles&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1223-1280&rft.date=1994-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF02059809&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A25360410%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24242340&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1994JCEco..20.1223L&rft.aulast=Langenheim&rft.aufirst=J.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeilKochHilpertFiala2001" class="citation journal cs1">Heil, M.; Koch, T.; Hilpert, A.; Fiala, B.; Boland, W.; Linsenmair, K. Eduard (30 January 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC14712">"Extrafloral nectar production of the ant-associated plant, Macaranga tanarius, is an induced, indirect, defensive response elicited by jasmonic acid"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>98</b> (3): 1083–1088. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001PNAS...98.1083H">2001PNAS...98.1083H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.031563398">10.1073/pnas.031563398</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC14712">14712</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11158598">11158598</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Extrafloral+nectar+production+of+the+ant-associated+plant%2C+Macaranga+tanarius%2C+is+an+induced%2C+indirect%2C+defensive+response+elicited+by+jasmonic+acid&rft.volume=98&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=1083-1088&rft.date=2001-01-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC14712%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11158598&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.031563398&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001PNAS...98.1083H&rft.aulast=Heil&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Koch%2C+T.&rft.au=Hilpert%2C+A.&rft.au=Fiala%2C+B.&rft.au=Boland%2C+W.&rft.au=Linsenmair%2C+K.+Eduard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC14712&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www2.nau.edu/~gaud/bio301/content/genfdbk.htm">"Plants, Herbivores, and Predators"</a>. <i>www2.nau.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 April</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www2.nau.edu&rft.atitle=Plants%2C+Herbivores%2C+and+Predators&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww2.nau.edu%2F~gaud%2Fbio301%2Fcontent%2Fgenfdbk.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:7-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:7_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_62-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGotelli1995" class="citation book cs1">Gotelli, Nicholas J. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/31816245"><i>A primer of ecology</i></a>. Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87893-270-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-87893-270-4"><bdi>0-87893-270-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/31816245">31816245</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+primer+of+ecology&rft.place=Sunderland%2C+Mass.&rft.pub=Sinauer+Associates&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F31816245&rft.isbn=0-87893-270-4&rft.aulast=Gotelli&rft.aufirst=Nicholas+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F31816245&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:8-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:8_63-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_63-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_63-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_63-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2001" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Robert Leo (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/44391592"><i>Ecology & field biology</i></a>. T. M. Smith (6th ed.). San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-321-04290-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-321-04290-5"><bdi>0-321-04290-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/44391592">44391592</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ecology+%26+field+biology&rft.place=San+Francisco&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Benjamin+Cummings&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F44391592&rft.isbn=0-321-04290-5&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Robert+Leo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F44391592&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeadOliverKingHubach1985" class="citation journal cs1">Mead, R.J.; Oliver, A.J.; King, D.R.; Hubach, P.H. (March 1985). "The Co-Evolutionary Role of Fluoroacetate in Plant–Animal Interactions in Australia". <i>Oikos</i>. <b>44</b> (1): 55–60. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1985Oikos..44...55M">1985Oikos..44...55M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3544043">10.2307/3544043</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3544043">3544043</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oikos&rft.atitle=The+Co-Evolutionary+Role+of+Fluoroacetate+in+Plant%E2%80%93Animal+Interactions+in+Australia&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=55-60&rft.date=1985-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3544043%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3544043&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1985Oikos..44...55M&rft.aulast=Mead&rft.aufirst=R.J.&rft.au=Oliver%2C+A.J.&rft.au=King%2C+D.R.&rft.au=Hubach%2C+P.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ehrlich-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ehrlich_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEhrlichRaven1964" class="citation journal cs1">Ehrlich, P. R.; Raven, P. H. (December 1964). "Butterflies and plants: a study of coevolution". <i>Evolution</i>. <b>18</b> (4): 586–608. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2406212">10.2307/2406212</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2406212">2406212</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Evolution&rft.atitle=Butterflies+and+plants%3A+a+study+of+coevolution&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=586-608&rft.date=1964-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2406212&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2406212%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Ehrlich&rft.aufirst=P.+R.&rft.au=Raven%2C+P.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thompson-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Thompson_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thompson, J. 1999. What we know and do not know about coevolution: insect herbivores and plants as a test case. Pages 7–30 in H. Olff, V. K. Brown, R. H. Drent, and British Ecological Society Symposium 1997 (Corporate Author), editors. Herbivores: between plants and predators. Blackwell Science, London, UK.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerrera1985" class="citation journal cs1">Herrera, C.M. (March 1985). "Determinants of Plant-Animal Coevolution: The Case of Mutualistic Dispersal of Seeds by Vertebrates". <i>Oikos</i>. <b>44</b> (1): 132–141. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1985Oikos..44..132H">1985Oikos..44..132H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3544054">10.2307/3544054</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3544054">3544054</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oikos&rft.atitle=Determinants+of+Plant-Animal+Coevolution%3A+The+Case+of+Mutualistic+Dispersal+of+Seeds+by+Vertebrates&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=132-141&rft.date=1985-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3544054%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3544054&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1985Oikos..44..132H&rft.aulast=Herrera&rft.aufirst=C.M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNickellVarrianoPlemmonsMoran2018" class="citation journal cs1">Nickell, Zachary; Varriano, Sofia; Plemmons, Eric; Moran, Matthew D. (September 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fecs2.2436">"Ecosystem engineering by bison (Bison bison ) wallowing increases arthropod community heterogeneity in space and time"</a>. <i>Ecosphere</i>. <b>9</b> (9): e02436. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018Ecosp...9E2436N">2018Ecosp...9E2436N</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fecs2.2436">10.1002/ecs2.2436</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2150-8925">2150-8925</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecosphere&rft.atitle=Ecosystem+engineering+by+bison+%28Bison+bison+%29+wallowing+increases+arthropod+community+heterogeneity+in+space+and+time&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=e02436&rft.date=2018-09&rft.issn=2150-8925&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fecs2.2436&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018Ecosp...9E2436N&rft.aulast=Nickell&rft.aufirst=Zachary&rft.au=Varriano%2C+Sofia&rft.au=Plemmons%2C+Eric&rft.au=Moran%2C+Matthew+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1002%252Fecs2.2436&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_VeenSanders2013" class="citation journal cs1">van Veen, F. J. F.; Sanders, D. (May 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1890%2Fes13-00067.1">"Herbivore identity mediates the strength of trophic cascades on individual plants"</a>. <i>Ecosphere</i>. <b>4</b> (5): art64. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1890%2Fes13-00067.1">10.1890/es13-00067.1</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2150-8925">2150-8925</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecosphere&rft.atitle=Herbivore+identity+mediates+the+strength+of+trophic+cascades+on+individual+plants&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=art64&rft.date=2013-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1890%2Fes13-00067.1&rft.issn=2150-8925&rft.aulast=van+Veen&rft.aufirst=F.+J.+F.&rft.au=Sanders%2C+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1890%252Fes13-00067.1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRipple2011" class="citation journal cs1">Ripple, William J. (20 April 2011). "Wolves, Elk, Bison, and Secondary Trophic Cascades in Yellowstone National Park". <i>The Open Ecology Journal</i>. <b>3</b> (3): 31–37. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2174%2F1874213001003040031">10.2174/1874213001003040031</a></span> (inactive 22 November 2024). <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1874-2130">1874-2130</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Open+Ecology+Journal&rft.atitle=Wolves%2C+Elk%2C+Bison%2C+and+Secondary+Trophic+Cascades+in+Yellowstone+National+Park&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=31-37&rft.date=2011-04-20&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2174%2F1874213001003040031&rft.issn=1874-2130&rft.aulast=Ripple&rft.aufirst=William+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForbesCushmanBurkepileYoung2019" class="citation journal cs1">Forbes, Elizabeth S.; Cushman, J. Hall; Burkepile, Deron E.; Young, Truman P.; Klope, Maggie; Young, Hillary S. (17 June 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1365-2435.13376">"Synthesizing the effects of large, wild herbivore exclusion on ecosystem function"</a>. <i>Functional Ecology</i>. <b>33</b> (9): 1597–1610. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019FuEco..33.1597F">2019FuEco..33.1597F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1365-2435.13376">10.1111/1365-2435.13376</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0269-8463">0269-8463</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:182023675">182023675</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Functional+Ecology&rft.atitle=Synthesizing+the+effects+of+large%2C+wild+herbivore+exclusion+on+ecosystem+function&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=1597-1610&rft.date=2019-06-17&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1365-2435.13376&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A182023675%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0269-8463&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019FuEco..33.1597F&rft.aulast=Forbes&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth+S.&rft.au=Cushman%2C+J.+Hall&rft.au=Burkepile%2C+Deron+E.&rft.au=Young%2C+Truman+P.&rft.au=Klope%2C+Maggie&rft.au=Young%2C+Hillary+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252F1365-2435.13376&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeagerEisenbergSt._Clair2013" class="citation journal cs1">Seager, S Trent; Eisenberg, Cristina; St. Clair, Samuel B. (July 2013). "Patterns and consequences of ungulate herbivory on aspen in western North America". <i>Forest Ecology and Management</i>. <b>299</b>: 81–90. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013ForEM.299...81S">2013ForEM.299...81S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.foreco.2013.02.017">10.1016/j.foreco.2013.02.017</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Forest+Ecology+and+Management&rft.atitle=Patterns+and+consequences+of+ungulate+herbivory+on+aspen+in+western+North+America&rft.volume=299&rft.pages=81-90&rft.date=2013-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.foreco.2013.02.017&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013ForEM.299...81S&rft.aulast=Seager&rft.aufirst=S+Trent&rft.au=Eisenberg%2C+Cristina&rft.au=St.+Clair%2C+Samuel+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spccfpstore1.blob.core.windows.net/digitallibrary-docs/files/89/89be346cf7b9cc83be17ef32d0614a5a.pdf?sv=2015-12-11&sr=b&sig=ytjzqw6EadlW%2FKW9XJ9ntZguXsJ2%2ByvIIsPojnaDheI%3D&se=2023-01-20T10%3A43%3A18Z&sp=r&rscc=public%2C+max-age%3D864000%2C+max-stale%3D86400&rsct=application%2Fpdf&rscd=inline%3B+filename%3D%22Anon_13_ISFC_29_Plant_eating_fish.pdf%22">"Plant-eating fish, Information sheets for fishing communities No 29"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Photos by Richard Ling and Rian Tan. SPC (www.spc.int) in collaboration with the LMMA Network (www.lmmanetwork.org). n.d. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220724104433/https://spccfpstore1.blob.core.windows.net/digitallibrary-docs/files/89/89be346cf7b9cc83be17ef32d0614a5a.pdf?sv=2015-12-11&sr=b&sig=ytjzqw6EadlW%2FKW9XJ9ntZguXsJ2%2ByvIIsPojnaDheI%3D&se=2023-01-20T10%3A43%3A18Z&sp=r&rscc=public%2C+max-age%3D864000%2C+max-stale%3D86400&rsct=application%2Fpdf&rscd=inline%3B+filename%3D%22Anon_13_ISFC_29_Plant_eating_fish.pdf%22">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 24 July 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 July</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Plant-eating+fish%2C+Information+sheets+for+fishing+communities+No+29&rft.pub=SPC+%28www.spc.int%29+in+collaboration+with+the+LMMA+Network+%28www.lmmanetwork.org%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspccfpstore1.blob.core.windows.net%2Fdigitallibrary-docs%2Ffiles%2F89%2F89be346cf7b9cc83be17ef32d0614a5a.pdf%3Fsv%3D2015-12-11%26sr%3Db%26sig%3Dytjzqw6EadlW%252FKW9XJ9ntZguXsJ2%252ByvIIsPojnaDheI%253D%26se%3D2023-01-20T10%253A43%253A18Z%26sp%3Dr%26rscc%3Dpublic%252C%2Bmax-age%253D864000%252C%2Bmax-stale%253D86400%26rsct%3Dapplication%252Fpdf%26rscd%3Dinline%253B%2Bfilename%253D%2522Anon_13_ISFC_29_Plant_eating_fish.pdf%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHerbivore" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: others (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others" title="Category:CS1 maint: others">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">An Integrated Approach To Deer Damage Control Publication No. 809 West Virginia Division of Natural Resources Cooperative Extension Service, Wildlife Resources Section West Virginia University, Law Enforcement Section Center for Extension and Continuing Education, March 1999</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li>Bob Strauss, 2008, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dinosaurs.about.com/od/herbivorousdinosaurs/Herbivorous_Dinosaurs.htm">Herbivorous Dinosaurs</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121118190049/http://dinosaurs.about.com/od/herbivorousdinosaurs/Herbivorous_Dinosaurs.htm">Archived</a> 18 November 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></li> <li>Danell, K., R. Bergström, P. Duncan, J. Pastor (Editors)(2006) <i>Large herbivore ecology, ecosystem dynamics and conservation</i> Cambridge, UK : Cambridge University Press. 506 p. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-83005-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-83005-2">0-521-83005-2</a></li> <li>Crawley, M. J. (1983) <i>Herbivory : the dynamics of animal-plant interactions</i> Oxford : Blackwell Scientific. 437 p. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-632-00808-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-632-00808-3">0-632-00808-3</a></li> <li>Olff, H., V.K. Brown, R.H. Drent (editors) (1999) <i>Herbivores : between plants and predators</i> Oxford ; Malden, Ma. : Blackwell Science. 639 p. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-632-05155-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-632-05155-8">0-632-05155-8</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.herbivores.com/">Herbivore information resource website</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.johnsankey.ca/senecio.html">The herbivore defenses of <i>Senecio viscusus</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060908202106/http://www.muhlenberg.edu/depts/biology/nsf/">Herbivore defense in <i>Lindera benzoin</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.herbivory.com/">website of the herbivory lab at Cornell University</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Feeding_behaviours" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Feeding" title="Template:Feeding"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Feeding" title="Template talk:Feeding"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Feeding" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Feeding"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Feeding_behaviours" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_feeding_behaviours" title="List of feeding behaviours">Feeding behaviours</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Carnivore" title="Carnivore">Carnivores</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">adult</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avivore" title="Avivore">Avivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egg_predation" title="Egg predation">Egg predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hematophagy" title="Hematophagy">Hematophagy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insectivore" title="Insectivore">Insectivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lepidophagy" title="Lepidophagy">Lepidophagy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man-eating_animal" title="Man-eating animal">Man-eating animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molluscivore" title="Molluscivore">Molluscivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mucophagy" title="Mucophagy">Mucophagy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myrmecophagy" title="Myrmecophagy">Myrmecophagy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ophiophagy" title="Ophiophagy">Ophiophagy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piscivore" title="Piscivore">Piscivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spongivore" title="Spongivore">Spongivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vermivore" title="Vermivore">Vermivore</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">reproductive</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oophagy" title="Oophagy">Oophagy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paedophagy" title="Paedophagy">Paedophagy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placentophagy" title="Placentophagy">Placentophagy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding" title="Breastfeeding">Breastfeeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weaning" title="Weaning">Weaning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">cannibalistic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannibalism_(zoology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cannibalism (zoology)">Animal cannibalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_cannibalism" title="Human cannibalism">Human cannibalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-cannibalism" title="Self-cannibalism">Self-cannibalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_cannibalism" title="Sexual cannibalism">Sexual cannibalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Starling_Feeding_Offspring.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Starling_Feeding_Offspring.jpg/160px-Starling_Feeding_Offspring.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Starling_Feeding_Offspring.jpg/240px-Starling_Feeding_Offspring.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Starling_Feeding_Offspring.jpg/320px-Starling_Feeding_Offspring.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1300" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Herbivores</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Folivore" title="Folivore">Folivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florivore" title="Florivore">Florivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frugivore" title="Frugivore">Frugivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graminivore" title="Graminivore">Graminivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seed_predation" title="Seed predation">Seed predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nectarivore" title="Nectarivore">Nectarivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mellivory" title="Mellivory">Mellivory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palynivore" title="Palynivore">Palynivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xylophagy" title="Xylophagy">Xylophagy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteophagy" title="Osteophagy">Osteophagy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cellular</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phagocytosis" title="Phagocytosis">Phagocytosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myzocytosis" title="Myzocytosis">Myzocytosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microbivory" title="Microbivory">Microbivory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacterivore" title="Bacterivore">Bacterivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungivore" title="Fungivore">Fungivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coprophagia" title="Coprophagia">Coprophagia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritivore" title="Detritivore">Detritivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geophagia" title="Geophagia">Geophagia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnivore" title="Omnivore">Omnivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planktivore" title="Planktivore">Planktivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saprophagy" title="Saprophagy">Saprophagy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophagy" title="Xenophagy">Xenophagy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithotroph" title="Lithotroph">Lithotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastivore" title="Plastivore">Plastivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pica_(disorder)" title="Pica (disorder)">Pica</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">Predation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambush_predator" title="Ambush predator">Ambush predator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apex_predator" title="Apex predator">Apex predator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egg_predator" class="mw-redirect" title="Egg predator">Egg predator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraguild_predator" class="mw-redirect" title="Intraguild predator">Intraguild predator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pursuit_predator" class="mw-redirect" title="Pursuit predator">Pursuit predator</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_feeding_mechanisms" title="Aquatic feeding mechanisms">Aquatic predation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_feeding_mechanisms#Lunge_feeding" title="Aquatic feeding mechanisms">Lunge feeder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_feeding_mechanisms#Pivot_feeding" title="Aquatic feeding mechanisms">Pivot feeder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_feeding_mechanisms#Ram_feeding" title="Aquatic feeding mechanisms">Ram feeder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_feeding_mechanisms#Suction_feeding" title="Aquatic feeding mechanisms">Suction feeder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bait_ball" title="Bait ball">Bait balls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bottom_feeder" title="Bottom feeder">Bottom feeder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feeding_frenzy" title="Feeding frenzy">Feeding frenzy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filter_feeder" title="Filter feeder">Filter feeder</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Browsing_(herbivory)" title="Browsing (herbivory)">Browsing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cattle_feeding" title="Cattle feeding">Cattle feeding</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fodder" title="Fodder">Fodder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grazing" title="Grazing">Grazing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forage" title="Forage">Forage</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypercarnivore" title="Hypercarnivore">Hypercarnivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypocarnivore" title="Hypocarnivore">Hypocarnivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesocarnivore" title="Mesocarnivore">Mesocarnivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">Parasitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scavenger" title="Scavenger">Scavenger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surplus_killing" title="Surplus killing">Surplus killing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophallaxis" title="Trophallaxis">Trophallaxis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antipredator_adaptation" class="mw-redirect" title="Antipredator adaptation">Antipredator adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnivorous_plant" title="Carnivorous plant">Carnivorous plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnivorous_fungus" title="Carnivorous fungus">Carnivorous fungus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnivorous_protist" class="mw-redirect" title="Carnivorous protist">Carnivorous protist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Eating_behaviors" title="Category:Eating behaviors">Category:Eating behaviors</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Inter-species_biological_interactions" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Biological_interaction-footer" title="Template:Biological interaction-footer"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Biological_interaction-footer" title="Template talk:Biological interaction-footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Biological_interaction-footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Biological interaction-footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Inter-species_biological_interactions" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Inter-species <a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">biological interactions</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction#Amensalism" title="Biological interaction">Amensalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensalism" title="Commensalism">Commensalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_(biology)" title="Competition (biology)">Competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deception_in_animals" title="Deception in animals">Deception in animals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tactical_deception_in_animals" title="Tactical deception in animals">Tactical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquilinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Inquilinism">Inquilinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">Mimicry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction#Neutralism" title="Biological interaction">Neutralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction#Competition" title="Biological interaction">Synnecrosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">Parasitism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavior-altering_parasite" title="Behavior-altering parasite">Behavior-altering parasite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brood_parasitism" title="Brood parasitism">Brood parasitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Host%E2%80%93parasite_coevolution" title="Host–parasite coevolution">Host–parasite coevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperparasite" title="Hyperparasite">Hyperparasite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleptoparasitism" title="Kleptoparasitism">Kleptoparasitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitic_castration" title="Parasitic castration">Parasitic castration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitoid" title="Parasitoid">Parasitoid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">Predation</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Carnivore" title="Carnivore">Carnivore</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Intraguild_predation" title="Intraguild predation">Intraguild</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">Symbiosis</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Cleaning_symbiosis" title="Cleaning symbiosis">Cleaning symbiosis</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Mycorrhiza" title="Mycorrhiza">Mycorrhiza</a></span></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Trophic_components" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Trophic_components" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Modelling ecosystems</a>: <a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic</a> components</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiotic_component" title="Abiotic component">Abiotic component</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abiotic_stress" title="Abiotic stress">Abiotic stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_ecology" title="Behavioral ecology">Behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">Biogeochemical cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotic_component" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotic component">Biotic component</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotic_stress" title="Biotic stress">Biotic stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrying_capacity" title="Carrying capacity">Carrying capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_(biology)" title="Competition (biology)">Competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_ecology" title="Ecosystem ecology">Ecosystem ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Ecosystem model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_world_hypothesis" title="Green world hypothesis">Green world hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keystone_species" title="Keystone species">Keystone species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feeding_behaviours" title="List of feeding behaviours">List of feeding behaviours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolic_theory_of_ecology" title="Metabolic theory of ecology">Metabolic theory of ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productivity_(ecology)" title="Productivity (ecology)">Productivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">Resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Restoration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Producers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Autotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">Chemosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemotroph" title="Chemotroph">Chemotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundation_species" title="Foundation species">Foundation species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetotroph" title="Kinetotroph">Kinetotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixotroph" title="Mixotroph">Mixotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myco-heterotrophy" title="Myco-heterotrophy">Myco-heterotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycotroph" title="Mycotroph">Mycotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organotroph" title="Organotroph">Organotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoheterotroph" title="Photoheterotroph">Photoheterotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic_efficiency" title="Photosynthetic efficiency">Photosynthetic efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phototroph" title="Phototroph">Phototrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_nutritional_groups" title="Primary nutritional groups">Primary nutritional groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">Primary production</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Consumer_(food_chain)" title="Consumer (food chain)">Consumers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apex_predator" title="Apex predator">Apex predator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacterivore" title="Bacterivore">Bacterivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnivore" title="Carnivore">Carnivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemoorganotroph" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganotroph">Chemoorganotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foraging" title="Foraging">Foraging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalist_and_specialist_species" title="Generalist and specialist species">Generalist and specialist species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraguild_predation" title="Intraguild predation">Intraguild predation</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Herbivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">Heterotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotrophic_nutrition" title="Heterotrophic nutrition">Heterotrophic nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insectivore" title="Insectivore">Insectivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopredator" title="Mesopredator">Mesopredators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopredator_release_hypothesis" title="Mesopredator release hypothesis">Mesopredator release hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnivore" title="Omnivore">Omnivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimal_foraging_theory" title="Optimal foraging theory">Optimal foraging theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planktivore" title="Planktivore">Planktivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">Predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prey_switching" title="Prey switching">Prey switching</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Decomposer" title="Decomposer">Decomposers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemoorganoheterotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganoheterotrophy">Chemoorganoheterotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">Decomposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritivore" title="Detritivore">Detritivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritus" title="Detritus">Detritus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Microorganism#Habitats_and_ecology" title="Microorganism">Microorganisms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">Bacteriophage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithoautotroph" title="Lithoautotroph">Lithoautotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithotroph" title="Lithotroph">Lithotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_cooperation" title="Microbial cooperation">Microbial cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">Microbial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_food_web" title="Microbial food web">Microbial food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_intelligence" title="Microbial intelligence">Microbial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">Microbial loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_mat" title="Microbial mat">Microbial mat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_metabolism" title="Microbial metabolism">Microbial metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phage_ecology" title="Phage ecology">Phage ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">Food webs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomagnification" title="Biomagnification">Biomagnification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_efficiency" title="Ecological efficiency">Ecological efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_pyramid" title="Ecological pyramid">Ecological pyramid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Energy flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">Food chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic level</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Example webs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lake_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="Lake ecosystem">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="River ecosystem">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_food_web" title="Soil food web">Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tritrophic_interactions_in_plant_defense" title="Tritrophic interactions in plant defense">Tritrophic interactions in plant defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_food_web" title="Marine food web">Marine food webs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">cold seeps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent#Biological_communities" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_ecology" title="Intertidal ecology">intertidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest#Trophic_ecology" title="Kelp forest">kelp forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Pacific_Gyre" title="North Pacific Gyre">North Pacific Gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology_of_the_San_Francisco_Estuary#Food_web" title="Ecology of the San Francisco Estuary">San Francisco Estuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">tide pool</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ascendency" title="Ascendency">Ascendency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioaccumulation" title="Bioaccumulation">Bioaccumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_effect_(ecology)" title="Cascade effect (ecology)">Cascade effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climax_community" title="Climax community">Climax community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competitive_exclusion_principle" title="Competitive exclusion principle">Competitive exclusion principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer%E2%80%93resource_interactions" title="Consumer–resource interactions">Consumer–resource interactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copiotroph" title="Copiotroph">Copiotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominance_(ecology)" title="Dominance (ecology)">Dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_network" title="Ecological network">Ecological network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_succession" title="Ecological succession">Ecological succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_quality" title="Energy quality">Energy quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_systems_language" title="Energy systems language">Energy systems language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-ratio_(oceanography)" title="F-ratio (oceanography)">f-ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feed_conversion_ratio" title="Feed conversion ratio">Feed conversion ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feeding_frenzy" title="Feeding frenzy">Feeding frenzy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesotrophic_soil" title="Mesotrophic soil">Mesotrophic soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycle" title="Nutrient cycle">Nutrient cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligotroph" title="Oligotroph">Oligotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_the_plankton" title="Paradox of the plankton">Paradox of the plankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_cascade" title="Trophic cascade">Trophic cascade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_mutualism" title="Trophic mutualism">Trophic mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_state_index" title="Trophic state index">Trophic state index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Defense,<br />counter</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_coloration" title="Animal coloration">Animal coloration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptation" title="Anti-predator adaptation">Anti-predator adaptations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">Camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deimatic_behaviour" title="Deimatic behaviour">Deimatic behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbivore_adaptations_to_plant_defense" title="Herbivore adaptations to plant defense">Herbivore adaptations to plant defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">Mimicry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_defense_against_herbivory" title="Plant defense against herbivory">Plant defense against herbivory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling#Predator_avoidance" title="Shoaling and schooling">Predator avoidance in schooling fish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Other_components" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Other_components" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Modelling ecosystems</a>: Other components</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">Population<br />ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abundance_(ecology)" title="Abundance (ecology)">Abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allee_effect" title="Allee effect">Allee effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer-resource_model" title="Consumer-resource model">Consumer-resource model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depensation" title="Depensation">Depensation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_yield" title="Ecological yield">Ecological yield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effective_population_size" title="Effective population size">Effective population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraspecific_competition" title="Intraspecific competition">Intraspecific competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logistic_function" title="Logistic function">Logistic function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthusian_growth_model" title="Malthusian growth model">Malthusian growth model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_sustainable_yield" title="Maximum sustainable yield">Maximum sustainable yield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overpopulation" title="Overpopulation">Overpopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_cycle" title="Population cycle">Population cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_dynamics" title="Population dynamics">Population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_model" title="Population model">Population modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_size" title="Population size">Population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_equations" title="Lotka–Volterra equations">Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recruitment_(biology)" title="Recruitment (biology)">Recruitment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_population_size" title="Small population size">Small population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_stability" title="Ecological stability">Stability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_resilience" title="Ecological resilience">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_(ecology)" title="Resistance (ecology)">Resistance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Random_generalized_Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_model" title="Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model">Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Density_dependence" title="Density dependence">Density-dependent inhibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_effects_of_biodiversity" title="Ecological effects of biodiversity">Ecological effects of biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_extinction" title="Ecological extinction">Ecological extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endemism" title="Endemism">Endemic species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flagship_species" title="Flagship species">Flagship species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination_(statistics)" title="Ordination (statistics)">Gradient analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioindicator" title="Bioindicator">Indicator species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">Introduced species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a> / <a href="/wiki/Native_species" title="Native species">Native species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latitudinal_gradients_in_species_diversity" title="Latitudinal gradients in species diversity">Latitudinal gradients in species diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_viable_population" title="Minimum viable population">Minimum viable population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_neutral_theory_of_biodiversity" title="Unified neutral theory of biodiversity">Neutral theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupancy%E2%80%93abundance_relationship" title="Occupancy–abundance relationship">Occupancy–abundance relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_viability_analysis" title="Population viability analysis">Population viability analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priority_effect" title="Priority effect">Priority effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapoport%27s_rule" title="Rapoport's rule">Rapoport's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_abundance_distribution" title="Relative abundance distribution">Relative abundance distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_species_abundance" title="Relative species abundance">Relative species abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_diversity" title="Species diversity">Species diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_homogeneity" title="Species homogeneity">Species homogeneity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_richness" title="Species richness">Species richness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_distribution" title="Species distribution">Species distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species%E2%80%93area_relationship" title="Species–area relationship">Species–area curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbrella_species" title="Umbrella species">Umbrella species</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species<br />interaction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antibiosis" title="Antibiosis">Antibiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">Biological interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensalism" title="Commensalism">Commensalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">Community ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_facilitation" title="Ecological facilitation">Ecological facilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interspecific_competition" title="Interspecific competition">Interspecific competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">Parasitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_effect" title="Storage effect">Storage effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">Symbiosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Spatial_ecology" title="Spatial ecology">Spatial<br />ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-boundary_subsidy" title="Cross-boundary subsidy">Cross-boundary subsidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cline_(biology)" title="Cline (biology)">Ecocline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotone" title="Ecotone">Ecotone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotype" title="Ecotype">Ecotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disturbance_(ecology)" title="Disturbance (ecology)">Disturbance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_effects" title="Edge effects">Edge effects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foster%27s_rule" title="Foster's rule">Foster's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">Habitat fragmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_free_distribution" title="Ideal free distribution">Ideal free distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate_disturbance_hypothesis" title="Intermediate disturbance hypothesis">Intermediate disturbance hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_biogeography" title="Insular biogeography">Insular biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_change_modeling" title="Land change modeling">Land change modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_epidemiology" title="Landscape epidemiology">Landscape epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_limnology" title="Landscape limnology">Landscape limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapopulation" title="Metapopulation">Metapopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patch_dynamics" title="Patch dynamics">Patch dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R/K_selection_theory" title="R/K selection theory"><i>r</i>/<i>K</i> selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_selection_function" title="Resource selection function">Resource selection function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source%E2%80%93sink_dynamics" title="Source–sink dynamics">Source–sink dynamics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Niche</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Ecological niche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_trap" title="Ecological trap">Ecological trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_engineer" title="Ecosystem engineer">Ecosystem engineer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_distribution_modelling" title="Species distribution modelling">Environmental niche modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guild_(ecology)" title="Guild (ecology)">Guild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">Habitat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">marine habitats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limiting_similarity" title="Limiting similarity">Limiting similarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_apportionment_models" title="Niche apportionment models">Niche apportionment models</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_construction" title="Niche construction">Niche construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_differentiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Niche differentiation">Niche differentiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontogenetic_niche_shift" title="Ontogenetic niche shift">Ontogenetic niche shift</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Non-trophic_networks" title="Non-trophic networks">Other<br />networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_rules" title="Assembly rules">Assembly rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bateman%27s_principle" title="Bateman's principle">Bateman's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">Bioluminescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological collapse">Ecological collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_debt" title="Ecological debt">Ecological debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_debt" title="Ecological debt">Ecological deficit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Ecological energetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_indicator" title="Ecological indicator">Ecological indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_threshold" title="Ecological threshold">Ecological threshold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_diversity" title="Ecosystem diversity">Ecosystem diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">Emergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_debt" title="Extinction debt">Extinction debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleiber%27s_law" title="Kleiber's law">Kleiber's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liebig%27s_law_of_the_minimum" title="Liebig's law of the minimum">Liebig's law of the minimum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_value_theorem" title="Marginal value theorem">Marginal value theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorson%27s_rule" title="Thorson's rule">Thorson's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xerosere" title="Xerosere">Xerosere</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allometry" title="Allometry">Allometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_stable_state" title="Alternative stable state">Alternative stable state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_nature" title="Balance of nature">Balance of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_data_visualization" title="Biological data visualization">Biological data visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_forecasting" title="Ecological forecasting">Ecological forecasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_humanities" title="Environmental humanities">Ecological humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_stoichiometry" title="Ecological stoichiometry">Ecological stoichiometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecopath" title="Ecopath">Ecopath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_based_fisheries" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem based fisheries">Ecosystem based fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endolith" title="Endolith">Endolith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ecology" title="Evolutionary ecology">Evolutionary ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_ecology" title="Functional ecology">Functional ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroecology" title="Macroecology">Macroecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microecosystem" title="Microecosystem">Microecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">Natural environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime_shift" title="Regime shift">Regime shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexecology" title="Sexecology">Sexecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Systems ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_ecology" title="Urban ecology">Urban ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_ecology" title="Theoretical ecology">Theoretical ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ecology" title="Outline of ecology">Outline of ecology</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q59099#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4174059-2">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00571474">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="býložravci"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph361966&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Herbivore&oldid=1258869688">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Herbivore&oldid=1258869688</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Herbivory" title="Category:Herbivory">Herbivory</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Herbivorous_animals" title="Category:Herbivorous animals">Herbivorous animals</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ecology_terminology" title="Category:Ecology terminology">Ecology terminology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Animals_by_eating_behaviors" title="Category:Animals by eating behaviors">Animals by eating behaviors</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">CS1 maint: location missing publisher</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others" title="Category:CS1 maint: others">CS1 maint: others</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_pages_semi-protected_against_vandalism" title="Category:Wikipedia pages semi-protected against vandalism">Wikipedia pages semi-protected against vandalism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_August_2008" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from August 2008">Articles with unsourced statements from August 2008</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2015" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from August 2015">Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from August 2015</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_March_2015" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from March 2015">Articles with unsourced statements from March 2015</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_August_2015" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from August 2015">Articles with unsourced statements from August 2015</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_is_on_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link is on Wikidata">Commons category link is on Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_August_2019" title="Category:Use dmy dates from August 2019">Use dmy dates from August 2019</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 22 November 2024, at 02:09<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Herbivore&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-vp9pw","wgBackendResponseTime":149,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.235","walltime":"1.483","ppvisitednodes":{"value":8276,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":249051,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":5830,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":17,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":12,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":322348,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1231.363 1 -total"," 46.57% 573.387 1 Template:Reflist"," 33.29% 409.973 55 Template:Cite_journal"," 10.51% 129.402 5 Template:Navbox"," 8.01% 98.670 1 Template:Feeding"," 6.73% 82.926 1 Template:Short_description"," 6.37% 78.487 5 Template:Fix"," 5.99% 73.789 4 Template:Citation_needed"," 5.00% 61.606 1 Template:Commons_category"," 4.84% 59.573 1 Template:Sister_project"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.732","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":7683702,"limit":52428800}},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-4pcp9","timestamp":"20241122140923","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Herbivore","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Herbivore","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q59099","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q59099","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2002-03-16T06:05:27Z","dateModified":"2024-11-22T02:09:07Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/c\/cb\/White-tailed_deer_%28Odocoileus_virginianus%29_grazing_-_20050809.jpg","headline":"animal anatomically and physiologically adapted to eating plant material"}</script> </body> </html>