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href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Правіла Фостэра – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Правіла Фостэра" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8A%D1%80" title="Правило на Фостър – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Правило на Фостър" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inselregel" title="Inselregel – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Inselregel" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ley_de_Foster" title="Ley de Foster – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ley de Foster" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86_%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B1" title="قانون فاستر – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="قانون فاستر" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loi_de_Foster" title="Loi de Foster – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Loi de Foster" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peraturan_Foster" title="Peraturan Foster – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Peraturan Foster" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regola_di_Foster" title="Regola di Foster – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Regola di Foster" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%97%D7%95%D7%A7_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%99" title="חוק האי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="חוק האי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wet_van_Foster" title="Wet van Foster – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Wet van Foster" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B3%B6%E5%B6%BC%E5%8C%96" title="島嶼化 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="島嶼化" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eilunreegel" title="Eilunreegel – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Eilunreegel" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE_%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Правило Фостера – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Правило Фостера" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE_%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Правило Фостера – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Правило Фостера" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quy_t%E1%BA%AFc_Foster" title="Quy tắc Foster – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Quy tắc Foster" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A6%8F%E6%96%AF%E7%89%B9%E6%B3%95%E5%88%99" title="福斯特法则 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="福斯特法则" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q2296350#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div 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searchaux" style="display:none">Ecogeographical rule in evolutionary biology</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Island rule" redirects here. For the concept in black hole theoretical physics, see <a href="/wiki/Black_hole_information_paradox#Recent_developments" title="Black hole information paradox">Black hole information paradox § Recent developments</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Garganornis_ballmanni_(reconstruction_by_Stefano_Maugeri).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Garganornis_ballmanni_%28reconstruction_by_Stefano_Maugeri%29.jpg/220px-Garganornis_ballmanni_%28reconstruction_by_Stefano_Maugeri%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="282" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Garganornis_ballmanni_%28reconstruction_by_Stefano_Maugeri%29.jpg/330px-Garganornis_ballmanni_%28reconstruction_by_Stefano_Maugeri%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Garganornis_ballmanni_%28reconstruction_by_Stefano_Maugeri%29.jpg/440px-Garganornis_ballmanni_%28reconstruction_by_Stefano_Maugeri%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="997" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Garganornis_ballmanni" class="mw-redirect" title="Garganornis ballmanni">Garganornis ballmanni</a></i>, a very large fossil goose from the Gargano and Scontrone islands of the <a href="/wiki/Late_Miocene" title="Late Miocene">Late Miocene</a></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Foster's rule</b>, also known as the <b>island rule</b> or the <b>island effect</b>, is an <a href="/wiki/Ecogeographical_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecogeographical rule">ecogeographical rule</a> in <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">evolutionary biology</a> stating that members of a <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> get smaller or bigger depending on the resources available in the environment. For example, it is known that <a href="/wiki/Pygmy_mammoth" title="Pygmy mammoth">pygmy mammoths</a> evolved from normal <a href="/wiki/Mammoth" title="Mammoth">mammoths</a> on small <a href="/wiki/Island" title="Island">islands</a>. Similar evolutionary paths have been observed in <a href="/wiki/Elephant" title="Elephant">elephants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hippopotamus" title="Hippopotamus">hippopotamuses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boidae" title="Boidae">boas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sloth" title="Sloth">sloths</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deer" title="Deer">deer</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Key_deer" title="Key deer">Key deer</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">humans</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is part of the more general phenomenon of <a href="/wiki/Island_syndrome" title="Island syndrome">island syndrome</a> which describes the differences in <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">ecology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">behaviour</a> of insular species compared to their continental counterparts. </p><p>The rule was first formulated by van Valen in 1973<sup id="cite_ref-Valen1973_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Valen1973-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lokatis2018_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lokatis2018-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> based on the study by <a href="/wiki/Mammalogy" title="Mammalogy">mammalogist</a> J. Bristol Foster in 1964.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In it, Foster compared 116 island species to their mainland varieties. Foster proposed that certain island creatures evolved larger body size (<a href="/wiki/Insular_gigantism" class="mw-redirect" title="Insular gigantism">insular gigantism</a>) while others became smaller (<a href="/wiki/Insular_dwarfism" title="Insular dwarfism">insular dwarfism</a>). Foster proposed the simple explanation that smaller creatures get larger when predation pressure is relaxed because of the absence of some of the predators of the mainland, and larger creatures become smaller when food resources are limited because of land area constraints.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The idea was expanded upon in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Theory_of_Island_Biogeography" title="The Theory of Island Biogeography">The Theory of Island Biogeography</a></i>, by <a href="/wiki/Robert_MacArthur" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert MacArthur">Robert MacArthur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edward_O._Wilson" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward O. Wilson">Edward O. Wilson</a>. In 1978, Ted J. Case published a longer paper on the topic in the journal <i><a href="/wiki/Ecology_(journal)" title="Ecology (journal)">Ecology</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Recent literature has also applied the island rule to plants.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are some cases that do not neatly fit the rule; for example, <a href="/wiki/Even-toed_ungulate" class="mw-redirect" title="Even-toed ungulate">artiodactyls</a> have on several islands evolved into both dwarf and giant forms.<sup id="cite_ref-Mazza2015_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mazza2015-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Geer2018_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Geer2018-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Island Rule is a contested topic in evolutionary biology. Some argue that, since body size is a trait that is affected by multiple factors, and not just by organisms moving to an island, genetic variations across all populations could also cause the body mass differences between mainland and island populations.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foster%27s_rule&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFArsuagaKlattSastre2002" class="citation book cs1">Arsuaga, Juan Luis de; Klatt, Andy; Sastre, Juan Carlos (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/neanderthalsneck00arsu"><i>The Neanderthal's necklace : in search of the first thinkers</i></a>. New York : Four Walls Eight Windows. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56858-187-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56858-187-3"><bdi>978-1-56858-187-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Neanderthal%27s+necklace+%3A+in+search+of+the+first+thinkers&rft.pub=New+York+%3A+Four+Walls+Eight+Windows&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-56858-187-3&rft.aulast=Arsuaga&rft.aufirst=Juan+Luis+de&rft.au=Klatt%2C+Andy&rft.au=Sastre%2C+Juan+Carlos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fneanderthalsneck00arsu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFoster%27s+rule" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPanafieuGries2007" class="citation book cs1">Panafieu, Jean-Baptiste de; Gries, Patrick (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/132681532"><i>Evolution</i></a> (1 ed.). New York: Seven Stories Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58322-784-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58322-784-8"><bdi>978-1-58322-784-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/132681532">132681532</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Seven+Stories+Press&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F132681532&rft.isbn=978-1-58322-784-8&rft.aulast=Panafieu&rft.aufirst=Jean-Baptiste+de&rft.au=Gries%2C+Patrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Ftitle%2F132681532&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFoster%27s+rule" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Valen1973-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Valen1973_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Valen1973" class="citation journal cs1">Van Valen, L. (1973). "Body Size and Numbers of Plants and Animals". <i>Evolution</i>. <b>27</b> (1): 27–35. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2407116">10.2307/2407116</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2407116">2407116</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28563673">28563673</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Evolution&rft.atitle=Body+Size+and+Numbers+of+Plants+and+Animals&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=27-35&rft.date=1973&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28563673&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2407116%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2407116&rft.aulast=Van+Valen&rft.aufirst=L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFoster%27s+rule" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lokatis2018-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lokatis2018_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLokatisJeschke2018" class="citation journal cs1">Lokatis, S.; Jeschke, J.M. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fjbi.13160">"The island rule: An assessment of biases and research trends"</a>. <i>Journal of Biogeography</i>. <b>45</b> (2): 289–303. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018JBiog..45..289L">2018JBiog..45..289L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fjbi.13160">10.1111/jbi.13160</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Biogeography&rft.atitle=The+island+rule%3A+An+assessment+of+biases+and+research+trends&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=289-303&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fjbi.13160&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018JBiog..45..289L&rft.aulast=Lokatis&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Jeschke%2C+J.M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fjbi.13160&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFoster%27s+rule" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoster1964" class="citation journal cs1">Foster, J.B. (1964). "The evolution of mammals on islands". <i>Nature</i>. <b>202</b> (4929): 234–235. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1964Natur.202..234F">1964Natur.202..234F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F202234a0">10.1038/202234a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7870628">7870628</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=The+evolution+of+mammals+on+islands&rft.volume=202&rft.issue=4929&rft.pages=234-235&rft.date=1964&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A7870628%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F202234a0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1964Natur.202..234F&rft.aulast=Foster&rft.aufirst=J.B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFoster%27s+rule" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoster2012" class="citation thesis cs1">Foster, J. Bristol (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.library.ubc.ca/10.14288/1.0107150"><i>The evolution of the native land mammals of the Queen Charlotte Islands and the problem of insularity</i></a> (Thesis). University of British Columbia. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.14288%2F1.0107150">10.14288/1.0107150</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=The+evolution+of+the+native+land+mammals+of+the+Queen+Charlotte+Islands+and+the+problem+of+insularity&rft.inst=University+of+British+Columbia&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.14288%2F1.0107150&rft.aulast=Foster&rft.aufirst=J.+Bristol&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.library.ubc.ca%2F10.14288%2F1.0107150&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFoster%27s+rule" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhittaker1998" class="citation book cs1">Whittaker, R.J. (1998). <i>Island biogeography: ecology, evolution, and conservation</i>. Oxford University Press, UK. pp. 73–75. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-850020-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-850020-9"><bdi>978-0-19-850020-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Island+biogeography%3A+ecology%2C+evolution%2C+and+conservation&rft.pages=73-75&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press%2C+UK&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-19-850020-9&rft.aulast=Whittaker&rft.aufirst=R.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFoster%27s+rule" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCase1978" class="citation journal cs1">Case, T.J. (1978). "A general explanation for insular body size trends in terrestrial vertebrates". <i>Ecology</i>. <b>59</b> (1): 1–18. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1978Ecol...59....1C">1978Ecol...59....1C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1936628">10.2307/1936628</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1936628">1936628</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecology&rft.atitle=A+general+explanation+for+insular+body+size+trends+in+terrestrial+vertebrates&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-18&rft.date=1978&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1936628%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1936628&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1978Ecol...59....1C&rft.aulast=Case&rft.aufirst=T.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFoster%27s+rule" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBiddickHendriksBurns2019" class="citation journal cs1">Biddick, M.; Hendriks, A.; Burns, K.C. (2019-08-19). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6731657">"Plants obey (and disobey) the island rule"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>116</b> (36): 17632–34. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019PNAS..11617632B">2019PNAS..11617632B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1907424116">10.1073/pnas.1907424116</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6731657">6731657</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31427521">31427521</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Plants+obey+%28and+disobey%29+the+island+rule&rft.volume=116&rft.issue=36&rft.pages=17632-34&rft.date=2019-08-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6731657%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31427521&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1907424116&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019PNAS..11617632B&rft.aulast=Biddick&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Hendriks%2C+A.&rft.au=Burns%2C+K.C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6731657&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFoster%27s+rule" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mazza2015-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mazza2015_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMazzaRossiAgostini2015" class="citation journal cs1">Mazza, P.P.A.; Rossi, M.A.; Agostini, S. (2015). "Hoplitomerycidæ (Late Miocene, Italy), an Example of Giantism in Insular Ruminants". <i>Journal of Mammalian Evolution</i>. <b>22</b> (2): 271–77. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10914-014-9277-2">10.1007/s10914-014-9277-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16437411">16437411</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Mammalian+Evolution&rft.atitle=Hoplitomerycid%C3%A6+%28Late+Miocene%2C+Italy%29%2C+an+Example+of+Giantism+in+Insular+Ruminants&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=271-77&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10914-014-9277-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A16437411%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Mazza&rft.aufirst=P.P.A.&rft.au=Rossi%2C+M.A.&rft.au=Agostini%2C+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFoster%27s+rule" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Geer2018-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Geer2018_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_der_Geer2018" class="citation journal cs1">van der Geer, A.A.E. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.26879%2F834">"Uniformity in variety: Antler morphology and evolution in a predator-free environment"</a>. <i>Palaeontologia Electronica</i> (21.1.9A): 1–31. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.26879%2F834">10.26879/834</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Palaeontologia+Electronica&rft.atitle=Uniformity+in+variety%3A+Antler+morphology+and+evolution+in+a+predator-free+environment&rft.issue=21.1.9A&rft.pages=1-31&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.26879%2F834&rft.aulast=van+der+Geer&rft.aufirst=A.A.E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.26879%252F834&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFoster%27s+rule" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLokatisJeschke2018" class="citation journal cs1">Lokatis, Sophie; Jeschke, Jonathan M. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fjbi.13160">"The island rule: An assessment of biases and research trends"</a>. <i>Journal of Biogeography</i>. <b>45</b> (2): 289–303. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018JBiog..45..289L">2018JBiog..45..289L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fjbi.13160">10.1111/jbi.13160</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Biogeography&rft.atitle=The+island+rule%3A+An+assessment+of+biases+and+research+trends&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=289-303&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fjbi.13160&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018JBiog..45..289L&rft.aulast=Lokatis&rft.aufirst=Sophie&rft.au=Jeschke%2C+Jonathan+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fjbi.13160&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFoster%27s+rule" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foster%27s_rule&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/eden/giants.html">Why Do Islands Breed Giants (And Sometimes Dwarfs)?</a>", episode of PBS's <i>Nova</i></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rules</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd vlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allen%27s_rule" title="Allen's rule">Allen's rule</a> <span class="wrap"><span style="font-size:85%;">Shorter appendages in colder climates</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bateson%27s_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Bateson's rule">Bateson's rule</a> <span class="wrap"><span style="font-size:85%;">Extra limbs mirror their neighbours</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bergmann%27s_rule" title="Bergmann's rule">Bergmann's rule</a> <span class="wrap"><span style="font-size:85%;">Larger bodies in colder climates</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cope%27s_rule" title="Cope's rule">Cope's rule</a> <span class="wrap"><span style="font-size:85%;">Bodies get larger over time</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-sea_gigantism" title="Deep-sea gigantism">Deep-sea gigantism</a> <span class="wrap"><span style="font-size:85%;">Larger bodies in deep-sea animals</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dollo%27s_law_of_irreversibility" title="Dollo's law of irreversibility">Dollo's law</a> <span class="wrap"><span style="font-size:85%;">Loss of complex traits is irreversible</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eichler%27s_rule" title="Eichler's rule">Eichler's rule</a> <span class="wrap"><span style="font-size:85%;">Parasites co-vary with their hosts</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emery%27s_rule" title="Emery's rule">Emery's rule</a> <span class="wrap"><span style="font-size:85%;">Insect social parasites are often in same genus as their hosts</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fahrenholz%27s_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Fahrenholz's rule">Fahrenholz's rule</a> <span class="wrap"><span style="font-size:85%;">Host and parasite phylogenies become congruent</span></span></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Foster's rule</a> (<a href="/wiki/Insular_gigantism" class="mw-redirect" title="Insular gigantism">Insular gigantism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Insular_dwarfism" title="Insular dwarfism">Insular dwarfism</a>) <span class="wrap"><span style="font-size:85%;">Small species get larger, large species smaller, after colonizing islands</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gause%27s_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Gause's law">Gause's law</a> <span class="wrap"><span style="font-size:85%;">Complete competitors cannot coexist</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gloger%27s_rule" title="Gloger's rule">Gloger's rule</a> <span class="wrap"><span style="font-size:85%;">Lighter coloration in colder, drier climates</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haldane%27s_rule" title="Haldane's rule">Haldane's rule</a> <span class="wrap"><span style="font-size:85%;">Hybrid sexes that are absent, rare, or sterile, are heterogamic</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harrison%27s_rule" title="Harrison's rule">Harrison's rule</a> <span class="wrap"><span style="font-size:85%;">Parasites co-vary in size with their hosts</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">Hamilton's rule</a> <span class="wrap"><span style="font-size:85%;">Genes increase in frequency when relatedness of recipient to actor times benefit to recipient exceeds reproductive cost to actor</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleiber%27s_law" title="Kleiber's law">Kleiber's law</a> <span class="wrap"><span style="font-size:85%;">An animals metabolic rate decreases with its size</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willi_Hennig" title="Willi Hennig">Hennig's progression rule</a> <span class="wrap"><span style="font-size:85%;">In cladistics, the most primitive species are found in earliest, central, part of group's area</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarman%E2%80%93Bell_principle" title="Jarman–Bell principle">Jarman–Bell principle</a> <span class="wrap"><span style="font-size:85%;">The correlation between the size of an animal and its diet quality; larger animals can consume lower quality diet</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordan%27s_rule" title="Jordan's rule">Jordan's rule</a> <span class="wrap"><span style="font-size:85%;">Inverse relationship between water temperature and no. of fin rays, vertebrae</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lack%27s_principle" title="Lack's principle">Lack's principle</a> <span class="wrap"><span style="font-size:85%;">Birds lay only as many eggs as they can provide food for</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapoport%27s_rule" title="Rapoport's rule">Rapoport's rule</a> <span class="wrap"><span style="font-size:85%;">Latitudinal range increases with latitude</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rensch%27s_rule" title="Rensch's rule">Rensch's rule</a> <span class="wrap"><span style="font-size:85%;">Sexual size dimorphism increases with size when males are larger, decreases with size when females are larger</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa%27s_rule" title="Rosa's rule">Rosa's rule</a> <span class="wrap"><span style="font-size:85%;">Groups evolve from character variation in primitive species to a fixed character state in advanced ones</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Schmalhausen" title="Ivan Schmalhausen">Schmalhausen's law</a> <span class="wrap"><span style="font-size:85%;">A population at limit of tolerance in one aspect is vulnerable to small differences in any other aspect</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Countershading" title="Countershading">Thayer's law</a> <span class="wrap"><span style="font-size:85%;">The top of an animals coloration is darker than the bottom</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorson%27s_rule" title="Thorson's rule">Thorson's rule</a> <span class="wrap"><span style="font-size:85%;">No. of eggs of benthic marine invertebrates decreases with latitude</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leigh_Van_Valen" title="Leigh Van Valen">Van Valen's law</a> <span class="wrap"><span style="font-size:85%;">Probability of extinction of a group is constant over time</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Von_Baer%27s_laws_(embryology)" title="Von Baer's laws (embryology)">von Baer's laws</a> <span class="wrap"><span style="font-size:85%;">Embryos start from a common form and develop into increasingly specialised forms</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Wendell_Williston" title="Samuel Wendell Williston">Williston's law</a> <span class="wrap"><span style="font-size:85%;">Parts in an organism become reduced in number and specialized in function</span></span></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="2" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Bergmann%27s_rule" title="Bergmann's rule"><img alt="Bergmann's rule illustrated with a map and graph" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Bergmann%27s_Rule.svg/160px-Bergmann%27s_Rule.svg.png" decoding="async" width="160" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Bergmann%27s_Rule.svg/240px-Bergmann%27s_Rule.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Bergmann%27s_Rule.svg/320px-Bergmann%27s_Rule.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="476" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even vlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Countergradient_variation" title="Countergradient variation">Countergradient variation</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">Where genetics opposes environment as a factor</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gigantothermy" title="Gigantothermy">Gigantothermy</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">Large ectothermic animals more easily maintain constant body temperature</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Trophic_components" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Trophic_components" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Modelling ecosystems</a>: <a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic</a> components</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiotic_component" title="Abiotic component">Abiotic component</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abiotic_stress" title="Abiotic stress">Abiotic stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_ecology" title="Behavioral ecology">Behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">Biogeochemical cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotic_component" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotic component">Biotic component</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotic_stress" title="Biotic stress">Biotic stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrying_capacity" title="Carrying capacity">Carrying capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_(biology)" title="Competition (biology)">Competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_ecology" title="Ecosystem ecology">Ecosystem ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Ecosystem model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_world_hypothesis" title="Green world hypothesis">Green world hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keystone_species" title="Keystone species">Keystone species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feeding_behaviours" title="List of feeding behaviours">List of feeding behaviours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolic_theory_of_ecology" title="Metabolic theory of ecology">Metabolic theory of ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productivity_(ecology)" title="Productivity (ecology)">Productivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">Resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Restoration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Producers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Autotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">Chemosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemotroph" title="Chemotroph">Chemotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundation_species" title="Foundation species">Foundation species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetotroph" title="Kinetotroph">Kinetotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixotroph" title="Mixotroph">Mixotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myco-heterotrophy" title="Myco-heterotrophy">Myco-heterotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycotroph" title="Mycotroph">Mycotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organotroph" title="Organotroph">Organotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoheterotroph" title="Photoheterotroph">Photoheterotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic_efficiency" title="Photosynthetic efficiency">Photosynthetic efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phototroph" title="Phototroph">Phototrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_nutritional_groups" title="Primary nutritional groups">Primary nutritional groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">Primary production</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Consumer_(food_chain)" title="Consumer (food chain)">Consumers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apex_predator" title="Apex predator">Apex predator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacterivore" title="Bacterivore">Bacterivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnivore" title="Carnivore">Carnivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemoorganotroph" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganotroph">Chemoorganotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foraging" title="Foraging">Foraging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalist_and_specialist_species" title="Generalist and specialist species">Generalist and specialist species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraguild_predation" title="Intraguild predation">Intraguild predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">Herbivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">Heterotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotrophic_nutrition" title="Heterotrophic nutrition">Heterotrophic nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insectivore" title="Insectivore">Insectivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopredator" title="Mesopredator">Mesopredators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopredator_release_hypothesis" title="Mesopredator release hypothesis">Mesopredator release hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnivore" title="Omnivore">Omnivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimal_foraging_theory" title="Optimal foraging theory">Optimal foraging theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planktivore" title="Planktivore">Planktivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">Predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prey_switching" title="Prey switching">Prey switching</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Decomposer" title="Decomposer">Decomposers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemoorganoheterotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganoheterotrophy">Chemoorganoheterotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">Decomposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritivore" title="Detritivore">Detritivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritus" title="Detritus">Detritus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Microorganism#Habitats_and_ecology" title="Microorganism">Microorganisms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">Bacteriophage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithoautotroph" title="Lithoautotroph">Lithoautotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithotroph" title="Lithotroph">Lithotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_cooperation" title="Microbial cooperation">Microbial cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">Microbial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_food_web" title="Microbial food web">Microbial food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_intelligence" title="Microbial intelligence">Microbial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">Microbial loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_mat" title="Microbial mat">Microbial mat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_metabolism" title="Microbial metabolism">Microbial metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phage_ecology" title="Phage ecology">Phage ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">Food webs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomagnification" title="Biomagnification">Biomagnification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_efficiency" title="Ecological efficiency">Ecological efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_pyramid" title="Ecological pyramid">Ecological pyramid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Energy flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">Food chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic level</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Example webs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lake_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="Lake ecosystem">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="River ecosystem">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_food_web" title="Soil food web">Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tritrophic_interactions_in_plant_defense" title="Tritrophic interactions in plant defense">Tritrophic interactions in plant defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_food_web" title="Marine food web">Marine food webs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">cold seeps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent#Biological_communities" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_ecology" title="Intertidal ecology">intertidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest#Trophic_ecology" title="Kelp forest">kelp forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Pacific_Gyre" title="North Pacific Gyre">North Pacific Gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology_of_the_San_Francisco_Estuary#Food_web" title="Ecology of the San Francisco Estuary">San Francisco Estuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">tide pool</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ascendency" title="Ascendency">Ascendency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioaccumulation" title="Bioaccumulation">Bioaccumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_effect_(ecology)" title="Cascade effect (ecology)">Cascade effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climax_community" title="Climax community">Climax community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competitive_exclusion_principle" title="Competitive exclusion principle">Competitive exclusion principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer%E2%80%93resource_interactions" title="Consumer–resource interactions">Consumer–resource interactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copiotroph" title="Copiotroph">Copiotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominance_(ecology)" title="Dominance (ecology)">Dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_network" title="Ecological network">Ecological network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_succession" title="Ecological succession">Ecological succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_quality" title="Energy quality">Energy quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_systems_language" title="Energy systems language">Energy systems language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-ratio_(oceanography)" title="F-ratio (oceanography)">f-ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feed_conversion_ratio" title="Feed conversion ratio">Feed conversion ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feeding_frenzy" title="Feeding frenzy">Feeding frenzy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesotrophic_soil" title="Mesotrophic soil">Mesotrophic soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycle" title="Nutrient cycle">Nutrient cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligotroph" title="Oligotroph">Oligotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_the_plankton" title="Paradox of the plankton">Paradox of the plankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_cascade" title="Trophic cascade">Trophic cascade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_mutualism" title="Trophic mutualism">Trophic mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_state_index" title="Trophic state index">Trophic state index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Defense,<br />counter</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_coloration" title="Animal coloration">Animal coloration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptation" title="Anti-predator adaptation">Anti-predator adaptations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">Camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deimatic_behaviour" title="Deimatic behaviour">Deimatic behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbivore_adaptations_to_plant_defense" title="Herbivore adaptations to plant defense">Herbivore adaptations to plant defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">Mimicry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_defense_against_herbivory" title="Plant defense against herbivory">Plant defense against herbivory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling#Predator_avoidance" title="Shoaling and schooling">Predator avoidance in schooling fish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Other_components" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Other_components" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Modelling ecosystems</a>: Other components</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">Population<br />ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abundance_(ecology)" title="Abundance (ecology)">Abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allee_effect" title="Allee effect">Allee effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer-resource_model" title="Consumer-resource model">Consumer-resource model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depensation" title="Depensation">Depensation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_yield" title="Ecological yield">Ecological yield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effective_population_size" title="Effective population size">Effective population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraspecific_competition" title="Intraspecific competition">Intraspecific competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logistic_function" title="Logistic function">Logistic function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthusian_growth_model" title="Malthusian growth model">Malthusian growth model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_sustainable_yield" title="Maximum sustainable yield">Maximum sustainable yield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overpopulation" title="Overpopulation">Overpopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_cycle" title="Population cycle">Population cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_dynamics" title="Population dynamics">Population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_model" title="Population model">Population modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_size" title="Population size">Population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_equations" title="Lotka–Volterra equations">Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recruitment_(biology)" title="Recruitment (biology)">Recruitment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_population_size" title="Small population size">Small population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_stability" title="Ecological stability">Stability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_resilience" title="Ecological resilience">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_(ecology)" title="Resistance (ecology)">Resistance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Random_generalized_Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_model" title="Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model">Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Density_dependence" title="Density dependence">Density-dependent inhibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_effects_of_biodiversity" title="Ecological effects of biodiversity">Ecological effects of biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_extinction" title="Ecological extinction">Ecological extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endemism" title="Endemism">Endemic species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flagship_species" title="Flagship species">Flagship species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination_(statistics)" title="Ordination (statistics)">Gradient analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioindicator" title="Bioindicator">Indicator species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">Introduced species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a> / <a href="/wiki/Native_species" title="Native species">Native species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latitudinal_gradients_in_species_diversity" title="Latitudinal gradients in species diversity">Latitudinal gradients in species diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_viable_population" title="Minimum viable population">Minimum viable population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_neutral_theory_of_biodiversity" title="Unified neutral theory of biodiversity">Neutral theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupancy%E2%80%93abundance_relationship" title="Occupancy–abundance relationship">Occupancy–abundance relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_viability_analysis" title="Population viability analysis">Population viability analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priority_effect" title="Priority effect">Priority effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapoport%27s_rule" title="Rapoport's rule">Rapoport's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_abundance_distribution" title="Relative abundance distribution">Relative abundance distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_species_abundance" title="Relative species abundance">Relative species abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_diversity" title="Species diversity">Species diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_homogeneity" title="Species homogeneity">Species homogeneity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_richness" title="Species richness">Species richness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_distribution" title="Species distribution">Species distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species%E2%80%93area_relationship" title="Species–area relationship">Species–area curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbrella_species" title="Umbrella species">Umbrella species</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species<br />interaction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antibiosis" title="Antibiosis">Antibiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">Biological interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensalism" title="Commensalism">Commensalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">Community ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_facilitation" title="Ecological facilitation">Ecological facilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interspecific_competition" title="Interspecific competition">Interspecific competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">Parasitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_effect" title="Storage effect">Storage effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">Symbiosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Spatial_ecology" title="Spatial ecology">Spatial<br />ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-boundary_subsidy" title="Cross-boundary subsidy">Cross-boundary subsidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cline_(biology)" title="Cline (biology)">Ecocline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotone" title="Ecotone">Ecotone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotype" title="Ecotype">Ecotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disturbance_(ecology)" title="Disturbance (ecology)">Disturbance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_effects" title="Edge effects">Edge effects</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Foster's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">Habitat fragmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_free_distribution" title="Ideal free distribution">Ideal free distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate_disturbance_hypothesis" title="Intermediate disturbance hypothesis">Intermediate disturbance hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_biogeography" title="Insular biogeography">Insular biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_change_modeling" title="Land change modeling">Land change modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_epidemiology" title="Landscape epidemiology">Landscape epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_limnology" title="Landscape limnology">Landscape limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapopulation" title="Metapopulation">Metapopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patch_dynamics" title="Patch dynamics">Patch dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R/K_selection_theory" title="R/K selection theory"><i>r</i>/<i>K</i> selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_selection_function" title="Resource selection function">Resource selection function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source%E2%80%93sink_dynamics" title="Source–sink dynamics">Source–sink dynamics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Niche</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Ecological niche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_trap" title="Ecological trap">Ecological trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_engineer" title="Ecosystem engineer">Ecosystem engineer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_distribution_modelling" title="Species distribution modelling">Environmental niche modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guild_(ecology)" title="Guild (ecology)">Guild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">Habitat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">marine habitats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limiting_similarity" title="Limiting similarity">Limiting similarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_apportionment_models" title="Niche apportionment models">Niche apportionment models</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_construction" title="Niche construction">Niche construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_differentiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Niche differentiation">Niche differentiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontogenetic_niche_shift" title="Ontogenetic niche shift">Ontogenetic niche shift</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Non-trophic_networks" title="Non-trophic networks">Other<br />networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_rules" title="Assembly rules">Assembly rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bateman%27s_principle" title="Bateman's principle">Bateman's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">Bioluminescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological collapse">Ecological collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_debt" title="Ecological debt">Ecological debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_debt" title="Ecological debt">Ecological deficit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Ecological energetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_indicator" title="Ecological indicator">Ecological indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_threshold" title="Ecological threshold">Ecological threshold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_diversity" title="Ecosystem diversity">Ecosystem diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">Emergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_debt" title="Extinction debt">Extinction debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleiber%27s_law" title="Kleiber's law">Kleiber's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liebig%27s_law_of_the_minimum" title="Liebig's law of the minimum">Liebig's law of the minimum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_value_theorem" title="Marginal value theorem">Marginal value theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorson%27s_rule" title="Thorson's rule">Thorson's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xerosere" title="Xerosere">Xerosere</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allometry" title="Allometry">Allometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_stable_state" title="Alternative stable state">Alternative stable state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_nature" title="Balance of nature">Balance of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_data_visualization" title="Biological data visualization">Biological data visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_forecasting" title="Ecological forecasting">Ecological forecasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_humanities" title="Environmental humanities">Ecological humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_stoichiometry" title="Ecological stoichiometry">Ecological stoichiometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecopath" title="Ecopath">Ecopath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_based_fisheries" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem based fisheries">Ecosystem based fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endolith" title="Endolith">Endolith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ecology" title="Evolutionary ecology">Evolutionary ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_ecology" title="Functional ecology">Functional ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroecology" title="Macroecology">Macroecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microecosystem" title="Microecosystem">Microecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">Natural environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime_shift" title="Regime shift">Regime shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexecology" title="Sexecology">Sexecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Systems ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_ecology" title="Urban ecology">Urban ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_ecology" title="Theoretical ecology">Theoretical ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ecology" title="Outline of ecology">Outline of ecology</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    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