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(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title fn org">Japanese settlement in Papua New Guinea</caption><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above nickname" style="font-size:115%; font-weight:normal;"><div>パプアニューギニアの日本人居留地</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan"><img alt="Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea" title="Papua New Guinea"><img alt="Papua New Guinea" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Flag_of_Papua_New_Guinea.svg/20px-Flag_of_Papua_New_Guinea.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Flag_of_Papua_New_Guinea.svg/31px-Flag_of_Papua_New_Guinea.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Flag_of_Papua_New_Guinea.svg/40px-Flag_of_Papua_New_Guinea.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="450" /></a></span></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Japan_Papua_New_Guinea_locator.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Japan_Papua_New_Guinea_locator.png/220px-Japan_Papua_New_Guinea_locator.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Japan_Papua_New_Guinea_locator.png/330px-Japan_Papua_New_Guinea_locator.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Japan_Papua_New_Guinea_locator.png/440px-Japan_Papua_New_Guinea_locator.png 2x" data-file-width="838" data-file-height="974" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de; color:inherit;">Total population</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><b>207</b> (2007)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de; color:inherit;">Regions with significant populations</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Rabaul" title="Rabaul">Rabaul</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lae" title="Lae">Lae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mount_Hagen" title="Mount Hagen">Mount Hagen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Port_Moresby" title="Port Moresby">Port Moresby</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de; color:inherit;">Languages</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Papuan_languages" title="Papuan languages">Papuan languages</a>, <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de; color:inherit;">Religion</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Predominantly <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholicism">Roman Catholicism</a>,<br /> <a href="/wiki/Shintoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Shintoism">Shintoism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mahayana_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahayana Buddhism">Mahayana Buddhism</a><sup id="cite_ref-Kagoshima1997_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kagoshima1997-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de; color:inherit;">Related ethnic groups</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Papuan_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Papuan peoples">Papuans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japanese_diaspora" title="Japanese diaspora">Japanese</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Japanese settlement</b> in the <a href="/wiki/Territory_of_Papua" title="Territory of Papua">Territory of Papua</a> and <a href="/wiki/German_New_Guinea" title="German New Guinea">German New Guinea</a> (in what now constitutes modern-day <a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a>) dates back to the early 20th century when migrants from Japan established <a href="/wiki/Copra_plantations_in_New_Guinea" title="Copra plantations in New Guinea">copra plantations</a> and trading businesses in the islands, specifically <a href="/wiki/Rabaul" title="Rabaul">Rabaul</a>. The Japanese community remained small throughout the first half of the 20th century, although there were Japanese migrating in and out of New Guinea in different years from 1901 to 1945, it generally never exceeded more than 100 as a whole community. Some Japanese stayed for short terms and were replaced by newer emigrants from Japan, others stayed for longer periods depending on their roles. Most Japanese in Papua were businessmen and plantation managers, although a few became fishermen. As almost all the migrants were men, many of them married local Papuan wives and raised mixed-race Japanese-Papuan families while other Japanese men staying only for short periods also had sexual cohabitations with local Papuan women, but in most cases without marrying. Many of them did produce offspring but they were generally abandoned by their Japanese fathers (some of whom were already married with children in Japan) and raised by their single Papuan mothers or sent to the orphanage. These abandoned mixed-race children's were recorded as ethnic Papuans in the census as the ethnicity of their fathers was unknown. </p><p>During <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army" title="Imperial Japanese Army">Imperial Japanese Army</a> invaded New Guinea with 350,000 troops and occupied most of its territory from January 1942 to August 1945. Some Papuan women including mixed-race Japanese-Papuan women were forced to become <a href="/wiki/Comfort_women" title="Comfort women">comfort women</a>. Most Japanese in the unoccupied areas of New Guinea were deported to <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> where they were confined. The majority of them were repatriated to Japan after the war, although their mixed-race children were allowed to remain behind and assimilated with the local populace.<sup id="cite_ref-Kagoshima17_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kagoshima17-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Official estimates show 207 Japanese-Papuan mixed descendants. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_settlement_in_Papua_New_Guinea&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_years">Early years</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_settlement_in_Papua_New_Guinea&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early years"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first recorded Japanese presence in <a href="/wiki/German_New_Guinea" title="German New Guinea">German New Guinea</a> dates back to the beginning of the 20th century when a pearl diver, <a href="/wiki/Isokichi_Komine" title="Isokichi Komine">Isokichi Komine</a> from <a href="/wiki/Thursday_Island" title="Thursday Island">Thursday Island</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Islands" title="Torres Strait Islands">Torres Strait Islands</a> relocated to <a href="/wiki/Rabaul" title="Rabaul">Rabaul</a> in October 1901. Upon settling in Rabaul, Komine worked for its governor Albert Hahl in the plantation, trade and shipbuilding fields. Komine secured a thirty-year land lease from Hahl to build a shipyard on Rabaul in 1907, in addition to several other land concessions for <a href="/wiki/Copra" title="Copra">copra</a> plantation. At this time, Japanese migrants in Rabaul and the neighbouring islands joined Komine and worked for him.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other migrants settled in <a href="/wiki/Port_Moresby" title="Port Moresby">Port Moresby</a> and <a href="/wiki/Samarai" title="Samarai">Samarai</a>. When <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> broke out in 1914, Japanese settlers in Rabaul experienced political tension as relations between Germany and Japan weakened. When Japan declared war against Germany in 1914, Komine aligned with the Australians, but also maintained close ties with German businessmen to safeguard his business interests. A few more Japanese migrated to New Guinea between 1914 and 1918 and established new independent enterprises that competed with Komine's, consisting mainly of copra plantations, pearl diving and trade. One Japanese businessman, Imaizumi Masao diversified into the entertainment industry and set up a picture theatre, <i>New Britain Pictures</i> in 1916.<sup id="cite_ref-ATL005_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ATL005-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some of Japanese settlers who lived in the plantations occasionally suffered from tropical ailments including <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a>, although fatalities were rare. In Rabaul's <a href="/wiki/Chinatown" title="Chinatown">Chinatown</a>, Japanese settlers became shopkeepers. Japanese settlers generally maintained cordial relations with the natives, and a sizeable majority intermarried with the natives from the 1910s onwards, although a few settlers brought their wives and families from Japan along.<sup id="cite_ref-ATL005_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ATL005-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1920s and 1930s, Japanese immigration to New Guinea remained minimal, which was attributed to strict immigration laws that was imposed by the Australian colonial government and discouraged Japanese settlement in New Guinea. In 1932, the Japanese community formed a Japanese society at Rabaul and nominated Nagahama Taichi as its first president. The Japanese maintained contact with <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> through a regular trading ship which visited Rabaul through <a href="/wiki/Pohnpei" title="Pohnpei">Pohnpei</a>. Around the same time, children of the first Japanese settlers—usually offspring of Japanese fathers and Papuan mothers—inherited their father's business enterprises.<sup id="cite_ref-Kagoshima17_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kagoshima17-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_II,_comfort_women_and_aftermath"><span id="World_War_II.2C_comfort_women_and_aftermath"></span>World War II, comfort women and aftermath</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_settlement_in_Papua_New_Guinea&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: World War II, comfort women and aftermath"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A few Japanese left New Guinea between 1940 and 1941 in the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a>, as Japanese reconnaissance planes were often spotted in New Guinea's skies, hinting at the prospect of a Japanese invasion. A trading ship from the South Seas Trading Company offered to help Japanese residents leave New Guinea, but some thirty-three Japanese chose to stay behind, ten of whom had raised local families during the interwar years. When reports of the <a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">attack on Pearl Harbor</a> reached the Australian colonial administration on 8 December 1941, Japanese residents at Rabaul were immediately arrested and interned at the local jail, while the search and arrest for other Japanese residents in the neighbouring islands continued until May 1942. Indigenous spouses of Japanese residents as well as mixed-race Japanese children also faced similar fates as the other Japanese residents. When the Japanese captured Rabaul in January 1942, the Japanese residents who were interned were relocated to <a href="/wiki/Sydney" title="Sydney">Sydney</a>, although their native spouses and children were left behind. The former residents were joined by other Japanese prisoners-of-war from <a href="/wiki/New_Hebrides" title="New Hebrides">New Hebrides</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Caledonia" title="New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a> and those from other parts of Australia.<sup id="cite_ref-Kagoshima1997_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kagoshima1997-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When the Japanese arrived in Rabaul in 1942, Japanese residents who were not captured welcomed the Japanese soldiers, who released the mixed-race Japanese from internment. Most of them initially held suspicions of the presence of Japanese military personnel, which was partly fuelled by the absence of their Japanese fathers who were relocated to concentration camps in Australia. During the Japanese occupation from 1942 to 1945, mixed-race Japanese children were conscripted to clerical or light menial work within the military administration, and some received a Japanese education. At least one mixed-race Japanese, Pius Kikuchi, described the treatment of the Japanese military administration to the mixed-race children as gentle but discipline-oriented in nature. In other areas of Papua New Guinea which remained under Australian control, families of Japanese residents generally received harsh treatment from the Australian military.<sup id="cite_ref-Kagoshima1997_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kagoshima1997-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "<a href="/wiki/Comfort_women" title="Comfort women">Comfort women</a>" formed another major component of the local Japanese community during the Japanese occupation years, which consisted of up to 3,000 Japanese and <a href="/wiki/Korean_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Korean people">Korean</a> women who were stationed in Rabaul's Chinatown which was frequented by Japanese military personnel. Apart from local Papuan women also serving as comfort women, one Australian Captain, David Hutchinson-Smith, also mentioned of some mixed-race, young Japanese-Papuan girls who were also conscripted as comfort women.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the <a href="/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">Japanese surrender</a> in 1945, former Japanese residents of Rabaul were automatically to be repatriated to Japan, and a debate ensued on the fate of ten former Japanese residents who had raised local families. Among the local populace, there was considerable <a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment">anti-Japanese sentiment</a> and graves of the first Japanese settlers were exhumed along with those of the Japanese soldiers and thrown into the sea. One Japanese resident was released from detention immediately after reaching Samarai. Another former resident, Izumi died of illness during internment and eight others were held under military custody until 1949 before they were deported to Japan. All eight former residents returned to Japan and realised that their assets in Japan and New Guinea were confiscated, although a few were able to re-integrate into the mainstream Japanese society. Some former residents maintained links with their native wives for a few years before remarrying in Japan, but none of them returned to Papua New Guinea throughout their remaining lives. The mixed-race Japanese assimilated with the local populace within a few years after the war and identified themselves as Papuans.<sup id="cite_ref-Kagoshima1997_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kagoshima1997-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cultural_profile">Cultural profile</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_settlement_in_Papua_New_Guinea&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Cultural profile"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A 1921 census counted 87 individuals, and the number of Japanese residents in New Guinea witnessed a decline until here were only 36 in 1940. Approximately one third were businessmen living in Rabaul, while the remainder were plantation managers and fishermen who lived mainly in <a href="/wiki/Manus_Province" title="Manus Province">Manus</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Ireland_Province" title="New Ireland Province">New Ireland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bougainville_Island" title="Bougainville Island">Bougainville</a>. In particular, a census done in 1933 counted 29 second-generation Japanese residents – these comprised mixed-race Japanese Papuans as well as a few full-blooded Japanese, and nine long-term Japanese residents in Papua. First-generation Japanese residents were mostly adherents of Shinto and Buddhism, although they generally avoided celebrating religious or cultural festivals in public. No Japanese Shinto or Buddhist shrines were built during the interwar years, and Japanese residents publicly celebrated Australian holidays to avoid rousing suspicion from the Australian authorities. Upon marrying a native wife, Japanese residents conduct their wedding ceremonies in Christian churches, and often send their children to Catholic Mission schools. Most mixed-race children were taught to speak Papuan languages and English from infancy, and had little knowledge of the Japanese language and customs.<sup id="cite_ref-Kagoshima17_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kagoshima17-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the Japanese occupation, mixed-race Japanese were taught in the Japanese language as well as its cultural customs.<sup id="cite_ref-Kagoshima1997_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kagoshima1997-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_people">Notable people</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_settlement_in_Papua_New_Guinea&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Notable people"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emi_Maria" title="Emi Maria">Emi Maria</a>, Papuan New Guinean singer of Japanese descent</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_settlement_in_Papua_New_Guinea&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/New_guinea_blank.svg/32px-New_guinea_blank.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/New_guinea_blank.svg/48px-New_guinea_blank.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/New_guinea_blank.svg/64px-New_guinea_blank.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="867" data-file-height="452" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:New_Guinea" title="Portal:New Guinea">New Guinea portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/32px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/48px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/64px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Japan" title="Portal:Japan">Japan portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_people_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Chinese people in Papua New Guinea">Chinese people in Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copra_plantations_in_New_Guinea" title="Copra plantations in New Guinea">Copra plantations in New Guinea</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_settlement_in_Papua_New_Guinea&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Footnotes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_settlement_in_Papua_New_Guinea&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.apic.or.jp/plaza/oda/special/20090511.html">第5回　太平洋・島サミット開催！</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged November 2017">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup>, Plaza for International Cooperation, Official Development Assistance, Office of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Japan, retrieved October 17, 2009</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kagoshima1997-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kagoshima1997_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kagoshima1997_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kagoshima1997_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kagoshima1997_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kagoshima1997_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ir.kagoshima-u.ac.jp/bitstream/10232/60/1/Iwa.pdf">The Pacific War in Relation to Japanese settlers in Papua New Guinea</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged November 2018">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup>, South Pacific Study Vol. 17, No. 2, 1997, Hiromitsu Iwamoto, Kagoshima University Repository</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kagoshima17-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kagoshima17_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kagoshima17_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kagoshima17_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ir.kagoshima-u.ac.jp/bitstream/10232/55/1/iwa.pdf">Japanese Southward Expansion in the South Seas and its Relations with Japanese Settlers in Papua and New Guinea, 1919-1940</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140222181030/http://ir.kagoshima-u.ac.jp/bitstream/10232/55/1/iwa.pdf">Archived</a> 2014-02-22 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, South Pacific Study Vol. 17, No. 1, 1996, Hiromitsu Iwamoto, Kagoshima University Repository</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gosden (2001), p. 58</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ATL005-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ATL005_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ATL005_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ir.kagoshima-u.ac.jp/bitstream/10232/110/1/ATL005.pdf">The impact of World War I on Japanese settlers in Papua and New Guinea, 1914-1918</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140222181033/http://ir.kagoshima-u.ac.jp/bitstream/10232/110/1/ATL005.pdf">Archived</a> 2014-02-22 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, South Pacific Study Vol. 16, No. 2, 1996, Hiromitsu Iwamoto, <a href="/wiki/Kagoshima_University" title="Kagoshima University">Kagoshima University</a> Repository</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rspas.anu.edu.au/papers/pah/Nelson_COMFORT_WOMEN_RABAUL.pdf">The Consolation Unit: Comfort Women at Rabaul</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070610042634/http://rspas.anu.edu.au/papers/pah/Nelson_COMFORT_WOMEN_RABAUL.pdf">Archived</a> 2007-06-10 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hank_Nelson" title="Hank Nelson">Hank Nelson</a>, The Australian National University–Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, retrieved October 26, 2009</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_settlement_in_Papua_New_Guinea&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Gosden, Chris; Knowles, Chantal, <i>Collecting Colonialism: Material Culture and Colonial Change</i>, Berg Publishers, 2001, <style 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Japanese_diaspora137" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Japanese_diaspora" title="Template:Japanese diaspora"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Japanese_diaspora" title="Template talk:Japanese diaspora"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Japanese_diaspora" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Japanese diaspora"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Japanese_diaspora137" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_diaspora" title="Japanese diaspora">Japanese diaspora</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ryukyuan_diaspora" title="Ryukyuan diaspora">Ryukyuan diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ainu_people#Population" title="Ainu people">Ainu diaspora</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_people_in_Egypt" title="Japanese people in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_people_in_South_Africa" title="Japanese people in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Caribbean_people" title="Japanese Caribbean people">Caribbean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Cubans" title="Japanese Cubans">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_settlement_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Japanese settlement in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_expatriates_in_Jamaica" title="Japanese expatriates in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Canadians" title="Japanese Canadians">Canada</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Canadians_in_British_Columbia" title="Japanese Canadians in British Columbia">British Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_in_Montreal" title="Japanese in Montreal">Montreal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Canadians_in_the_Greater_Toronto_Area" title="Japanese Canadians in the Greater Toronto Area">Toronto</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Americans" title="Japanese Americans">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._cities_with_large_Japanese-American_populations" title="List of U.S. cities with large Japanese-American populations">cities with large Japanese-American populations</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Argentines" title="Japanese Argentines">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Bolivians" title="Japanese Bolivians">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Brazilians" title="Japanese Brazilians">Brazil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_community_of_S%C3%A3o_Paulo" title="Japanese community of São Paulo">São Paulo City</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Chileans" title="Japanese Chileans">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_diaspora_in_Colombia" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese diaspora in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Mexicans" title="Japanese Mexicans">Mexico</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_community_of_Mexico_City" title="Japanese community of Mexico City">Mexico City</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Paraguayans" title="Japanese Paraguayans">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Peruvians" title="Japanese Peruvians">Peru</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Peruvian_people_of_Okinawan_descent" title="Category:Peruvian people of Okinawan descent">Ryukyuan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Uruguayans" title="Japanese Uruguayans">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Venezuelans" title="Japanese Venezuelans">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_people_in_China" title="Japanese people in China">Mainland China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_community_of_Shanghai" title="Japanese community of Shanghai">Shanghai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_orphans_in_China" title="Japanese orphans in China">Japanese orphans</a></li> <li><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%84%AB%E6%B8%85%E4%BA%BA" class="extiw" title="zh:脫清人">Ryukyuan refugees</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_people_in_Hong_Kong" title="Japanese people in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%A8%E8%87%BA%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E4%BA%BA" class="extiw" title="zh:在臺日本人">Taiwan</a> <ul><li><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%81%A3%E7%94%9F" class="extiw" title="zh:灣生">born in Taiwan</a> (Wansei)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Taiwanese_people_of_Okinawan_descent" title="Category:Taiwanese people of Okinawan descent">Ryukyuan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_people_in_India" title="Japanese people in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_migration_to_Indonesia" title="Japanese migration to Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li>Korea <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_people_in_North_Korea" title="Japanese people in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_people_in_South_Korea" title="Japanese people in South Korea">South Korea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_migration_to_Malaysia" title="Japanese migration to Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_people_in_Nepal" title="Japanese people in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_in_the_Philippines" title="Japanese in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_people_in_Singapore" title="Japanese people in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_people_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Japanese people in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_migration_to_Thailand" title="Japanese migration to Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_people_in_Turkey" title="Japanese people in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expatriates_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates#Japanese" title="Expatriates in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_people_in_Vietnam" title="Japanese people in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Belgium <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_community_of_Brussels" title="Japanese community of Brussels">Brussels</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_people_in_France" title="Japanese people in France">France</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_community_of_Paris" title="Japanese community of Paris">Paris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_people_in_Germany" title="Japanese people in Germany">Germany</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_community_of_D%C3%BCsseldorf" title="Japanese community of Düsseldorf">Düsseldorf</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_people_in_the_Netherlands" title="Japanese people in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_people_in_Russia" title="Japanese people in Russia">Russia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ainu_in_Russia" title="Ainu in Russia">Ainu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_people_in_Spain" title="Japanese people in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Japanese in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_community_of_London" title="Japanese community of London">London</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_settlement_in_Micronesia" title="Japanese settlement in Micronesia">Micronesia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Micronesians" title="Japanese Micronesians">Federated States of Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_settlement_in_Kiribati" title="Japanese settlement in Kiribati">Kiribati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_settlement_in_the_Marshall_Islands" title="Japanese settlement in the Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Marshallese_people_of_Okinawan_descent" title="Category:Marshallese people of Okinawan descent">Ryukyuan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_settlement_in_Palau" title="Japanese settlement in Palau">Palau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Elsewhere</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Australians" title="Japanese Australians">Australia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_community_of_Melbourne" title="Japanese community of Melbourne">Melbourne</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_in_Hawaii" title="Japanese in Hawaii">Hawaii</a> (United States) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Okinawans_in_Hawaii" title="Okinawans in Hawaii">Ryukyuan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_settlement_in_New_Caledonia" title="Japanese settlement in New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a> (France)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_New_Zealanders" title="Japanese New Zealanders">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_expatriates_in_Solomon_Islands" title="Japanese expatriates in Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related<br />articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Generations30" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Generations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Issei" title="Issei">Issei</a> <ul><li>immigrants</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nisei" title="Nisei">Nisei</a> <ul><li>second generation</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sansei" title="Sansei">Sansei</a> <ul><li>third generation</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yonsei_(Japanese_diaspora)" title="Yonsei (Japanese diaspora)">Yonsei</a> <ul><li>fourth generation</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gosei_(Japanese_diaspora)" title="Gosei (Japanese diaspora)">Gosei</a> <ul><li>fifth generation</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dekasegi" title="Dekasegi">Dekasegi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign-born_Japanese" title="Foreign-born Japanese">Foreign-born Japanese</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Japanese_and_Europe" title="The Japanese and Europe">The Japanese and Europe</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Japanese_in_Latin_America" title="The Japanese in Latin America">The Japanese in Latin America</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japantown" title="Japantown">Japantown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hosh%C5%AB_jugy%C5%8D_k%C5%8D" title="Hoshū jugyō kō">Hoshū jugyō kō</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_hosh%C5%AB_jugy%C5%8D_k%C5%8D" title="List of hoshū jugyō kō">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Looking_Like_the_Enemy" title="Looking Like the Enemy">Looking Like the Enemy</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_Worlds,_New_Lives" title="New Worlds, New Lives">New Worlds, New Lives</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihonjin_gakk%C5%8D" title="Nihonjin gakkō">Nihonjin gakkō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_Asian-American_majority_populations" title="List of U.S. communities with Asian-American majority populations">List of U.S. communities with Asian-American majority populations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ryukyuan<br />related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fukush%C5%ABen" title="Fukushūen">Fukushūen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okinawans_in_Hawaii" title="Okinawans in Hawaii">Okinawans in Hawaii</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hawaii_United_Okinawa_Association" title="Hawaii United Okinawa Association">Hawaii United Okinawa Association</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ryukyu_Disposition" title="Ryukyu Disposition">Ryukyu Disposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ry%C5%ABky%C5%AB-kan" title="Ryūkyū-kan">Ryūkyū-kan</a></li> <li><a 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