Solar | An Open Access Journal from MDPI

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value="engproc" > Engineering Proceedings </option> <option value="entropy" > Entropy </option> <option value="environsciproc" > Environmental Sciences Proceedings </option> <option value="environments" > Environments </option> <option value="epidemiologia" > Epidemiologia </option> <option value="epigenomes" > Epigenomes </option> <option value="ebj" > European Burn Journal (EBJ) </option> <option value="ejihpe" > European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education (EJIHPE) </option> <option value="fermentation" > Fermentation </option> <option value="fibers" > Fibers </option> <option value="fintech" > FinTech </option> <option value="fire" > Fire </option> <option value="fishes" > Fishes </option> <option value="fluids" > Fluids </option> <option value="foods" > Foods </option> <option value="forecasting" > Forecasting </option> <option value="forensicsci" > Forensic Sciences </option> <option value="forests" > Forests </option> <option value="fossstud" > Fossil 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</option> <option value="geometry" > Geometry </option> <option value="geosciences" > Geosciences </option> <option value="geotechnics" > Geotechnics </option> <option value="geriatrics" > Geriatrics </option> <option value="glacies" > Glacies </option> <option value="gucdd" > Gout, Urate, and Crystal Deposition Disease (GUCDD) </option> <option value="grasses" > Grasses </option> <option value="hardware" > Hardware </option> <option value="healthcare" > Healthcare </option> <option value="hearts" > Hearts </option> <option value="hemato" > Hemato </option> <option value="hematolrep" > Hematology Reports </option> <option value="heritage" > Heritage </option> <option value="histories" > Histories </option> <option value="horticulturae" > Horticulturae </option> <option value="hospitals" > Hospitals </option> <option value="humanities" > Humanities </option> <option value="humans" > Humans </option> <option value="hydrobiology" > Hydrobiology </option> <option value="hydrogen" > Hydrogen </option> <option value="hydrology" > Hydrology </option> <option value="hygiene" > Hygiene </option> <option value="immuno" > Immuno </option> <option value="idr" > Infectious Disease Reports </option> <option value="informatics" > Informatics </option> <option value="information" > Information </option> <option value="infrastructures" > Infrastructures </option> <option value="inorganics" > Inorganics </option> <option value="insects" > Insects </option> <option value="instruments" > Instruments </option> <option value="iic" > Intelligent Infrastructure and Construction </option> <option value="ijerph" > International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (IJERPH) </option> <option value="ijfs" > International Journal of Financial Studies (IJFS) </option> <option value="ijms" > International Journal of Molecular Sciences (IJMS) </option> <option value="IJNS" > International Journal of Neonatal Screening (IJNS) </option> <option value="ijpb" > International Journal of Plant Biology (IJPB) </option> <option value="ijt" > International Journal of Topology </option> <option value="ijtm" > International Journal of Translational Medicine (IJTM) </option> <option value="ijtpp" > International Journal of Turbomachinery, Propulsion and Power (IJTPP) </option> <option value="ime" > International Medical Education (IME) </option> <option value="inventions" > Inventions </option> <option value="IoT" > IoT </option> <option value="ijgi" > ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information (IJGI) </option> <option value="J" > J </option> <option value="jal" > Journal of Ageing and Longevity (JAL) </option> <option value="jcdd" > Journal of Cardiovascular Development and Disease (JCDD) </option> <option value="jcto" > Journal of Clinical & Translational Ophthalmology (JCTO) </option> <option value="jcm" > Journal of Clinical Medicine (JCM) </option> <option value="jcs" > Journal of Composites Science (J. Compos. Sci.) </option> <option value="jcp" > Journal of Cybersecurity and Privacy (JCP) </option> <option value="jdad" > Journal of Dementia and Alzheimer's Disease (JDAD) </option> <option value="jdb" > Journal of Developmental Biology (JDB) </option> <option value="jeta" > Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Analyses (JETA) </option> <option value="jfb" > Journal of Functional Biomaterials (JFB) </option> <option value="jfmk" > Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology (JFMK) </option> <option value="jof" > Journal of Fungi (JoF) </option> <option value="jimaging" > Journal of Imaging (J. Imaging) </option> <option value="jintelligence" > Journal of Intelligence (J. Intell.) </option> <option value="jlpea" > Journal of Low Power Electronics and Applications (JLPEA) </option> <option value="jmmp" > Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing (JMMP) </option> <option value="jmse" > Journal of Marine Science and Engineering (JMSE) </option> <option value="jmahp" > Journal of Market Access & Health Policy (JMAHP) </option> <option value="jmp" > Journal of Molecular Pathology (JMP) </option> <option value="jnt" > Journal of Nanotheranostics (JNT) </option> <option value="jne" > Journal of Nuclear Engineering (JNE) </option> <option value="ohbm" > Journal of Otorhinolaryngology, Hearing and Balance Medicine (JOHBM) </option> <option value="jop" > Journal of Parks </option> <option value="jpm" > Journal of Personalized Medicine (JPM) </option> <option value="jpbi" > Journal of Pharmaceutical and BioTech Industry (JPBI) </option> <option value="jor" > Journal of Respiration (JoR) </option> <option value="jrfm" > Journal of Risk and Financial Management (JRFM) </option> <option value="jsan" > Journal of Sensor and Actuator Networks (JSAN) </option> <option value="joma" > Journal of the Oman Medical Association (JOMA) </option> <option value="jtaer" > Journal of Theoretical and Applied Electronic Commerce Research (JTAER) </option> <option value="jvd" > Journal of Vascular Diseases (JVD) </option> <option value="jox" > Journal of Xenobiotics (JoX) </option> <option value="jzbg" > Journal of Zoological and Botanical Gardens (JZBG) </option> <option value="journalmedia" > Journalism and Media </option> <option value="kidneydial" > Kidney and Dialysis </option> <option value="kinasesphosphatases" > Kinases and Phosphatases </option> <option value="knowledge" > Knowledge </option> <option value="labmed" > LabMed </option> <option value="laboratories" > Laboratories </option> <option value="land" > Land </option> <option value="languages" > Languages </option> <option value="laws" > Laws </option> <option value="life" > Life 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Mathematics </option> <option value="medsci" > Medical Sciences </option> <option value="msf" > Medical Sciences Forum </option> <option value="medicina" > Medicina </option> <option value="medicines" > Medicines </option> <option value="membranes" > Membranes </option> <option value="merits" > Merits </option> <option value="metabolites" > Metabolites </option> <option value="metals" > Metals </option> <option value="meteorology" > Meteorology </option> <option value="methane" > Methane </option> <option value="mps" > Methods and Protocols (MPs) </option> <option value="metrics" > Metrics </option> <option value="metrology" > Metrology </option> <option value="micro" > Micro </option> <option value="microbiolres" > Microbiology Research </option> <option value="micromachines" > Micromachines </option> <option value="microorganisms" > Microorganisms </option> <option value="microplastics" > Microplastics </option> <option value="minerals" > Minerals </option> <option value="mining" > Mining </option> <option value="modelling" > Modelling </option> <option value="mmphys" > Modern Mathematical Physics </option> <option value="molbank" > Molbank </option> <option value="molecules" > Molecules </option> <option value="mti" > Multimodal Technologies and Interaction (MTI) </option> <option value="muscles" > Muscles </option> <option value="nanoenergyadv" > Nanoenergy Advances </option> <option value="nanomanufacturing" > Nanomanufacturing </option> <option value="nanomaterials" > Nanomaterials </option> <option value="ndt" > NDT </option> <option value="network" > Network </option> <option value="neuroglia" > Neuroglia </option> <option value="neurolint" > Neurology International </option> <option value="neurosci" > NeuroSci </option> <option value="nitrogen" > Nitrogen </option> <option value="ncrna" > Non-Coding RNA (ncRNA) </option> <option value="nursrep" > Nursing Reports </option> <option value="nutraceuticals" > Nutraceuticals </option> <option value="nutrients" > Nutrients </option> <option value="obesities" > Obesities </option> <option value="oceans" > Oceans </option> <option value="onco" > Onco </option> <option value="optics" > Optics </option> <option value="oral" > Oral </option> <option value="organics" > Organics </option> <option value="organoids" > Organoids </option> <option value="osteology" > Osteology </option> <option value="oxygen" > Oxygen </option> <option value="parasitologia" > Parasitologia </option> <option value="particles" > Particles </option> <option value="pathogens" > Pathogens </option> <option value="pathophysiology" > Pathophysiology </option> <option value="pediatrrep" > Pediatric Reports </option> <option value="pets" > Pets </option> <option value="pharmaceuticals" > Pharmaceuticals </option> <option value="pharmaceutics" > Pharmaceutics </option> <option value="pharmacoepidemiology" > Pharmacoepidemiology </option> <option value="pharmacy" > Pharmacy </option> <option value="philosophies" > Philosophies </option> <option value="photochem" > Photochem </option> <option value="photonics" > Photonics </option> <option value="phycology" > Phycology </option> <option value="physchem" > Physchem </option> <option value="psf" > Physical Sciences Forum </option> <option value="physics" > Physics </option> <option value="physiologia" > Physiologia </option> <option value="plants" > Plants </option> <option value="plasma" > Plasma </option> <option value="platforms" > Platforms </option> <option value="pollutants" > Pollutants </option> <option value="polymers" > Polymers </option> <option value="polysaccharides" > Polysaccharides </option> <option value="populations" > Populations </option> <option value="poultry" > Poultry </option> <option value="powders" > Powders </option> <option value="proceedings" > Proceedings </option> <option value="processes" > Processes </option> <option value="prosthesis" > Prosthesis </option> <option value="proteomes" > Proteomes </option> <option 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Med.) </option> <option value="resources" > Resources </option> <option value="rheumato" > Rheumato </option> <option value="risks" > Risks </option> <option value="robotics" > Robotics </option> <option value="ruminants" > Ruminants </option> <option value="safety" > Safety </option> <option value="sci" > Sci </option> <option value="scipharm" > Scientia Pharmaceutica (Sci. Pharm.) </option> <option value="sclerosis" > Sclerosis </option> <option value="seeds" > Seeds </option> <option value="sensors" > Sensors </option> <option value="separations" > Separations </option> <option value="sexes" > Sexes </option> <option value="signals" > Signals </option> <option value="sinusitis" > Sinusitis </option> <option value="smartcities" > Smart Cities </option> <option value="socsci" > Social Sciences </option> <option value="siuj" > Société Internationale d’Urologie Journal (SIUJ) </option> <option value="societies" > Societies </option> <option value="software" > Software </option> <option value="soilsystems" > Soil Systems </option> <option value="solar" selected='selected'> Solar </option> <option value="solids" > Solids </option> <option value="spectroscj" > Spectroscopy Journal </option> <option value="sports" > Sports </option> <option value="standards" > Standards </option> <option value="stats" > Stats </option> <option value="stresses" > Stresses </option> <option value="surfaces" > Surfaces </option> <option value="surgeries" > Surgeries </option> <option value="std" > Surgical Techniques Development </option> <option value="sustainability" > Sustainability </option> <option value="suschem" > Sustainable Chemistry </option> <option value="symmetry" > Symmetry </option> <option value="synbio" > SynBio </option> <option value="systems" > Systems </option> <option value="targets" > Targets </option> <option value="taxonomy" > Taxonomy </option> <option value="technologies" > Technologies </option> <option value="telecom" > Telecom </option> <option value="textiles" > Textiles </option> <option value="thalassrep" > Thalassemia Reports </option> <option value="therapeutics" > Therapeutics </option> <option value="thermo" > Thermo </option> <option value="timespace" > Time and Space </option> <option value="tomography" > Tomography </option> <option value="tourismhosp" > Tourism and Hospitality </option> <option value="toxics" > Toxics </option> <option value="toxins" > Toxins </option> <option value="transplantology" > Transplantology </option> <option value="traumacare" > Trauma Care </option> <option value="higheredu" > Trends in Higher Education </option> <option value="tropicalmed" > Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease (TropicalMed) </option> <option value="universe" > Universe </option> <option value="urbansci" > Urban Science </option> <option value="uro" > Uro </option> <option value="vaccines" > Vaccines </option> <option value="vehicles" > Vehicles </option> <option value="venereology" > Venereology </option> <option value="vetsci" > Veterinary Sciences </option> <option value="vibration" > Vibration </option> <option value="virtualworlds" > Virtual Worlds </option> <option value="viruses" > Viruses </option> <option value="vision" > Vision </option> <option value="waste" > Waste </option> <option value="water" > Water </option> <option value="wild" > Wild </option> <option value="wind" > Wind 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show-for-small-only"> <h2 class="no-padding-left no-margin">Journal Description</h2> </div> <div class="custom-accordion-for-small-screen-content show-for-medium-up"> <div class="journal__description"> <h1> <em>Solar</em> </h1> <div class="journal__description__content"> <em>Solar</em> is an international, <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/editorial_process">peer-reviewed</a>, open access journal on all aspects of solar energy and photovoltaic systems published quarterly online by MDPI. <ul> <li><strong><span class="label openaccess"><a title="Open Access" href="https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess">Open Access</a></span></strong>— free for readers, with <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/solar/apc">article processing charges (APC)</a> paid by authors or their institutions.</li> <li><strong>Rapid Publication:</strong> manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 27.4 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 4.9 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2024).</li> <li><strong>Recognition of Reviewers:</strong> APC discount vouchers, optional signed peer review and reviewer names are published annually in the journal.</li> <li><strong><em>Solar</em> is a companion journal of</strong> <em><a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies">Energies</a></em>.</li> </ul> </div> <div style="margin-bottom: 15px;"> </div> <div> <a href="/journal/solar/imprint" class="UI_JournalImprintsInfoButton"> <i class="material-icons spaced-link">subject</i> Imprint Information </a>    <a href="/journal/solar/solar_flyer.pdf" class="UD_JournalFlyer"> <i class="material-icons spaced-link">get_app</i> Journal Flyer </a>     <a class="oa-link" href="https://www.mdpi.com/about/openaccess"> <i class="material icons spaced-link"></i> Open Access </a>     <strong> ISSN: 2673-9941 </strong> </div> <div style="clear: both;"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="content__container content__container--overflow-initial"> <div class="custom-accordion-for-small-screen-link active"> <h2 class="no-padding-left">Latest Articles</h2> </div> <div class="custom-accordion-for-small-screen-content"> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item no-border"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 20 pages, 7696 KiB   </span> <a href="/2673-9941/4/4/32/pdf?version=1732074102" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Solar Power Supply for Sensor Applications in the Field: A Guide for Environmental Scientists" data-journal="solar"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2673-9941/4/4/32">Solar Power Supply for Sensor Applications in the Field: A Guide for Environmental Scientists</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Vincent Boitier</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Kha Bao Khanh Cao</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Bruno Estibals</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Vincent Raimbault</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Maxime Cauchoix</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Jean-Louis Druilhe</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Arnaud Elger</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Solar</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>4</em>(4), 674-693; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/solar4040032">https://doi.org/10.3390/solar4040032</a> - 20 Nov 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> The move toward sophisticated sensor networks in ecological applications requires a substantial amount of energy. Energy storage solutions based simply on batteries are often not sufficient to cover the energy needs, so a standalone power supply using solar energy harvesting is generally required. <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9941/4/4/32/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> The move toward sophisticated sensor networks in ecological applications requires a substantial amount of energy. Energy storage solutions based simply on batteries are often not sufficient to cover the energy needs, so a standalone power supply using solar energy harvesting is generally required. However, designing an appropriate solar power supply without oversizing and avoiding output power disruption all year long is not a trivial task. This paper provides a set of guidelines as well as useful information and advice for environmental researchers and other non-experts to select the right components when designing their own autonomous solar power supply for a range between 10 mW and 10 W. The design steps are compiled into a comprehensive document, free of irrelevant information yet still presenting a general overview of the solar power supply design process, in order to make this task more accessible and understandable for non-experts. The methodology for simple initial dimensioning was carried out and applied to a real-life use case by using the estimated or measured daily consumption combined with free meteorological data of the deployment site provided by various websites. Next, an hourly simulation completed the first sizing. A year of experimental results validated the methodology. <a href="/2673-9941/4/4/32">Full article</a> </div> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9941/4/4/32/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1524664"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1524664"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1524664" data-cycle-prev="#prev1524664" data-cycle-progressive="#images1524664" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1524664-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00032/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00032-ag-550.jpg?1732074233" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Graphical abstract</p></div><script id="images1524664" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1524664-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00032/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00032-g001-550.jpg?1732074210'><p>Figure 1</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1524664-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00032/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00032-g002-550.jpg?1732074212'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1524664-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00032/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00032-g003-550.jpg?1732074215'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1524664-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00032/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00032-g004-550.jpg?1732074215'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1524664-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00032/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00032-g005-550.jpg?1732074216'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1524664-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00032/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00032-g006-550.jpg?1732074217'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1524664-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00032/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00032-g007-550.jpg?1732074218'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1524664-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00032/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00032-g008-550.jpg?1732074219'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1524664-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00032/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00032-g009-550.jpg?1732074221'><p>Figure 9</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1524664-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00032/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00032-g010-550.jpg?1732074223'><p>Figure 10</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='11' data-target='article-1524664-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00032/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00032-g011-550.jpg?1732074223'><p>Figure 11</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='12' data-target='article-1524664-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00032/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00032-g012-550.jpg?1732074224'><p>Figure 12</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='13' data-target='article-1524664-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00032/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00032-g013-550.jpg?1732074225'><p>Figure 13</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='14' data-target='article-1524664-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00032/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00032-g014-550.jpg?1732074227'><p>Figure 14</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='15' data-target='article-1524664-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00032/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00032-g015-550.jpg?1732074228'><p>Figure 15</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='16' data-target='article-1524664-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00032/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00032-g016-550.jpg?1732074228'><p>Figure 16</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='17' data-target='article-1524664-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00032/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00032-g017-550.jpg?1732074229'><p>Figure 17</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='18' data-target='article-1524664-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00032/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00032-g018-550.jpg?1732074230'><p>Figure 18</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1524664-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00032/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00032-ag-550.jpg?1732074233" title=" <strong>Graphical abstract</strong><br/><strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/32'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00032/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00032-g001-550.jpg?1732074210" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>General architecture.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/32'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00032/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00032-g002-550.jpg?1732074212" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Aquacosme floating system for the physico-chemical water parameter measurements.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/32'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00032/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00032-g003-550.jpg?1732074215" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>View of the internal components of the Aquacosme.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/32'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00032/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00032-g004-550.jpg?1732074215" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>USB power meters. (<b>A</b>) Arceli. (<b>B</b>) Yojock.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/32'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00032/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00032-g005-550.jpg?1732074216" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Simplified structure of a low-dropout regulator (LDO regulator).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/32'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00032/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00032-g006-550.jpg?1732074217" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>An example of a hobby-grade buck-boost converter found on online marketplaces.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/32'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00032/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00032-g007-550.jpg?1732074218" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>(<b>A</b>) Series PWM regulator and (<b>B</b>) parallel PWM regulator architectures as extracted from Steca Solsum 0606 (<a href="http://solaris-store.com/92-regulateur-solaire-steca-solsum-0606.html" target="_blank">solaris-store.com/92-regulateur-solaire-steca-solsum-0606.html</a>) (accessed on 21 October 2024) and Morningstar SunLight10 (<a href="http://solaris-shop.com/morningstar-sunlight-sl-10l-12v-pwm-charge-controller/" target="_blank">solaris-shop.com/morningstar-sunlight-sl-10l-12v-pwm-charge-controller/</a>) (accessed on 21 October 2024).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/32'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00032/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00032-g008-550.jpg?1732074219" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>MPPT regulator based on the BQ24650 integrated circuit by Texas Instruments.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/32'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00032/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00032-g009-550.jpg?1732074221" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p><span class="html-italic">I</span>(<span class="html-italic">V</span>) and <span class="html-italic">P</span>(<span class="html-italic">V</span>) @ <span class="html-italic">T</span> = 25 °C for different irradiances.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/32'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00032/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00032-g010-550.jpg?1732074223" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>Solar panels between 5 and 20 Wp.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/32'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00032/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00032-g011-550.jpg?1732074223" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>Li-ion cell, 3.7 V, 3400 mAh, 18650 form factor.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/32'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00032/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00032-g012-550.jpg?1732074224" title=" <strong>Figure 12</strong><br/> <p>BMS 4S, 12.8 V, 5 A, for LiFePO4 batteries.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/32'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00032/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00032-g013-550.jpg?1732074225" title=" <strong>Figure 13</strong><br/> <p>Illustration of three components that make up solar irradiation.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/32'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00032/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00032-g014-550.jpg?1732074227" title=" <strong>Figure 14</strong><br/> <p>The PVGIS interface to retrieve the hourly irradiation data with the relevant items to consider for each step required to obtain an hourly solar irradiation estimate.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/32'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00032/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00032-g015-550.jpg?1732074228" title=" <strong>Figure 15</strong><br/> <p>Monthly irradiation data over 10 years.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/32'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00032/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00032-g016-550.jpg?1732074228" title=" <strong>Figure 16</strong><br/> <p>Efficiency of the energy chain.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/32'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00032/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00032-g017-550.jpg?1732074229" title=" <strong>Figure 17</strong><br/> <p>(<b>a</b>) Daily irradiation between 01 January 2010 and 31 December 2012. (<b>b</b>) Hourly battery state of charge (SoC) obtained with <span class="html-italic">S</span> = 0.24 m<sup>2</sup> and <span class="html-italic">E<sub>bat</sub></span> = 112 Wh.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/32'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00032/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00032-g018-550.jpg?1732074230" title=" <strong>Figure 18</strong><br/> <p>Black curve: battery SoC (%) between 11 December 2011 (day 710) and 25 December 2011, results obtained with <span class="html-italic">S</span> = 0.24 m<sup>2</sup>, <span class="html-italic">E<sub>bat</sub></span> = 112 Wh. Red curve: average hourly irradiance (W/m<sup>2</sup>).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/32'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="extending-content content-ready"> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 14 pages, 2016 KiB   </span> <a href="/2673-9941/4/4/31/pdf?version=1730879465" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Albedo Reflection Modeling in Bifacial Photovoltaic Modules" data-journal="solar"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2673-9941/4/4/31">Albedo Reflection Modeling in Bifacial Photovoltaic Modules</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Vincenzo d’Alessandro</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Santolo Daliento</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Mahmoud Dhimish</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Pierluigi Guerriero</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Solar</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>4</em>(4), 660-673; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/solar4040031">https://doi.org/10.3390/solar4040031</a> - 5 Nov 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> This paper focuses on the analytical modeling of albedo reflection in bifacial photovoltaic modules, with particular emphasis on the backside. First, we critically examine the approaches proposed in the literature, presenting them with a tutorial style and a uniform nomenclature. These approaches are <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9941/4/4/31/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> This paper focuses on the analytical modeling of albedo reflection in bifacial photovoltaic modules, with particular emphasis on the backside. First, we critically examine the approaches proposed in the literature, presenting them with a tutorial style and a uniform nomenclature. These approaches are demonstrated to yield physically meaningless results, as they erroneously assume that the ground area shaded by the module acts as a source of reflected irradiance independent of the portion of sky dome visible to such an area. Then we introduce a correction based on the view factor between the shaded area and the sky. The result is a comprehensive and accurate analytical model that also describes the case of suspended panels and can be easily implemented into PV plant simulators. <a href="/2673-9941/4/4/31">Full article</a> </div> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9941/4/4/31/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1514674"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1514674"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1514674" data-cycle-prev="#prev1514674" data-cycle-progressive="#images1514674" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1514674-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00031/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00031-g001-550.jpg?1730879550" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1514674" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1514674-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00031/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00031-g002-550.jpg?1730879550'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1514674-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00031/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00031-g003-550.jpg?1730879551'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1514674-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00031/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00031-g004-550.jpg?1730879552'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1514674-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00031/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00031-g005-550.jpg?1730879553'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1514674-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00031/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00031-g006-550.jpg?1730879554'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1514674-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00031/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00031-g007-550.jpg?1730879555'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1514674-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00031/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00031-g008-550.jpg?1730879556'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1514674-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00031/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00031-g009-550.jpg?1730879557'><p>Figure 9</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1514674-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00031/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00031-g001-550.jpg?1730879550" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Side view of the bifacial PV module highlighting some key angles, namely, the solar altitude α, the tilt angles of the front (β) and rear (β<span class="html-italic"><sub>rear</sub></span>) of the module, as well as the incidence angles on the front (θ) and rear (θ<span class="html-italic"><sub>rear</sub></span>).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/31'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00031/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00031-g002-550.jpg?1730879550" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Evaluation of the view factors between two infinitely-long surfaces.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/31'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00031/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00031-g003-550.jpg?1730879551" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>(<b>a</b>) Side view of the tilted module for the evaluation of the view factors between rear and unshaded ground and between rear and shaded ground; (<b>b</b>) illustrative representation of the view factors.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/31'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00031/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00031-g004-550.jpg?1730879552" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p><span class="html-italic">F<sub>albedo,rear,unshaded</sub></span> (red line) and <span class="html-italic">F<sub>albedo,rear,shaded</sub></span> (blue) given by (20) and (21), respectively, as a function of tilt angle β for an altitude of the Sun α = 40°.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/31'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00031/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00031-g005-550.jpg?1730879553" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>(<b>a</b>) Side view of the tilted module for the evaluation of the view factors between rear and unshaded/shaded portions of the ground for the case of an arbitrary vertical distance <span class="html-italic">d</span> between the lower edge of the panel and ground; (<b>b</b>) illustrative representation of all components of the view factors.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/31'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00031/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00031-g006-550.jpg?1730879554" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p><span class="html-italic">F<sub>albedo,rear,unshaded</sub></span> (red lines) given by (22) using (24), (26) and <span class="html-italic">F<sub>albedo,rear,shaded</sub></span> (blue) given by (28) against distance <span class="html-italic">d</span> for β = 0° (solid lines), β = 30° (dashed), β = 90° (dotted); all curves were computed for a panel height <span class="html-italic">H<sub>panel</sub></span> = 0.719 m and for an altitude of the Sun α = 40°.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/31'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00031/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00031-g007-550.jpg?1730879555" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p><span class="html-italic">F<sub>shaded-sky</sub></span> given by (31) using (33), (35) (<b>a</b>) by varying β and keeping <span class="html-italic">d</span> = 0 m and (<b>b</b>) by varying <span class="html-italic">d</span> for various β values. All curves in (<b>a</b>), (<b>b</b>) are determined for α = 40°; for those in (<b>b</b>), the panel height is <span class="html-italic">H<sub>panel</sub></span> = 0.719 m. For (<b>a</b>), (30) can be directly invoked.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/31'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00031/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00031-g008-550.jpg?1730879556" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>1st (solid red line) and 2nd (solid blue) terms on the right-hand side (RHS) of (29) along with the 2nd term on the right-hand side of (18) (dashed blue) as a function of tilt angle β for <span class="html-italic">G<sub>toth</sub></span> = 700 W/m<sup>2</sup>, <span class="html-italic">G<sub>dh</sub></span> = 200 W/m<sup>2</sup>, <span class="html-italic">albedo</span> = 0.5, <span class="html-italic">d</span> = 0 m, and α = 40°.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/31'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00031/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00031-g009-550.jpg?1730879557" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>Normalized maximum power vs. <span class="html-italic">CKT</span> on July 15 and October 15 for a bifacial module with South-oriented front (γ = 0°) and tilted by 30° in Naples, with <span class="html-italic">albedo</span> = 0.5. Simulations performed using the proposed model (29) (green curves) are compared with those based on the conventional model (18) (red).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/31'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 21 pages, 14443 KiB   </span> <a href="/2673-9941/4/4/30/pdf?version=1730451580" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="High-Precision Defect Detection in Solar Cells Using YOLOv10 Deep Learning Model" data-journal="solar"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2673-9941/4/4/30">High-Precision Defect Detection in Solar Cells Using YOLOv10 Deep Learning Model</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Lotfi Aktouf</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Yathin Shivanna</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Mahmoud Dhimish</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Solar</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>4</em>(4), 639-659; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/solar4040030">https://doi.org/10.3390/solar4040030</a> - 1 Nov 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> This study presents an advanced defect detection approach for solar cells using the YOLOv10 deep learning model. Leveraging a comprehensive dataset of 10,500 solar cell images annotated with 12 distinct defect types, our model integrates Compact Inverted Blocks (CIBs) and Partial Self-Attention (PSA) <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9941/4/4/30/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> This study presents an advanced defect detection approach for solar cells using the YOLOv10 deep learning model. Leveraging a comprehensive dataset of 10,500 solar cell images annotated with 12 distinct defect types, our model integrates Compact Inverted Blocks (CIBs) and Partial Self-Attention (PSA) modules to enhance feature extraction and classification accuracy. Training on the Viking cluster with state-of-the-art GPUs, our model achieved remarkable results, including a mean Average Precision (<a href="/cdn-cgi/l/email-protection" class="__cf_email__" data-cfemail="fe93bfaebeced0cb">[email protected]</a>) of 98.5%. Detailed analysis of the model’s performance revealed exceptional precision and recall rates for most defect classes, notably achieving 100% accuracy in detecting black core, corner, fragment, scratch, and short circuit defects. Even for challenging defect types such as a thick line and star crack, the model maintained high performance, with accuracies of 94% and 96%, respectively. The Recall–Confidence and Precision–Recall curves further demonstrate the model’s robustness and reliability across varying confidence thresholds. This research not only advances the state of automated defect detection in photovoltaic manufacturing but also underscores the potential of YOLOv10 for real-time applications. Our findings suggest significant implications for improving the quality control process in solar cell production. Although the model demonstrates high accuracy across most defect types, certain subtle defects, such as thick lines and star cracks, remain challenging, indicating potential areas for further optimization in future work. <a href="/2673-9941/4/4/30">Full article</a> </div> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9941/4/4/30/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1512225"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1512225"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1512225" data-cycle-prev="#prev1512225" data-cycle-progressive="#images1512225" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1512225-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00030/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00030-g001-550.jpg?1730451693" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script data-cfasync="false" src="/cdn-cgi/scripts/5c5dd728/cloudflare-static/email-decode.min.js"></script><script id="images1512225" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1512225-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00030/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00030-g002-550.jpg?1730451696'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1512225-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00030/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00030-g003-550.jpg?1730451699'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1512225-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00030/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00030-g004-550.jpg?1730451700'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1512225-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00030/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00030-g005-550.jpg?1730451705'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1512225-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00030/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00030-g006-550.jpg?1730451706'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1512225-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00030/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00030-g007-550.jpg?1730451708'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1512225-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00030/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00030-g0A1-550.jpg?1730451713'><p>Figure A1</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1512225-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00030/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00030-g0A2-550.jpg?1730451716'><p>Figure A2</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1512225-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00030/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00030-g001-550.jpg?1730451693" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>YOLOv10 model architecture: (<b>a</b>) The Compact Inverted Block (CIB); (<b>b</b>) The Partial Self-Attention module (PSA); (<b>c</b>) Overall YOLOv10 model architecture.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/30'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00030/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00030-g002-550.jpg?1730451696" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Examples of defect types in the EL Solar Cells dataset [<a href="#B34-solar-04-00030" class="html-bibr">34</a>]. The dataset includes 12 classes of defects: line crack, star crack, finger interruption, black core, vertical dislocation, horizontal dislocation, thick line, scratch, fragment, corner, short circuit, and printing error. Each defect class is highlighted with colored bounding boxes for visual reference.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/30'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00030/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00030-g003-550.jpg?1730451699" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Pair plot showing the distribution and relationships between the bounding box coordinates (x, y) and dimensions (width, height) in the training dataset. This plot helps to visualize the data distribution and correlations, which are essential for effective model training.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/30'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00030/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00030-g004-550.jpg?1730451700" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Recall–Confidence curve for the YOLOv10 model across different defect classes in the EL Solar Cells dataset. The curve illustrates the relationship between recall and confidence threshold for each class, highlighting the model’s detection performance and identifying areas where detection confidence varies among different defect types.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/30'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00030/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00030-g005-550.jpg?1730451705" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Detection results of the YOLOv10 model on the EL Solar Cells dataset. The figure shows various defect types, including cracks, finger interruptions, star cracks, and black core defects, with bounding boxes and labels indicating the detected defects. The images illustrate the model’s accuracy and capability in identifying and localizing multiple defect types.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/30'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00030/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00030-g006-550.jpg?1730451706" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Normalized confusion matrix for the YOLOv10 model on the EL Solar Cells dataset. This matrix illustrates the model’s classification accuracy across different defect classes, with diagonal elements representing correct predictions and off-diagonal elements indicating misclassifications.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/30'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00030/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00030-g007-550.jpg?1730451708" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Precision–Recall curve for the YOLOv10 model on the EL Solar Cells dataset. The curve illustrates the trade-off between precision and recall for each defect class, providing a comprehensive view of the model’s detection capabilities. The mean Average Precision (mAP@0.5) across all classes is 0.985, indicating the model’s high effectiveness in detecting a wide range of defects.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/30'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00030/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00030-g0A1-550.jpg?1730451713" title=" <strong>Figure A1</strong><br/><strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/30'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00030/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00030-g0A2-550.jpg?1730451716" title=" <strong>Figure A2</strong><br/><strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/30'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 33 pages, 7106 KiB   </span> <a href="/2673-9941/4/4/29/pdf?version=1729734162" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="A Novel Spectral Correction Method for Predicting the Annual Solar Photovoltaic Performance Ratio Using Short-Term Measurements" data-journal="solar"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2673-9941/4/4/29">A Novel Spectral Correction Method for Predicting the Annual Solar Photovoltaic Performance Ratio Using Short-Term Measurements</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Francisca Muriel Daniel-Durandt</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Arnold Johan Rix</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Solar</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>4</em>(4), 606-638; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/solar4040029">https://doi.org/10.3390/solar4040029</a> - 24 Oct 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> A novel spectral-corrected Performance Ratio calculation method that aligns the short-term Performance Ratio calculation to the annual calculated Performance Ratio is presented in this work. The spectral-corrected Performance Ratio allows short-term measurements to reasonably estimate the annual Performance Ratio, which decreases the need <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9941/4/4/29/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> A novel spectral-corrected Performance Ratio calculation method that aligns the short-term Performance Ratio calculation to the annual calculated Performance Ratio is presented in this work. The spectral-corrected Performance Ratio allows short-term measurements to reasonably estimate the annual Performance Ratio, which decreases the need for long-term measures and data storage and assists with routine maintenance checkups. The piece-wise empirical model incorporates two spectral variables, a geographical location-based variable, the air mass, a PV-technology-based variable, and a newly defined spectral correction factor that results in a universal application. The spectral corrections show significant improvements, resulting in errors across different air mass and clearness index ranges, as well as temporal resolutions. The results indicate that a spectral correction methodology is possible and a viable solution to estimate the annual Performance Ratio. The results further indicate that by correcting the spectrum, short-term measurements can be used to predict the annual Performance Ratio with superior performance compared to the well-known normal and weather-corrected PR calculation methods. This approach is the first documented effort to address the spectrum’s influence on the utility-scale Performance Ratio calculation from hourly measurements. The empirical formula suggested for the Performance Ratio calculation can be of extreme value for the real-time monitoring of PV systems and enhancing PV power forecasting accuracy when the spectrum is considered instead of its usual omission. The model can be universally applicable, as it incorporates location and technology, marking a groundbreaking start to comprehending and incorporating the spectral influence in utility-scale PV systems. The novel calculation has widespread application in the PV industry, performance modelling, monitoring, and forecasting. <a href="/2673-9941/4/4/29">Full article</a> </div> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9941/4/4/29/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1505201"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1505201"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1505201" data-cycle-prev="#prev1505201" data-cycle-progressive="#images1505201" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1505201-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g001-550.jpg?1729734307" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1505201" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1505201-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g002-550.jpg?1729734308'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1505201-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g003-550.jpg?1729734309'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1505201-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g004-550.jpg?1729734311'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1505201-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g005-550.jpg?1729734312'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1505201-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g006-550.jpg?1729734314'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1505201-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g007-550.jpg?1729734317'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1505201-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g008-550.jpg?1729734317'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1505201-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g009-550.jpg?1729734318'><p>Figure 9</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1505201-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g010-550.jpg?1729734319'><p>Figure 10</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1505201-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g011-550.jpg?1729734320'><p>Figure 11</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='11' data-target='article-1505201-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g012a-550.jpg?1729734322'><p>Figure 12</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='12' data-target='article-1505201-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g012b-550.jpg?1729734323'><p>Figure 12 Cont.</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='13' data-target='article-1505201-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g013-550.jpg?1729734324'><p>Figure 13</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='14' data-target='article-1505201-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g014a-550.jpg?1729734325'><p>Figure 14</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='15' data-target='article-1505201-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g014b-550.jpg?1729734327'><p>Figure 14 Cont.</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='16' data-target='article-1505201-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g015-550.jpg?1729734329'><p>Figure 15</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='17' data-target='article-1505201-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g016-550.jpg?1729734331'><p>Figure 16</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='18' data-target='article-1505201-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g017-550.jpg?1729734332'><p>Figure 17</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='19' data-target='article-1505201-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g018-550.jpg?1729734334'><p>Figure 18</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='20' data-target='article-1505201-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g019-550.jpg?1729734336'><p>Figure 19</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='21' data-target='article-1505201-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g020-550.jpg?1729734337'><p>Figure 20</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='22' data-target='article-1505201-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g021-550.jpg?1729734339'><p>Figure 21</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='23' data-target='article-1505201-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g022-550.jpg?1729734341'><p>Figure 22</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='24' data-target='article-1505201-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g023-550.jpg?1729734342'><p>Figure 23</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='25' data-target='article-1505201-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g024-550.jpg?1729734344'><p>Figure 24</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='26' data-target='article-1505201-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g025-550.jpg?1729734346'><p>Figure 25</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='27' data-target='article-1505201-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g026-550.jpg?1729734347'><p>Figure 26</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='28' data-target='article-1505201-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g027-550.jpg?1729734349'><p>Figure 27</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1505201-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g001-550.jpg?1729734307" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Simulated spectral response of a poly-Si PV module from [<a href="#B33-solar-04-00029" class="html-bibr">33</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/29'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g002-550.jpg?1729734308" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Four groupings associated with each of the four weather stations of the PV plant.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/29'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g003-550.jpg?1729734309" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Spectral influences on the short-circuit current.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/29'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g004-550.jpg?1729734311" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p><math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>S</mi> <mi>C</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math> estimations of three AERONet stations.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/29'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g005-550.jpg?1729734312" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Relationship between the correction factor <math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mi>C</mi> <mrow> <mi>s</mi> <mi>p</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>c</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> </semantics></math> and <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>A</mi> <mi>M</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/29'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g006-550.jpg?1729734314" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Relationship between the correction factor <math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mi>C</mi> <mrow> <mi>s</mi> <mi>p</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>c</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> </semantics></math> and <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>S</mi> <mi>C</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/29'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g007-550.jpg?1729734317" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>SC-PR model selection overview.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/29'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g008-550.jpg?1729734317" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Model complexity: MAE compared to annual PR (5-min data).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/29'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g009-550.jpg?1729734318" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>Model complexity: MAE improvement over WC-PR (5-min data).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/29'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g010-550.jpg?1729734319" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>Model complexity: MAE improvement over WC-PR (hourly aggregated).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/29'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g011-550.jpg?1729734320" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>Model complexity: MAE improvement over WC-PR (monthly aggregated).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/29'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g012a-550.jpg?1729734322" title=" <strong>Figure 12</strong><br/> <p>Coefficient distribution across the plant <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">f</mi> <mrow> <mi>p</mi> <mi>w</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mfenced separators="" open="(" close=")"> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow> <mi>A</mi> <msub> <mi>M</mi> <mi>a</mi> </msub> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mo>,</mo> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow> <mi>S</mi> <mi>C</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>3</mn> </mfenced> </mrow> </semantics></math>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/29'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g012b-550.jpg?1729734323" title=" <strong>Figure 12 Cont.</strong><br/> <p>Coefficient distribution across the plant <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">f</mi> <mrow> <mi>p</mi> <mi>w</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mfenced separators="" open="(" close=")"> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow> <mi>A</mi> <msub> <mi>M</mi> <mi>a</mi> </msub> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mo>,</mo> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow> <mi>S</mi> <mi>C</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>3</mn> </mfenced> </mrow> </semantics></math>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/29'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g013-550.jpg?1729734324" title=" <strong>Figure 13</strong><br/> <p>MAE improvement over WC-PR across the plant <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">f</mi> <mrow> <mi>p</mi> <mi>w</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mfenced separators="" open="(" close=")"> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow> <mi>A</mi> <msub> <mi>M</mi> <mi>a</mi> </msub> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mo>,</mo> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow> <mi>S</mi> <mi>C</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>3</mn> </mfenced> </mrow> </semantics></math>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/29'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g014a-550.jpg?1729734325" title=" <strong>Figure 14</strong><br/> <p>Coefficient distribution across the plant <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">f</mi> <mrow> <mi>p</mi> <mi>w</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mfenced separators="" open="(" close=")"> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow> <mi>A</mi> <msub> <mi>M</mi> <mi>a</mi> </msub> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>3</mn> <mo>,</mo> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow> <mi>S</mi> <mi>C</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>3</mn> </mfenced> </mrow> </semantics></math>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/29'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g014b-550.jpg?1729734327" title=" <strong>Figure 14 Cont.</strong><br/> <p>Coefficient distribution across the plant <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">f</mi> <mrow> <mi>p</mi> <mi>w</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mfenced separators="" open="(" close=")"> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow> <mi>A</mi> <msub> <mi>M</mi> <mi>a</mi> </msub> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>3</mn> <mo>,</mo> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow> <mi>S</mi> <mi>C</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>3</mn> </mfenced> </mrow> </semantics></math>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/29'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g015-550.jpg?1729734329" title=" <strong>Figure 15</strong><br/> <p>MAE improvement over WC-PR across the plant <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">f</mi> <mrow> <mi>p</mi> <mi>w</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mfenced separators="" open="(" close=")"> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow> <mi>A</mi> <msub> <mi>M</mi> <mi>a</mi> </msub> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>3</mn> <mo>,</mo> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow> <mi>S</mi> <mi>C</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>3</mn> </mfenced> </mrow> </semantics></math>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/29'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g016-550.jpg?1729734331" title=" <strong>Figure 16</strong><br/> <p>Year 1 WC-PR and SC-PR comparison when <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>A</mi> <msub> <mi>M</mi> <mi>a</mi> </msub> <mo>&lt;</mo> <mn>10</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> and POA <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mo>&gt;</mo> <mn>50</mn> <mspace width="4.pt"/> <mi mathvariant="normal">W</mi> <mo>/</mo> <msup> <mi mathvariant="normal">m</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/29'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g017-550.jpg?1729734332" title=" <strong>Figure 17</strong><br/> <p>Distribution of hourly aggregated data: Year 1 WC-PR and SC-PR.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/29'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g018-550.jpg?1729734334" title=" <strong>Figure 18</strong><br/> <p>Year 1 WC-PR and SC-PR comparison when <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>A</mi> <msub> <mi>M</mi> <mi>a</mi> </msub> <mo>&lt;</mo> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> and POA <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mo>&gt;</mo> <mn>200</mn> <mspace width="4.pt"/> <mi mathvariant="normal">W</mi> <mo>/</mo> <msup> <mi mathvariant="normal">m</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/29'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g019-550.jpg?1729734336" title=" <strong>Figure 19</strong><br/> <p>Year 2 WC-PR and SC-PR comparison when <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>A</mi> <msub> <mi>M</mi> <mi>a</mi> </msub> <mo>&lt;</mo> <mn>10</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> and POA <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mo>&gt;</mo> <mn>50</mn> <mspace width="4.pt"/> <mi mathvariant="normal">W</mi> <mo>/</mo> <msup> <mi mathvariant="normal">m</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/29'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g020-550.jpg?1729734337" title=" <strong>Figure 20</strong><br/> <p>Distribution of hourly aggregated data: Year 2 WC-PR and SC-PR.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/29'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g021-550.jpg?1729734339" title=" <strong>Figure 21</strong><br/> <p>Year 2 WC-PR and SC-PR comparison when <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>A</mi> <msub> <mi>M</mi> <mi>a</mi> </msub> <mo>&lt;</mo> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> and POA <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mo>&gt;</mo> <mn>200</mn> <mspace width="4.pt"/> <mi mathvariant="normal">W</mi> <mo>/</mo> <msup> <mi mathvariant="normal">m</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/29'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g022-550.jpg?1729734341" title=" <strong>Figure 22</strong><br/> <p>Year 3 WC-PR and SC-PR comparison when <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>A</mi> <msub> <mi>M</mi> <mi>a</mi> </msub> <mo>&lt;</mo> <mn>10</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> and POA <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mo>&gt;</mo> <mn>50</mn> <mspace width="4.pt"/> <mi mathvariant="normal">W</mi> <mo>/</mo> <msup> <mi mathvariant="normal">m</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/29'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g023-550.jpg?1729734342" title=" <strong>Figure 23</strong><br/> <p>Distribution of hourly aggregated data: Year 3 WC-PR and SC-PR.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/29'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g024-550.jpg?1729734344" title=" <strong>Figure 24</strong><br/> <p>Year 3 WC-PR and SC-PR comparison when <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>A</mi> <msub> <mi>M</mi> <mi>a</mi> </msub> <mo>&lt;</mo> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> and POA <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mo>&gt;</mo> <mn>200</mn> <mspace width="4.pt"/> <mi mathvariant="normal">W</mi> <mo>/</mo> <msup> <mi mathvariant="normal">m</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/29'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g025-550.jpg?1729734346" title=" <strong>Figure 25</strong><br/> <p>Year 4 WC-PR and SC-PR comparison when <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>A</mi> <msub> <mi>M</mi> <mi>a</mi> </msub> <mo>&lt;</mo> <mn>10</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> and POA <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mo>&gt;</mo> <mn>50</mn> <mspace width="4.pt"/> <mi mathvariant="normal">W</mi> <mo>/</mo> <msup> <mi mathvariant="normal">m</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/29'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g026-550.jpg?1729734347" title=" <strong>Figure 26</strong><br/> <p>Distribution of hourly aggregated data: Year 4 WC-PR and SC-PR.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/29'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00029/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00029-g027-550.jpg?1729734349" title=" <strong>Figure 27</strong><br/> <p>Year 4 WC-PR and SC-PR comparison when <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>A</mi> <msub> <mi>M</mi> <mi>a</mi> </msub> <mo>&lt;</mo> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> and POA <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mo>&gt;</mo> <mn>200</mn> <mspace width="4.pt"/> <mi mathvariant="normal">W</mi> <mo>/</mo> <msup> <mi mathvariant="normal">m</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/29'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 11 pages, 4653 KiB   </span> <a href="/2673-9941/4/4/28/pdf?version=1732522816" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Correlation Between Broken Contact Fingers and I–V Characteristics of Partially Shaded Photovoltaic Modules" data-journal="solar"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2673-9941/4/4/28">Correlation Between Broken Contact Fingers and I–V Characteristics of Partially Shaded Photovoltaic Modules</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Abdulhamid Atia</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Fatih Anayi</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Ali Bahr</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Gao Min</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Solar</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>4</em>(4), 595-605; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/solar4040028">https://doi.org/10.3390/solar4040028</a> - 15 Oct 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> This paper reports on the correlation between broken contact fingers and the shape of the current–voltage (I–V) curve of a photovoltaic (PV) module. It was found that the broken contact fingers of a solar cell in the PV module cause a noticeable change <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9941/4/4/28/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> This paper reports on the correlation between broken contact fingers and the shape of the current–voltage (I–V) curve of a photovoltaic (PV) module. It was found that the broken contact fingers of a solar cell in the PV module cause a noticeable change in the I–V curve of the PV module when the solar cell was partially shaded. The broken contact fingers were inspected by microscopic imaging and electroluminescence (EL) imaging, and a further investigation was carried out using a single solar cell. The results show that the fill factor of the cell decreased from 0.75 of full contact to 0.47 after 16 contact fingers were broken, confirming the correlation between the I–V curve shape and broken contact fingers. This result reveals that the shape of the I–V curve of a PV module under individual-cell partial shading may be used as an indicator of broken contact fingers, which offers an alternative approach to EL imaging for detecting broken contact fingers in PV modules in daylight. <a href="/2673-9941/4/4/28">Full article</a> </div> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9941/4/4/28/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1499419"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1499419"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1499419" data-cycle-prev="#prev1499419" data-cycle-progressive="#images1499419" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1499419-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00028/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00028-g001-550.jpg?1732522910" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1499419" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1499419-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00028/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00028-g002-550.jpg?1732522911'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1499419-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00028/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00028-g003-550.jpg?1732522912'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1499419-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00028/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00028-g004-550.jpg?1732522913'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1499419-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00028/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00028-g005-550.jpg?1732522917'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1499419-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00028/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00028-g006-550.jpg?1732522918'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1499419-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00028/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00028-g007-550.jpg?1732522922'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1499419-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00028/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00028-g008-550.jpg?1732522924'><p>Figure 8</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1499419-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00028/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00028-g001-550.jpg?1732522910" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Photographs of the PV devices used in this investigation: (<b>a</b>) 10 W PV module; (<b>b</b>) single solar cell mounted on the PCB with a K-type thermocouple close to it.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/28'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00028/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00028-g002-550.jpg?1732522911" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Schematic diagram of the setup for I–V curve measurement.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/28'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00028/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00028-g003-550.jpg?1732522912" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Schematic diagram of the setup for EL imaging.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/28'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00028/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00028-g004-550.jpg?1732522913" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>I–V curves of the 10 W PV module obtained experimentally with half-shading on each individual cell. The I–V curves were measured at a module temperature of 40 °C and an irradiance of 1000 W/m<sup>2</sup> at the middle point of the module. Each I–V curve shown is the average of three consecutive measurements. The I–V curve without shading is also included for comparison.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/28'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00028/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00028-g005-550.jpg?1732522917" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Images of the cell surface show the damage to the contact fingers of cell 24 in the 10 W PV module: (<b>a</b>) photograph of cell 24 taken by a 12-megapixel camera, which has a total cell area of 15 cm<sup>2</sup> (3 cm × 5 cm); (<b>b</b>) a microscopic image shows a scratch mark affecting nine contact fingers; (<b>c</b>) a microscopic image shows the breakage of the contact fingers.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/28'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00028/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00028-g006-550.jpg?1732522918" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>EL image of the 10 W PV module shows that cell 24 has a dark region due to broken contact fingers.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/28'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00028/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00028-g007-550.jpg?1732522922" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Normal images (top) and EL images (bottom) of a single solar cell showing four cases of broken contact fingers: (<b>a</b>) no broken contact fingers; (<b>b</b>) 6 broken contact fingers; (<b>c</b>) 11 broken contact fingers; (<b>d</b>) 16 broken contact fingers.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/28'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00028/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00028-g008-550.jpg?1732522924" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>The effect of broken contact fingers on (<b>a</b>) the I–V curve; (<b>b</b>) fill factor of the solar cell. The I–V curves were measured at a cell temperature of 25 °C and an irradiance of 1000 W/m<sup>2</sup>. Each I–V curve shown is the average of 12 measurements obtained over three days, with four consecutive measurements each day.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/28'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 23 pages, 2337 KiB   </span> <a href="/2673-9941/4/4/27/pdf?version=1728458180" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Comparative Evaluation of Traditional and Advanced Algorithms for Photovoltaic Systems in Partial Shading Conditions" data-journal="solar"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2673-9941/4/4/27">Comparative Evaluation of Traditional and Advanced Algorithms for Photovoltaic Systems in Partial Shading Conditions</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Robert Sørensen</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Lucian Mihet-Popa</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Solar</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>4</em>(4), 572-594; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/solar4040027">https://doi.org/10.3390/solar4040027</a> - 8 Oct 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> The optimization of photovoltaic (PV) systems is vital for enhancing efficiency and economic viability, especially under Partial Shading Conditions (PSCs). This study focuses on the development and comparison of traditional and advanced algorithms, including Perturb and Observe (P&O), Incremental Conductance (IC), Fuzzy Logic <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9941/4/4/27/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> The optimization of photovoltaic (PV) systems is vital for enhancing efficiency and economic viability, especially under Partial Shading Conditions (PSCs). This study focuses on the development and comparison of traditional and advanced algorithms, including Perturb and Observe (P&O), Incremental Conductance (IC), Fuzzy Logic Control (FLC), Grey Wolf Optimization (GWO), Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO), and Artificial Neural Networks (ANN), for efficient Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT). Simulations conducted in the MATLAB/Simulink software package evaluated these algorithms’ performances under various shading scenarios. The results indicate that, while traditional methods like P&O and IC are effective under uniform conditions, advanced techniques, particularly ANN-based MPPT, exhibit superior efficiency and faster convergence under PSCs. This study concludes that integrating Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) into MPPT algorithms significantly enhances the reliability and efficiency of PV systems, paving the way for a broader adoption of solar energy technologies in diverse environmental conditions. These findings contribute to advancing renewable energy technology and supporting green energy transition. <a href="/2673-9941/4/4/27">Full article</a> </div> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9941/4/4/27/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1494268"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1494268"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1494268" data-cycle-prev="#prev1494268" data-cycle-progressive="#images1494268" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1494268-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g001-550.jpg?1728458270" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1494268" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1494268-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g002-550.jpg?1728458271'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1494268-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g003-550.jpg?1728458272'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1494268-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g004-550.jpg?1728458273'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1494268-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g005-550.jpg?1728458273'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1494268-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g006-550.jpg?1728458274'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1494268-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g007-550.jpg?1728458276'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1494268-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g008-550.jpg?1728458277'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1494268-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g009-550.jpg?1728458279'><p>Figure 9</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1494268-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g010-550.jpg?1728458280'><p>Figure 10</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1494268-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g011-550.jpg?1728458281'><p>Figure 11</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='11' data-target='article-1494268-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g012-550.jpg?1728458282'><p>Figure 12</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='12' data-target='article-1494268-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g013-550.jpg?1728458284'><p>Figure 13</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='13' data-target='article-1494268-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g014-550.jpg?1728458285'><p>Figure 14</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='14' data-target='article-1494268-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g015-550.jpg?1728458285'><p>Figure 15</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='15' data-target='article-1494268-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g016-550.jpg?1728458286'><p>Figure 16</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='16' data-target='article-1494268-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g017-550.jpg?1728458286'><p>Figure 17</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='17' data-target='article-1494268-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g018-550.jpg?1728458287'><p>Figure 18</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='18' data-target='article-1494268-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g019-550.jpg?1728458288'><p>Figure 19</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='19' data-target='article-1494268-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g020-550.jpg?1728458289'><p>Figure 20</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='20' data-target='article-1494268-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g021-550.jpg?1728458290'><p>Figure 21</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='21' data-target='article-1494268-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g022-550.jpg?1728458291'><p>Figure 22</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='22' data-target='article-1494268-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g023-550.jpg?1728458293'><p>Figure 23</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='23' data-target='article-1494268-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g024-550.jpg?1728458293'><p>Figure 24</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='24' data-target='article-1494268-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g025-550.jpg?1728458294'><p>Figure 25</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1494268-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g001-550.jpg?1728458270" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Global energy production in 2022 [<a href="#B3-solar-04-00027" class="html-bibr">3</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/27'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g002-550.jpg?1728458271" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>The yearly PV installation, module PV production, and module production capacity during 2012–2022 (GW) [<a href="#B3-solar-04-00027" class="html-bibr">3</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/27'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g003-550.jpg?1728458272" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Block diagram of the PV system components.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/27'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g004-550.jpg?1728458273" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Equivalent circuit of a PV cell [<a href="#B20-solar-04-00027" class="html-bibr">20</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/27'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g005-550.jpg?1728458273" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Performance characteristics of a PV cell or module, as represented by the Current–Voltage (I-V) curve and the Power–Voltage (P-V) curve.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/27'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g006-550.jpg?1728458274" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>The I-V curve, P-V curve, and MPP [<a href="#B4-solar-04-00027" class="html-bibr">4</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/27'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g007-550.jpg?1728458276" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Illustration of three-series PVs with bias diodes under PSC.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/27'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g008-550.jpg?1728458277" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>P-V curves for the PV under PSC with LMPP and GMPP showing the effect of a bias diode.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/27'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g009-550.jpg?1728458279" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>Equivalent circuit of a three-series-connected PV with bias diodes.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/27'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g010-550.jpg?1728458280" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>Block diagram of the simulation model.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/27'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g011-550.jpg?1728458281" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>Three-series-connected PV modules with bias diodes connected to a converter.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/27'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g012-550.jpg?1728458282" title=" <strong>Figure 12</strong><br/> <p>The I-V and P-V characteristics for the PV system illustrating the MPP under full solar irradiance.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/27'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g013-550.jpg?1728458284" title=" <strong>Figure 13</strong><br/> <p>The I-V and P-V characteristics illustrating the GMPP for the PV system under Shading Scenario 2 (<b>a</b>), 3 (<b>b</b>), 4 (<b>c</b>), and 5 (<b>d</b>).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/27'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g014-550.jpg?1728458285" title=" <strong>Figure 14</strong><br/> <p>Block diagram of the MPPT algorithms using MATLAB function blocks.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/27'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g015-550.jpg?1728458285" title=" <strong>Figure 15</strong><br/> <p>Block diagram of the FLC algorithm.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/27'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g016-550.jpg?1728458286" title=" <strong>Figure 16</strong><br/> <p>Generated ANN Simulink block.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/27'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g017-550.jpg?1728458286" title=" <strong>Figure 17</strong><br/> <p>Layers inside the ANN Simulink block.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/27'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g018-550.jpg?1728458287" title=" <strong>Figure 18</strong><br/> <p>Block diagram of the ANN (1) MPPT.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/27'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g019-550.jpg?1728458288" title=" <strong>Figure 19</strong><br/> <p>Block diagram of the ANN (2) MPPT.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/27'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g020-550.jpg?1728458289" title=" <strong>Figure 20</strong><br/> <p>Solar irradiance (<b>a</b>) and temperature (<b>b</b>) data used for training ANN (1).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/27'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g021-550.jpg?1728458290" title=" <strong>Figure 21</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of the maximum (<b>a</b>) and the average (<b>b</b>) power for Shading Scenario 1.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/27'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g022-550.jpg?1728458291" title=" <strong>Figure 22</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of the settling time (<b>a</b>) and MPPT efficiencies (<b>b</b>) for Shading Scenario 1.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/27'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g023-550.jpg?1728458293" title=" <strong>Figure 23</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of the maximum power (<b>a</b>) and the average power (<b>b</b>) for Shading Scenarios 2–5.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/27'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g024-550.jpg?1728458293" title=" <strong>Figure 24</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of the settling time for Shading Scenarios 2–5.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/27'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00027/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00027-g025-550.jpg?1728458294" title=" <strong>Figure 25</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of the MPPT efficiencies for Shading Scenarios 2–5.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/27'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 17 pages, 21943 KiB   </span> <a href="/2673-9941/4/4/26/pdf?version=1727754093" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Evaluation of Direct Sunlight Availability Using a 360° Camera" data-journal="solar"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2673-9941/4/4/26">Evaluation of Direct Sunlight Availability Using a 360° Camera</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Diogo Chambel Lopes</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Isabel Nogueira</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Solar</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>4</em>(4), 555-571; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/solar4040026">https://doi.org/10.3390/solar4040026</a> - 1 Oct 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> One important aspect to consider when buying a house or apartment is adequate solar exposure. The same applies to the evaluation of the shadowing effects of existing buildings on prospective construction sites and vice versa. In different climates and seasons, it is not <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9941/4/4/26/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> One important aspect to consider when buying a house or apartment is adequate solar exposure. The same applies to the evaluation of the shadowing effects of existing buildings on prospective construction sites and vice versa. In different climates and seasons, it is not always easy to assess if there will be an excess or lack of sunlight, and both can lead to discomfort and excessive energy consumption. The aim of our project is to design a method to quantify the availability of direct sunlight to answer these questions. We developed a tool in Octave to calculate representative parameters, such as sunlight hours per day over a year and the times of day for which sunlight is present, considering the surrounding objects. The apparent sun position over time is obtained from an existing algorithm and the surrounding objects are surveyed using a picture taken with a 360° camera from a window or other sunlight entry area. The sky regions in the picture are detected and all other regions correspond to obstructions to direct sunlight. The sky detection is not fully automatic, but the sky swap tool in the camera software could be adapted by the manufacturer for this purpose. We present the results for six representative test cases. <a href="/2673-9941/4/4/26">Full article</a> </div> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9941/4/4/26/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1490279"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1490279"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1490279" data-cycle-prev="#prev1490279" data-cycle-progressive="#images1490279" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1490279-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g001-550.jpg?1727754207" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1490279" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1490279-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g002-550.jpg?1727754209'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1490279-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g003-550.jpg?1727754209'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1490279-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g004-550.jpg?1727754211'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1490279-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g005-550.jpg?1727754212'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1490279-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g006-550.jpg?1727754213'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1490279-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g007-550.jpg?1727754215'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1490279-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g008-550.jpg?1727754216'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1490279-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g009-550.jpg?1727754217'><p>Figure 9</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1490279-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g010-550.jpg?1727754219'><p>Figure 10</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1490279-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g011-550.jpg?1727754220'><p>Figure 11</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='11' data-target='article-1490279-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g012-550.jpg?1727754221'><p>Figure 12</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='12' data-target='article-1490279-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g013-550.jpg?1727754223'><p>Figure 13</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='13' data-target='article-1490279-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g014-550.jpg?1727754224'><p>Figure 14</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='14' data-target='article-1490279-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g015-550.jpg?1727754225'><p>Figure 15</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='15' data-target='article-1490279-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g016-550.jpg?1727754226'><p>Figure 16</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='16' data-target='article-1490279-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g017-550.jpg?1727754228'><p>Figure 17</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='17' data-target='article-1490279-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g018-550.jpg?1727754229'><p>Figure 18</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='18' data-target='article-1490279-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g019-550.jpg?1727754230'><p>Figure 19</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='19' data-target='article-1490279-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g020-550.jpg?1727754232'><p>Figure 20</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='20' data-target='article-1490279-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g021-550.jpg?1727754233'><p>Figure 21</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='21' data-target='article-1490279-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g022-550.jpg?1727754234'><p>Figure 22</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='22' data-target='article-1490279-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g023-550.jpg?1727754236'><p>Figure 23</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='23' data-target='article-1490279-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g024-550.jpg?1727754237'><p>Figure 24</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='24' data-target='article-1490279-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g025-550.jpg?1727754238'><p>Figure 25</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='25' data-target='article-1490279-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g026-550.jpg?1727754240'><p>Figure 26</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='26' data-target='article-1490279-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g027-550.jpg?1727754241'><p>Figure 27</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='27' data-target='article-1490279-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g028-550.jpg?1727754242'><p>Figure 28</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='28' data-target='article-1490279-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g029-550.jpg?1727754243'><p>Figure 29</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1490279-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g001-550.jpg?1727754207" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Example of a 360° image (rotated 90°).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/26'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g002-550.jpg?1727754209" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Camera sitting on a leveled structure attached to a windowsill.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/26'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g003-550.jpg?1727754209" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Coordinates transformation from (Az′, El) to (α, β).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/26'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g004-550.jpg?1727754211" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Transformation from (α, β) to pixel coordinates (i, j).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/26'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g005-550.jpg?1727754212" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Case 1, orientation = −2.1° (north): (<b>a</b>) 360° picture taken from the window; (<b>b</b>) Boolean image where white corresponds to sky and all other regions appear in black.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/26'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g006-550.jpg?1727754213" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Case 1, times when the sun was visible. Black: not visible; dark gray: all directions, light gray: −90° ≤ Az′ ≤ 90°, white: considering obstacles.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/26'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g007-550.jpg?1727754215" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Case 1, sunlight hours per day. Dashed line: all directions, dash-dotted line: −90° ≤ Az′ ≤ 90°, solid line: considering obstacles.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/26'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g008-550.jpg?1727754216" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Case 1, sunlight availability percentage. Solid line: daily ratio of available sunlight with obstacles to without obstacles, dashed line: mean value over of a year.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/26'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g009-550.jpg?1727754217" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>Case 2, orientation = 75.5° (northeast): (<b>a</b>) 360° picture taken from the window; (<b>b</b>) Boolean image where white corresponds to sky and all other regions appear in black.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/26'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g010-550.jpg?1727754219" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>Case 2, times when the sun was visible. Black: not visible; dark gray: all directions, light gray: −90° ≤ Az′ ≤ 90°, white: considering obstacles.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/26'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g011-550.jpg?1727754220" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>Case 2, sunlight hours per day. Dashed line: all directions, dash-dotted line: −90° ≤ Az′ ≤ 90°, solid line: considering obstacles.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/26'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g012-550.jpg?1727754221" title=" <strong>Figure 12</strong><br/> <p>Case 2, sunlight availability percentage. Solid line: daily ratio of available sunlight with obstacles to without obstacles, dashed line: mean value over of a year.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/26'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g013-550.jpg?1727754223" title=" <strong>Figure 13</strong><br/> <p>Case 3, orientation = 146.6° (southeast): (<b>a</b>) 360° picture taken from the window; (<b>b</b>) Boolean image where white corresponds to sky and all other regions appear in black.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/26'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g014-550.jpg?1727754224" title=" <strong>Figure 14</strong><br/> <p>Case 3, times when the sun was visible. Black: not visible; dark gray: all directions, light gray: −90° ≤ Az′ ≤ 90°, white: considering obstacles.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/26'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g015-550.jpg?1727754225" title=" <strong>Figure 15</strong><br/> <p>Case 3, sunlight hours per day. Dashed line: all directions, dash-dotted line: −90° ≤ Az′ ≤ 90°, solid line: considering obstacles.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/26'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g016-550.jpg?1727754226" title=" <strong>Figure 16</strong><br/> <p>Case 3, sunlight availability percentage. Solid line: daily ratio of available sunlight with obstacles to without obstacles, dashed line: mean value over of a year.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/26'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g017-550.jpg?1727754228" title=" <strong>Figure 17</strong><br/> <p>Case 4, orientation = 177.5° (south): (<b>a</b>) 360° picture taken from the window; (<b>b</b>) Boolean image where white corresponds to sky and all other regions appear in black.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/26'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g018-550.jpg?1727754229" title=" <strong>Figure 18</strong><br/> <p>Case 4, times when the sun was visible. Black: not visible; dark gray: all directions, light gray: −90° ≤ Az′ ≤ 90°, white: considering obstacles.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/26'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g019-550.jpg?1727754230" title=" <strong>Figure 19</strong><br/> <p>Case 4, sunlight hours per day. Dashed line: all directions, dash-dotted line: −90° ≤ Az′ ≤ 90°, solid line: considering obstacles.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/26'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g020-550.jpg?1727754232" title=" <strong>Figure 20</strong><br/> <p>Case 4, sunlight availability percentage. Solid line: daily ratio of available sunlight with obstacles to without obstacles, dashed line: mean value over of a year.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/26'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g021-550.jpg?1727754233" title=" <strong>Figure 21</strong><br/> <p>Case 5, orientation = 255.5° (southwest): (<b>a</b>) 360° picture taken from the window; (<b>b</b>) Boolean image where white corresponds to sky and all other regions appear in black.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/26'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g022-550.jpg?1727754234" title=" <strong>Figure 22</strong><br/> <p>Case 5, times when the sun was visible. Black: not visible; dark gray: all directions, light gray: −90° ≤ Az′ ≤ 90°, white: considering obstacles.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/26'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g023-550.jpg?1727754236" title=" <strong>Figure 23</strong><br/> <p>Case 5, sunlight hours per day. Dashed line: all directions, dash-dotted line: −90° ≤ Az′ ≤ 90°, solid line: considering obstacles.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/26'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g024-550.jpg?1727754237" title=" <strong>Figure 24</strong><br/> <p>Case 5, sunlight availability percentage. Solid line: daily ratio of available sunlight with obstacles to without obstacles, dashed line: mean value over of a year.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/26'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g025-550.jpg?1727754238" title=" <strong>Figure 25</strong><br/> <p>Case 6, orientation = 326.6° (northwest): (<b>a</b>) 360° picture taken from the window; (<b>b</b>) Boolean image where white corresponds to sky and all other regions appear in black.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/26'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g026-550.jpg?1727754240" title=" <strong>Figure 26</strong><br/> <p>Case 6, times when the sun was visible. Black: not visible; dark gray: all directions, light gray: −90° ≤ Az′ ≤ 90°, white: considering obstacles.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/26'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g027-550.jpg?1727754241" title=" <strong>Figure 27</strong><br/> <p>Case 6, sunlight hours per day. Dashed line: all directions, dash-dotted line: −90° ≤ Az′ ≤ 90°, solid line: considering obstacles.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/26'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g028-550.jpg?1727754242" title=" <strong>Figure 28</strong><br/> <p>Case 6, sunlight availability percentage. Solid line: daily ratio of available sunlight with obstacles to without obstacles, dashed line: mean value over of a year.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/26'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00026/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00026-g029-550.jpg?1727754243" title=" <strong>Figure 29</strong><br/> <p>Direct sunlight hours for different orientations in the region of Lisbon.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/26'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 29 pages, 12341 KiB   </span> <a href="/2673-9941/4/4/25/pdf?version=1727602522" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Design of a Novel Hybrid Concentrated Photovoltaic–Thermal System Equipped with Energy Storages, Optimized for Use in Residential Contexts" data-journal="solar"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2673-9941/4/4/25">Design of a Novel Hybrid Concentrated Photovoltaic–Thermal System Equipped with Energy Storages, Optimized for Use in Residential Contexts</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Carmine Cancro</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Valeria Palladino</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Aniello Borriello</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Antonio Romano</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Luigi Mongibello</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Solar</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>4</em>(4), 526-554; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/solar4040025">https://doi.org/10.3390/solar4040025</a> - 27 Sep 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> Concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) technology is based on the principle of concentrating direct sunlight onto small but very efficient photovoltaic (PV) cells. This approach allows the realization of PV modules with conversion efficiencies exceeding 30%, which is significantly higher than that of the flat <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9941/4/4/25/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> Concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) technology is based on the principle of concentrating direct sunlight onto small but very efficient photovoltaic (PV) cells. This approach allows the realization of PV modules with conversion efficiencies exceeding 30%, which is significantly higher than that of the flat panels. However, to achieve optimal performance, these modules must always be perpendicular to solar radiation; hence, they are mounted on high-precision solar trackers. This requirement has led to the predominant use of CPV technology in the construction of solar power plants in open and large fields for utility scale applications. In this paper, the authors present a novel approach allowing the use of this technology for residential installations, mounting the system both on flat and sloped roofs. Therefore, the main components of cell and primary lens have been chosen to contain the dimensions and, in particular, the thickness of the module. This paper describes the main design steps: thermal analysis allowed the housing construction material to be defined to contain cell working temperature, while with deep optical studies, experimentally validated main geometrical and functional characteristics of the CPV have been identified. The design of a whole CPV system includes thermal storage for domestic hot water and a 1 kWh electrical battery. The main design results indicate an estimated electrical conversion efficiency of 30%, based on a cell efficiency of approximately 42% under operational conditions and a measured optical efficiency of 74%. The CPV system has a nominal electric output of 550 W<sub>p</sub> and can simultaneously generate 630 W of thermal power, resulting in an overall system efficiency of 65.5%. The system also boasts high optical acceptance angles (±0.6°) and broad assembly tolerances (±1 mm). Cost analysis reveals higher unit costs compared to conventional PV and CPV systems, but these become competitive when considering the benefit of excess thermal energy recovery and use by the end user. <a href="/2673-9941/4/4/25">Full article</a> </div> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9941/4/4/25/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1487579"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1487579"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1487579" data-cycle-prev="#prev1487579" data-cycle-progressive="#images1487579" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1487579-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g001-550.jpg?1727602598" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1487579" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1487579-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g002-550.jpg?1727602600'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1487579-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g003-550.jpg?1727602601'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1487579-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g004-550.jpg?1727602602'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1487579-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g005-550.jpg?1727602604'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1487579-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g006-550.jpg?1727602605'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1487579-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g007-550.jpg?1727602606'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1487579-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g008-550.jpg?1727602607'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1487579-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g009-550.jpg?1727602608'><p>Figure 9</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1487579-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g010-550.jpg?1727602610'><p>Figure 10</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1487579-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g011-550.jpg?1727602612'><p>Figure 11</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='11' data-target='article-1487579-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g012-550.jpg?1727602613'><p>Figure 12</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='12' data-target='article-1487579-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g013-550.jpg?1727602615'><p>Figure 13</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='13' data-target='article-1487579-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g014-550.jpg?1727602617'><p>Figure 14</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='14' data-target='article-1487579-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g015-550.jpg?1727602619'><p>Figure 15</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='15' data-target='article-1487579-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g016-550.jpg?1727602620'><p>Figure 16</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='16' data-target='article-1487579-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g017-550.jpg?1727602621'><p>Figure 17</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='17' data-target='article-1487579-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g018-550.jpg?1727602622'><p>Figure 18</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='18' data-target='article-1487579-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g019-550.jpg?1727602624'><p>Figure 19</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='19' data-target='article-1487579-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g020-550.jpg?1727602625'><p>Figure 20</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='20' data-target='article-1487579-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g021-550.jpg?1727602627'><p>Figure 21</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='21' data-target='article-1487579-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g022-550.jpg?1727602628'><p>Figure 22</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='22' data-target='article-1487579-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g023-550.jpg?1727602629'><p>Figure 23</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='23' data-target='article-1487579-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g024-550.jpg?1727602630'><p>Figure 24</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='24' data-target='article-1487579-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g025-550.jpg?1727602630'><p>Figure 25</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1487579-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g001-550.jpg?1727602598" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Azur’s receiver featuring a 5.185 × 5.185 square mm cell assembled with a concentration secondary element.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/25'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g002-550.jpg?1727602600" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Efficiency curves as a function of concentration (<b>a</b>) and external spectral response, where EQE means external quantum efficiency (<b>b</b>).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/25'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g003-550.jpg?1727602601" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Efficiency curves as a function of sun concentration and of the cell working temperature.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/25'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g004-550.jpg?1727602602" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Basic unit of the smart CPV module.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/25'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g005-550.jpg?1727602604" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Results of the thermal simulations realized varying the case material and the ambient temperature.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/25'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g006-550.jpg?1727602605" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Results of the thermal simulations realized varying the heat sink orientation and thickness.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/25'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g007-550.jpg?1727602606" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Trend of the system’s optical efficiency with varying focal length.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/25'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g008-550.jpg?1727602607" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Trend of normalized optical efficiency with varying simple misalignment amplitude.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/25'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g009-550.jpg?1727602608" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>Trend of normalized optical yield as the magnitude of compound misalignment varies in the two vertical planes parallel to two edges of the lens.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/25'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g010-550.jpg?1727602610" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>Trend of normalized optical yield as the magnitude of the overall misalignment angle δ varies.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/25'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g011-550.jpg?1727602612" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>Trend of normalized optical yield as the cell displacement in the focal plane varies in the directions parallel to the two edges of the lens.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/25'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g012-550.jpg?1727602613" title=" <strong>Figure 12</strong><br/> <p>Trend of normalized optical yield as the overall displacement magnitude d varies.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/25'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g013-550.jpg?1727602615" title=" <strong>Figure 13</strong><br/> <p>Power density distribution on the cell surface.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/25'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g014-550.jpg?1727602617" title=" <strong>Figure 14</strong><br/> <p>3D distribution of power density on the cell surface.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/25'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g015-550.jpg?1727602619" title=" <strong>Figure 15</strong><br/> <p>Instrumentation used to characterize the mock-up of the concentration system.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/25'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g016-550.jpg?1727602620" title=" <strong>Figure 16</strong><br/> <p>Trend of the relative optical efficiency of the system as the focal distance varies (increase and decrease).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/25'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g017-550.jpg?1727602621" title=" <strong>Figure 17</strong><br/> <p>Trend of the relative optical efficiency of the system as the position along <span class="html-italic">X</span>-axis of the cell in the focal plane varies.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/25'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g018-550.jpg?1727602622" title=" <strong>Figure 18</strong><br/> <p>Trend of the relative optical efficiency of the system as the position along <span class="html-italic">Y</span>-axis of the cell in the focal plane varies.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/25'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g019-550.jpg?1727602624" title=" <strong>Figure 19</strong><br/> <p>Trend of the relative optical efficiency of the system as the misalignment between the direction of the solar rays and the normal to the primary optics increases.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/25'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g020-550.jpg?1727602625" title=" <strong>Figure 20</strong><br/> <p>Design of the CPV system version for installation on sloping roofs.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/25'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g021-550.jpg?1727602627" title=" <strong>Figure 21</strong><br/> <p>Design of the CPV system for installation on flat roof.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/25'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g022-550.jpg?1727602628" title=" <strong>Figure 22</strong><br/> <p>Thermal storage (<b>a</b>) and related control panel (<b>b</b>).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/25'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g023-550.jpg?1727602629" title=" <strong>Figure 23</strong><br/> <p>Commercial electrical storage used for the prototype, by Ecoflow Company (EcoFlow Europe S.R.O. Vat number CZ13974203 Adress: Doubravice 110, 53,353 Pardubice, Czech Republic.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/25'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g024-550.jpg?1727602630" title=" <strong>Figure 24</strong><br/> <p>View of the aluminum profile (1) where nine receivers (2) are screwed.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/25'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00025/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00025-g025-550.jpg?1727602630" title=" <strong>Figure 25</strong><br/> <p>View of the single tray model without lenses, with three inspection windows (1) used for the maintenance operations.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/4/25'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 17 pages, 2844 KiB   </span> <a href="/2673-9941/4/3/24/pdf?version=1727166571" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="An Analytical Approach to Power Optimization of Concentrating Solar Power Plants with Thermal Storage" data-journal="solar"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2673-9941/4/3/24">An Analytical Approach to Power Optimization of Concentrating Solar Power Plants with Thermal Storage</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Andrii Cheilytko</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Spiros Alexopoulos</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Andriy Pozhuyev</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Oliver Kaufhold</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Solar</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>4</em>(3), 509-525; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/solar4030024">https://doi.org/10.3390/solar4030024</a> - 21 Sep 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> This paper deals with the problem of determining the optimal capacity of concentrated solar power (CSP) plants, especially in the context of hybrid solar power plants. This work presents an innovative analytical approach to optimizing the capacity of concentrated solar plants. The proposed <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9941/4/3/24/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> This paper deals with the problem of determining the optimal capacity of concentrated solar power (CSP) plants, especially in the context of hybrid solar power plants. This work presents an innovative analytical approach to optimizing the capacity of concentrated solar plants. The proposed method is based on the use of additional non-dimensional parameters, in particular, the design factor and the solar multiple factor. This paper presents a mathematical optimization model that focuses on the capacity of concentrated solar power plants where thermal storage plays a key role in the energy source. The analytical approach provides a more complete understanding of the design process for hybrid power plants. In addition, the use of additional factors and the combination of the proposed method with existing numerical methods allows for more refined optimization, which allows for the more accurate selection of the capacity for specific geographical conditions. Importantly, the proposed method significantly increases the speed of computation compared to that of traditional numerical methods. Finally, the authors present the results of the analysis of the proposed system of equations for calculating the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) for hybrid solar power plants. The nonlinearity of the LCOE on the main calculation parameters is shown. <a href="/2673-9941/4/3/24">Full article</a> </div> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9941/4/3/24/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1482500"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1482500"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1482500" data-cycle-prev="#prev1482500" data-cycle-progressive="#images1482500" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1482500-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00024/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00024-g001-550.jpg?1727166783" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1482500" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1482500-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00024/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00024-g002-550.jpg?1727166785'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1482500-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00024/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00024-g003-550.jpg?1727166786'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1482500-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00024/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00024-g004-550.jpg?1727166788'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1482500-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00024/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00024-g005-550.jpg?1727166790'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1482500-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00024/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00024-g006-550.jpg?1727166791'><p>Figure 6</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1482500-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00024/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00024-g001-550.jpg?1727166783" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Schematic explanation of the calculation of <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msubsup> <mrow> <mi>h</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>C</mi> <mi>S</mi> <mi>P</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>F</mi> <mi>L</mi> <mi>H</mi> </mrow> </msubsup> <mo> </mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> by different types of hybrid power plant elements: yellow is the planned electricity produced by CSP, blue is the energy produced for thermal storage. The red line is the planned mode of operation. No color area—CSP+PV.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/24'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00024/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00024-g002-550.jpg?1727166785" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of analytical and numerical approach. The numerical approach overestimates the LCOE by about 6% but reflects the cost increase for higher design factors.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/24'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00024/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00024-g003-550.jpg?1727166786" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Levelized cost of electricity as a function of design factor with BESSs for PV shows higher LCOE for all DF values.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/24'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00024/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00024-g004-550.jpg?1727166788" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Share of electricity generated. Solar multiple (SM) = 1.3 with BESS for PV.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/24'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00024/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00024-g005-550.jpg?1727166790" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Dependence of levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) on design factor for different values of solar multiple (SM). The minimum LCOE is achieved at SM =1.3.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/24'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00024/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00024-g006-550.jpg?1727166791" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Dependence of the levelized cost of electricity from the solar multiple (SM) with design factors (DF) = 0.5. A clear extreme of the function is expressed.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/24'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 18 pages, 2838 KiB   </span> <a href="/2673-9941/4/3/23/pdf?version=1726567442" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="New Approaches in Finite Control Set Model Predictive Control for Grid-Connected Photovoltaic Inverters: State of the Art" data-journal="solar"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Review</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2673-9941/4/3/23">New Approaches in Finite Control Set Model Predictive Control for Grid-Connected Photovoltaic Inverters: State of the Art</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Shakil Mirza</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Arif Hussain</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Solar</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>4</em>(3), 491-508; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/solar4030023">https://doi.org/10.3390/solar4030023</a> - 12 Sep 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> Grid-connected PV inverters require sophisticated control procedures for smooth integration with the modern electrical grid. The ability of FCS-MPC to manage the discrete character of power electronic devices is highly acknowledged, since it enables direct manipulation of switching states without requiring modulation techniques. <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9941/4/3/23/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> Grid-connected PV inverters require sophisticated control procedures for smooth integration with the modern electrical grid. The ability of FCS-MPC to manage the discrete character of power electronic devices is highly acknowledged, since it enables direct manipulation of switching states without requiring modulation techniques. This review discusses the latest approaches in FCS-MPC methods for PV-based grid-connected inverter systems. It also classifies these methods according to control objectives, such as active and reactive power control, harmonic suppression, and voltage regulation. The application of FCS-MPC particularly emphasizing its benefits, including quick response times, resistance to changes in parameters, and the capacity to manage restrictions and nonlinearities in the system without the requirement for modulators, has been investigated in this review. Recent developments in robust and adaptive MPC strategies, which enhance system performance despite distorted grid settings and parametric uncertainties, are emphasized. This analysis classifies FCS-MPC techniques based on their control goals, optimal parameters and cost function, this paper also identifies drawbacks in these existing control methods and provide recommendation for future research in FCS-MPC for grid-connected PV-inverter systems. <a href="/2673-9941/4/3/23">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Topic <a href="/topics/EXWH2EEZZ5">Smart Solar Energy Systems</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9941/4/3/23/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1476843"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1476843"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1476843" data-cycle-prev="#prev1476843" data-cycle-progressive="#images1476843" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1476843-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00023/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00023-g001-550.jpg?1726567506" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1476843" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1476843-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00023/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00023-g002-550.jpg?1726567508'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1476843-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00023/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00023-g003-550.jpg?1726567509'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1476843-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00023/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00023-g004-550.jpg?1726567510'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1476843-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00023/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00023-g005-550.jpg?1726567511'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1476843-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00023/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00023-g006-550.jpg?1726567512'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1476843-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00023/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00023-g007-550.jpg?1726567513'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1476843-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00023/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00023-g008-550.jpg?1726567514'><p>Figure 8</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1476843-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00023/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00023-g001-550.jpg?1726567506" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Three-phase two-level grid-connected inverter.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/23'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00023/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00023-g002-550.jpg?1726567508" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Output voltage vector of the inverter in SFR during the current (<span class="html-italic">k</span>) and next (<span class="html-italic">k</span> + 1) sampling time.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/23'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00023/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00023-g003-550.jpg?1726567509" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Generalized FCS-MPC block diagram.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/23'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00023/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00023-g004-550.jpg?1726567510" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Flow chart of FCS-MPC of the grid-connected inverter system.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/23'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00023/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00023-g005-550.jpg?1726567511" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>(<b>a</b>) Block diagram of the predictive power controller [<a href="#B25-solar-04-00023" class="html-bibr">25</a>]; (<b>b</b>) flowchart of MPC with increased switching states [<a href="#B23-solar-04-00023" class="html-bibr">23</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/23'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00023/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00023-g006-550.jpg?1726567512" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Block diagram of resonant MPC based on IMP.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/23'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00023/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00023-g007-550.jpg?1726567513" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Block diagram of the resonant model predictive controller [<a href="#B65-solar-04-00023" class="html-bibr">65</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/23'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00023/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00023-g008-550.jpg?1726567514" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Performance of FCS-MPC: (<b>a</b>) improvement in harmonic suppression compare with conventional method and (<b>b</b>) comparison of harmonic suppression during distorted grid conditions [<a href="#B23-solar-04-00023" class="html-bibr">23</a>,<a href="#B65-solar-04-00023" class="html-bibr">65</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/23'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 20 pages, 7100 KiB   </span> <a href="/2673-9941/4/3/22/pdf?version=1725436395" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Decarbonizing Industrial Steam Generation Using Solar and Wind Power in a Constrained Electricity Network" data-journal="solar"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2673-9941/4/3/22">Decarbonizing Industrial Steam Generation Using Solar and Wind Power in a Constrained Electricity Network</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Mehdi Aghaei Meybodi</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Andrew C. Beath</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Solar</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>4</em>(3), 471-490; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/solar4030022">https://doi.org/10.3390/solar4030022</a> - 4 Sep 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> Australia aims to achieve net zero emissions by 2050, with an interim target of reducing emissions to 43% below 2005 levels by 2030. Electrification of industry processes currently reliant on fossil fuels is a necessary step to achieve these emission reduction goals. This <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9941/4/3/22/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> Australia aims to achieve net zero emissions by 2050, with an interim target of reducing emissions to 43% below 2005 levels by 2030. Electrification of industry processes currently reliant on fossil fuels is a necessary step to achieve these emission reduction goals. This study investigates electrification of steam generation relevant to major industrial operations in the southwest of Western Australia using different renewable energy input levels. The designed system incorporates thermal storage to ensure continuous steam generation. The optimized technology mix, including wind, PV, and concentrated solar thermal (CST) systems for each renewable energy input target, is presented. The optimization process also identifies optimal locations for new renewable energy plants. In summary, the optimization tends towards favouring the development of large CST plants near a demand point. This avoids the use of the transmission network by direct use of the CST system for heating of the storage media, to address the costs and efficiency reductions arising from electrical heating, but the scope of CST use is expected to be limited by site constraints. The levelized cost of heat (LCOH) for the studied renewable energy input targets (i.e., 30–90%) ranges from 15.34 to 36.92 AUD/GJ. This is promising for the 30% renewable energy target, as future natural gas prices in Western Australia are likely to match or exceed the expected LCOH. Cost reductions for renewable generation and storage technologies with further implementation at a large scale in the future may result in more competitive LCOH at higher decarbonization levels, but it is likely that additional technologies will be required for cost competitiveness at very high decarbonization levels. <a href="/2673-9941/4/3/22">Full article</a> </div> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9941/4/3/22/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1471004"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1471004"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1471004" data-cycle-prev="#prev1471004" data-cycle-progressive="#images1471004" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1471004-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00022/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00022-g001-550.jpg?1725436509" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1471004" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1471004-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00022/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00022-g002-550.jpg?1725436511'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1471004-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00022/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00022-g003-550.jpg?1725436513'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1471004-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00022/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00022-g004-550.jpg?1725436518'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1471004-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00022/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00022-g005-550.jpg?1725436520'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1471004-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00022/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00022-g006-550.jpg?1725436522'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1471004-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00022/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00022-g007-550.jpg?1725436524'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1471004-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00022/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00022-g008-550.jpg?1725436526'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1471004-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00022/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00022-g009-550.jpg?1725436528'><p>Figure 9</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1471004-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00022/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00022-g010a-550.jpg?1725436530'><p>Figure 10</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1471004-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00022/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00022-g010b-550.jpg?1725436533'><p>Figure 10 Cont.</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1471004-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00022/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00022-g001-550.jpg?1725436509" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Schematic diagram of the steam generation system.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/22'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00022/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00022-g002-550.jpg?1725436511" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Estimated cost breakdown for different options for molten salt storage tanks.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/22'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00022/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00022-g003-550.jpg?1725436513" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>SWIS zones representation [<a href="#B12-solar-04-00022" class="html-bibr">12</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/22'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00022/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00022-g004-550.jpg?1725436518" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Generation data for different technologies on a daily basis for 2021 in the SWIS, with price variability.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/22'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00022/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00022-g005-550.jpg?1725436520" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Generation data for renewable technologies as daily totals for 2021 in the SWIS.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/22'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00022/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00022-g006-550.jpg?1725436522" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Flowchart of the optimization process.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/22'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00022/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00022-g007-550.jpg?1725436524" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Cost breakdown for optimized systems for differing renewable goals.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/22'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00022/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00022-g008-550.jpg?1725436526" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Hourly operations of the thermal storage for 90% renewable steam provision on two days.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/22'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00022/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00022-g009-550.jpg?1725436528" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>Hourly operations of the thermal storage for 50% renewable steam provision on two days.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/22'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00022/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00022-g010a-550.jpg?1725436530" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>Monthly and annual system energy balances for four renewables targets.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/22'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00022/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00022-g010b-550.jpg?1725436533" title=" <strong>Figure 10 Cont.</strong><br/> <p>Monthly and annual system energy balances for four renewables targets.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/22'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 16 pages, 3659 KiB   </span> <a href="/2673-9941/4/3/21/pdf?version=1724929966" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Applying and Improving Pyranometric Methods to Estimate Sunshine Duration for Tropical Site" data-journal="solar"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2673-9941/4/3/21">Applying and Improving Pyranometric Methods to Estimate Sunshine Duration for Tropical Site</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Tovondahiniriko Fanjirindratovo</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Didier Calogine</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Oanh Chau</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Olga Ramiarinjanahary</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Solar</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>4</em>(3), 455-470; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/solar4030021">https://doi.org/10.3390/solar4030021</a> - 29 Aug 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> The aim of this paper is to apply all the existing pyranometric methods to estimate the sunshine duration from global solar irradiation in order to find the most suitable method for a tropical site in its original form. Then, in a second step, <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9941/4/3/21/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> The aim of this paper is to apply all the existing pyranometric methods to estimate the sunshine duration from global solar irradiation in order to find the most suitable method for a tropical site in its original form. Then, in a second step, one of these methods will be optimized to effectively fit tropical sites. Five methods in the literature (Step algorithm, Carpentras Algorithm, Slob and Monna Algorithm, Slob and Monna 2 Algorithm, and linear algorithm) were applied with eleven years of global and diffuse solar radiation data. As a result, with regard to its original form, the step algorithm is in the first rank. But in the second step, after improving its main coefficients, the Carpentras Algorithm was found to be the best algorithm for tropical sites in the southern hemisphere. <a href="/2673-9941/4/3/21">Full article</a> </div> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9941/4/3/21/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1466961"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1466961"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1466961" data-cycle-prev="#prev1466961" data-cycle-progressive="#images1466961" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1466961-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00021/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00021-g001-550.jpg?1724930119" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1466961" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1466961-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00021/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00021-g002-550.jpg?1724930122'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1466961-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00021/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00021-g003-550.jpg?1724930123'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1466961-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00021/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00021-g004-550.jpg?1724930125'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1466961-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00021/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00021-g005-550.jpg?1724930128'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1466961-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00021/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00021-g006-550.jpg?1724930130'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1466961-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00021/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00021-g007-550.jpg?1724930131'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1466961-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00021/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00021-g008-550.jpg?1724930132'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1466961-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00021/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00021-g009-550.jpg?1724930135'><p>Figure 9</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1466961-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00021/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00021-g010-550.jpg?1724930137'><p>Figure 10</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1466961-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00021/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00021-g001-550.jpg?1724930119" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Scatter plot with linear fitting: (<b>a</b>) Step algorithm vs. reference; (<b>b</b>) Meteo France Algorithm vs. Reference.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/21'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00021/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00021-g002-550.jpg?1724930122" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Scatter plot with linear fitting: (<b>a</b>) Slob and Monna Algorithm vs. Reference; (<b>b</b>) Slob and Monna 2 Algorithm vs. Reference.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/21'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00021/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00021-g003-550.jpg?1724930123" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Scatter plot of linear algorithm vs. reference with linear fitting.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/21'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00021/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00021-g004-550.jpg?1724930125" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Total and relative cumulative differences between algorithms and the reference: (<b>a</b>) For the eleven years; (<b>b</b>) Zoom for the first three years.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/21'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00021/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00021-g005-550.jpg?1724930128" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Histogram and statistical parameters: (<b>a</b>) Step algorithm; (<b>b</b>) Meteo France Algorithm.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/21'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00021/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00021-g006-550.jpg?1724930130" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Histogram and statistical parameters: (<b>a</b>) Slob and Monna Algorithm; (<b>b</b>) Slob and Monna 2 Algorithm.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/21'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00021/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00021-g007-550.jpg?1724930131" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Histogram and statistical parameters for linear algorithm.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/21'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00021/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00021-g008-550.jpg?1724930132" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Relative cumulative differences for the 70 possible combinations of A and B values.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/21'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00021/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00021-g009-550.jpg?1724930135" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>Total cumulative differences for the Improved Meteo France Algorithm compared to the other models: (<b>a</b>) All methods over the eleven years; (<b>b</b>) Zoom for the step algorithm and Improved Meteo France Algorithm.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/21'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00021/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00021-g010-550.jpg?1724930137" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>Improved Meteo France Algorithm: (<b>a</b>) Scatter plot and linear fit; (<b>b</b>) Histogram.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/21'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 15 pages, 1735 KiB   </span> <a href="/2673-9941/4/3/20/pdf?version=1727420331" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="EduSolar: A Remote-Controlled Photovoltaic/Thermal Educational Lab with Integrated Daylight Simulation" data-journal="solar"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2673-9941/4/3/20">EduSolar: A Remote-Controlled Photovoltaic/Thermal Educational Lab with Integrated Daylight Simulation</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Talha Batuhan Korkut</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Ahmed Rachid</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Solar</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>4</em>(3), 440-454; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/solar4030020">https://doi.org/10.3390/solar4030020</a> - 22 Aug 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> This study presents a compact educational photovoltaic/thermal (PV/T) system designed for thorough performance assessment under simulated weather conditions. As an affordable educational tool, the system offers significant pedagogical value. The PV/T system features two photovoltaic modules: a thermally enhanced module and a standard <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9941/4/3/20/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> This study presents a compact educational photovoltaic/thermal (PV/T) system designed for thorough performance assessment under simulated weather conditions. As an affordable educational tool, the system offers significant pedagogical value. The PV/T system features two photovoltaic modules: a thermally enhanced module and a standard one. The thermally enhanced module uses water as a coolant, which transfers heat from the PV cells to a fan-operated heat exchanger, with the coolant being recirculated to maintain optimal conditions. A halogen lamp, placed between the modules, simulates solar radiation to ensure effective electrical current generation. The system’s remote-control capabilities, managed via the Message Queuing Telemetry Transport (MQTT) protocol, enable real-time adjustments to the coolant flow rate, heat exchanger efficiency, and lamp brightness, as well as monitoring of electrical parameters. Experimental findings indicate that the PV/T module achieves a 7.71% increase in power output compared to the standard PV module and offers a 17.41% improvement in cooling efficiency over scenarios without cooling. Additionally, the numerical methods used in the study show a maximum deviation of 4.29% from the experimental results, which is considered acceptable. This study showcases a best practice model for solar training, applicable from elementary to university levels, and suggests innovative approaches to enhancing solar energy education. <a href="/2673-9941/4/3/20">Full article</a> </div> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9941/4/3/20/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1461751"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1461751"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1461751" data-cycle-prev="#prev1461751" data-cycle-progressive="#images1461751" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1461751-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00020/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00020-ag-550.jpg?1727420422" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Graphical abstract</p></div><script id="images1461751" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1461751-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00020/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00020-g001-550.jpg?1727420415'><p>Figure 1</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1461751-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00020/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00020-g002-550.jpg?1727420416'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1461751-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00020/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00020-g003-550.jpg?1727420418'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1461751-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00020/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00020-g004-550.jpg?1727420419'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1461751-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00020/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00020-g005-550.jpg?1727420420'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1461751-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00020/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00020-g006-550.jpg?1727420421'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1461751-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00020/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00020-g007-550.jpg?1727420422'><p>Figure 7</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1461751-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00020/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00020-ag-550.jpg?1727420422" title=" <strong>Graphical abstract</strong><br/><strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/20'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00020/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00020-g001-550.jpg?1727420415" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>The system working principle, main components, and photographs from multiple angles.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/20'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00020/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00020-g002-550.jpg?1727420416" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>System electrical diagram.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/20'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00020/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00020-g003-550.jpg?1727420418" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>The system working principle (<b>a</b>), and representation of the monitoring system (<b>b</b>).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/20'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00020/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00020-g004-550.jpg?1727420419" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Stability of experimental data across cycles.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/20'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00020/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00020-g005-550.jpg?1727420420" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>PV and PV/T system performances at the first scenario.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/20'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00020/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00020-g006-550.jpg?1727420421" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>PV and PV/T system performances in the second scenario.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/20'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00020/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00020-g007-550.jpg?1727420422" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>PV and PV/T system performances in the third scenario.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/20'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <a data-dropdown="drop-supplementary-1457386" aria-controls="drop-supplementary-1457386" aria-expanded="false" title="Supplementary Material"> <i class="material-icons">attachment</i> </a> <div id="drop-supplementary-1457386" class="f-dropdown label__btn__dropdown label__btn__dropdown--wide" data-dropdown-content aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"> Supplementary material: <br/> <a href="/2673-9941/4/3/19/s1?version=1723787331"> Supplementary File 1 (ZIP, 2969 KiB) </a><br/> </div> </div> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 18 pages, 2005 KiB   </span> <a href="/2673-9941/4/3/19/pdf?version=1723787330" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Presenting a Model to Predict Changing Snow Albedo for Improving Photovoltaic Performance Simulation" data-journal="solar"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2673-9941/4/3/19">Presenting a Model to Predict Changing Snow Albedo for Improving Photovoltaic Performance Simulation</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Christopher Pike</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Daniel Riley</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Henry Toal</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Laurie Burnham</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Solar</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>4</em>(3), 422-439; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/solar4030019">https://doi.org/10.3390/solar4030019</a> - 16 Aug 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> As photovoltaic (PV) deployment increases worldwide, PV systems are being installed more frequently in locations that experience snow cover. The higher albedo of snow, relative to the ground, increases the performance of PV systems in northern and high-altitude locations by reflecting more light <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9941/4/3/19/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> As photovoltaic (PV) deployment increases worldwide, PV systems are being installed more frequently in locations that experience snow cover. The higher albedo of snow, relative to the ground, increases the performance of PV systems in northern and high-altitude locations by reflecting more light onto the PV modules. Accurate modeling of the snow’s albedo can improve estimates of PV system production. Typical modeling of snow albedo uses a simple two-value model that sets the albedo high when snow is present, and low when snow is not present. However, snow albedo changes over time as snow settles and melts and a binary model does not account for transitional changes, which can be significant. Here, we present and validate a model for estimating snow albedo as it changes over time. The model is simple enough to only require daily snow depth and hourly average temperature data, but can be improved through the addition of site-specific factors, when available. We validate this model to quantify its ability to more accurately predict snow albedo and compare the model’s performance against satellite imagery-based methods for obtaining historical albedo data. In addition, we perform modeling using the System Advisor Model (SAM) to show the impact of changes in albedo on energy modeling for PV systems. Overall, our albedo model has a significantly improved ability to predict the solar insolation on PV modules in real time, especially on bifacial PV modules where reflected irradiance plays a larger role in energy production. <a href="/2673-9941/4/3/19">Full article</a> </div> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9941/4/3/19/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1457386"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1457386"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1457386" data-cycle-prev="#prev1457386" data-cycle-progressive="#images1457386" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1457386-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00019/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00019-g001-550.jpg?1723787417" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1457386" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1457386-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00019/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00019-g002-550.jpg?1723787418'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1457386-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00019/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00019-g003-550.jpg?1723787420'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1457386-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00019/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00019-g004-550.jpg?1723787421'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1457386-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00019/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00019-g005-550.jpg?1723787422'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1457386-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00019/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00019-g006-550.jpg?1723787424'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1457386-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00019/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00019-g007-550.jpg?1723787425'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1457386-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00019/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00019-g008-550.jpg?1723787426'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1457386-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00019/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00019-g009-550.jpg?1723787426'><p>Figure 9</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1457386-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00019/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00019-g010-550.jpg?1723787428'><p>Figure 10</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1457386-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00019/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00019-g011-550.jpg?1723787430'><p>Figure 11</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='11' data-target='article-1457386-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00019/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00019-g012-550.jpg?1723787431'><p>Figure 12</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='12' data-target='article-1457386-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00019/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00019-g013-550.jpg?1723787432'><p>Figure 13</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='13' data-target='article-1457386-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00019/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00019-g014-550.jpg?1723787433'><p>Figure 14</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1457386-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00019/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00019-g001-550.jpg?1723787417" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Measured ground albedo at three different locations over multiple years, illustrating that the albedo is often between the default values of 0.8 if snow cover is present and 0.2 if snow cover is not present.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/19'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00019/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00019-g002-550.jpg?1723787418" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>The measured albedo as a function of the melt hours since the end of the last snowfall that was classed as a snow event, shown for snow events in Fairbanks, Alaska. Each curve denotes a different snow event.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/19'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00019/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00019-g003-550.jpg?1723787420" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Site locations of irradiance instrumentation that provided data for the melt-hour albedo model.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/19'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00019/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00019-g004-550.jpg?1723787421" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Flowchart summarizing key steps of the albedo change model development process.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/19'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00019/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00019-g005-550.jpg?1723787422" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Snow events, each one represented by a different color, recorded in Fairbanks, Alaska, shown in terms of the daily average albedo.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/19'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00019/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00019-g006-550.jpg?1723787424" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Normalized albedo shown according to the cumulative melt hours since the last snow event, with each line representing a different event. Normalizing the maximum event albedo to 1 allows for the slopes of the events to be easily compared to one another.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/19'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00019/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00019-g007-550.jpg?1723787425" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Normalized albedo for all events from all study sites, graphed together along with modeled lines to highlight the two different albedo change modes that emerge from the data. The “slow decay” shape generally occurs in cases where the snow depth was greater than 10 cm in all of the preceding three days before the snow event began. The “exponential decay” shape generally occurs in cases where the snow depth was less than or equal to 10 cm on any of the preceding 3 days before the snow event began.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/19'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00019/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00019-g008-550.jpg?1723787426" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>The slow decay data graphed according to the melt hours to highlight the emerging curve shape that was used to develop the equations shown below.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/19'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00019/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00019-g009-550.jpg?1723787426" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>The exponential decay data graphed according to the melt hours to highlight the emerging curve shape that was used to develop the equations shown below.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/19'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00019/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00019-g010-550.jpg?1723787428" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>Flow chart of the advanced albedo model showing the model’s logic.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/19'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00019/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00019-g011-550.jpg?1723787430" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>Measured albedo from the Fairbanks (AK) validation dataset compared with the melt-hour albedo model data and the traditional model assumptions.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/19'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00019/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00019-g012-550.jpg?1723787431" title=" <strong>Figure 12</strong><br/> <p>Measured albedo from the Houghton (MI) validation dataset compared with the melt-hour albedo model data and the traditional model assumptions.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/19'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00019/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00019-g013-550.jpg?1723787432" title=" <strong>Figure 13</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of the measured albedo in Fairlee (VT) with the reported NSRDB ground albedo and the albedo as modeled using the melt-hour model.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/19'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00019/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00019-g014-550.jpg?1723787433" title=" <strong>Figure 14</strong><br/> <p>SAM results for Fairbanks, Alaska (2022), showing forward, rear, and total effective POA insolation per month for a simulated array at a 60-degree tilt angle calculated using albedo from on-site measurements, a traditional binary model, and the melt-hour model. Gray regions indicate periods without snow cover.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/19'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 21 pages, 10016 KiB   </span> <a href="/2673-9941/4/3/18/pdf?version=1721901944" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Enhancing Industrial Buildings’ Performance through Informed Decision Making: A Generative Design for Building-Integrated Photovoltaic and Shading System Optimization" data-journal="solar"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2673-9941/4/3/18">Enhancing Industrial Buildings’ Performance through Informed Decision Making: A Generative Design for Building-Integrated Photovoltaic and Shading System Optimization</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Neri Banti</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Cecilia Ciacci</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Frida Bazzocchi</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Vincenzo Di Naso</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Solar</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>4</em>(3), 401-421; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/solar4030018">https://doi.org/10.3390/solar4030018</a> - 25 Jul 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> The Italian industrial sector contains 22% of the final energy demand due to the poor energy performance of manufacturing buildings. This proposed study aimed to evaluate retrofit interventions for existing industrial buildings integrating photovoltaic solutions into the external envelope to improve both the <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9941/4/3/18/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> The Italian industrial sector contains 22% of the final energy demand due to the poor energy performance of manufacturing buildings. This proposed study aimed to evaluate retrofit interventions for existing industrial buildings integrating photovoltaic solutions into the external envelope to improve both the environmental sustainability and the facade performance. The methodology is based on an innovative procedure including BIM and generative design tools. Starting from the Revit model of a representative case study, interoperability with energy analysis plugins via Grasshopper were exploited to optimize the differently oriented facade layout of photovoltaic modules to maximize the electricity production. In the case of comparable facade sizes, the building orientation had a minor impact on the results, although a southern exposure was preferable. The optimized configuration involved the installation of PV panels with a tilt angle ranging from −35° to −75°. The best compromise solution between the panel surface area and energy production during the summer solstice involves 466 m<sup>2</sup> of PV modules. The design-optioneering approach was used to define possible alternatives to be explored for the possible installation of solar shading systems on existing windows. In this case, the impact on visual comfort within the working environment was chosen as a reference parameter, along with the value of the indoor air temperature. A decrease in this parameter equal to 0.46 was registered for the solution with horizontal (or nearly horizontal) shaders and a spacing ranging between 0.2 and 0.4. The integration of the BIM environment with generative design tools effectively assists decision-making processes for the selection of technological solutions in the building sector. <a href="/2673-9941/4/3/18">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Topic <a href="/topics/sustainable_ii">Sustainable Energy Technology, 2nd Volume</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9941/4/3/18/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1442598"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1442598"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1442598" data-cycle-prev="#prev1442598" data-cycle-progressive="#images1442598" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1442598-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00018/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00018-ag-550.jpg?1721977857" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Graphical abstract</p></div><script id="images1442598" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1442598-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00018/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00018-g001-550.jpg?1721902014'><p>Figure 1</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1442598-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00018/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00018-g002-550.jpg?1721902017'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1442598-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00018/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00018-g003-550.jpg?1721902020'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1442598-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00018/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00018-g004-550.jpg?1721902025'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1442598-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00018/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00018-g005-550.jpg?1721902030'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1442598-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00018/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00018-g006-550.jpg?1721902033'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1442598-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00018/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00018-g007-550.jpg?1721902036'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1442598-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00018/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00018-g008-550.jpg?1721902039'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1442598-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00018/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00018-g009-550.jpg?1721902042'><p>Figure 9</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1442598-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00018/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00018-g010-550.jpg?1721902045'><p>Figure 10</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1442598-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00018/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00018-ag-550.jpg?1721977857" title=" <strong>Graphical abstract</strong><br/><strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/18'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00018/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00018-g001-550.jpg?1721902014" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Three-dimensional model of the analyzed industrial building and ground floor plan. The blue area indicated in the internal layout is not addressed because it hosts a warehouse and archive on the ground floor and offices on the first one.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/18'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00018/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00018-g002-550.jpg?1721902017" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Flow chart of the methodology.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/18'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00018/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00018-g003-550.jpg?1721902020" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Visual Programming Language (VPL) script developed by the authors for the purposes of this study. Each of the boxes represents a different algorithm section for a specific purpose. To ensure a more effective comprehension of the script, thematic grouping is provided. The boxes highlighted in orange refer to general tasks (G), propaedeutically developed for all the following phases. The green boxes include the tasks addressing PV optimization (PV_O), and the yellow ones refer to the shading system optimization (S_O).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/18'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00018/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00018-g004-550.jpg?1721902025" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Pareto curve related to the optimization of the PV panels’ layout for the summer solstice.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/18'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00018/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00018-g005-550.jpg?1721902030" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Pareto curve related to the optimization of the PV panels’ layout for the winter solstice.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/18'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00018/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00018-g006-550.jpg?1721902033" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Industrial building energy needs and PV panels’ production in the advisable configuration for winter, the month of December, and a winter design day.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/18'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00018/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00018-g007-550.jpg?1721902036" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Building orientation study.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/18'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00018/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00018-g008-550.jpg?1721902039" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Spatial distribution of the DF, DA, UDI, and UDI below threshold within the working environment according to the different window and skylight distributions.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/18'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00018/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00018-g009-550.jpg?1721902042" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>Results visualization in Design Explorer: first, the total number of possible configurations is presented to later extract the solutions of interest for the final goal of the research. These five layouts are also graphically represented to better show their geometries.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/18'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00018/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00018-g010-550.jpg?1721902045" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>Trend of the indoor air temperature for the base case (current thermal conditions) and solutions (1) and (4) with the installation of solar shading systems for the southern orientation.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/18'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 14 pages, 3431 KiB   </span> <a href="/2673-9941/4/3/17/pdf?version=1727175533" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Limits of Harmonic Stability Analysis for Commercially Available Single-Phase Inverters for Photovoltaic Applications" data-journal="solar"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2673-9941/4/3/17">Limits of Harmonic Stability Analysis for Commercially Available Single-Phase Inverters for Photovoltaic Applications</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Elias Kaufhold</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Jan Meyer</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Johanna Myrzik</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Peter Schegner</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Solar</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>4</em>(3), 387-400; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/solar4030017">https://doi.org/10.3390/solar4030017</a> - 18 Jul 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> The growth of renewables in public energy networks requires suitable strategies to assess the stable operation of the respective power electronic devices, e.g., inverters. Different assessment methods can be performed with regard to the available knowledge and the assessment objective, e.g., a specific <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9941/4/3/17/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> The growth of renewables in public energy networks requires suitable strategies to assess the stable operation of the respective power electronic devices, e.g., inverters. Different assessment methods can be performed with regard to the available knowledge and the assessment objective, e.g., a specific frequency range or the input signal characteristics that are typically classified into small-signal and large-signal disturbances. This paper addresses the limits of the measurement-based small-signal stability analysis in the harmonic frequency range of commercially available single-phase inverters for photovoltaic applications. The harmonic stability is analyzed, and the results for a sinusoidal background voltage and distorted background voltages are assessed based on measurements. The measurements prove that even in the harmonic frequency range, the harmonic stability analysis can only provide a sufficient but not a necessary condition in terms of the statement towards an instable operation. <a href="/2673-9941/4/3/17">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Special Issue <a href=" /journal/solar/special_issues/power_electronics ">Power Electronics Architectures and Associated Control for Efficient and Reliable Solar PV Systems</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9941/4/3/17/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1437822"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1437822"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1437822" data-cycle-prev="#prev1437822" data-cycle-progressive="#images1437822" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1437822-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00017/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00017-g001-550.jpg?1727175605" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1437822" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1437822-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00017/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00017-g002-550.jpg?1727175606'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1437822-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00017/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00017-g003-550.jpg?1727175607'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1437822-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00017/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00017-g004-550.jpg?1727175609'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1437822-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00017/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00017-g005-550.jpg?1727175610'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1437822-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00017/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00017-g006-550.jpg?1727175612'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1437822-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00017/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00017-g007-550.jpg?1727175613'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1437822-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00017/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00017-g008-550.jpg?1727175615'><p>Figure 8</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1437822-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00017/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00017-g001-550.jpg?1727175605" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>A frequency domain model of a PV inverter (coupled Norton model) and a public LV network (Thevenin equivalent).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/17'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00017/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00017-g002-550.jpg?1727175606" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Heatmaps of magnitudes of frequency coupling matrices for 1 kW (<b>a</b>), 2.5 kW (<b>b</b>) and 4.5 kW (<b>c</b>).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/17'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00017/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00017-g003-550.jpg?1727175607" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Magnitude (<b>a</b>) and phase angle (<b>b</b>) characteristics of the inverter for 1 kW (light green), 2.5 kW (dark green) and 4.5 kW (black).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/17'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00017/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00017-g004-550.jpg?1727175609" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>A scheme of the test stand configuration for evaluating the stable operation of an inverter.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/17'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00017/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00017-g005-550.jpg?1727175610" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Voltage <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mrow> <mi>u</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">P</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">o</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">C</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math> (<b>a</b>) and current <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mrow> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">P</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">o</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">C</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math> (<b>b</b>) of inverter at 1 kW in time domain for sinusoidal background voltage and applied test stand impedance <span class="html-italic">L</span><sub>test</sub> of 3.943 mH.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/17'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00017/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00017-g006-550.jpg?1727175612" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Voltage <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mrow> <mi>u</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">P</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">o</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">C</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math> (<b>a</b>) and current <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mrow> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">P</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">o</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">C</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math> (<b>b</b>) of inverter at 1 kW in wavelet domain for sinusoidal background voltage and applied test stand impedance <span class="html-italic">L</span><sub>test</sub> of 3.943 mH.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/17'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00017/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00017-g007-550.jpg?1727175613" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Voltage <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mrow> <mi>u</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">P</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">o</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">C</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math> (<b>a</b>) and current <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mrow> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">P</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">o</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">C</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math> (<b>b</b>) during shut down of inverter at 1 kW in time domain for flat-top background voltage and applied test stand impedance <span class="html-italic">L</span><sub>test</sub> of 3.943 mH.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/17'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00017/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00017-g008-550.jpg?1727175615" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Voltage <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mrow> <mi>u</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">P</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">o</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">C</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math> (<b>a</b>) and current <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mrow> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">P</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">o</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">C</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math> (<b>b</b>) during shut down of inverter at 1 kW in wavelet domain for flat-top background voltage and applied test stand impedance <span class="html-italic">L</span><sub>test</sub> of 3.943 mH.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/17'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 36 pages, 1204 KiB   </span> <a href="/2673-9941/4/3/16/pdf?version=1719395679" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="In-Depth Review of YOLOv1 to YOLOv10 Variants for Enhanced Photovoltaic Defect Detection" data-journal="solar"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Review</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2673-9941/4/3/16">In-Depth Review of YOLOv1 to YOLOv10 Variants for Enhanced Photovoltaic Defect Detection</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Muhammad Hussain</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Rahima Khanam</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Solar</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>4</em>(3), 351-386; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/solar4030016">https://doi.org/10.3390/solar4030016</a> - 26 Jun 2024 </div> <a href="/2673-9941/4/3/16#metrics">Cited by 6</a> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> This review presents an investigation into the incremental advancements in the YOLO (You Only Look Once) architecture and its derivatives, with a specific focus on their pivotal contributions to improving quality inspection within the photovoltaic (PV) domain. YOLO’s single-stage approach to object detection <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9941/4/3/16/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> This review presents an investigation into the incremental advancements in the YOLO (You Only Look Once) architecture and its derivatives, with a specific focus on their pivotal contributions to improving quality inspection within the photovoltaic (PV) domain. YOLO’s single-stage approach to object detection has made it a preferred option due to its efficiency. The review unearths key drivers of success in each variant, from path aggregation networks to generalised efficient layer aggregation architectures and programmable gradient information, presented in the latest variant, YOLOv10, released in May 2024. Looking ahead, the review predicts a significant trend in future research, indicating a shift toward refining YOLO variants to tackle a wider array of PV fault scenarios. While current discussions mainly centre on micro-crack detection, there is an acknowledged opportunity for expansion. Researchers are expected to delve deeper into attention mechanisms within the YOLO architecture, recognising their potential to greatly enhance detection capabilities, particularly for subtle and intricate faults. <a href="/2673-9941/4/3/16">Full article</a> </div> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9941/4/3/16/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1422554"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1422554"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1422554" data-cycle-prev="#prev1422554" data-cycle-progressive="#images1422554" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1422554-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00016/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00016-g001-550.jpg?1719395779" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1422554" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1422554-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00016/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00016-g002-550.jpg?1719395779'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1422554-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00016/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00016-g003-550.jpg?1719395780'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1422554-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00016/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00016-g004-550.jpg?1719395781'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1422554-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00016/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00016-g005-550.jpg?1719395782'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1422554-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00016/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00016-g006-550.jpg?1719395782'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1422554-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00016/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00016-g007-550.jpg?1719395783'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1422554-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00016/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00016-g008-550.jpg?1719395785'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1422554-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00016/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00016-g009-550.jpg?1719395786'><p>Figure 9</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1422554-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00016/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00016-g001-550.jpg?1719395779" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Visual structure of this review.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/16'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00016/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00016-g002-550.jpg?1719395779" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>The general structure of a CNN, highlighting convolutional, pooling, and fully connected layers.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/16'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00016/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00016-g003-550.jpg?1719395780" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Single and multiple objects in an image: classification, localisation, and segmentation.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/16'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00016/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00016-g004-550.jpg?1719395781" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>A standard architecture of single-stage object detectors.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/16'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00016/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00016-g005-550.jpg?1719395782" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>A proposed abstract architecture.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/16'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00016/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00016-g006-550.jpg?1719395782" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>YOLOv3 architecture.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/16'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00016/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00016-g007-550.jpg?1719395783" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>GELAN architecture [<a href="#B136-solar-04-00016" class="html-bibr">136</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/16'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00016/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00016-g008-550.jpg?1719395785" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Consistent dual assignments.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/16'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00016/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00016-g009-550.jpg?1719395786" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>PANet configuration.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/3/16'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 22 pages, 14474 KiB   </span> <a href="/2673-9941/4/2/15/pdf?version=1716807745" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Solar Energy Systems Design Using Immersive Virtual Reality: A Multi-Modal Evaluation Approach" data-journal="solar"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2673-9941/4/2/15">Solar Energy Systems Design Using Immersive Virtual Reality: A Multi-Modal Evaluation Approach</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Noor AlQallaf</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Ali AlQallaf</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Rami Ghannam</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Solar</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>4</em>(2), 329-350; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/solar4020015">https://doi.org/10.3390/solar4020015</a> - 27 May 2024 </div> <a href="/2673-9941/4/2/15#metrics">Cited by 1</a> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> As the demand for renewable energy sources continues to increase, solar energy is becoming an increasingly popular option. Therefore, effective training in solar energy systems design and operation is crucial to ensure the successful implementation of solar energy technology. To make this training <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9941/4/2/15/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> As the demand for renewable energy sources continues to increase, solar energy is becoming an increasingly popular option. Therefore, effective training in solar energy systems design and operation is crucial to ensure the successful implementation of solar energy technology. To make this training accessible to a wide range of people from different backgrounds, it is important to develop effective and engaging training methods. Immersive virtual reality (VR) has emerged as a promising tool for enhancing solar energy training and education. In this paper, a unique method is presented to evaluate the effectiveness of an immersive VR experience for solar energy systems design using a multi-modal approach that includes a detailed analysis of user engagement. To gain a detailed analysis of user engagement, the VR experience was segmented into multiple scenes. Moreover, an eye-tracker and wireless wearable sensors were used to accurately measure user engagement and performance in each scene. The results demonstrate that the immersive VR experience was effective in improving users’ understanding of solar energy systems design and their ability to perform complex tasks. Moreover, by using sensors to measure user engagement, specific areas that required improvement were identified and insights for enhancing the design of future VR training experiences for solar energy systems design were provided. This research not only advances VR applications in solar energy education but also offers valuable insights for designing effective and engaging training modules using multi-modal sensory input and real-time user engagement analytics. <a href="/2673-9941/4/2/15">Full article</a> </div> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9941/4/2/15/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1402908"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1402908"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1402908" data-cycle-prev="#prev1402908" data-cycle-progressive="#images1402908" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1402908-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00015/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00015-g001-550.jpg?1716807813" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1402908" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1402908-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00015/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00015-g002-550.jpg?1716807814'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1402908-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00015/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00015-g003-550.jpg?1716807815'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1402908-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00015/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00015-g004-550.jpg?1716807816'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1402908-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00015/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00015-g005-550.jpg?1716807819'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1402908-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00015/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00015-g006-550.jpg?1716807820'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1402908-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00015/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00015-g007-550.jpg?1716807822'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1402908-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00015/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00015-g008-550.jpg?1716807826'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1402908-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00015/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00015-g009-550.jpg?1716807827'><p>Figure 9</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1402908-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00015/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00015-g010-550.jpg?1716807828'><p>Figure 10</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1402908-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00015/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00015-g011-550.jpg?1716807828'><p>Figure 11</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='11' data-target='article-1402908-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00015/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00015-g012-550.jpg?1716807829'><p>Figure 12</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='12' data-target='article-1402908-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00015/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00015-g013-550.jpg?1716807830'><p>Figure 13</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1402908-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00015/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00015-g001-550.jpg?1716807813" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Comparison between a participant’s heart rate measured using a radar sensor during interaction with a 2D application and a 3D immersive virtual reality environment.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/15'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00015/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00015-g002-550.jpg?1716807814" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Developed by Edgar Dale, the cone of experience categorises learning experiences and suggests that learning by doing leads to better information retention compared to simply hearing, seeing or observing.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/15'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00015/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00015-g003-550.jpg?1716807815" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Hardware setup and electrode placement: A wireless Shimmer3 ECG system using Bluetooth and WiFi for heart rate data streaming. The Shimmer kit collected data using ConsensysPRO software version 1.6.0. The HP Reverb G2 Omnicept has a built-in eye-tracking headset and other sensors that were used to gather participants’ heart rate, cognitive load and eye-tracking data.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/15'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00015/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00015-g004-550.jpg?1716807816" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>ECG signals that show QRS wave for calculating heartbeats.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/15'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00015/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00015-g005-550.jpg?1716807819" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>The experiment setup. (<b>A</b>) the user is wearing the ECG sensor and the HP headset to perform the VR application. At the same time, the application was live-streaming and recorded on a laptop. The picture was taken from a VR lab at the University of Glasgow. (<b>B</b>) The screen of the OBS studio where the overlay app transparently appeared for casting the heart rate and cognitive load data from the HP headset.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/15'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00015/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00015-g006-550.jpg?1716807820" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Before starting the VR application, participants performed a calibration for the eye-tracking to ensure optimal data accuracy. The procedure involved (<b>A</b>) adjusting the head position, followed by (<b>B</b>) setting the interpupillary distance (IPD) using the slider. Subsequently, (<b>C</b>) participants focused on the centre of the screen, and finally, (<b>D</b>) they were instructed to follow the dot.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/15'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00015/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00015-g007-550.jpg?1716807822" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>The three main scenes in the VR application: (<b>A</b>) Site Selection, where users are positioned in front of the house, learning about system components before installing the solar energy system. (<b>B</b>) The Power Room, where users can grab and place the system components on the designated stand. (<b>C</b>) Solar Power Installation, where users can add, remove, and adjust the angle of the stand, observing changes in the power generated from the system via the gauge chart.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/15'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00015/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00015-g008-550.jpg?1716807826" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Figure illustrates the participants’ engagement levels during the three scenes, with 5 representing extremely high engagement and 1 representing extremely low engagement.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/15'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00015/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00015-g009-550.jpg?1716807827" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>The mean heart rate values during the three scenes. The finding shows that there is no significant difference in the ECG signals for the three scenes, which indicates that there is no impact of the heart rate data in measuring the level of engagement in a virtual reality environment. The circle in the diagram represents an outlier data.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/15'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00015/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00015-g010-550.jpg?1716807828" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>The cognitive load of the users during the three scenes in the virtual reality application. The results showed that Scene 1 had the highest cognitive load while Scene 2 had the lowest. The circles represent outliers data.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/15'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00015/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00015-g011-550.jpg?1716807828" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>The pupil dilation for the participants within the three scenes. Our results showed that the largest pupil dilation occurred in scene 2 while the smallest dilation appeared in scene 1. The red line represents the average brightness level for each scene in 30 s. Scene 2 had the lowest brightness level, while scenes 1 and 3 had close brightness levels. The circles in the diagram represent outlier data.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/15'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00015/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00015-g012-550.jpg?1716807829" title=" <strong>Figure 12</strong><br/> <p>The difference in blinking among the three scenes. The results showed that Scene 2 had the highest blinking rate, while Scene 1 had the lowest. The circle shown in the diagram represents outlier data.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/15'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00015/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00015-g013-550.jpg?1716807830" title=" <strong>Figure 13</strong><br/> <p>The number of fixations during the three scenes. Scene 2 had the highest fixations number, while Scene 1 had the lowest. The circles represent outlier data.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/15'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 22 pages, 5167 KiB   </span> <a href="/2673-9941/4/2/14/pdf?version=1718372365" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Prospects and Obstacles Associated with Community Solar and Wind Farms in Jordan’s Suburban Areas" data-journal="solar"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2673-9941/4/2/14">Prospects and Obstacles Associated with Community Solar and Wind Farms in Jordan’s Suburban Areas</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Ziad Hunaiti</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Zayed Ali Huneiti</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Solar</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>4</em>(2), 307-328; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/solar4020014">https://doi.org/10.3390/solar4020014</a> - 21 May 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> Jordan faces significant, immediate challenges of enhancing energy security while mitigating greenhouse gas emissions. One of the most promising approaches to achieve sustainable development, energy security, and environmental conservation is to increase the integration of renewable energy into electricity generation. To this end, <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9941/4/2/14/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> Jordan faces significant, immediate challenges of enhancing energy security while mitigating greenhouse gas emissions. One of the most promising approaches to achieve sustainable development, energy security, and environmental conservation is to increase the integration of renewable energy into electricity generation. To this end, the Jordanian government aims to expand investments in the green energy sector, with solar and wind energy expected to play a crucial role in meeting energy demands and promoting environmental sustainability. This paper aims to examine the distinct dynamics, challenges, obstacles, and potential solutions related to establishing community solar and wind farms in suburban areas of Jordan. It seeks to highlight the opportunities and barriers influencing the adoption of sustainable energy in the country. Evaluation results from engaging 320 key stakeholders were obtained through a questionnaire, and after comprehensive analysis, it became evident that the benefits and positive aspects of solar and wind farms outweigh their drawbacks and obstacles. These insights can be useful in guiding policies and practices to make renewable energy community projects a reality within Jordan’s suburban areas. Additionally, the findings may serve as a valuable benchmark for other regions facing similar challenges in their pursuit of a sustainable energy future. <a href="/2673-9941/4/2/14">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Topic <a href="/topics/solar">Solar and Wind Power and Energy Forecasting</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9941/4/2/14/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1398568"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1398568"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1398568" data-cycle-prev="#prev1398568" data-cycle-progressive="#images1398568" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1398568-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00014/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00014-g001-550.jpg?1718372541" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1398568" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1398568-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00014/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00014-g002-550.jpg?1718372543'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1398568-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00014/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00014-g003-550.jpg?1718372545'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1398568-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00014/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00014-g004-550.jpg?1718372548'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1398568-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00014/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00014-g005-550.jpg?1718372550'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1398568-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00014/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00014-g006-550.jpg?1718372552'><p>Figure 6</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1398568-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00014/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00014-g001-550.jpg?1718372541" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Number of sunshine days and hours of daylight in Amman city [<a href="#B14-solar-04-00014" class="html-bibr">14</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/14'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00014/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00014-g002-550.jpg?1718372543" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Mean monthly wind speed at height of 10 m for Jordan Governorates [<a href="#B16-solar-04-00014" class="html-bibr">16</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/14'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00014/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00014-g003-550.jpg?1718372545" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Distribution of electric vehicle charging stations in Jordan [<a href="#B18-solar-04-00014" class="html-bibr">18</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/14'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00014/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00014-g004-550.jpg?1718372548" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Logframe.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/14'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00014/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00014-g005-550.jpg?1718372550" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Illustration of the proposed solution for community solar and wind farms.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/14'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00014/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00014-g006-550.jpg?1718372552" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Success roadmap for community solar and wind farms.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/14'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 38 pages, 4207 KiB   </span> <a href="/2673-9941/4/2/13/pdf?version=1715852321" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="New Decomposition Models for Hourly Direct Normal Irradiance Estimations for Southern Africa" data-journal="solar"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2673-9941/4/2/13">New Decomposition Models for Hourly Direct Normal Irradiance Estimations for Southern Africa</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Francisca Muriel Daniel-Durandt</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Arnold Johan Rix</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Solar</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>4</em>(2), 269-306; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/solar4020013">https://doi.org/10.3390/solar4020013</a> - 14 May 2024 </div> <a href="/2673-9941/4/2/13#metrics">Cited by 1</a> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> This research develops and validates new decomposition models for hourly direct Normal Irradiance (DNI) estimations for Southern African data. Localised models were developed using data collected from the Southern African Universities Radiometric Network (SAURAN). Clustered areas within Southern Africa were identified, and the <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9941/4/2/13/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> This research develops and validates new decomposition models for hourly direct Normal Irradiance (DNI) estimations for Southern African data. Localised models were developed using data collected from the Southern African Universities Radiometric Network (SAURAN). Clustered areas within Southern Africa were identified, and the developed cluster decomposition models highlighted the potential advantages of grouping data based on shared geographical and climatic attributes. This clustering approach could enhance decomposition model performance, particularly when local data are limited or when data are available from multiple nearby stations. Further, a regional Southern African decomposition model, which encompasses a wide spectrum of climatic regions and geographic locations, exhibited notable improvements over the baseline models despite occasional overestimation or underestimation. The results demonstrated improved DNI estimation accuracy compared to the baseline models across all testing and validation datasets. These outcomes suggest that utilising a localised model can significantly enhance DNI estimations for Southern Africa and potentially for developing similar models in diverse geographic regions worldwide. The overall metrics affirm the substantial advancement achieved with the regional model as an accurate decomposition model representing Southern Africa. Two stations were used as a validation study, as an application example where no localised model was available, and the cluster and regional models both outperformed the comparative decomposition models. This study focused on validating the model for hourly DNI in Southern Africa within a range of <inline-formula><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="inline"><semantics><msub><mi>K</mi><mi>t</mi></msub></semantics></math></inline-formula>-intervals from 0.175 to 0.875, and the range could be expanded and validated for future studies. Implementing accurate decomposition models in developing countries can accelerate the adoption of renewable energy sources, diminishing reliance on coal and fossil fuels. <a href="/2673-9941/4/2/13">Full article</a> </div> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9941/4/2/13/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1394595"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1394595"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1394595" data-cycle-prev="#prev1394595" data-cycle-progressive="#images1394595" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1394595-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g001-550.jpg?1715852430" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1394595" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1394595-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g002-550.jpg?1715852431'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1394595-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g003-550.jpg?1715852431'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1394595-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g004-550.jpg?1715852432'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1394595-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g005-550.jpg?1715852434'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1394595-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g006-550.jpg?1715852435'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1394595-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g007a-550.jpg?1715852436'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1394595-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g007b-550.jpg?1715852437'><p>Figure 7 Cont.</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1394595-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g008a-550.jpg?1715852439'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1394595-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g008b-550.jpg?1715852439'><p>Figure 8 Cont.</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1394595-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g009-550.jpg?1715852441'><p>Figure 9</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='11' data-target='article-1394595-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g010a-550.jpg?1715852442'><p>Figure 10</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='12' data-target='article-1394595-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g010b-550.jpg?1715852443'><p>Figure 10 Cont.</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='13' data-target='article-1394595-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g0A1-550.jpg?1715852444'><p>Figure A1</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='14' data-target='article-1394595-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g0A2-550.jpg?1715852451'><p>Figure A2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='15' data-target='article-1394595-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g0A3-550.jpg?1715852451'><p>Figure A3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='16' data-target='article-1394595-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g0A4-550.jpg?1715852452'><p>Figure A4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='17' data-target='article-1394595-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g0A5-550.jpg?1715852453'><p>Figure A5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='18' data-target='article-1394595-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g0A6-550.jpg?1715852453'><p>Figure A6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='19' data-target='article-1394595-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g0A7-550.jpg?1715852454'><p>Figure A7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='20' data-target='article-1394595-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g0A8-550.jpg?1715852455'><p>Figure A8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='21' data-target='article-1394595-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g0A9-550.jpg?1715852455'><p>Figure A9</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='22' data-target='article-1394595-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g0A10-550.jpg?1715852444'><p>Figure A10</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='23' data-target='article-1394595-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g0A11-550.jpg?1715852445'><p>Figure A11</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='24' data-target='article-1394595-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g0A12-550.jpg?1715852446'><p>Figure A12</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='25' data-target='article-1394595-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g0A13-550.jpg?1715852446'><p>Figure A13</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='26' data-target='article-1394595-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g0A14-550.jpg?1715852447'><p>Figure A14</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='27' data-target='article-1394595-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g0A15-550.jpg?1715852448'><p>Figure A15</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='28' data-target='article-1394595-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g0A16-550.jpg?1715852448'><p>Figure A16</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='29' data-target='article-1394595-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g0A17-550.jpg?1715852449'><p>Figure A17</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='30' data-target='article-1394595-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g0A18-550.jpg?1715852449'><p>Figure A18</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='31' data-target='article-1394595-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g0A19-550.jpg?1715852450'><p>Figure A19</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1394595-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g001-550.jpg?1715852430" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>The irradiance relationships between GHI, DNI, DHI, and <math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mi>θ</mi> <mi>Z</mi> </msub> </semantics></math>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/13'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g002-550.jpg?1715852431" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Validation sites of discussed decomposition models.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/13'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g003-550.jpg?1715852431" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Decomposition model development.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/13'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g004-550.jpg?1715852432" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Clusters within the Southern African context. (<b>a</b>) SAURAN [<a href="#B41-solar-04-00013" class="html-bibr">41</a>]; (<b>b</b>) GHI across South Africa [<a href="#B50-solar-04-00013" class="html-bibr">50</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/13'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g005-550.jpg?1715852434" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Distribution of data within clusters.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/13'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g006-550.jpg?1715852435" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Cluster 1 coefficients in <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mo>Δ</mo> <msub> <mi>K</mi> <mi>n</mi> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mi>a</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>b</mi> <mo>·</mo> <mi>A</mi> <mi>M</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>c</mi> <mo>·</mo> <mi>A</mi> <msup> <mi>M</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math>. (<b>a</b>) <span class="html-italic">a</span> coefficient; (<b>b</b>) <span class="html-italic">b</span> coefficient; (<b>c</b>) <span class="html-italic">c</span> coefficient.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/13'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g007a-550.jpg?1715852436" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Cluster 2 coefficients in <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mo>Δ</mo> <msub> <mi>K</mi> <mi>n</mi> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mi>a</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>b</mi> <mo>·</mo> <mi>A</mi> <mi>M</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>c</mi> <mo>·</mo> <mi>A</mi> <msup> <mi>M</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math>. (<b>a</b>) <span class="html-italic">a</span> coefficient; (<b>b</b>) <span class="html-italic">b</span> coefficient; (<b>c</b>) <span class="html-italic">c</span> coefficient.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/13'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g007b-550.jpg?1715852437" title=" <strong>Figure 7 Cont.</strong><br/> <p>Cluster 2 coefficients in <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mo>Δ</mo> <msub> <mi>K</mi> <mi>n</mi> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mi>a</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>b</mi> <mo>·</mo> <mi>A</mi> <mi>M</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>c</mi> <mo>·</mo> <mi>A</mi> <msup> <mi>M</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math>. (<b>a</b>) <span class="html-italic">a</span> coefficient; (<b>b</b>) <span class="html-italic">b</span> coefficient; (<b>c</b>) <span class="html-italic">c</span> coefficient.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/13'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g008a-550.jpg?1715852439" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Cluster 3 coefficients in <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mo>Δ</mo> <msub> <mi>K</mi> <mi>n</mi> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mi>a</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>b</mi> <mo>·</mo> <mi>A</mi> <mi>M</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>c</mi> <mo>·</mo> <mi>A</mi> <msup> <mi>M</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math>. (<b>a</b>) <span class="html-italic">a</span> coefficient; (<b>b</b>) <span class="html-italic">b</span> coefficient; (<b>c</b>) <span class="html-italic">c</span> coefficient.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/13'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g008b-550.jpg?1715852439" title=" <strong>Figure 8 Cont.</strong><br/> <p>Cluster 3 coefficients in <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mo>Δ</mo> <msub> <mi>K</mi> <mi>n</mi> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mi>a</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>b</mi> <mo>·</mo> <mi>A</mi> <mi>M</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>c</mi> <mo>·</mo> <mi>A</mi> <msup> <mi>M</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math>. (<b>a</b>) <span class="html-italic">a</span> coefficient; (<b>b</b>) <span class="html-italic">b</span> coefficient; (<b>c</b>) <span class="html-italic">c</span> coefficient.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/13'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g009-550.jpg?1715852441" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>Cluster 4 coefficients in <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mo>Δ</mo> <msub> <mi>K</mi> <mi>n</mi> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mi>a</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>b</mi> <mo>·</mo> <mi>A</mi> <mi>M</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>c</mi> <mo>·</mo> <mi>A</mi> <msup> <mi>M</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math>. (<b>a</b>) <span class="html-italic">a</span> coefficient; (<b>b</b>) <span class="html-italic">b</span> coefficient; (<b>c</b>) <span class="html-italic">c</span> coefficient.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/13'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g010a-550.jpg?1715852442" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>Regional model coefficients in <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mo>Δ</mo> <msub> <mi>K</mi> <mi>n</mi> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mi>a</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>b</mi> <mo>·</mo> <mi>A</mi> <mi>M</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>c</mi> <mo>·</mo> <mi>A</mi> <msup> <mi>M</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math>. (<b>a</b>) <span class="html-italic">a</span> coefficient; (<b>b</b>) <span class="html-italic">b</span> coefficient; (<b>c</b>) <span class="html-italic">c</span> coefficient.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/13'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g010b-550.jpg?1715852443" title=" <strong>Figure 10 Cont.</strong><br/> <p>Regional model coefficients in <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mo>Δ</mo> <msub> <mi>K</mi> <mi>n</mi> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mi>a</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>b</mi> <mo>·</mo> <mi>A</mi> <mi>M</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>c</mi> <mo>·</mo> <mi>A</mi> <msup> <mi>M</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math>. (<b>a</b>) <span class="html-italic">a</span> coefficient; (<b>b</b>) <span class="html-italic">b</span> coefficient; (<b>c</b>) <span class="html-italic">c</span> coefficient.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/13'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g0A1-550.jpg?1715852444" title=" <strong>Figure A1</strong><br/> <p>Hourly test results of decomposition model development for CSIR.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/13'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g0A2-550.jpg?1715852451" title=" <strong>Figure A2</strong><br/> <p>Hourly test results of decomposition model development for CUT.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/13'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g0A3-550.jpg?1715852451" title=" <strong>Figure A3</strong><br/> <p>Hourly test results of decomposition model development for FRH.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/13'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g0A4-550.jpg?1715852452" title=" <strong>Figure A4</strong><br/> <p>Hourly test results of decomposition model development for GRT.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/13'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g0A5-550.jpg?1715852453" title=" <strong>Figure A5</strong><br/> <p>Hourly test results of decomposition model development for HLO.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/13'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g0A6-550.jpg?1715852453" title=" <strong>Figure A6</strong><br/> <p>Hourly test results of decomposition model development for ILA.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/13'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g0A7-550.jpg?1715852454" title=" <strong>Figure A7</strong><br/> <p>Hourly test results of decomposition model development for KZH.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/13'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g0A8-550.jpg?1715852455" title=" <strong>Figure A8</strong><br/> <p>Hourly test results of decomposition model development for KZW.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/13'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g0A9-550.jpg?1715852455" title=" <strong>Figure A9</strong><br/> <p>Hourly test results of decomposition model development for MIN.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/13'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g0A10-550.jpg?1715852444" title=" <strong>Figure A10</strong><br/> <p>Hourly test results of decomposition model development for NMU.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/13'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g0A11-550.jpg?1715852445" title=" <strong>Figure A11</strong><br/> <p>Hourly test results of decomposition model development for NUST.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/13'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g0A12-550.jpg?1715852446" title=" <strong>Figure A12</strong><br/> <p>Hourly test results of decomposition model development for RVD.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/13'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g0A13-550.jpg?1715852446" title=" <strong>Figure A13</strong><br/> <p>Hourly test results of decomposition model development for SUN.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/13'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g0A14-550.jpg?1715852447" title=" <strong>Figure A14</strong><br/> <p>Hourly test results of decomposition model development for UBG.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/13'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g0A15-550.jpg?1715852448" title=" <strong>Figure A15</strong><br/> <p>Hourly test results of decomposition model development for UFS.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/13'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g0A16-550.jpg?1715852448" title=" <strong>Figure A16</strong><br/> <p>Hourly test results of decomposition model development for UNV.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/13'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g0A17-550.jpg?1715852449" title=" <strong>Figure A17</strong><br/> <p>Hourly test results of decomposition model development for UNZ.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/13'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g0A18-550.jpg?1715852449" title=" <strong>Figure A18</strong><br/> <p>Hourly test results of decomposition model development for UPR.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/13'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/solar/solar-04-00013/article_deploy/html/images/solar-04-00013-g0A19-550.jpg?1715852450" title=" <strong>Figure A19</strong><br/> <p>Hourly test results of decomposition model development for VAN.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2673-9941/4/2/13'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="generic-item last-item"> <a class="bold" href="/search?q=&journal=solar&sort=pubdate&page_count=50">More Articles...</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="left-column" class="content__column large-3 large-pull-6 medium-3 medium-pull-6 small-12 columns"> <div id="js-large-main-top-container"> <div id="js-main-top-container" class="content__container"> <a href="/journal/solar"> <img src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/journals/solar-logo.png?8600e93ff98dbf14" alt="solar-logo" title="Solar" style="max-height: 60px; 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Solar | An Open Access Journal from MDPI