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<span>Colonial era</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Colonial_era-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Colonial era subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Colonial_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Agriculture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agriculture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Agriculture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agriculture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Artisanship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Artisanship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Artisanship</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Artisanship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Silver_working" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Silver_working"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Silver working</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Silver_working-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Factories_and_mills" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Factories_and_mills"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Factories and mills</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Factories_and_mills-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Turnpikes_and_canals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Turnpikes_and_canals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Turnpikes and canals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Turnpikes_and_canals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Steamboats" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Steamboats"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Steamboats</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Steamboats-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mining" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mining"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Mining</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mining-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Civil_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civil_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Civil War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civil_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Technological_systems_and_infrastructure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technological_systems_and_infrastructure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Technological systems and infrastructure</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Technological_systems_and_infrastructure-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Technological systems and infrastructure subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Technological_systems_and_infrastructure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bicycles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bicycles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Bicycles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bicycles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Railroads" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Railroads"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Railroads</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Railroads-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iron_and_steel-making" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iron_and_steel-making"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Iron and steel-making</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iron_and_steel-making-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Telegraph_and_telephone" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Telegraph_and_telephone"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Telegraph and telephone</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Telegraph_and_telephone-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Petroleum" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Petroleum"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Petroleum</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Petroleum-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electricity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electricity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Electricity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electricity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Automobiles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Automobiles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Automobiles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Automobiles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radio_communication" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radio_communication"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Radio communication</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radio_communication-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_of_industrialization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_of_industrialization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Effects of industrialization</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Effects_of_industrialization-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Effects of industrialization subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Effects_of_industrialization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Agricultural_production" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agricultural_production"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Agricultural production</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agricultural_production-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Urbanization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Urbanization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Urbanization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Urbanization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Transit" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transit"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>Transit</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transit-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Labor_issues_and_immigration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Labor_issues_and_immigration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Labor issues and immigration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Labor_issues_and_immigration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Banking,_trading,_and_financial_services" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Banking,_trading,_and_financial_services"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Banking, trading, and financial services</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Banking,_trading,_and_financial_services-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Regulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military-industrial-academic_complex" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military-industrial-academic_complex"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Military-industrial-academic complex</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Military-industrial-academic_complex-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Military-industrial-academic complex subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Military-industrial-academic_complex-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Research_universities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research_universities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Research universities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research_universities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_I_and_World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_I_and_World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>World War I and World War II</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_I_and_World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cold_War_and_Space_Race" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cold_War_and_Space_Race"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Cold War and Space Race</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cold_War_and_Space_Race-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Service_industry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Service_industry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Service industry</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Service_industry-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Service industry subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Service_industry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Health_care_and_biotechnology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health_care_and_biotechnology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Health care and biotechnology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health_care_and_biotechnology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-News,_media,_and_entertainment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#News,_media,_and_entertainment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>News, media, and entertainment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-News,_media,_and_entertainment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Technology_and_society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technology_and_society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Technology and society</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Technology_and_society-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Technology and society subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Technology_and_society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Computers_and_information_networks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Computers_and_information_networks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Computers and information networks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Computers_and_information_networks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gaming" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gaming"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Gaming</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gaming-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Technological and industrial history of the United States</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 7 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-7" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">7 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%83%D9%86%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AC%D9%8A_%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%8A_%D9%84%D9%84%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D8%A9" title="التاريخ التكنولوجي والصناعي للولايات المتحدة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="التاريخ التكنولوجي والصناعي للولايات المتحدة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_tecnol%C3%B2gica_i_industrial_dels_Estats_Units" title="Història tecnològica i industrial dels Estats Units – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història tecnològica i industrial dels Estats Units" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_tecnol%C3%B3gica_e_industrial_de_Estados_Unidos" title="Historia tecnológica e industrial de Estados Unidos – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia tecnológica e industrial de Estados Unidos" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%AB%D5%A1%D6%81%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%AC_%D5%86%D5%A1%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A3%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB_%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%AD%D5%B6%D5%B8%D5%AC%D5%B8%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D6%87_%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A4%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Միացյալ Նահանգների տեխնոլոգիական և արդյունաբերական պատմություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Միացյալ Նահանգների տեխնոլոգիական և արդյունաբերական պատմություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%A1%E3%83%AA%E3%82%AB%E5%90%88%E8%A1%86%E5%9B%BD%E3%81%AE%E6%8A%80%E8%A1%93%E3%81%A8%E7%94%A3%E6%A5%AD%E3%81%AE%E6%AD%B4%E5%8F%B2" title="アメリカ合衆国の技術と産業の歴史 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アメリカ合衆国の技術と産業の歴史" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7_%D8%AF_%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88_%D8%AF_%D8%B5%D9%86%D8%B9%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%88_%D8%AA%DA%A9%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%DA%98%DB%8D_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="د امریکا د متحده ایالاتو د صنعت او تکنالوژۍ تاریخ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د امریکا د متحده ایالاتو د صنعت او تکنالوژۍ تاریخ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" 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nowraplinks vcard hlist" style="width:22.0em; border:4px double #d69d36; background:#ffffff;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle"><b><span style="color:#000000;">This article is part of a series on the</span></b></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#002868; background-clip:padding-box;"><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_United_States" title="Science and technology in the United States"><span style="color:#ffffff;"><small>Science and technology of the </small><br />United States of America</span></a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Apollo_11_lunar_module_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Apollo_11_lunar_module_%28cropped%29.jpg/250px-Apollo_11_lunar_module_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="297" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Apollo_11_lunar_module_%28cropped%29.jpg/375px-Apollo_11_lunar_module_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Apollo_11_lunar_module_%28cropped%29.jpg/500px-Apollo_11_lunar_module_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1243" data-file-height="1477" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure><div class="sidebar-caption"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#000000"><a href="/wiki/Apollo_11" title="Apollo 11"><span style="color:#000000;">Apollo 11</span></a> <a href="/wiki/Lunar_Module_Eagle" title="Lunar Module Eagle">Lunar Module <i>Eagle</i></a> above the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon"><span style="color:#000000;">Moon</span></a> in July 1969</span></div></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#bf0a30; color:#ffffff;"> <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions" title="Timeline of United States inventions"><span style="color:#ffffff;">Timeline</span></a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(before_1890)" title="Timeline of United States inventions (before 1890)">Before 1890</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(1890%E2%80%931945)" title="Timeline of United States inventions (1890–1945)">1890–1945</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(after_1991)" title="Timeline of United States inventions (after 1991)">1991–<i>present</i></a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#bf0a30; color:#ffffff;"> Development</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_discoveries" title="Timeline of United States discoveries">Discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NASA_spin-off_technologies" title="NASA spin-off technologies">NASA spin-off technologies</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Technological and industrial history</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#bf0a30; color:#ffffff; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Contributions by ethnicity</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_inventors_and_scientists" title="List of African-American inventors and scientists">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asian_Americans_in_science_and_technology" title="Asian Americans in science and technology">Asian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pre-Columbian_inventions_and_innovations_of_indigenous_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="List of pre-Columbian inventions and innovations of indigenous Americans">Native Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors" title="List of Puerto Rican scientists and inventors">Puerto Ricans</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/24px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></span></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_science_and_technology_in_the_United_States" title="Template:History of science and technology in the United States"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_science_and_technology_in_the_United_States" title="Template talk:History of science and technology in the United States"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_science_and_technology_in_the_United_States" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of science and technology in the United States"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cotton_gin_EWM_2007.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Cotton_gin_EWM_2007.jpg/220px-Cotton_gin_EWM_2007.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Cotton_gin_EWM_2007.jpg/330px-Cotton_gin_EWM_2007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Cotton_gin_EWM_2007.jpg/440px-Cotton_gin_EWM_2007.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2820" data-file-height="1856" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Cotton_gin" title="Cotton gin">cotton gin</a>, invented by <a href="/wiki/Eli_Whitney" title="Eli Whitney">Eli Whitney</a>, revolutionized slave-based agriculture in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern United States</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>technological and industrial history of the United States</b> describes the emergence of the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> as one of the most technologically advanced nations in the world in the 19th and 20th centuries. The availability of land and literate labor, the absence of a <a href="/wiki/Landed_aristocracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Landed aristocracy">landed aristocracy</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Reputation" title="Reputation">prestige</a> of <a href="/wiki/Entrepreneurship" title="Entrepreneurship">entrepreneurship</a>, the diversity of climate and large easily accessed upscale and literate markets all contributed to America's rapid <a href="/wiki/Industrialization" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrialization">industrialization</a>. </p><p>The availability of capital, development by the free market of navigable rivers and coastal waterways, as well as the abundance of natural resources facilitated the cheap extraction of energy all contributed to America's rapid industrialization. Fast transport by the <a href="/wiki/First_transcontinental_railroad" title="First transcontinental railroad">first transcontinental railroad</a> built in the mid-19th century, and the <a href="/wiki/Interstate_Highway_System" title="Interstate Highway System">Interstate Highway System</a> built in the late 20th century, enlarged the markets and reduced shipping and production costs. The legal system facilitated business operations and guaranteed contracts. Cut off from Europe by the embargo and the British blockade in the <a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a> (1807–15), entrepreneurs opened factories in the <a href="/wiki/Northeastern_United_States" title="Northeastern United States">Northeastern United States</a> that set the stage for rapid industrialization modeled on British innovations. </p><p>From its emergence as an independent nation, the United States has encouraged science and innovation. As a result, the United States has been the birthplace of 161 of <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>s 321 Greatest Inventions, including items such as the <a href="/wiki/Airplane" title="Airplane">airplane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">internet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microchip" class="mw-redirect" title="Microchip">microchip</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">laser</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cellphone" class="mw-redirect" title="Cellphone">cellphone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Refrigerator" title="Refrigerator">refrigerator</a>, <a href="/wiki/Email" title="Email">email</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">microwave</a>, <a href="/wiki/Personal_computer" title="Personal computer">personal computer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liquid-crystal_display" title="Liquid-crystal display">liquid-crystal display</a> and <a href="/wiki/Light-emitting_diode" title="Light-emitting diode">light-emitting diode</a> technology, <a href="/wiki/Air_conditioning" title="Air conditioning">air conditioning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assembly_line" title="Assembly line">assembly line</a>, <a href="/wiki/Supermarket" title="Supermarket">supermarket</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bar_code" class="mw-redirect" title="Bar code">bar code</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Automated_teller_machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Automated teller machine">automated teller machine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The early technological and industrial development in the United States was facilitated by a unique confluence of geographical, social, and economic factors. The relative lack of workers kept U.S. wages generally higher than salaries in Europe and provided an incentive to mechanize some tasks. The United States population had some semi-unique advantages in that they were former <a href="/wiki/British_subject" title="British subject">British subjects</a>, had high English literacy skills, for that period, including over 80% in <a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a>, had stable institutions, with some minor American modifications, of courts, laws, right to vote, protection of property rights and in many cases personal contacts with the British innovators of the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>. They had a good basic structure to build on. </p><p>Another major advantage enjoyed by the United States was the absence of an aristocracy or gentry. The <a href="/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="East Coast of the United States">eastern seaboard of the United States</a>, with a great number of rivers and streams along the Atlantic seaboard, provided many potential sites for constructing textile mills necessary for early industrialization. The technology and information on how to build a textile industry were largely provided by <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Slater" title="Samuel Slater">Samuel Slater</a> (1768–1835) who emigrated to New England in 1789. He had studied and worked in British textile mills for a number of years and immigrated to the United States, despite restrictions against it, to try his luck with U.S. manufacturers who were trying to set up a textile industry. He was offered a full partnership if he could succeed—he did. A vast supply of natural resources, the technological knowledge on how to build and power the necessary machines along with a labor supply of mobile workers, often unmarried females, all aided early industrialization. The broad knowledge carried by European migrants of two periods that advanced the societies there, namely the European Industrial Revolution and European <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a>, helped facilitate understanding for the construction and invention of new manufacturing businesses and technologies. A limited government that would allow them to succeed or fail on their own merit helped. </p><p>After the end of the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a> in 1783, the new government continued the strong property rights established under British rule and established a rule of law necessary to protect those property rights. The idea of issuing <a href="/wiki/Patents" class="mw-redirect" title="Patents">patents</a> was incorporated into Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution authorizing Congress "to promote the progress of science and useful arts by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries." The invention of the <a href="/wiki/Cotton_gin" title="Cotton gin">cotton gin</a> by American inventor <a href="/wiki/Eli_Whitney" title="Eli Whitney">Eli Whitney</a>, combined with the widespread prevalence of <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">slavery in the United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">U.S. settler expansion</a> made cotton potentially a cheap and readily available resource for use in the new textile industry. </p><p>One of the real impetuses for the United States entering the Industrial Revolution was the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Embargo_Act_of_1807" title="Embargo Act of 1807">Embargo Act of 1807</a>, the <a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a> (1812–15) and the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a> (1803–15) which cut off supplies of new and cheaper Industrial revolution products from Britain. The lack of access to these goods all provided a strong incentive to learn how to develop the industries and to make their own goods instead of simply buying the goods produced by Britain. </p><p>Modern productivity researchers have shown that the period in which the greatest economic and technological progress occurred was between the last half of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this period the nation was transformed from an agricultural economy to the foremost industrial power in the world, with more than a third of the global industrial output. This can be illustrated by the index of total industrial production, which increased from 4.29 in 1790 to 1,975.00 in 1913, an increase of 460 times (base year 1850 – 100).<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>American colonies <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">gained independence</a> in 1783 just as profound changes in industrial production and coordination were beginning to <a href="/wiki/First_Industrial_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="First Industrial Revolution">shift production</a> from artisans to factories. Growth of the nation's transportation infrastructure with <a href="/wiki/Internal_improvements" title="Internal improvements">internal improvements</a> and a confluence of technological innovations before the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a> facilitated an expansion in organization, coordination, and <a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">scale of industrial production</a>. Around the turn of the 20th century, American industry had superseded its European counterparts economically and the nation began to assert its <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States" title="Military history of the United States">military power</a>. Although the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> challenged its <a href="/wiki/Technological_momentum" title="Technological momentum">technological momentum</a>, America emerged from it and <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> as one of two global <a href="/wiki/Superpower" title="Superpower">superpowers</a>. In the second half of the 20th century, as the United States was drawn into competition with the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> for <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">political, economic, and military primacy</a>, the government invested heavily in scientific research and technological development which spawned advances in <a href="/wiki/Spaceflight" title="Spaceflight">spaceflight</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computing" title="Computing">computing</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">biotechnology</a>. </p><p>Science, technology, and industry have not only profoundly shaped America's economic success, but have also contributed to its distinct political institutions, social structure, educational system, and cultural identity. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pre-European_technology">Pre-European technology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Pre-European technology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans in the United States</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Monks_Mound_in_July.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Monks_Mound_in_July.JPG/220px-Monks_Mound_in_July.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Monks_Mound_in_July.JPG/330px-Monks_Mound_in_July.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Monks_Mound_in_July.JPG/440px-Monks_Mound_in_July.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Monks_Mound" title="Monks Mound">Monks Mound</a>, a large structure built by the indigenous peoples in present-day <a href="/wiki/Madison_County,_Illinois" title="Madison County, Illinois">Madison County, Illinois</a></figcaption></figure> <p>North America has been inhabited continuously since approximately 4,000 BC. The earliest inhabitants were <a href="/wiki/Nomad" title="Nomad">nomadic</a>, big-game <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">hunter-gatherers</a> who crossed the <a href="/wiki/Bering_land_bridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Bering land bridge">Bering land bridge</a>. These first <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Native Americans</a> relied upon chipped-stone <a href="/wiki/Spear" title="Spear">spearheads</a>, rudimentary <a href="/wiki/Harpoon" title="Harpoon">harpoons</a>, and boats clad in animal hides for hunting in the <a href="/wiki/Arctic" title="Arctic">Arctic</a>. As they dispersed within the continent, they encountered the varied temperate climates in the Pacific northwest, central plains, Appalachian woodlands, and arid Southwest, where they began to make permanent settlements. The peoples living in the Pacific northwest built wooden houses, used <a href="/wiki/Net_(device)" title="Net (device)">nets</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fishing_weir" title="Fishing weir">weirs</a> to catch fish, and practiced <a href="/wiki/Food_preservation" title="Food preservation">food preservation</a> to ensure longevity of their food sources, since substantial agriculture was not developed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan19977–8_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan19977–8-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Peoples living on the plains remained largely nomadic; some practiced agriculture for parts of the year and became adept <a href="/wiki/Leather" title="Leather">leather workers</a> as they hunted <a href="/wiki/American_bison" title="American bison">buffalo</a> while people living in the arid southwest built <a href="/wiki/Adobe" title="Adobe">adobe</a> buildings, fired <a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">pottery</a>, domesticated <a href="/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">cotton</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Loom" title="Loom">wove cloth</a>. </p><p>Tribes in the <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Eastern_Woodlands" title="Indigenous peoples of the Eastern Woodlands">eastern woodlands</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mississippian_culture" title="Mississippian culture">Mississippian Valley</a> developed extensive trade networks, built <a href="/wiki/Mound_builder_(people)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mound builder (people)">pyramid-like mounds</a>, and practiced substantial agriculture while the peoples living in the <a href="/wiki/Appalachian_Mountains" title="Appalachian Mountains">Appalachian Mountains</a> and coastal Atlantic practiced highly sustainable forest agriculture and were expert woodworkers. However, the populations of these peoples were small and their rate of technological change was very low.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan199710_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan199710-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indigenous peoples did not <a href="/wiki/Domestication" title="Domestication">domesticate</a> animals for <a href="/wiki/Draft_animal" class="mw-redirect" title="Draft animal">drafting</a> or <a href="/wiki/Husbandry" class="mw-redirect" title="Husbandry">husbandry</a>, develop writing systems, or create <a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a> or <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>-based tools like their European/Asian counterparts. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Colonial_era">Colonial era</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Colonial era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Agriculture">Agriculture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Agriculture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_history_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Agricultural history of the United States">Agricultural history of the United States</a></div> <p>In the 17th century, <a href="/wiki/Pilgrim_(Plymouth_Colony)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pilgrim (Plymouth Colony)">Pilgrims</a>, <a href="/wiki/Puritans" title="Puritans">Puritans</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakers</a> fleeing religious persecution in Europe brought with them <a href="/wiki/Plowshare" title="Plowshare">plowshares</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gun" title="Gun">guns</a>, and domesticated animals like <a href="/wiki/Cow" class="mw-redirect" title="Cow">cows</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pig" title="Pig">pigs</a>. These immigrants and other European colonists initially farmed subsistence crops like <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">corn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wheat" title="Wheat">wheat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rye" title="Rye">rye</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Oats" class="mw-redirect" title="Oats">oats</a> as well as rendering <a href="/wiki/Potash" title="Potash">potash</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maple_syrup" title="Maple syrup">maple syrup</a> for trade.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan199730_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan199730-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to the more temperate climate, large-scale <a href="/wiki/Plantations_in_the_American_South" class="mw-redirect" title="Plantations in the American South">plantations in the American South</a> grew labor-intensive cash crops like <a href="/wiki/Sugarcane" title="Sugarcane">sugarcane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rice" title="Rice">rice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">cotton</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tobacco" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a> requiring the importation of thousands of enslaved Africans to maintain. Early American farmers were not self-sufficient; they relied upon other farmers, specialized craftsmen, and merchants to provide tools, process their harvests, and bring them to market.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan199740–43_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan199740–43-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Artisanship">Artisanship</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Artisanship"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Colonial artisanship emerged slowly as the market for advanced craftsmanship was small. American artisans developed a more relaxed (less regulated) version of the Old World apprenticeship system for educating and employing the next generation. Despite the fact that <a href="/wiki/Mercantilist" class="mw-redirect" title="Mercantilist">mercantilist</a>, export-heavy economy impaired the emergence of a robust self-sustaining economy, craftsmen and merchants developed a growing interdependence on each other for their trades.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan199763–65_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan199763–65-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the mid-18th century, attempts by the British to subdue or control the colonies by means of taxation sowed increased discontent among these artisans, who increasingly joined the <a href="/wiki/Patriot_(American_Revolution)" title="Patriot (American Revolution)">Patriot</a> cause. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Silver_working">Silver working</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Silver working"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Virginia" title="Colony of Virginia">Colonial Virginia</a> provided a potential market of rich <a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States">plantations</a>. At least 19 silversmiths worked in <a href="/wiki/Williamsburg,_Virginia" title="Williamsburg, Virginia">Williamsburg</a> between 1699 and 1775. The best-known were James Eddy (1731–1809) and his brother-in-law William Wadill, also an engraver. Most planters, however, purchased English-made silver.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>, <a href="/wiki/Goldsmith" title="Goldsmith">goldsmiths</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silversmith" title="Silversmith">silversmiths</a> were stratified. The most prosperous were merchant-artisans, with a business outlook and high status. Most craftsmen were laboring artisans who either operated small shops or, more often, did piecework for the merchant artisans. The small market meant there was no steady or well-paid employment; many lived in constant debt.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Colonial silver working was pre-industrial in many ways: many pieces made were "bespoke", or uniquely made for each customer, and emphasized artistry as well as functionality. Silver (and other metal) mines were scarcer in North America than in Europe, and colonial craftsmen had no consistent source of materials with which to work.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETunis19654,_82_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETunis19654,_82-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For each piece of silver they crafted, raw materials had to be collected and often reused from disparate sources, most commonly <a href="/wiki/Spanish_coins" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish coins">Spanish coins</a>. The purity of these sources was not regulated, nor was there an organized <a href="/wiki/Supply_chain" title="Supply chain">supply chain</a> through which to obtain silver.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaters197720_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaters197720-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As silver objects were sold by weight, manufacturers who could produce silver objects cheaply by mass had an advantage.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkerry198841–63_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkerry198841–63-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of these unique, individual aspects to silver working kept artisan practices in place through the late 18th century. </p><p>As demand for silver increased and large-scale manufacturing techniques emerged, silver products became much more standardized. For special-order objects that would likely only be made once, silversmiths generally used <a href="/wiki/Lost-wax_casting" title="Lost-wax casting">lost-wax casting</a>, in which a sculpted object was carved out of wax, an <a href="/wiki/Investment_casting" title="Investment casting">investment casting</a> was made, and the wax was melted away. The molds produced in this manner could only be used once, which made them inconvenient for standard objects like handles and buckles. <a href="/wiki/Permanent_mold_casting" title="Permanent mold casting">Permanent mold casting</a>, an industrial casting technique focused on high-volume production, allowed smiths to reuse molds to make exact replicas of the most commonly used items they sold. In creating these molds and developing standardized manufacturing processes, silversmiths could begin delegating some work to <a href="/wiki/Apprentices" class="mw-redirect" title="Apprentices">apprentices</a> and <a href="/wiki/Journeymen" class="mw-redirect" title="Journeymen">journeymen</a>. </p><p>After 1780, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Revere" title="Paul Revere">Paul Revere</a>'s sons took on more significant roles in his shop,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkerry198843_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkerry198843-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and his silver pieces often included wooden handles made by carpenters more experienced with woodwork.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartello2010128_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartello2010128-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For even some of the most successful artisans like Revere,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartlett198425_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett198425-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> artisan was not a profitable enterprise compared to mass-production using iron or bronze casting.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartello2010128_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartello2010128-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Creating products that could be replicated for multiple customers, adopting new business practices and labor policies, and new equipment made manufacturing more ultimately efficient. These changes, in tandem with new techniques and requirements defined by changing social standards, led to the introduction of new manufacturing techniques in Colonial America that preceded and anticipated the industrial revolution. </p><p>Late in the colonial era a few silversmiths expanded operations with manufacturing techniques and changing business practices They hired assistants, subcontracted out piecework and standardized output.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartello20107_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartello20107-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One individual in the vanguard of America's shift towards more industrial methods was <a href="/wiki/Paul_Revere" title="Paul Revere">Paul Revere</a>, who emphasized the production of increasingly standardized items later in his career with the use of a silver flatting mill, increased numbers of salaried employees, and other advances.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartello2010107–114_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartello2010107–114-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Still, traditional methods of artisan remained, and smiths performed a great deal of work by hand. The coexistence of the craft and industrial production styles prior to the industrial revolution is an example of <a href="/wiki/Proto-industrialization" title="Proto-industrialization">proto-industrialization</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Factories_and_mills">Factories and mills</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Factories and mills"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution_in_the_United_States" title="Industrial Revolution in the United States">Industrial Revolution in the United States</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Allentown.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Allentown.jpg/220px-Allentown.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Allentown.jpg/330px-Allentown.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Allentown.jpg/440px-Allentown.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Allentown,_Pennsylvania" title="Allentown, Pennsylvania">Allentown, Pennsylvania</a>, one of several centers of 18th and 19th century American industrialization</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Boston_Manufacturing_Company.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Boston_Manufacturing_Company.jpg/220px-Boston_Manufacturing_Company.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Boston_Manufacturing_Company.jpg/330px-Boston_Manufacturing_Company.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Boston_Manufacturing_Company.jpg/440px-Boston_Manufacturing_Company.jpg 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="386" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Francis_Cabot_Lowell" title="Francis Cabot Lowell">Francis Cabot Lowell</a>, whose <a href="/wiki/Boston_Manufacturing_Company" title="Boston Manufacturing Company">Boston Manufacturing Company</a> helped revolutionize American factories</figcaption></figure> <p>In the mid-1780s, <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Evans" title="Oliver Evans">Oliver Evans</a> invented an automated flour mill that included a <a href="/wiki/Grain_elevator" title="Grain elevator">grain elevator</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hopper_boy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hopper boy (page does not exist)">hopper boy</a>. Evans' design eventually displaced the traditional <a href="/wiki/Gristmill" title="Gristmill">gristmills</a>. By the turn of the century, Evans also developed one of the first high-pressure <a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">steam engines</a> and began establishing a network of machine workshops to manufacture and repair these popular inventions. In 1789, the widow of <a href="/wiki/Nathanael_Greene" title="Nathanael Greene">Nathanael Greene</a> recruited <a href="/wiki/Eli_Whitney" title="Eli Whitney">Eli Whitney</a> to develop a machine to separate the seeds of short fibered cotton from the fibers. The resulting <a href="/wiki/Cotton_gin" title="Cotton gin">cotton gin</a> could be made with basic carpentry skills but reduced the necessary labor by a factor of 50 and generated huge profits for cotton growers in the South, leading to a rapid expansion of <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">slavery in the United States</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan199777_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan199777-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While Whitney did not realize financial success from his invention, he moved on to manufacturing rifles and other armaments under a government contract that could be made with "expedition, uniformity, and exactness"—the foundational ideas for <a href="/wiki/Interchangeable_parts" title="Interchangeable parts">interchangeable parts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan199780_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan199780-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Whitney's vision of <a href="/wiki/Interchangeable_parts" title="Interchangeable parts">interchangeable parts</a> would not be achieved for over two decades with firearms and even longer for other devices. </p><p>Between 1800 and 1820, new industrial tools that rapidly increased the quality and efficiency of manufacturing emerged. <a href="/wiki/Simeon_North" title="Simeon North">Simeon North</a> suggested using <a href="/wiki/Division_of_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Division of labor">division of labor</a> to increase the speed with which a complete <a href="/wiki/Pistol" title="Pistol">pistol</a> could be manufactured which led to the development of a <a href="/wiki/Milling_machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Milling machine">milling machine</a> in 1798. In 1819, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Blanchard_(inventor)" title="Thomas Blanchard (inventor)">Thomas Blanchard</a> created a <a href="/wiki/Lathe" title="Lathe">lathe</a> that could reliably cut irregular shapes, like those needed for arms manufacture. By 1822, <a href="/wiki/Captain_John_H._Hall" class="mw-redirect" title="Captain John H. Hall">Captain John H. Hall</a> had developed a system using <a href="/wiki/Machine_tool" title="Machine tool">machine tools</a>, division of labor, and an unskilled workforce to produce a <a href="/wiki/Breech-loading_rifle" class="mw-redirect" title="Breech-loading rifle">breech-loading rifle</a>—a process that came to be known as "<a href="/wiki/Armory_practice" class="mw-redirect" title="Armory practice">Armory practice</a>" in the U.S. and the <i><a href="/wiki/American_system_of_manufacturing" title="American system of manufacturing">American system of manufacturing</a></i> in England.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan199781–82_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan199781–82-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hounshell-1984_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hounshell-1984-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Textile_industry" title="Textile industry">textile industry</a>, which had previously relied upon labor-intensive production methods, was also rife with potential for mechanization. In the late 18th century, the English textile industry had adopted the <a href="/wiki/Spinning_jenny" title="Spinning jenny">spinning jenny</a>, <a href="/wiki/Water_frame" title="Water frame">water frame</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Spinning_mule" title="Spinning mule">spinning mule</a> which greatly improved the efficiency and quality of textile manufacture, but were closely guarded by the British government which forbade their export or the emigration of those who were familiar with the technology. The 1787 <a href="/wiki/Beverly_Cotton_Manufactory" title="Beverly Cotton Manufactory">Beverly Cotton Manufactory</a> was the first <a href="/wiki/Cotton_mill" title="Cotton mill">cotton mill</a> in the United States, but it relied on horse power. <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Slater" title="Samuel Slater">Samuel Slater</a>, an apprentice in one of the largest textile factories in England, immigrated to the United States in 1789 upon learning that American states were paying bounties to British expatriates with a knowledge of textile machinery.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan199783_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan199783-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the help of <a href="/wiki/Moses_Brown_(Providence)" class="mw-redirect" title="Moses Brown (Providence)">Moses Brown of Providence</a>, Slater established America's oldest currently existing cotton-spinning mill with a fully mechanized water power system at the <a href="/wiki/Slater_Mill" title="Slater Mill">Slater Mill</a> in <a href="/wiki/Pawtucket,_Rhode_Island" title="Pawtucket, Rhode Island">Pawtucket, Rhode Island</a> in 1793. </p><p>Hoping to harness the ample power of the <a href="/wiki/Merrimack_River" title="Merrimack River">Merrimack River</a>, another group of investors began building the <a href="/wiki/Middlesex_Canal" title="Middlesex Canal">Middlesex Canal</a> up the <a href="/wiki/Mystic_River" title="Mystic River">Mystic River</a>, both Mystic Lakes and generally following <a href="/wiki/Stream_valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Stream valley">stream valleys</a> (near to today's <a href="/wiki/MA_38" class="mw-redirect" title="MA 38">MA 38</a>) reached the Merrimack in <a href="/wiki/Chelmsford,_Massachusetts" title="Chelmsford, Massachusetts">Chelmsford</a> 35 miles (56 km) from <a href="/wiki/Boston_Harbor" title="Boston Harbor">Boston Harbor</a>, establishing limited operations by 1808, and a system of <a href="/wiki/Navigation" title="Navigation">navigations</a> and canals reaching past <a href="/wiki/Manchester,_NH" class="mw-redirect" title="Manchester, NH">Manchester</a> by mid-1814—and spawning commercial activities, and especially new clothing mills throughout the region. At nearly the same time as the canal was completed, <a href="/wiki/Francis_Cabot_Lowell_(businessman)" class="mw-redirect" title="Francis Cabot Lowell (businessman)">Francis Cabot Lowell</a> and a consortium of businessmen set up the clothing mills in <a href="/wiki/Waltham,_Massachusetts" title="Waltham, Massachusetts">Waltham, Massachusetts</a> making use of water power from the <a href="/wiki/Charles_River" title="Charles River">Charles River</a> with the concept of housing together production of feedstocks complete consumer processes so raw materials entered, and dyed fabrics or clothing left. For a few decades, it seemed that every <a href="/wiki/Lock_(water_transport)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lock (water transport)">lock</a> along the canal had mills and water wheels. In 1821, <a href="/wiki/Boston_Manufacturing_Company" title="Boston Manufacturing Company">Boston Manufacturing Company</a> built a major expansion in East Chelmsford, which was soon incorporated as <a href="/wiki/Lowell,_Massachusetts" title="Lowell, Massachusetts">Lowell, Massachusetts</a>—which came to dominate the cloth production and clothing industry for decades. </p><p>Slater's Mill was established in the <a href="/wiki/Blackstone_Valley" title="Blackstone Valley">Blackstone Valley</a>, which extended into neighboring <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a>, (<a href="/wiki/Daniel_Day_(manufacturer)" title="Daniel Day (manufacturer)">Daniel Day</a>'s Woolen Mill, 1809 at <a href="/wiki/Uxbridge,_MA" class="mw-redirect" title="Uxbridge, MA">Uxbridge</a>), and became one of the earliest industrialized region in the United States, second to the <a href="/wiki/North_Shore_(Massachusetts)" title="North Shore (Massachusetts)">North Shore of Massachusetts</a>. Slater's business model of independent mills and mill villages (the "<a href="/wiki/Rhode_Island_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhode Island System">Rhode Island System</a>") began to be replaced by the 1820s by a more efficient system (the "<a href="/wiki/Waltham_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Waltham System">Waltham System</a>") based upon <a href="/wiki/Francis_Cabot_Lowell_(businessman)" class="mw-redirect" title="Francis Cabot Lowell (businessman)">Francis Cabot Lowell</a>'s replications of British <a href="/wiki/Power_looms" class="mw-redirect" title="Power looms">power looms</a>. Slater went on to build several more cotton and wool mills throughout <a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a>, but when faced with a labor shortage, resorted to building housing, shops, and churches for the workers and their families adjacent to his factories. </p><p>The first <a href="/wiki/Power_looms" class="mw-redirect" title="Power looms">power looms</a> for woolens were installed in 1820, at <a href="/wiki/Uxbridge,_Massachusetts" title="Uxbridge, Massachusetts">Uxbridge, Massachusetts</a>, by <a href="/wiki/John_Capron" title="John Capron">John Capron</a>, of <a href="/wiki/Cumberland,_Rhode_Island" title="Cumberland, Rhode Island">Cumberland, Rhode Island</a>. These added automated weaving under the same roof, a step which Slater's system outsourced to local farms. Lowell looms were managed by specialized employees, many of the employed were unmarried young women ("<a href="/wiki/Lowell_mill_girls" title="Lowell mill girls">Lowell mill girls</a>"), and owned by a corporation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan199787_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan199787-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike the previous forms of labor (<a href="/wiki/Apprenticeship" title="Apprenticeship">apprenticeship</a>, family labor, <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Indenture" title="Indenture">indenture</a>), the Lowell system popularized the concept of <a href="/wiki/Wage_laborer" class="mw-redirect" title="Wage laborer">wage laborer</a> who sells his labor to an employer under contract—a socio-economic system which persists in many modern countries and industries. The corporation also looked out for the health and well-being of the young women, including their spiritual health, and the hundreds of women employed by it culturally established the pattern of a young woman going off to work for a few years to save money before returning home to school and marriage. It created an independent breed of women uncommon in most of the world. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Turnpikes_and_canals">Turnpikes and canals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Turnpikes and canals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_turnpikes_and_canals_in_the_United_States" title="History of turnpikes and canals in the United States">History of turnpikes and canals in the United States</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Erie_Canal,_Lock_32.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Erie_Canal%2C_Lock_32.jpg/220px-Erie_Canal%2C_Lock_32.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Erie_Canal%2C_Lock_32.jpg/330px-Erie_Canal%2C_Lock_32.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Erie_Canal%2C_Lock_32.jpg/440px-Erie_Canal%2C_Lock_32.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>A lock on the <a href="/wiki/Erie_Canal" title="Erie Canal">Erie Canal</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Even as the country grew even larger with the admission of <a href="/wiki/Kentucky" title="Kentucky">Kentucky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tennessee" title="Tennessee">Tennessee</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ohio" title="Ohio">Ohio</a> by 1803, the only means of transportation between these landlocked western states and their coastal neighbors was by foot, pack animal, or ship. Recognizing the success of <a href="/wiki/Roman_road" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman road">Roman roads</a> in unifying that empire, political and business leaders in the United States began to construct roads and canals to connect the disparate parts of the nation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan199794_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan199794-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early <a href="/wiki/Toll_road" title="Toll road">toll roads</a> were constructed and owned by <a href="/wiki/Joint_stock_company" class="mw-redirect" title="Joint stock company">joint-stock companies</a> that sold stock to raise construction capital like <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a>'s 1795 <a href="/wiki/Lancaster_Turnpike" class="mw-redirect" title="Lancaster Turnpike">Lancaster Turnpike Company</a>. In 1808, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Treasury" title="United States Secretary of the Treasury">Secretary of the Treasury</a> <a href="/wiki/Albert_Gallatin" title="Albert Gallatin">Albert Gallatin</a>'s <i>Report on the Subject of Public Roads and Canals</i> suggested that the federal government should fund the construction of interstate <a href="/wiki/Toll_road" title="Toll road">turnpikes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Canal" title="Canal">canals</a>. While many <a href="/wiki/Democratic-Republican_Party_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Democratic-Republican Party (United States)">Anti-Federalists</a> opposed the federal government assuming such a role, the British blockade in the War of 1812 demonstrated the United States' reliance upon these overland roads for military operations as well as for general commerce.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan199798_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan199798-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Construction on the <a href="/wiki/National_Road" title="National Road">National Road</a> began in 1815 in <a href="/wiki/Cumberland,_Maryland" title="Cumberland, Maryland">Cumberland, Maryland</a> and reached <a href="/wiki/Wheeling,_West_Virginia" title="Wheeling, West Virginia">Wheeling, Virginia</a> in 1818, but political strife thereafter ultimately prevented its western advance to the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a>. Nevertheless, the road became a primary overland conduit through <a href="/wiki/Appalachian_Mountains" title="Appalachian Mountains">Appalachian Mountains</a> and was the gateway for thousands of antebellum westward-bound settlers. </p><p>Numerous canal companies had also been chartered; but of all the canals projected, only three had been completed when the War of 1812 began: the <a href="/wiki/Dismal_Swamp_Canal" title="Dismal Swamp Canal">Dismal Swamp Canal</a> in Virginia, the <a href="/wiki/Santee_Canal" title="Santee Canal">Santee Canal</a> in South Carolina, and the <a href="/wiki/Middlesex_Canal" title="Middlesex Canal">Middlesex Canal</a> in Massachusetts. It remained for New York to usher in a new era in internal communication by authorizing in 1817 the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Erie_Canal" title="Erie Canal">Erie Canal</a>. This bold bid for Western trade alarmed the merchants of Philadelphia, particularly as the completion of the national road threatened to divert much of their traffic to Baltimore. In 1825, the <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_General_Assembly" title="Pennsylvania General Assembly">Pennsylvania General Assembly</a> grappled with the problem by projecting a series of canals which were to connect its great seaport with Pittsburgh on the west and with <a href="/wiki/Lake_Erie" title="Lake Erie">Lake Erie</a> and the upper <a href="/wiki/Susquehanna_River" title="Susquehanna River">Susquehanna</a> on the north.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Blackstone_Canal" title="Blackstone Canal">Blackstone Canal</a>, (1823–1828) in <a href="/wiki/Rhode_Island" title="Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a> and <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Morris_Canal" title="Morris Canal">Morris Canal</a> across northern <a href="/wiki/New_Jersey" title="New Jersey">New Jersey</a> (1824–1924) soon followed, along with the <a href="/wiki/Illinois_and_Michigan_Canal" title="Illinois and Michigan Canal">Illinois and Michigan Canal</a> from <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Illinois_River" title="Illinois River">Illinois River</a>(1824–1848). </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Canals_USA_1825.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Canals_USA_1825.png/220px-Canals_USA_1825.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Canals_USA_1825.png/330px-Canals_USA_1825.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Canals_USA_1825.png/440px-Canals_USA_1825.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="930" /></a><figcaption>Canals in the U.S., <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1825</span></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Highways_USA_1825.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Highways_USA_1825.png/220px-Highways_USA_1825.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Highways_USA_1825.png/330px-Highways_USA_1825.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Highways_USA_1825.png/440px-Highways_USA_1825.png 2x" data-file-width="938" data-file-height="762" /></a><figcaption>Highways in the U.S., <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1825</span></figcaption></figure> <p>Like the turnpikes, the early canals were constructed, owned, and operated by private joint-stock companies but later gave way to larger projects funded by the states. The <a href="/wiki/Erie_Canal" title="Erie Canal">Erie Canal</a>, proposed by <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_New_York" title="Governor of New York">Governor of New York</a> <a href="/wiki/De_Witt_Clinton" class="mw-redirect" title="De Witt Clinton">De Witt Clinton</a>, was the first canal project undertaken as a public good to be financed at the public risk through the issuance of <a href="/wiki/Municipal_bond" title="Municipal bond">bonds</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan1997102_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan1997102-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the project was completed in 1825, the canal linked <a href="/wiki/Lake_Erie" title="Lake Erie">Lake Erie</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Hudson_River" title="Hudson River">Hudson River</a> through 83 separate locks and over a distance of 363 miles (584 km). The success of the Erie Canal spawned a boom of other canal-building around the country: over 3,326 miles (5,353 km) of artificial waterways were constructed between 1816 and 1840.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan1997104_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan1997104-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Smaller cities, such as <a href="/wiki/Syracuse,_New_York" title="Syracuse, New York">Syracuse, New York</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buffalo,_New_York" title="Buffalo, New York">Buffalo, New York</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cleveland" title="Cleveland">Cleveland</a> that lay along major canal routes boomed into major industrial and trade centers, while canal-building pushed some states like <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ohio" title="Ohio">Ohio</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Indiana" title="Indiana">Indiana</a> to the brink of <a href="/wiki/Bankruptcy" title="Bankruptcy">bankruptcy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan1997104_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan1997104-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The magnitude of the transportation problem was such, however, that neither individual states nor private corporations seemed able to meet the demands of an expanding internal trade. As early as 1807, <a href="/wiki/Albert_Gallatin" title="Albert Gallatin">Albert Gallatin</a> had advocated the construction of a great system of internal waterways to connect East and West, at an estimated cost of $20,000,000 ($416,181,818 in 2024 consumer dollars). But the only contribution of the national government to <a href="/wiki/Internal_improvements" title="Internal improvements">internal improvements</a> during the Jeffersonian era was an appropriation in 1806 of two percent of the net proceeds of the sales of public lands in Ohio for the construction of a national road, with the consent of the states through which it should pass. By 1818 the road was open to traffic from <a href="/wiki/Cumberland,_Maryland" title="Cumberland, Maryland">Cumberland, Maryland</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Wheeling,_West_Virginia" title="Wheeling, West Virginia">Wheeling, West Virginia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson1915256_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson1915256-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1816, with the experiences of the war before him, no well-informed statesman could shut his eyes to the national aspects of the problem.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Even President <a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a> invited the attention of Congress to the need of establishing "a comprehensive system of roads and canals". Soon after Congress met, it took under consideration a bill drafted by <a href="/wiki/John_C._Calhoun" title="John C. Calhoun">John C. Calhoun</a> which proposed an appropriation of $1,500,000 ($26,929,412 in 2024 consumer dollars) for internal improvements. Because this appropriation was to be met by the moneys paid by the National Bank to the government, the bill was commonly referred to as the "Bonus Bill". But on the day before he left office, President Madison vetoed the bill because it was unconstitutional. The policy of internal improvements by federal aid was thus wrecked on the constitutional scruples of the last of the <a href="/wiki/Virginia_dynasty" title="Virginia dynasty">Virginia dynasty</a>. Having less regard for consistency, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">United States House of Representatives</a> recorded its conviction, by close votes, that Congress could appropriate money to construct roads and canals, but had not the power to construct them. As yet the only direct aid of the national government to internal improvements consisted of various appropriations, amounting to about $1,500,000 for the <a href="/wiki/Cumberland_Road" class="mw-redirect" title="Cumberland Road">Cumberland Road</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson1915257–258_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson1915257–258-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the country recovered from financial depression following the <a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1819" title="Panic of 1819">Panic of 1819</a>, the question of internal improvements again forged to the front. In 1822, a bill to authorize the collection of tolls on the Cumberland Road had been vetoed by President <a href="/wiki/James_Monroe" title="James Monroe">James Monroe</a>. In an elaborate essay, Monroe set forth his views on the constitutional aspects of a policy of internal improvements. Congress might appropriate money, he admitted, but it might not undertake the actual construction of national works nor assume jurisdiction over them. For the moment, the drift toward a larger participation of the national government in internal improvements was stayed. </p><p>Two years later, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> authorized the <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">U.S. president</a> to institute surveys for such roads and canals as he believed to be needed for commerce and military defense. No one pleaded more eloquently for a larger conception of the functions of the national government than <a href="/wiki/Henry_Clay" title="Henry Clay">Henry Clay</a>. He called the attention of his hearers to provisions made for coast surveys and lighthouses on the Atlantic seaboard and deplored the neglect of the interior of the country. Among the other presidential candidates, <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a> voted in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">United States Senate</a> for the general survey bill; and <a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams" title="John Quincy Adams">John Quincy Adams</a> left no doubt in the public mind that he did not reflect the narrow views of his section on this issue. <a href="/wiki/William_H._Crawford" title="William H. Crawford">William H. Crawford</a> felt the constitutional scruples which were everywhere being voiced in the South, and followed the old expedient of advocating a constitutional amendment to sanction national internal improvements.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson1915309–310_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson1915309–310-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In President Adams' first message to Congress, he advocated not only the construction of roads and canals but also the establishment of <a href="/wiki/Observatory" title="Observatory">observatories</a> and a national university. President <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> had recommended many of these in 1806 for Congress to consider for creation of necessary amendments to the Constitution. Adams seemed oblivious to the limitations of the Constitution.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In much alarm, Jefferson suggested to Madison the desirability of having Virginia adopt a new set of resolutions, bottomed on those of 1798, and directed against the acts for internal improvements. In March 1826, the <a href="/wiki/Virginia_General_Assembly" title="Virginia General Assembly">Virginia General Assembly</a> declared that all the principles of the earlier resolutions applied "with full force against the powers assumed by Congress" in passing acts to protect manufacturers and to further internal improvements. That the administration would meet with opposition in Congress was a foregone conclusion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson1915319–320_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson1915319–320-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Steamboats">Steamboats</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Steamboats"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Clermont_illustration_-_Robert_Fulton_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_15161.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Clermont_illustration_-_Robert_Fulton_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_15161.jpg/220px-Clermont_illustration_-_Robert_Fulton_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_15161.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Clermont_illustration_-_Robert_Fulton_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_15161.jpg/330px-Clermont_illustration_-_Robert_Fulton_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_15161.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Clermont_illustration_-_Robert_Fulton_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_15161.jpg/440px-Clermont_illustration_-_Robert_Fulton_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_15161.jpg 2x" data-file-width="825" data-file-height="551" /></a><figcaption>Fulton's North River Steamboat on the <a href="/wiki/Hudson_River" title="Hudson River">Hudson River</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Despite the new efficiencies introduced by the turnpikes and canals, travel along these routes was still time-consuming and expensive. The idea of integrating a steam <a href="/wiki/Boiler" title="Boiler">boiler</a> and propulsion system can be first attributed to <a href="/wiki/John_Fitch_(inventor)" title="John Fitch (inventor)">John Fitch</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Rumsey" title="James Rumsey">James Rumsey</a> who both filed for patents or state monopolies on <a href="/wiki/Steamboat" title="Steamboat">steamboats</a> in the late 1780s. However, these first steamboats were complicated, heavy, and expensive. It would be almost 20 years until <a href="/wiki/Robert_Livingston_(1746%E2%80%931813)" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Livingston (1746–1813)">Robert R. Livingston</a> contracted a civil <a href="/wiki/Engineer" title="Engineer">engineer</a> named <a href="/wiki/Robert_Fulton" title="Robert Fulton">Robert Fulton</a> to develop an economical steamboat. Fulton's <a href="/wiki/Paddle_steamer" title="Paddle steamer">paddle steamer</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/North_River_Steamboat" title="North River Steamboat">The North River Steamboat</a></i> (erroneously referred to as the <i>Clermont</i>), made its first trip from New York City north on the Hudson River to <a href="/wiki/Albany,_New_York" title="Albany, New York">Albany</a> on August 17, 1807. By 1820, steamboat services had been established on all the Atlantic <a href="/wiki/River" title="River">tidal rivers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chesapeake_Bay" title="Chesapeake Bay">Chesapeake Bay</a>. The shallow-bottomed boats were also ideally suited for navigating the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ohio_River" title="Ohio River">Ohio Rivers</a> and the number of boats on these rivers increased from 17 boats to 727 boats between 1817 and 1855.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan1997108_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan1997108-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The speed of the steamboats decreased travel times between coastal ports and upstream cities by weeks and costs for transporting goods along these rivers by as much as 90%.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan1997110_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan1997110-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Steamboats profoundly altered the relationships between the <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">federal government</a>, <a href="/wiki/State_governments_of_the_United_States" title="State governments of the United States">state governments</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">private property</a> owners. Livingston and Fulton had obtained monopoly rights to operate a steamboat service within the <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">state of New York</a>, but <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Gibbons_(politician)" title="Thomas Gibbons (politician)">Thomas Gibbons</a>, who operated a competing <a href="/wiki/New_Jersey" title="New Jersey">New Jersey</a> ferry service, was <a href="/wiki/Enjoin" class="mw-redirect" title="Enjoin">enjoined</a> from entering New York waters under the terms of the monopoly. In 1824, the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> ruled in <i><a href="/wiki/Gibbons_v._Ogden" title="Gibbons v. Ogden">Gibbons v. Ogden</a></i> that Congress could regulate commerce and transportation under the <a href="/wiki/Commerce_Clause" title="Commerce Clause">Commerce Clause</a> which compelled the state of New York to allow steamboat services from other states. </p><p>Because the <a href="/wiki/Structural_failure" class="mw-redirect" title="Structural failure">physics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron#Properties" title="Wrought iron">metallurgy</a> of boilers were poorly understood, steamboats were prone to <a href="/wiki/Boiler_explosion" title="Boiler explosion">boiler explosions</a> that killed hundreds of people between the 1810s and 1840s.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1838, legislation was enacted that mandated boiler inspections by <a href="/wiki/Steamboat_Inspection_Service" title="Steamboat Inspection Service">federal agents</a> under the threat of revocation of the operator's navigation licenses and lowered the threshold for <a href="/wiki/Legal_liability" title="Legal liability">liability</a> in <a href="/wiki/Lawsuit" title="Lawsuit">suits</a> arising from such accidents. While Americans long resisted any government's power to <a href="/wiki/Government_regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Government regulation">regulate</a> <a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">private property</a>, these new rules demonstrated that many Americans believed that property rights did not override <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil rights">civil rights</a> and set the precedent for <a href="/wiki/Occupational_Safety_and_Health_Administration" title="Occupational Safety and Health Administration">future federal safety regulations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurke1997105–106_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurke1997105–106-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mining">Mining</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Mining"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many minerals have been mined across the United States. <a href="/wiki/History_of_coal_mining_in_the_United_States" title="History of coal mining in the United States">Coal</a> was one of the earliest, mainly mined in the eastern states, and when combined with <a href="/wiki/Iron_mining_in_the_United_States" title="Iron mining in the United States">iron ore</a> led to the growth of the Steel industry. <a href="/wiki/Gold_mining_in_the_United_States" title="Gold mining in the United States">Gold</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silver_mining_in_the_United_States" title="Silver mining in the United States">silver</a> mining was a significant contributor to the rapid expansion of the western states in the 19thl. century. <a href="/wiki/Copper_mining_in_the_United_States" title="Copper mining in the United States">Copper mining</a> began in the 1840s, and the United States is the fourth largest copper producer in the World. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Civil_War">Civil War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Civil War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Role of industry & technology in causes, conduct & operations, reconstruction </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Colt" title="Samuel Colt">Samuel Colt</a>, invented the <a href="/wiki/Revolver" title="Revolver">revolver</a>, the first repeating <a href="/wiki/Pistol" title="Pistol">pistol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Browning" title="John Browning">John Browning</a> –  developed some of the first modern <a href="/wiki/Repeating_firearm" title="Repeating firearm">repeating</a>, <a href="/wiki/Semi-automatic_firearm" title="Semi-automatic firearm">semi-automatic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Automatic_firearm" title="Automatic firearm">automatic</a> firearms.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Technological_systems_and_infrastructure">Technological systems and infrastructure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Technological systems and infrastructure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/44px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="44" height="31" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/66px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/88px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b> with: Radio, television and electronics (e.g., vacuum tubes, semiconductors). You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2022</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a></div> <p>The period after the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a> was marked by increasing intense and pervasive industrialization and successive technological advances like the <a href="/wiki/Railroad" class="mw-redirect" title="Railroad">railroad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Telegraph" class="mw-redirect" title="Telegraph">telegraph</a> & <a href="/wiki/Telephone" title="Telephone">telephone</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine" title="Internal combustion engine">internal combustion engine</a>. This facilitated <a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">America's westward expansion</a> and economic development by connecting the frontier with the industrial, financial, and political centers of the East. Americans increasingly relied upon technological infrastructures like the railroad, electric, and telecommunications systems for economic and social activities. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bicycles">Bicycles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Bicycles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Overman_victor_flyer_bicycle.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Overman_victor_flyer_bicycle.png/220px-Overman_victor_flyer_bicycle.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Overman_victor_flyer_bicycle.png/330px-Overman_victor_flyer_bicycle.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Overman_victor_flyer_bicycle.png/440px-Overman_victor_flyer_bicycle.png 2x" data-file-width="528" data-file-height="330" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Overman_Wheel_Company" title="Overman Wheel Company">Overman</a> Victor bicycle of 1893</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Overman_Wheel_Company" title="Overman Wheel Company">Overman Wheel Company</a>, founded 1882, was the first manufacturer of safety bicycles in the United States, in their factory complex in <a href="/wiki/Chicopee,_Massachusetts" title="Chicopee, Massachusetts">Chicopee, Massachusetts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following their creation in England, Overman rushed a safety bicycle to production before the end of 1887.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Overman was known for making all-steel bicycles with no cast metal parts.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Overman Victor bicycle was said to be of higher quality and lower weight than other bicycles of its time.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1893, the Overman factory made the complete bicycle, including tyres, saddles, rims, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-Bolder_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bolder-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Railroads">Railroads</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Railroads"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_rail_transport_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of rail transport in the United States">History of rail transport in the United States</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DeWitt_Clinton_(locomotive).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/DeWitt_Clinton_%28locomotive%29.jpg/220px-DeWitt_Clinton_%28locomotive%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/DeWitt_Clinton_%28locomotive%29.jpg/330px-DeWitt_Clinton_%28locomotive%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/DeWitt_Clinton_%28locomotive%29.jpg/440px-DeWitt_Clinton_%28locomotive%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="421" /></a><figcaption>The <i>DeWitt Clinton</i>, named for <a href="/wiki/DeWitt_Clinton" title="DeWitt Clinton">DeWitt Clinton</a>, one of the first locomotives in the United States</figcaption></figure> <p>Between 1820 and 1830, many inventors and entrepreneurs began to apply emerging steamboat technology to engines that could travel on land. The earliest proposal came in 1813 from <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Evans" title="Oliver Evans">Oliver Evans</a>' idea of a railway to connect <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a> with "carriages drawn by steam engines".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan1997113_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan1997113-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many individuals and companies have a claim to being the <a href="/wiki/First_railroad_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="First railroad in the United States">first railroad in the United States</a>, but by the mid-1830s several companies were using <a href="/wiki/Steam_locomotive" title="Steam locomotive">steam-powered locomotives</a> to move <a href="/wiki/Train_car" class="mw-redirect" title="Train car">train cars</a> on <a href="/wiki/Rail_tracks" class="mw-redirect" title="Rail tracks">rail tracks</a>. </p><p>Between 1840 and 1860, the total length of railroad trackage increased from 3,326 to 30,600 miles (5,350 to 49,250 km).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan1997115–117_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan1997115–117-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The efficiency of railroad to move large, bulk items contributed enabled further drops in cost of transporting goods to market but in so doing undermined the profitability of the earlier turnpikes and canals which began to fold and fall into disrepair. However, the early railroads were poorly integrated; there were hundreds of competing companies using different <a href="/wiki/Rail_gauge" class="mw-redirect" title="Rail gauge">gauges</a> for their track requiring cargo to be <a href="/wiki/Transshipment" title="Transshipment">trans-shipped</a>—rather than traveling directly—between cities. </p><p>The completion of the <a href="/wiki/First_transcontinental_railroad" title="First transcontinental railroad">First transcontinental railroad</a> in 1869 and its attendant profit and efficiency had the effect of stimulating a period of intense consolidation and technological standardization that would last another 50 years. It was during this time that railroad <a href="/wiki/Magnates" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnates">magnates</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Jay_Gould" title="Jay Gould">Jay Gould</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Vanderbilt" title="Cornelius Vanderbilt">Cornelius Vanderbilt</a> amassed great power and fortunes from consolidation of smaller rail lines into national corporations. By 1920, 254,000 miles (408,800 km) of <a href="/wiki/Standard-gauge_railway" title="Standard-gauge railway">standard-gauge railroad track</a> had been laid in the United States, all of it owned or controlled by seven organizations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan1997154_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan1997154-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The need to synchronize train schedules and the inefficiencies introduced by every city having its own local time, also led to introduction of <a href="/wiki/Standard_time" title="Standard time">Standard time</a> by railway managers in 1883. Railroads began using <a href="/wiki/Diesel_locomotive" title="Diesel locomotive">diesel locomotives</a> in the 1930s, and they completely replaced steam locomotives by the 1950s, which reduced costs and improved reliability.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStover1997213–214_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStover1997213–214-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Climaxing_A_Century_Of_Progress_In_Transportation_(NBY_415278).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Climaxing_A_Century_Of_Progress_In_Transportation_%28NBY_415278%29.jpg/220px-Climaxing_A_Century_Of_Progress_In_Transportation_%28NBY_415278%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Climaxing_A_Century_Of_Progress_In_Transportation_%28NBY_415278%29.jpg/330px-Climaxing_A_Century_Of_Progress_In_Transportation_%28NBY_415278%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Climaxing_A_Century_Of_Progress_In_Transportation_%28NBY_415278%29.jpg/440px-Climaxing_A_Century_Of_Progress_In_Transportation_%28NBY_415278%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="811" data-file-height="506" /></a><figcaption>Climaxing A Century Of Progress In Transportation illustration, 1930s</figcaption></figure> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93World_War_II_economic_expansion" title="Post–World War II economic expansion">Post–World War II economic expansion</a> many railroads were driven out of business due to competition from <a href="/wiki/Airline" title="Airline">airlines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Interstate_highways" class="mw-redirect" title="Interstate highways">Interstate highways</a>. The rise of the <a href="/wiki/Automobile" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile">automobile</a> led to the end of <a href="/wiki/Passenger_train" title="Passenger train">passenger train service</a> on most railroads. <a href="/wiki/Trucking_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Trucking industry in the United States">Trucking businesses</a> had become major competitors by the 1930s with the advent of improved paved roads, and after the war they expanded their operations as the interstate highway network grew, and acquired increased market share of <a href="/wiki/Cargo" title="Cargo">freight</a> business.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStover1997219_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStover1997219-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1970 the <a href="/wiki/Penn_Central" class="mw-redirect" title="Penn Central">Penn Central</a> railroad declared <a href="/wiki/Bankruptcy" title="Bankruptcy">bankruptcy</a>, the largest bankruptcy in the US at that time. In response Congress created a government corporation, <a href="/wiki/Amtrak" title="Amtrak">Amtrak</a>, to take over operation of the passenger lines of Penn Central and other railroads, under the <a href="/wiki/Rail_Passenger_Service_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Rail Passenger Service Act">Rail Passenger Service Act</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStover1997234_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStover1997234-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Amtrak began <a href="/wiki/Inter-city_rail" title="Inter-city rail">inter-city rail</a> operations in 1971.<sup id="cite_ref-Amtrak_brief_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Amtrak_brief-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1980 Congress enacted the <a href="/wiki/Staggers_Rail_Act" title="Staggers Rail Act">Staggers Rail Act</a> to revive <a href="/wiki/Freight_transport" title="Freight transport">freight traffic</a>, by removing restrictive regulations and enabling railroads to be more competitive with the trucking industry.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>More railroad companies merged and consolidated their lines in order to remain successful. These changes led to the current system of fewer, but profitable, <a href="/wiki/Class_I_railroad" class="mw-redirect" title="Class I railroad">Class I railroads</a> covering larger regions of the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStover1997245–252_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStover1997245–252-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To replace the loss of commuter passenger rail service, state and local government agencies established their own <a href="/wiki/Commuter_rail" title="Commuter rail">commuter rail</a> systems in several metropolitan areas, generally by leasing rail lines from Amtrak or freight railroads.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first <a href="/wiki/Rapid_transit" title="Rapid transit">rapid transit</a> systems began operation in <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a> (1892), <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a> (1897) and <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a> (1904). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iron_and_steel-making">Iron and steel-making</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Iron and steel-making"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_ferrous_metallurgy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of ferrous metallurgy">History of ferrous metallurgy</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_steel_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the steel industry">History of the steel industry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_iron_and_steel_industry_in_the_United_States" title="History of the iron and steel industry in the United States">History of the iron and steel industry in the United States</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Allegheny_Ludlum_steel_furnace.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Allegheny_Ludlum_steel_furnace.jpg/220px-Allegheny_Ludlum_steel_furnace.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Allegheny_Ludlum_steel_furnace.jpg/330px-Allegheny_Ludlum_steel_furnace.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Allegheny_Ludlum_steel_furnace.jpg/440px-Allegheny_Ludlum_steel_furnace.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3209" data-file-height="2486" /></a><figcaption>Molten <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a> being poured from an <a href="/wiki/Electric_arc_furnace" title="Electric arc furnace">electric arc furnace</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Because <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> occurs in nature commonly as an oxide, it must be <a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">smelted</a> to drive off the oxygen to obtain the metallic form. <a href="/wiki/Bloomery" title="Bloomery">Bloomery forges</a> were prevalent in the colonies and could produce small batches of iron to be <a href="/wiki/Blacksmith" title="Blacksmith">smithed</a> for local needs (<a href="/wiki/Horseshoe" title="Horseshoe">horseshoes</a>, axeblades, plowshares) but were unable to scale production for exporting or larger-scale industry, including gunmaking, shipbuilding, and wheelmaking.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan199758_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan199758-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">Blast furnaces</a> creating <a href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">cast iron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pig_iron" title="Pig iron">pig iron</a> emerged on large self-sufficient plantations in the mid-17th century to meet these demands, but production was expensive and labor-intensive: forges, furnaces, and waterwheels had to be constructed, huge swaths of forest had to be cleared and the wood rendered into <a href="/wiki/Charcoal" title="Charcoal">charcoal</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Iron_ore" title="Iron ore">iron ore</a> and <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a> had to be mined and transported. </p><p>By the end of the 18th century, the threat of <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a> forced the English to use <a href="/wiki/Coke_(fuel)" title="Coke (fuel)">coke</a>, a fuel derived from <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a>, to fire their furnaces. This shift precipitated a drop in iron prices since the process no longer required charcoal, the production of which was labor-intensive. This was a practice that was later adopted in the US as well.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a> is an alloy of iron and a small amount of carbon, historically steel and iron-making were intended for different products given the high costs of steel over <a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">wrought iron</a>. The main difficulty with making steel is that its higher melting point than pig or cast iron was not easily achievable in large-scale production until methods that introduced air or oxygen to oxidize the carbon in the molten pig iron were developed, allowing the direct conversion of molten pig iron to molten steel. </p><p>Throughout the 18th and early 19th centuries, the English steelmakers produced <a href="/wiki/Blister_steel" class="mw-redirect" title="Blister steel">blister</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crucible_steel" title="Crucible steel">crucible steel</a> which required specialized equipment. In the 18th century, innovations like steamboats, railroads, and guns increased demand for wrought iron and steel. The <a href="/wiki/Mount_Savage_Iron_Works" title="Mount Savage Iron Works">Mount Savage Iron Works</a> in Maryland was the largest in the United States in the late 1840s, and the first in the nation to produce <a href="/wiki/Track_(rail_transport)" class="mw-redirect" title="Track (rail transport)">heavy rails</a> for the construction of railroads.<sup id="cite_ref-Dilts_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dilts-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1850s, American <a href="/wiki/William_Kelly_(inventor)" title="William Kelly (inventor)">William Kelly</a> and Englishman <a href="/wiki/Henry_Bessemer" title="Henry Bessemer">Henry Bessemer</a> independently discovered that air blown through the molten iron increases its temperature by oxidizing the carbon and separating additional impurities into the slag. The <a href="/wiki/Kelly-Bessemer_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Kelly-Bessemer process">Kelly-Bessemer process</a>, because it reduces the amount of coke needed for blasting and increases the quality of the finished iron, revolutionized the mass production of high-quality steel and facilitated a drastic drop in steel prices and expansion of its availability. </p><p>In 1868, <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Carnegie" title="Andrew Carnegie">Andrew Carnegie</a> saw an opportunity to integrate new coke-making methods with the recently developed Kelly-Bessemer process to supply steel for railroads. In 1872, he built a steel plant in <a href="/wiki/Braddock,_Allegheny_County,_Pennsylvania" class="mw-redirect" title="Braddock, Allegheny County, Pennsylvania">Braddock, Pennsylvania</a> at the junction of several major railroad lines. Carnegie earned enormous profits by pioneering <a href="/wiki/Vertical_integration" title="Vertical integration">vertical integration</a>; he owned the iron ore mines in <a href="/wiki/Minnesota" title="Minnesota">Minnesota</a>, the transport steamboats on the <a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes" title="Great Lakes">Great Lakes</a>, the coal mines and coke ovens, and the rail lines delivering the coke and ore to his Pennsylvania mills. By 1900, the <a href="/wiki/Carnegie_Steel_Company" title="Carnegie Steel Company">Carnegie Steel Company</a> was producing more steel than all of Britain and in 1901 Carnegie sold his business to <a href="/wiki/J.P._Morgan" class="mw-redirect" title="J.P. Morgan">J.P. Morgan</a>'s <a href="/wiki/U.S._Steel" title="U.S. Steel">U.S. Steel</a> earning Carnegie $480 million personally. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Telegraph_and_telephone">Telegraph and telephone</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Telegraph and telephone"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Invention_of_the_telephone" title="Invention of the telephone">Invention of the telephone</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Model5302Telephone.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Model5302Telephone.jpg/220px-Model5302Telephone.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Model5302Telephone.jpg/330px-Model5302Telephone.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Model5302Telephone.jpg/440px-Model5302Telephone.jpg 2x" data-file-width="996" data-file-height="864" /></a><figcaption>A 1950s telephone</figcaption></figure> <p>The ability to quickly transmit information over long distances would prove to have an enormous impact on many diverse fields like journalism, banking, and diplomacy. Between 1837 and 1844, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_F.B._Morse" class="mw-redirect" title="Samuel F.B. Morse">Samuel F.B. Morse</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Vail" title="Alfred Vail">Alfred Vail</a> developed a transmitter that could send "short" or "long" electric currents which would move an electromagnetic receiver to record the signal as <a href="/wiki/Morse_Code" class="mw-redirect" title="Morse Code">dots and dashes</a>. Morse established the first <a href="/wiki/Telegraph" class="mw-redirect" title="Telegraph">telegraph</a> line (between <a href="/wiki/Baltimore" title="Baltimore">Baltimore</a> and <a href="/wiki/Washington_D.C." class="mw-redirect" title="Washington D.C.">Washington D.C.</a>) in 1844 and by 1849 almost every state east of the Mississippi had telegraph service.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan1997152_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan1997152-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between 1850 and 1865, the telegraph business became progressively more consolidated and the 1866 incorporation of <a href="/wiki/Western_Union" title="Western Union">Western Union</a> emerged with a near-monopoly over 22,000 telegraph offices and 827,000 miles (1,330,900 km) of cable throughout the country.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan1997152_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan1997152-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The telegraph was used to dispatch news from the fronts of the <a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a>, coordinate <a href="/wiki/Union_(American_Civil_War)" title="Union (American Civil War)">Union</a> troop movements during the Civil War, relay <a href="/wiki/Stock" title="Stock">stock</a> and <a href="/wiki/Commodity" title="Commodity">commodity</a> prices and orders between markets on <a href="/wiki/Ticker_tape" title="Ticker tape">ticker tape</a>, and conduct <a href="/wiki/Diplomacy" title="Diplomacy">diplomatic negotiations</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Transatlantic_telegraph_cable" title="Transatlantic telegraph cable">Transatlantic telegraph cable</a> was laid in 1866. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">Alexander Graham Bell</a> obtained a patent in 1876 to a device that could transmit and reproduce the sound of a voice over electrical cables. Bell realized the enormous potential for his <a href="/wiki/Telephone" title="Telephone">telephone</a> and formed the <a href="/wiki/Bell_Telephone_Company" title="Bell Telephone Company">Bell Telephone Company</a> which would control the whole system, from manufacturing the telephones to <a href="/wiki/Lease" title="Lease">leasing</a> the equipment to customers and <a href="/wiki/Telephone_company" class="mw-redirect" title="Telephone company">operators</a>. Between 1877 and 1893 (the term of Bell's patent coverage) the number of phones leased by Bell's company increased from 3,000 to 260,000, although these were largely limited to businesses and government offices that could afford the relatively high rates.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan1997160_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan1997160-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the Bell patents expired, thousands of independent operators became incorporated and their competition for services to middle and low-class households as well as rural farmers drove prices down significantly. By 1920, there were 13 million phones in the United States providing service to 39 percent of all farm households and 34 percent of non-farm households.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan1997161_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan1997161-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Petroleum">Petroleum</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Petroleum"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_petroleum_industry" title="History of the petroleum industry">History of the petroleum industry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_oil_rush" title="Pennsylvania oil rush">Pennsylvania oil rush</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lucas_gusher.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Lucas_gusher.jpg/220px-Lucas_gusher.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Lucas_gusher.jpg/330px-Lucas_gusher.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Lucas_gusher.jpg 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="488" /></a><figcaption>Drilling and refining <a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a> became major U.S. industries.</figcaption></figure> <p>The 1859 discovery of <a href="/wiki/Crude_oil" class="mw-redirect" title="Crude oil">crude oil</a> in <a href="/wiki/Titusville,_Pennsylvania" title="Titusville, Pennsylvania">western Pennsylvania</a> set off <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvanian_oil_rush" class="mw-redirect" title="Pennsylvanian oil rush">an "oil rush"</a> reminiscent of the 1849 <a href="/wiki/California_Gold_Rush" class="mw-redirect" title="California Gold Rush">California Gold Rush</a> and would prove to be a valuable resource on the eve of the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a>. Because crude oil needs to be <a href="/wiki/Distilled" class="mw-redirect" title="Distilled">distilled</a> to extract usable <a href="/wiki/Fuel_oil" title="Fuel oil">fuel oils</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oil_refining" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil refining">oil refining</a> quickly became a major industry in the area. The rural and mountainous terrain of these <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a> oilfields allowed neither economical <a href="/wiki/In-situ" class="mw-redirect" title="In-situ">in-situ</a> refining nor efficient railroad transportation of extracted oil. Beginning in 1865, the construction of <a href="/wiki/Oil_pipeline" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil pipeline">oil pipelines</a> to connect the oilfields with railroads or oil refineries alleviated this geographical bottleneck but also put thousands of <a href="/wiki/Cooper_(profession)" title="Cooper (profession)">coopers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Teamster" title="Teamster">teamsters</a> (who made the barrels and drove the wagons to transport oil) out of business.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan1997158_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan1997158-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the network of oil pipelines expanded, they became more integrated with both the railway and telegraph systems which enabled even greater coordination in production, scheduling, and pricing. </p><p><a href="/wiki/John_D._Rockefeller" title="John D. Rockefeller">John D. Rockefeller</a> was a forceful driver of <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_integration" title="Horizontal integration">consolidation</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_in_the_United_States" title="Petroleum in the United States">American oil industry</a>. Beginning in 1865, he bought refineries, railroads, pipelines, and oilfields and ruthlessly eliminated competition to his <a href="/wiki/Standard_Oil" title="Standard Oil">Standard Oil</a>. By 1879, he controlled 90% of oil refined in the US.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan1997158_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan1997158-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Standard Oil used pipelines to directly connect the Pennsylvanian oilfields with the refineries in New Jersey, Cleveland, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, rather than loading and unloading railroad tank cars, which enabled huge gains in efficiency and profitability. Given the unprecedented scale of Standard Oil's network, the company developed novel methods for managing, financing, and organizing its businesses. Because laws governing corporations limited their ability to do business across state lines, Standard Oil pioneered the use of a central <a href="/wiki/Trust_company" title="Trust company">trust</a> that owned and controlled the constituent companies in each state.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan1997158_60-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan1997158-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The use of trusts by other industries to stifle competition and extract <a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">monopoly</a> prices led to the 1890 passage of the <a href="/wiki/Sherman_Antitrust_Act" title="Sherman Antitrust Act">Sherman Antitrust Act</a>. </p><p>In the 1911 case of <i><a href="/wiki/Standard_Oil_Co._of_New_Jersey_v._United_States" title="Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States">Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States</a></i>, the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">U.S. Supreme Court</a> ordered the Standard Oil Trust be disbanded into competing companies that would become <a href="/wiki/Exxon" class="mw-redirect" title="Exxon">Exxon</a> (Standard Oil of New Jersey), <a href="/wiki/Mobil" title="Mobil">Mobil</a> (Standard Oil of New York), and <a href="/wiki/Chevron_Corporation" title="Chevron Corporation">Chevron</a> (Standard Oil of California). </p><p>The demand for petroleum products increased rapidly after the turn of the century as families relied upon <a href="/wiki/Kerosene" title="Kerosene">kerosene</a> to heat and light their houses, industries relied upon <a href="/wiki/Lubricant" title="Lubricant">lubricants</a> for machinery, and the ever-more prevalent <a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine" title="Internal combustion engine">internal combustion engine</a> demanded <a href="/wiki/Gasoline" title="Gasoline">gasoline</a> fuel. Between 1880 and 1920, the amount of oil refined annually jumped from 26 million to 442 million.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan1997158_60-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan1997158-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The discovery of large <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_reservoir" title="Petroleum reservoir">oil fields</a> in <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a>, and <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a> in the early 20th century touched off "oil crazes" and contributed to these states' rapid industrialization. Because these previously agrarian western states lay outside of the various Standard Oil's production and refining networks, cities like <a href="/wiki/Long_Beach,_California" title="Long Beach, California">Long Beach, California</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dallas,_Texas" class="mw-redirect" title="Dallas, Texas">Dallas, Texas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Houston,_Texas" class="mw-redirect" title="Houston, Texas">Houston, Texas</a> emerged as major centers for refining and managing these new fields under companies like <a href="/wiki/Sunoco" title="Sunoco">Sunoco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Texaco" title="Texaco">Texaco</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gulf_Oil" title="Gulf Oil">Gulf Oil</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electricity">Electricity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Electricity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Electrification" title="Electrification">Electrification</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_electromagnetism" class="mw-redirect" title="History of electromagnetism">History of electromagnetism</a> and <a href="/wiki/War_of_currents" class="mw-redirect" title="War of currents">War of currents</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Transmission_Towers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Transmission_Towers.jpg/220px-Transmission_Towers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Transmission_Towers.jpg/330px-Transmission_Towers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Transmission_Towers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="402" /></a><figcaption>Electrification revolutionized American industry and commerce.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a> pioneered the study of electricity by being the first to describe positive and negative charges,<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as advancing the principle of conservation of charge.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Franklin is best known for the apocryphal feat of flying a kite in thunderstorm to prove that <a href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">lightning</a> is a form of <a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">electricity</a> which, in turn, led to the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Lightning_rod" title="Lightning rod">lightning rod</a> to protect buildings. </p><p>Electricity would remain a novelty through the early to mid-19th century, but advances in battery storage, generating, and lighting would turn it into a domestic business. By the late 1870s and early 1880 central generating plants supplying power to <a href="/wiki/Arc_lamp" title="Arc lamp">arc lamps</a>, first in Europe and then in the US, began spreading rapidly, replacing oil and gas for outdoor lighting, systems that ran on very high voltage (3,000–6,000 volt) <a href="/wiki/Direct_current" title="Direct current">direct current</a> or <a href="/wiki/Alternating_current" title="Alternating current">alternating current</a>. </p><p>In 1880, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Edison" title="Thomas Edison">Thomas Edison</a> developed and patented a system for indoor lighting that competed with gas lighting, based on a long-lasting high resistance <a href="/wiki/Incandescent_light_bulb" title="Incandescent light bulb">incandescent light bulb</a> that ran on relatively low voltage (110 volt) direct current. Commercializing this venture was a task far beyond what Edison's small laboratory could handle, requiring the setup of a large investor backed <a href="/wiki/Utility" title="Utility">utility</a> that involving companies that would manufacture the whole technological system upon which the "light bulb" would depend—<a href="/wiki/Electric_generator" title="Electric generator">generators</a> (<a href="/wiki/Edison_Machine_Works" title="Edison Machine Works">Edison Machine Company</a>), <a href="/wiki/Electrical_cable" title="Electrical cable">cables</a> (Edison Electric Tube Company), <a href="/wiki/Power_station" title="Power station">generating plants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electric_service_panel" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric service panel">electric service</a> (<a href="/wiki/Edison_Electric_Light_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Edison Electric Light Company">Edison Electric Light Company</a>), <a href="/wiki/Electrical_socket" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical socket">sockets</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Electric_bulb" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric bulb">bulbs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan1997163_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan1997163-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to lighting, <a href="/wiki/Electric_motor" title="Electric motor">electric motors</a> (analogous to generators operating in reverse, or using a current to spin a magnet to perform work) became extremely important to industry. Speed control of early <a href="/wiki/DC_motor" title="DC motor">DC motors</a> limited their use. <a href="/wiki/Frank_J._Sprague" title="Frank J. Sprague">Frank J. Sprague</a> developed the first successful DC motor (ca. 1886) by solving the problem of varying speed with load. Within a few years DC motors were used in electric street railways.<sup id="cite_ref-Nye_1990_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nye_1990-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1888, a <a href="/wiki/Serbia" title="Serbia">Serbian</a> immigrant, <a href="/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Nikola Tesla</a>, a former employee of Edison's, patented an <a href="/wiki/Induction_motor" title="Induction motor">AC induction motor</a> and licensed it to the <a href="/wiki/Westinghouse_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Westinghouse Corporation">Westinghouse Corporation</a>. Electric motors eventually replaced steam engines in factories around the nation as they required neither complex <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_transmission" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical transmission">mechanical transmissions</a> from a central engine nor water sources for <a href="/wiki/Boiler_(power_generation)" title="Boiler (power generation)">steam boilers</a> in order to operate.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan1997164_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan1997164-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Edison's <a href="/wiki/Direct_current" title="Direct current">direct current</a> generation dominated the initial years of indoor commercial and residential electric lighting and <a href="/wiki/Electric_power_distribution" title="Electric power distribution">electric power distribution</a>. However, DC transmission was hampered by the difficulty in changing <a href="/wiki/Voltages" class="mw-redirect" title="Voltages">voltages</a> between industrial generation and residential/commercial consumption and the low voltages used suffered from poor transmission efficiency. The mid-1880s saw the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Transformer" title="Transformer">transformer</a>, allowing <a href="/wiki/Alternating_current" title="Alternating current">alternating current</a> to be transmitted at high voltage long distances with greater efficiency and then "stepped down" to supply commercial and domestic indoor lighting, resulting in AC going from being the outdoor "arc lighting current" to taking over the domestic lighting utility market Edison's DC system was designed to supply. The rapid spread of AC and haphazard installation of power lines, especially in the city of New York, led to a series of deaths attributed to high voltage AC and an eventual media backlash against the current.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1888, the Edison company played up the dangers of AC power in their literature and assisted self-appointed anti-AC crusader <a href="/wiki/Harold_P._Brown" title="Harold P. Brown">Harold P. Brown</a> in a parallel goal to limit, to the point of ineffectiveness, the voltages in AC power systems, a market then dominated by <a href="/wiki/Westinghouse_Electric" class="mw-redirect" title="Westinghouse Electric">Westinghouse Electric</a>. This series of events came to be known as the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_currents" title="War of the currents">war of the currents</a>. Brown and Edison's <a href="/wiki/Lobbying" title="Lobbying">lobbying</a> in state legislatures went nowhere and the Edison company continued to lose market share and profitability to the AC based companies. In 1892 the "war" ended with Thomas Edison losing any remaining control of his own company when it was merged with Westinghouse's chief AC rival, the <a href="/wiki/Thomson-Houston_Electric_Company" title="Thomson-Houston Electric Company">Thomson-Houston Electric Company</a>, to form <a href="/wiki/General_Electric" title="General Electric">General Electric</a>, creating a company that controlled three quarters of the <a href="/wiki/Electricity_sector_of_the_United_States" title="Electricity sector of the United States">US electrical business</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mark_Essig_2009,_page_268_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mark_Essig_2009,_page_268-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Westinghouse's lead in AC development would allow them to win a contract in 1893 to build an AC based power station at the <a href="/wiki/Niagara_Falls" title="Niagara Falls">Niagara Falls</a> but the transmission contract was awarded to General Electric, who would come to dominate the US electrical business for many years afterwards.<sup id="cite_ref-Mark_Essig_2009,_page_268_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mark_Essig_2009,_page_268-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As in other industries of the era, these companies achieved greater efficiencies by eventually merging to form <a href="/wiki/Conglomerate_(company)" title="Conglomerate (company)">conglomerated</a> companies, with over a dozen electric companies in the 1880s merging down to just two, General Electric and Westinghouse. Lighting was immensely popular: between 1882 and 1920 the number of generating plants in the US increased from one in <a href="/wiki/Downtown_Manhattan" class="mw-redirect" title="Downtown Manhattan">Downtown Manhattan</a> to nearly 4,000.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan1997163_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan1997163-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the earliest generating plants were constructed in the immediate vicinity of consumers, plants generating electricity for long-distance transmissions were in place by 1900. To help finance this great expansion, the utility industry exploited a financial innovation known as the "<a href="/wiki/Holding_company" title="Holding company">holding company</a>"; a favorite holding company investment among many was the <a href="/wiki/Electric_Bond_and_Share_Company" title="Electric Bond and Share Company">Electric Bond and Share Company</a>, later known as Ebasco, created by the <a href="/wiki/GE" class="mw-redirect" title="GE">GE</a> company in 1905. The abuse of holding companies, like trusts before it, led to the <a href="/wiki/Public_Utility_Holding_Company_Act_of_1935" title="Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935">Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but by 1920, electricity had surpassed petroleum-based lighting sources that had dominated the previous century. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Automobiles">Automobiles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Automobiles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_automobile" title="History of the automobile">History of the automobile</a>, <a href="/wiki/Interstate_Highway_System" title="Interstate Highway System">Interstate Highway System</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Automotive industry in the United States">Automotive industry in the United States</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AssemblyLine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/AssemblyLine.jpg/220px-AssemblyLine.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/AssemblyLine.jpg/330px-AssemblyLine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/AssemblyLine.jpg/440px-AssemblyLine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="506" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Model_T" class="mw-redirect" title="Model T">Model T</a> revolutionized transportation in the early 20th century.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:La_city_hwys.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/La_city_hwys.jpg/220px-La_city_hwys.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/La_city_hwys.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="163" /></a><figcaption>A junction of the <a href="/wiki/Interstate_Highway_System" title="Interstate Highway System">Interstate Highway System</a> in <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The technology for creating an <a href="/wiki/Automobile" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile">automobile</a> emerged in Germany in the 1870 and 1880s: <a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Otto" title="Nicolaus Otto">Nicolaus Otto</a> created a <a href="/wiki/Four-stroke_engine" title="Four-stroke engine">four-stroke</a> <a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine" title="Internal combustion engine">internal combustion engine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gottlieb_Daimler" title="Gottlieb Daimler">Gottlieb Daimler</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Maybach" title="Wilhelm Maybach">Wilhelm Maybach</a> modified the Otto engine to run at higher speeds, and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Benz" class="mw-redirect" title="Karl Benz">Karl Benz</a> pioneered the <a href="/wiki/Electric_ignition" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric ignition">electric ignition</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Duryea_brothers" class="mw-redirect" title="Duryea brothers">Duryea brothers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hiram_Percy_Maxim" title="Hiram Percy Maxim">Hiram Percy Maxim</a> were among the first to construct a "horseless carriage" in the US in the mid-1890s, but these early cars proved to be heavy and expensive. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Henry_Ford" title="Henry Ford">Henry Ford</a> revolutionized the automobile manufacturing process by employing <a href="/wiki/Interchangeable_parts" title="Interchangeable parts">interchangeable parts</a> on <a href="/wiki/Assembly_lines" class="mw-redirect" title="Assembly lines">assembly lines</a>—the beginning of industrial <a href="/wiki/Mass_production" title="Mass production">mass production</a>. In 1908, the <a href="/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company" title="Ford Motor Company">Ford Motor Company</a> released the <a href="/wiki/Ford_Model_T" title="Ford Model T">Ford Model T</a> which could generate 20 <a href="/wiki/Horsepower" title="Horsepower">horsepower</a>, was lightweight, and easy to repair. Demand for the car was so great, he had to relocate his assembly plant to <a href="/wiki/Highland_Park,_Michigan" title="Highland Park, Michigan">Highland Park, Michigan</a> in 1912. The new plant was a model of industrial efficiency for the time: it was well lit and ventilated, employed <a href="/wiki/Conveyor" class="mw-redirect" title="Conveyor">conveyors</a> to move parts along an assembly line, and workers' stations were orderly arranged along the line. The efficiency of the assembly line allowed Ford to realize great gains in economy and productivity; in 1912, Ford sold 6,000 cars for approximately $900 and by 1916 approximately 577,000 Model T automobiles were sold for $360.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan1997229_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan1997229-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ford was able to scale production rapidly because assembly-line workers were unskilled laborers performing repetitive tasks. Ford hired European immigrants, African-Americans, ex-convicts, and the disabled and paid comparatively high wages, but was quick to dismiss anyone involved in <a href="/wiki/Labor_union" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor union">labor unions</a> or <a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_the_United_States" title="Anarchism in the United States">radical</a> <a href="/wiki/Socialism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialism in the United States">political</a> <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_USA" title="Communist Party USA">associations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan1997230_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan1997230-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With growth of American automobile usage, urban and rural roads were gradually upgraded for the new traffic. Local automobile clubs formed the <a href="/wiki/American_Automobile_Association" title="American Automobile Association">American Automobile Association</a> to <a href="/wiki/Lobbying" title="Lobbying">lobby</a> city, state, and federal governments to widen and pave existing roads and build limited-access <a href="/wiki/Highway" title="Highway">highways</a>. Some federal road aid was passed in the 1910s and 1920s, resulting in major national highways like <a href="/wiki/U.S._Route_1" title="U.S. Route 1">U.S. Route 1</a> and <a href="/wiki/U.S._Route_66" title="U.S. Route 66">U.S. Route 66</a>. The coverage and quality of many roads would greatly improve following Depression-era <a href="/wiki/Works_Progress_Administration" title="Works Progress Administration">Works Progress Administration</a> investment in road infrastructure.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan1997236_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan1997236-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>New automobile sales were temporarily slowed during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> when wartime <a href="/wiki/Rationing" title="Rationing">rationing</a> and military production lines limited the number of automobiles that could be manufactured—the largest companies like <a href="/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company" title="Ford Motor Company">Ford</a>, <a href="/wiki/General_Motors" title="General Motors">GM</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chrysler" title="Chrysler">Chrysler</a> would survive those lean years. After the war, <a href="/wiki/Baby_boom" title="Baby boom">rising family sizes</a>, increasing affluence, and government-subsidized mortgages for veterans fueled a boom in single-family homes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan1997237_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan1997237-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many were automobile-owners. In 1956, Congress passed the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Aid_Highway_Act_of_1956" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956">Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956</a> which provided funding for the construction of 41,000 miles (66,000 km) of toll-free expressways throughout the country laying the legislative and infrastructural foundations for the modern American highway system. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radio_communication">Radio communication</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Radio communication"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Regency_transistor_radio.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Regency_transistor_radio.jpg/220px-Regency_transistor_radio.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="332" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Regency_transistor_radio.jpg/330px-Regency_transistor_radio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Regency_transistor_radio.jpg/440px-Regency_transistor_radio.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1444" data-file-height="2176" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Regency_TR-1" title="Regency TR-1">Regency TR-1</a>, the world's first commercially produced transistor radio</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Radio_in_the_United_States" title="Radio in the United States">Radio</a> communication, originally known as "wireless telegraphy", was first developed in the 1890s. The first wireless transmissions were achieved by <a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</a> in Europe and they were first replicated in the United States in April 1899 by Professor Jerome Green at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Notre_Dame" title="University of Notre Dame">University of Notre Dame</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Spark-gap_transmitter" title="Spark-gap transmitter">spark-gap transmitters</a> initially employed could only transmit the dots-and-dashes of <a href="/wiki/Morse_code" title="Morse code">Morse code</a>. Despite this limitation, in 1905 a small number of <a href="/wiki/U.S._Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Navy">U.S. Navy</a> stations inaugurated daily time signal broadcasts.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1913 the high-powered station <a href="/wiki/NAA_(Arlington,_Virginia)" title="NAA (Arlington, Virginia)">NAA</a> in <a href="/wiki/Arlington,_Virginia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arlington, Virginia">Arlington, Virginia</a> began broadcasting daily time signals and weather reports in Morse code which covered much of the eastern United States.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The leading early proponent of <a href="/wiki/Radio_broadcasting" title="Radio broadcasting">radio broadcasting</a> in the United States was <a href="/wiki/Lee_de_Forest" title="Lee de Forest">Lee de Forest</a>, who employed versions of an <a href="/wiki/Arc_transmitter" class="mw-redirect" title="Arc transmitter">arc transmitter</a> developed by <a href="/wiki/Valdemar_Poulsen" title="Valdemar Poulsen">Valdemar Poulsen</a> to make a series of demonstrations beginning in 1907.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From the outset de Forest noted the potential for regular entertainment broadcasts, envisioning "the distribution of music from a central station" and that "by using four different forms of wave as many classes of music can be sent out as desired by the different subscribers".<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the mid-1910s, the development of <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tube</a> transmitters provided a significant improvement in the quality and reliability of audio transmissions. Lee de Forest established experimental station <a href="/wiki/Radio_2XG" title="Radio 2XG">2XG</a> in <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a> and conducted the first broadcast in 1916.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Station <a href="/wiki/KDKA_(AM)" title="KDKA (AM)">KDKA</a> in <a href="/wiki/Pittsburgh" title="Pittsburgh">Pittsburgh</a> was the first to offer regularly scheduled broadcasts in 1920.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early <a href="/wiki/Radio_receiver" title="Radio receiver">radio receivers</a> were developed in the 1890s and used a <a href="/wiki/Coherer" title="Coherer">coherer</a>, a primitive radio wave detector. Vacuum tube technology led to major improvements in receiving sets, both in detecting the radio signals via <a href="/wiki/Amplifier" title="Amplifier">amplification</a> and better audio quality. The <a href="/wiki/Audion" title="Audion">Audion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Triode" title="Triode">triode</a>) vacuum tube, invented by de Forest in 1906, was the first practical amplifying device and revolutionized radio.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The advent of radio broadcasting increased the market for radio receivers greatly, and transformed them into a consumer product. By the 1930s, the broadcast receiver had become a common household item, with standardized controls that anyone could use.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The invention of the <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistor</a> in 1947 again revolutionized radio technology, making truly portable receivers possible, beginning with <a href="/wiki/Transistor_radio" title="Transistor radio">transistor radios</a> in the late 1950s.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects_of_industrialization">Effects of industrialization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Effects of industrialization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Agricultural_production">Agricultural production</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Agricultural production"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_history_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Agricultural history of the United States">Agricultural history of the United States</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GLEANER_L2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/GLEANER_L2.JPG/220px-GLEANER_L2.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/GLEANER_L2.JPG/330px-GLEANER_L2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/GLEANER_L2.JPG/440px-GLEANER_L2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Gleaner_Manufacturing_Company" title="Gleaner Manufacturing Company">Gleaner</a> mechanical <a href="/wiki/Combine_harvester" title="Combine harvester">combine harvester</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In the 1840s, as more and more western states joined the Union, many poor and middle-class Americans increasingly agitated for free land in these large, undeveloped areas. Early efforts to pass a Homestead Act by <a href="/wiki/George_Henry_Evans" title="George Henry Evans">George Henry Evans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Horace_Greeley" title="Horace Greeley">Horace Greeley</a> were stymied by Southern states who feared that free land would threaten the plantation system. The <a href="/wiki/Homestead_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Homestead Act">Homestead Act</a> was passed in 1862 after the opposing Southern states had <a href="/wiki/Secede" class="mw-redirect" title="Secede">seceded</a>. The Homestead Act granted 160 acres (65 hectares) to farmers who lived on the land for 5 years or allowed the farmer to purchase the land after 6 months for $1.25 per acre ($3.1/ha). </p><p>Even as America's westward expansion allowed over 400 million acres (1,600,000 km<sup>2</sup>) of new land to be put under cultivation, between 1870 and 1910 the number of Americans involved in farming or farm labor dropped by a third.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan1997166_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan1997166-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New farming techniques and agricultural mechanization facilitated both processes. <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_McCormick" title="Cyrus McCormick">Cyrus McCormick</a>'s reaper (invented in 1834) allowed farmers to quadruple their harvesting efficiency by replacing hand labor with a mechanical device. <a href="/wiki/John_Deere_(inventor)" title="John Deere (inventor)">John Deere</a> invented the <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a> plow in 1837, keeping the soil from sticking to the plow and making it easier to farm in the rich <a href="/wiki/Prairie" title="Prairie">prairies</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Midwest" class="mw-redirect" title="Midwest">Midwest</a>. The harvester, self-binder, and combine allowed even greater efficiencies: wheat farmers in 1866 achieved an average yield of 9.9 bushels per acre but by 1898 yields had increased to 15.3 bushels per acre even as the total area had tripled.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan1997170_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan1997170-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Railroads allowed harvests to reach markets more quickly and <a href="/wiki/Gustavus_Franklin_Swift" title="Gustavus Franklin Swift">Gustavus Franklin Swift</a>'s refrigerated railroad car allowed fresh meat and fish to reach distant markets. <a href="/wiki/Food_distribution" title="Food distribution">Food distribution</a> also became more mechanized as companies like Heinz and Campbell distributed previously perishable foods by canning and evaporation. Commercial bakeries, breweries, and meatpackers replaced locally owned operators and drove demand for raw agricultural goods. Despite increasing demand, rising production caused a drop in prices, creating substantial discontent among farmers. Organizations like <a href="/wiki/The_National_Grange_of_the_Order_of_Patrons_of_Husbandry" class="mw-redirect" title="The National Grange of the Order of Patrons of Husbandry">The Grange</a> and <a href="/wiki/Farmers_Alliance" class="mw-redirect" title="Farmers Alliance">Farmers Alliance</a> emerged to demand <a href="/wiki/Free_silver" title="Free silver">monetary policy that allowed for money supply expansion</a> (as most farmers carried significant debt from planting time to harvest time), railroad regulations, and protective tariffs. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Urbanization">Urbanization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Urbanization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Urbanization_in_the_United_States" title="Urbanization in the United States">Urbanization in the United States</a></div> <p>The period between 1865 and 1920 was marked by the increasing concentration of people, political power, and economic activity in urban areas. In 1860, there were nine cities with populations over 100,000 and by 1910 there were fifty.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan1997166_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan1997166-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These new large cities were not coastal port cities (like New York, Boston, and Philadelphia) but laid inland along new transportation routes, including <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cleveland" title="Cleveland">Cleveland</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Denver" title="Denver">Denver</a>. The <a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">first twelve presidents of the United States</a> had all been born into farming communities, but between 1865 and 1912 the presidency was filled by men with backgrounds of representing businesses and cities. </p><p>Industrialization and urbanization reinforced each other and urban areas became increasingly congested. As a result of unsanitary living conditions, diseases like <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dysentery" title="Dysentery">dysentery</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Typhoid_fever" title="Typhoid fever">typhoid fever</a> struck urban areas with increasing frequency.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurianNixPittDurrans200040_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurianNixPittDurrans200040-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cities responded by paving streets, digging <a href="/wiki/Sanitary_sewer" title="Sanitary sewer">sewers</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurianNixPittDurrans200039_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurianNixPittDurrans200039-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Water_purification" title="Water purification">sanitizing water</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> constructing housing, and creating public transportation systems. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Transit">Transit</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Transit"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first large-scale electric trolley line in the world, the Richmond Union Passenger Railway opened on Feb. 2, 1888.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first interurban tram-train was the Newark and Granville Street Railway in Ohio, which opened in 1889.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first non-experimental trolleybus system was installed near Nantasket Beach in 1904;<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the first year-round commercial line was built to open a hilly property to development just outside Los Angeles in 1910.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1912, articulated trams were invented and first used by the Boston Elevated Railway. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 87.333333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 85.333333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nashville-Franklin_Interurban_Railway_schedule,_1910.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Interurban, Nashville, 1910"><img alt="Interurban, Nashville, 1910" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Nashville-Franklin_Interurban_Railway_schedule%2C_1910.jpg/128px-Nashville-Franklin_Interurban_Railway_schedule%2C_1910.jpg" decoding="async" width="86" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Nashville-Franklin_Interurban_Railway_schedule%2C_1910.jpg/193px-Nashville-Franklin_Interurban_Railway_schedule%2C_1910.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Nashville-Franklin_Interurban_Railway_schedule%2C_1910.jpg/257px-Nashville-Franklin_Interurban_Railway_schedule%2C_1910.jpg 2x" data-file-width="914" data-file-height="1280" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Interurban, Nashville, 1910</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 172px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 170px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:BERy_Articulated_number_2_on_a_curve,_1913.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Boston Elevated Railway articulated tram, 1913"><img alt="Boston Elevated Railway articulated tram, 1913" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/BERy_Articulated_number_2_on_a_curve%2C_1913.jpg/255px-BERy_Articulated_number_2_on_a_curve%2C_1913.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/BERy_Articulated_number_2_on_a_curve%2C_1913.jpg/382px-BERy_Articulated_number_2_on_a_curve%2C_1913.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/BERy_Articulated_number_2_on_a_curve%2C_1913.jpg/509px-BERy_Articulated_number_2_on_a_curve%2C_1913.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1488" data-file-height="1052" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Boston Elevated Railway articulated tram, 1913</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 126.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 124.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cyclopedia_of_applied_electricity_-_a_general_reference_work_on_direct-current_generators_and_motors,_storage_batteries,_electrochemistry,_welding,_electric_wiring,_meters,_electric_lighting,_electric_(14780081682).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Trackless trolleys, Laurel Canyon, Los Angeles, 1916[96]"><img alt="Trackless trolleys, Laurel Canyon, Los Angeles, 1916[96]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Cyclopedia_of_applied_electricity_-_a_general_reference_work_on_direct-current_generators_and_motors%2C_storage_batteries%2C_electrochemistry%2C_welding%2C_electric_wiring%2C_meters%2C_electric_lighting%2C_electric_%2814780081682%29.jpg/187px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="125" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Cyclopedia_of_applied_electricity_-_a_general_reference_work_on_direct-current_generators_and_motors%2C_storage_batteries%2C_electrochemistry%2C_welding%2C_electric_wiring%2C_meters%2C_electric_lighting%2C_electric_%2814780081682%29.jpg/281px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Cyclopedia_of_applied_electricity_-_a_general_reference_work_on_direct-current_generators_and_motors%2C_storage_batteries%2C_electrochemistry%2C_welding%2C_electric_wiring%2C_meters%2C_electric_lighting%2C_electric_%2814780081682%29.jpg/374px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1202" data-file-height="1156" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Trackless trolleys, Laurel Canyon, Los Angeles, 1916<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Labor_issues_and_immigration">Labor issues and immigration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Labor issues and immigration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1917_Street_Railway_Company_strike.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/1917_Street_Railway_Company_strike.jpg/220px-1917_Street_Railway_Company_strike.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/1917_Street_Railway_Company_strike.jpg/330px-1917_Street_Railway_Company_strike.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/1917_Street_Railway_Company_strike.jpg/440px-1917_Street_Railway_Company_strike.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption>1917 Street Railway Company strike</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Labor_history_of_the_United_States" title="Labor history of the United States">Labor history of the United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="History of immigration to the United States">History of immigration to the United States</a></div> <p>As the nation deepened its technological base, old-fashioned artisans and craftsmen became "<a href="/wiki/Deskilling" title="Deskilling">deskilled</a>" and replaced by specialized workers and engineers who used machines to replicate in minutes or hours work that would require a journeyman hours or days to complete. <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Winslow_Taylor" title="Frederick Winslow Taylor">Frederick W. Taylor</a>, recognizing the inefficiencies introduced by some production lines, proposed that by studying the motions and processes necessary to manufacture each component of a product, reorganizing the factory and manufacturing processes around workers, and paying workers piece rates would allow great gains in process efficiency. Scientific management, or "Taylorism" as it came to be known, was soon being applied by progressive city governments to make their urban areas more efficient and by suffragettes to home economics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan1997212_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan1997212-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Increasing industrialization outpaced the supply of laborers able or willing to work in dangerous, low-paying, and dead-end jobs. However, the demand for low or unskilled jobs drove wages up and attracted waves of Irish, Italian, Polish, Russian, and Jewish immigrants who could earn more in America than in their homelands. </p><p>The earliest unions emerged before the Civil War as trade guilds composed of journeyman carpenters, masons, and other artisans who would engage in strikes to demand better hours and pay from their masters. All branches of government generally sought to stop labor from organizing into unions or from organizing strikes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Banking,_trading,_and_financial_services"><span id="Banking.2C_trading.2C_and_financial_services"></span>Banking, trading, and financial services</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Banking, trading, and financial services"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_banking_in_the_United_States" title="History of banking in the United States">History of banking in the United States</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NYSE-floor.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/NYSE-floor.jpg/220px-NYSE-floor.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/NYSE-floor.jpg/330px-NYSE-floor.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/NYSE-floor.jpg 2x" data-file-width="387" data-file-height="254" /></a><figcaption>The floor of the <a href="/wiki/New_York_Stock_Exchange" title="New York Stock Exchange">New York Stock Exchange</a> in <a href="/wiki/Lower_Manhattan" title="Lower Manhattan">Lower Manhattan</a>, the largest stock exchange in the world</figcaption></figure> <p>To finance the larger-scale enterprises required during this era, the Stockholder Corporation emerged as the dominant form of business organization. Corporations expanded by combining into trusts, and by creating single firms out of competing firms, known as monopolies. Banking, investment, insurance, consulting, corporations, speculation, business cycle </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regulation">Regulation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Regulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HooverDamConstruction.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/HooverDamConstruction.jpg/220px-HooverDamConstruction.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/HooverDamConstruction.jpg/330px-HooverDamConstruction.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/HooverDamConstruction.jpg/440px-HooverDamConstruction.jpg 2x" data-file-width="580" data-file-height="463" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Hoover_Dam" title="Hoover Dam">Hoover Dam</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Arizona" title="Arizona">Arizona</a>-<a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a> border, one of many large-scale American water-power projects</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Progressive_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Progressive movement">Progressive movement</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</a> that emerged from it was in part a reaction to excesses of the new industrial age. "<a href="/wiki/Muckraker" title="Muckraker">Muckraking</a>" journalists reported on a wide array of social issues, and the reaction of the public lent urgency to reforms that led to increased government regulation, such as the <a href="/wiki/Interstate_Commerce_Act_of_1887" title="Interstate Commerce Act of 1887">Interstate Commerce Act of 1887</a> (pertaining to railroads), and the <a href="/wiki/Meat_Inspection_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Meat Inspection Act">Meat Inspection Act</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pure_Food_and_Drug_Act" title="Pure Food and Drug Act">Pure Food and Drug Act</a> (1906). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Military-industrial-academic_complex">Military-industrial-academic complex</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Military-industrial-academic complex"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Military-industrial_complex" class="mw-redirect" title="Military-industrial complex">Military-industrial complex</a></div> <p>In the 20th century, the pace of technological developments increasingly became tied into a complex set of interactions between <a href="/wiki/United_State_Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="United State Congress">Congress</a>, the industrial manufacturers, university research, and the <a href="/wiki/United_States_military" class="mw-redirect" title="United States military">military establishment</a>. This set of relations, known more popularly as the "military-industrial complex", emerged because the military's unique technological demands, concentration of funding, large-scale application, and highly centralized control played a dominant role in driving technological innovation. Fundamental advances in <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computing" title="Computing">computing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aviation" title="Aviation">aviation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Material_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Material science">material science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Naval_architecture" title="Naval architecture">naval architecture</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">meteorology</a>, and other fields, can be traced back to basic and applied research for military applications. </p><p>Smokestack America became a nickname applied to traditional manufacturing core of U.S. industry, used to represent particular industries,<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> regions, or towns.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Research_universities">Research universities</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Research universities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Land-grant_university" title="Land-grant university">Land-grant university</a> and <a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_United_States" title="Education in the United States">Education in the United States</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cornell_Arts_Quad_1919.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Cornell_Arts_Quad_1919.jpg/220px-Cornell_Arts_Quad_1919.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Cornell_Arts_Quad_1919.jpg/330px-Cornell_Arts_Quad_1919.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Cornell_Arts_Quad_1919.jpg/440px-Cornell_Arts_Quad_1919.jpg 2x" data-file-width="610" data-file-height="435" /></a><figcaption>Land grant universities expanded access to post-secondary education for many Americans.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Colonial_Colleges" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonial Colleges">first universities in the United States</a> were modeled on the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_arts" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal arts">liberal curricula</a> of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">great</a> <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">English</a> <a href="/wiki/University_of_St_Andrews" title="University of St Andrews">universities</a> and were meant to educate <a href="/wiki/Clergy" title="Clergy">clergymen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lawyer" title="Lawyer">lawyers</a> rather than teach <a href="/wiki/Vocational_education" title="Vocational education">vocational</a> skills or conduct <a href="/wiki/Scientific_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific research">scientific research</a>. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Military_Academy" title="United States Military Academy">U.S. Military Academy</a>, established in 1811, broke the mold of traditional universities and military academies alike by including practical engineering-related subjects in its earliest curricula. </p><p>By the middle of the 19th century, polytechnic institutes were being founded in increasing numbers to train students in the scientific and technical skills needed to design, build, and operate increasingly complex machines. In 1824, <a href="/wiki/Stephen_van_Rensselaer" class="mw-redirect" title="Stephen van Rensselaer">Stephen van Rensselaer</a> established the <a href="/wiki/Rensselaer_Polytechnic_Institute" title="Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute">first American institute</a> granting a bachelor's degree in technical subjects and in the 1850s several <a href="/wiki/Ivy_League" title="Ivy League">Ivy League</a> schools began to offer courses of study in scientific fields. </p><p>Congressional legislators, recognizing the increasing importance and prevalence of these eastern polytechnic schools, passed the 1862 <a href="/wiki/Morrill_Land-Grant_Colleges_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act">Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act</a> providing large grants of land<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that were to be used toward establishing and funding the educational institutions that would teach courses on military tactics, engineering, and agriculture. </p><p>Many of the United States' <a href="/wiki/List_of_land-grant_universities" title="List of land-grant universities">noted public research universities</a> can trace their origins back to land grant colleges. Between 1900 and 1939, enrollments in post-secondary institutes increased from 238,000 to 1,494,000<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and higher education had become so available and affordable that a college degree was increasingly required for scientific, engineering, and government jobs that previously only required only vocational or secondary education.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan1997140–141_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan1997140–141-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After World War II, the <a href="/wiki/GI_Bill" class="mw-redirect" title="GI Bill">GI Bill</a> caused university enrollments to explode as millions of veterans earned college degrees. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_I_and_World_War_II">World War I and World War II</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: World War I and World War II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Technology_during_World_War_I" title="Technology during World War I">Technology during World War I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Technology_during_World_War_II" title="Technology during World War II">Technology during World War II</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:B-29s_dropping_bombs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/B-29s_dropping_bombs.jpg/220px-B-29s_dropping_bombs.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="342" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/B-29s_dropping_bombs.jpg/330px-B-29s_dropping_bombs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/B-29s_dropping_bombs.jpg/440px-B-29s_dropping_bombs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="576" data-file-height="896" /></a><figcaption>Strategic aerial bombing caused massive damage to cities</figcaption></figure> <p>Great White fleet, Spanish–American War, tanks, machine gun, medicine, chemical weapons, </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Jordan_Gatling" title="Richard Jordan Gatling">Richard Jordan Gatling</a> –  <a href="/wiki/Gatling_gun" title="Gatling gun">Gatling gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_T._Thompson" title="John T. Thompson">John T. Thompson</a> –  Tommy gun</li></ul> <p>The introduction of the airplane to the battlefield was one of the most radical changes in the history of warfare.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The <a href="/wiki/Aviation_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Aviation history">history of flight</a> spans hundreds of years and the distinction of building the <a href="/wiki/Early_flying_machines" title="Early flying machines">first flying machine</a> is complicated, but in December 1903 the <a href="/wiki/Wright_Brothers" class="mw-redirect" title="Wright Brothers">Wright Brothers</a> achieved sustained, piloted, and controlled heavier-than-air flight. The Wright brothers had difficulty raising funding from the government and military, but after <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> began in 1914, airplanes quickly assumed great tactical importance for both sides (<i>see</i> <a href="/wiki/Aviation_in_World_War_I" title="Aviation in World War I">Aviation in World War I</a>); the US government appropriated $640 million in 1917 to procure 20,000 airplanes for the war for <a href="/wiki/Aerial_reconnaissance" title="Aerial reconnaissance">aerial reconnaissance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dogfight" title="Dogfight">dogfighting</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Strategic_bombing" title="Strategic bombing">aerial bombing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan1997252_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan1997252-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the close of the war in 1918, the US government continued to fund peacetime aeronautical activities like <a href="/wiki/Airmail" title="Airmail">airmail</a> and the <a href="/wiki/National_Advisory_Committee_for_Aeronautics" title="National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics">National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics</a>. Throughout the 1920s and 1930s, industrial, university, and military research continued to realize gains in the power, maneuverability, and reliability of airplanes: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Lindbergh" title="Charles Lindbergh">Charles Lindbergh</a> completed a solo non-stop <a href="/wiki/Transatlantic_flight" title="Transatlantic flight">transatlantic flight</a> in 1927, <a href="/wiki/Wiley_Post" title="Wiley Post">Wiley Post</a> flew around the world in nine days in 1931, and <a href="/wiki/Howard_Hughes" title="Howard Hughes">Howard Hughes</a> shattered <a href="/wiki/Flight_airspeed_record" title="Flight airspeed record">flight airspeed records</a> throughout the decade. In the 1930s, <a href="/wiki/Airline" title="Airline">passenger airlines</a> boomed as a result of the <a href="/wiki/Air_Mail_Act_of_1925" title="Air Mail Act of 1925">Kelley Act</a>, state and local governments began constructing <a href="/wiki/Airports" class="mw-redirect" title="Airports">airports</a> to attract airlines, and the federal government began to <a href="/wiki/United_States_government_role_in_civil_aviation" title="United States government role in civil aviation">regulate</a> <a href="/wiki/Air_traffic_control" title="Air traffic control">air traffic control</a> and <a href="/wiki/NTSB" class="mw-redirect" title="NTSB">investigate</a> <a href="/wiki/Aviation_accidents_and_incidents" title="Aviation accidents and incidents">aviation accidents and incidents</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cold_War_and_Space_Race">Cold War and Space Race</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Cold War and Space Race"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_nuclear_weapons" title="History of nuclear weapons">History of nuclear weapons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a>, <a href="/wiki/Procurement" title="Procurement">procurement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Public_research_and_development" title="Public research and development">public research and development</a>, <a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Technology_gap" title="Technology gap">technology gap</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aldrin_Apollo_11_(narrow).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Aldrin_Apollo_11_%28narrow%29.jpg/220px-Aldrin_Apollo_11_%28narrow%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Aldrin_Apollo_11_%28narrow%29.jpg/330px-Aldrin_Apollo_11_%28narrow%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Aldrin_Apollo_11_%28narrow%29.jpg/440px-Aldrin_Apollo_11_%28narrow%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2112" data-file-height="2640" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Buzz_Aldrin" title="Buzz Aldrin">Buzz Aldrin</a> on the surface of the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The American physicist <a href="/wiki/Robert_Goddard_(scientist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Goddard (scientist)">Robert Goddard</a> was one of the first scientists to experiment with <a href="/wiki/Rocket" title="Rocket">rocket</a> propulsion systems. In his small laboratory in <a href="/wiki/Worcester,_Massachusetts" title="Worcester, Massachusetts">Worcester, Massachusetts</a>, Goddard worked with <a href="/wiki/Liquid_oxygen" title="Liquid oxygen">liquid oxygen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gasoline" title="Gasoline">gasoline</a> to propel rockets into the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's atmosphere">atmosphere</a>, and in 1926 successfully fired the world's first liquid-fuel rocket which reached a height of 12.5 meters. Over the next 10 years, Goddard's rockets achieved modest altitudes of nearly two kilometers, and interest in <a href="/wiki/Rocket" title="Rocket">rocketry</a> increased in the United States, Britain, Germany, and the Soviet Union. </p><p>At the end of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, both the American and Russian forces <a href="/wiki/Operation_Paperclip" title="Operation Paperclip">recruited or smuggled top German scientists</a> like <a href="/wiki/Wernher_von_Braun" title="Wernher von Braun">Wernher von Braun</a> back to their respective countries to continue defense-related work. Expendable rockets provided the means for launching artificial <a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">satellites</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Crewed_spacecraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Crewed spacecraft">crewed spacecraft</a>. In 1957 the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> launched the first satellite, <a href="/wiki/Sputnik_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Sputnik I">Sputnik I</a>, and the United States followed with <a href="/wiki/Explorer_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Explorer I">Explorer I</a> in 1958. The first crewed space flights were made in early 1961, first by Soviet cosmonaut <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin" title="Yuri Gagarin">Yuri Gagarin</a> and then by American astronaut <a href="/wiki/Alan_Shepard" title="Alan Shepard">Alan Shepard</a>. </p><p>From those first tentative steps, to the 1969 <a href="/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo program</a> landing on the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a>, to the reusable <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">Space Shuttle</a>, the American space program has created a large display of applied science. <a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">Communications satellites</a> transmit computer data, telephone calls, and <a href="/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">radio</a> and <a href="/wiki/Television" title="Television">television</a> broadcasts. <a href="/wiki/Weather_satellite" title="Weather satellite">Weather satellites</a> furnish the data necessary to provide early warnings of severe <a href="/wiki/Storm" title="Storm">storms</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Service_industry">Service industry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Service industry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Health_care_and_biotechnology">Health care and biotechnology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Health care and biotechnology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_healthcare_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of healthcare in the United States">History of healthcare in the United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_biotechnology" title="History of biotechnology">History of biotechnology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Baden_Tower_ctv_vidman.ca.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Baden_Tower_ctv_vidman.ca.JPG/220px-Baden_Tower_ctv_vidman.ca.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Baden_Tower_ctv_vidman.ca.JPG/330px-Baden_Tower_ctv_vidman.ca.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Baden_Tower_ctv_vidman.ca.JPG/440px-Baden_Tower_ctv_vidman.ca.JPG 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>A transmission tower for radio and television</figcaption></figure> <p>As in physics and chemistry, Americans have dominated the Nobel Prize for <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiology</a> or <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a> since <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Private_sector" title="Private sector">private sector</a> has been the focal point for biomedical research in the United States, and has played a key role in this achievement. As of 2000, for-profit industry funded 57%, non-profit private organizations funded 7%, and the tax-funded <a href="/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health" title="National Institutes of Health">National Institutes of Health</a> funded 36% of medical research in the U.S.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Funding by private industry increased 102% from 1994 to 2003.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health" title="National Institutes of Health">National Institutes of Health</a> consists of 24 separate institutes supporting the prevention, detection, diagnosis, and treatment of <a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">diseases</a> and <a href="/wiki/Disability" title="Disability">disabilities</a>. At any given time, grants from the NIH support the research of about 35,000 principal investigators, working in every US state and several foreign countries. Between 1971 and 1991, mortality from <a href="/wiki/Heart_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Heart disease">heart disease</a> dropped 41 percent, <a href="/wiki/Stroke" title="Stroke">strokes</a> decreased by 59 percent, and today more than 70 percent of children who get cancer are cured.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title=""remission" is a more likely word. This is why we need a citation – to check out the wording (November 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Molecular <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">genomics</a> research have revolutionized <a href="/wiki/Biomedical_sciences" title="Biomedical sciences">biomedical sciences</a>. In the 1980s and 1990s, researchers performed the first trial of <a href="/wiki/Gene_therapy" title="Gene therapy">gene therapy</a> in humans and are now able to locate, identify, and describe the function of many genes in the <a href="/wiki/Human_genome" title="Human genome">human genome</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Research conducted by universities, hospitals, and corporations also contributes to improvement in diagnosis and treatment of disease. NIH funded the basic <a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_research" title="HIV/AIDS research">research on Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome</a> (<a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS" title="HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS</a>), for example. Many of the <a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_treatment" class="mw-redirect" title="HIV/AIDS treatment">drugs used to treat this disease</a> have emerged from the laboratories of the American <a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_industry" title="Pharmaceutical industry">pharmaceutical industry</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="News,_media,_and_entertainment"><span id="News.2C_media.2C_and_entertainment"></span>News, media, and entertainment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: News, media, and entertainment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Media_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of the United States">Media of the United States</a></div> <p>Radio, television, newspapers, movies, music, games </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Technology_and_society">Technology and society</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Technology and society"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Technology_and_society" title="Technology and society">Technology and society</a></div> <p>This section discusses technology, scientific studies, engineering, and overall impact. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computers_and_information_networks">Computers and information networks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Computers and information networks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/44px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="44" height="31" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/66px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/88px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b> with: History prior to 1970s: tabulating machines, mainframe computers, data communications, semiconductors, etc. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2022</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_hardware" title="History of computing hardware">History of computing hardware</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Internet" title="History of the Internet">History of the Internet</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Silicon_Valley" title="Silicon Valley">Silicon Valley</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Firefox2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Firefox2.png/220px-Firefox2.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Firefox2.png/330px-Firefox2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Firefox2.png/440px-Firefox2.png 2x" data-file-width="1027" data-file-height="684" /></a><figcaption>A modern web browser and web page</figcaption></figure> <p>American researchers made fundamental advances in <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications" title="Telecommunications">telecommunications</a> and <a href="/wiki/Information_technology" title="Information technology">information technology</a>. For example, <a href="/wiki/AT%26T" title="AT&T">AT&T</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Bell_Labs" title="Bell Labs">Bell Laboratories</a> spearheaded the American technological revolution with a series of inventions including the light emitting diode (<a href="/wiki/LED" class="mw-redirect" title="LED">LED</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistor</a>, the <a href="/wiki/C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C programming language</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/UNIX" class="mw-redirect" title="UNIX">UNIX</a> computer operating system. <a href="/wiki/SRI_International" title="SRI International">SRI International</a> and <a href="/wiki/Xerox_PARC" class="mw-redirect" title="Xerox PARC">Xerox PARC</a> in <a href="/wiki/Silicon_Valley" title="Silicon Valley">Silicon Valley</a> helped give birth to the <a href="/wiki/Personal_computer" title="Personal computer">personal computer</a> industry, while <a href="/wiki/DARPA" title="DARPA">ARPA</a> and <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> funded the development of the <a href="/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>. Companies like <a href="/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a> and <a href="/wiki/Apple_Computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Apple Computer">Apple Computer</a> developed <a href="/wiki/Personal_computer" title="Personal computer">personal computers</a> while <a href="/wiki/Microsoft" title="Microsoft">Microsoft</a> created <a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating systems</a> and office productivity software to run on them. </p><p>With the growth of information on the <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a>, search companies like <a href="/wiki/Yahoo!" class="mw-redirect" title="Yahoo!">Yahoo!</a> and <a href="/wiki/Google" title="Google">Google</a> developed technologies to sort and rank web pages based on relevance. The web also has become a site for computer-mediated social interactions and web services like <a href="/wiki/MySpace" class="mw-redirect" title="MySpace">MySpace</a>, <a href="/wiki/Facebook" title="Facebook">Facebook</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Twitter" title="Twitter">Twitter</a> are used by millions to communicate. <a href="/wiki/Moore%27s_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Moore's Law">Moore's Law</a> and the increasing pervasiveness and speed of <a href="/wiki/Wireless_network" title="Wireless network">wireless networks</a> had led to substantial adoption of <a href="/wiki/Mobile_phone" title="Mobile phone">mobile phones</a> and increasingly powerful <a href="/wiki/Smartphone" title="Smartphone">smartphones</a> based on software platforms like Apple's <a href="/wiki/IOS" title="IOS">iOS</a> and Google's <a href="/wiki/Android_(operating_system)" title="Android (operating system)">Android</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gaming">Gaming</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Gaming"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_gaming" class="mw-redirect" title="History of gaming">History of gaming</a>, <a href="/wiki/Video_games" class="mw-redirect" title="Video games">Video games</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Esports" title="Esports">Esports</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine_in_the_United_States" title="History of medicine in the United States">History of medicine in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution_in_the_United_States" title="Industrial Revolution in the United States">Industrial Revolution in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_American_inventors_and_scientists" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African American inventors and scientists">List of African American inventors and scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NASA_spinoff" class="mw-redirect" title="NASA spinoff">NASA spinoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Inventors_Hall_of_Fame" title="National Inventors Hall of Fame">National Inventors Hall of Fame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_United_States" title="Science and technology in the United States">Science and technology in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronic_engineering" title="Timeline of electrical and electronic engineering">Timeline of electrical and electronic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_discoveries" title="Timeline of United States discoveries">Timeline of United States discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions" title="Timeline of United States inventions">Timeline of United States inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Patent_and_Trademark_Office" title="United States Patent and Trademark Office">United States Patent and Trademark Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yankee_ingenuity" title="Yankee ingenuity">Yankee ingenuity</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Encyclopædia Britannica <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060513185450/http://corporate.britannica.com/press/inventions.html">"Greatest Inventions"</a>, <i>Britannica Corporate</i>, Published 5/13/2006. 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href="#CITEREFCowan1997">Cowan 1997</a>, p. 104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson1915256-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson1915256_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJohnson1915">Johnson 1915</a>, p. 256.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson1915257–258-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson1915257–258_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJohnson1915">Johnson 1915</a>, pp. 257–258.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson1915309–310-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson1915309–310_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJohnson1915">Johnson 1915</a>, pp. 309–310.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson1915319–320-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson1915319–320_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJohnson1915">Johnson 1915</a>, pp. 319–320.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan1997108-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan1997108_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowan1997">Cowan 1997</a>, p. 108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan1997110-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan1997110_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowan1997">Cowan 1997</a>, p. 110.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurke1997" class="citation cs2">Burke, John G. 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New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. pp. 214–245.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bolder-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bolder_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBolder1893" class="citation news cs1">Bolder, Ben (July 29, 1893). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/image/67579038">"The Bicycle Industry (from <i>Scientific American</i>)"</a>. Valley Falls, Kansas: The Farmer's Vindicator. p. 3<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 8,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Bicycle+Industry+%28from+Scientific+American%29&rft.pages=3&rft.date=1893-07-29&rft.aulast=Bolder&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Fimage%2F67579038&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+and+industrial+history+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan1997113-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan1997113_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowan1997">Cowan 1997</a>, p. 113.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan1997115–117-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan1997115–117_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowan1997">Cowan 1997</a>, pp. 115–117.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan1997154-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan1997154_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowan1997">Cowan 1997</a>, p. 154.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStover1997213–214-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStover1997213–214_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStover1997">Stover 1997</a>, pp. 213–214.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStover1997219-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStover1997219_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStover1997">Stover 1997</a>, p. 219.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStover1997234-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStover1997234_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStover1997">Stover 1997</a>, p. 234.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">United States. Rail Passenger Service Act of 1970, <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Congress#Public_law,_private_law,_designation" title="Act of Congress"><abbr title="Public Law">Pub. L.</abbr></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uslaw.link/citation/us-law/public/91/518">91–518</a>, <a href="/wiki/Title_45_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 45 of the United States Code">45 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/45/501">§ 501</a>. Approved 1970-10-30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Amtrak_brief-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Amtrak_brief_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPinkston2003" class="citation report cs1">Pinkston, Elizabeth (September 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cbo.gov/publication/14769">"Chapter 2. A Brief History of Amtrak"</a>. The Past and Future of U.S. Passenger Rail Service (Report). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Congressional Budget Office. pp. <span class="nowrap">5–</span>15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=The+Past+and+Future+of+U.S.+Passenger+Rail+Service&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E5-%3C%2Fspan%3E15&rft.pub=U.S.+Congressional+Budget+Office&rft.date=2003-09&rft.aulast=Pinkston&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbo.gov%2Fpublication%2F14769&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+and+industrial+history+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">United States. Staggers Rail Act of 1980, <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Congress#Public_law,_private_law,_designation" title="Act of Congress"><abbr title="Public Law">Pub. L.</abbr></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uslaw.link/citation/us-law/public/96/448">96–448</a>. Approved 1980-10-14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStover1997245–252-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStover1997245–252_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStover1997">Stover 1997</a>, pp. 245–252.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gao.gov/assets/gao-09-282.pdf">Commuter Rail: Many Factors Influence Liability and Indemnity Provisions, and Options Exist to Facilitate Negotiations</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Report). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Accountability Office. February 2009. p. 8. GAO-09-282.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Commuter+Rail%3A+Many+Factors+Influence+Liability+and+Indemnity+Provisions%2C+and+Options+Exist+to+Facilitate+Negotiations&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=U.S.+Government+Accountability+Office&rft.date=2009-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gao.gov%2Fassets%2Fgao-09-282.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+and+industrial+history+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowan199758-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowan199758_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowan1997">Cowan 1997</a>, p. 58.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGordon1996" class="citation book cs1">Gordon, Robert B. 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(October 1913). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.32044089547244&view=1up&seq=238">"Regulating 10,000 Clocks"</a>. <i>Technical World Magazine</i>. pp. <span class="nowrap">232–</span>233.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Technical+World+Magazine&rft.atitle=Regulating+10%2C000+Clocks&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E232-%3C%2Fspan%3E233&rft.date=1913-10&rft.aulast=Orme&rft.aufirst=Alfred+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Dhvd.32044089547244%26view%3D1up%26seq%3D238&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+and+industrial+history+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fultonhistory.com/Newspaper%2014/New%20York%20NY%20Herald/New%20York%20NY%20Herald%201907/New%20York%20NY%20Herald%201907%20-%202125.pdf">"Wireless 'Phone Transmits Music"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The New York Herald</i>. 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Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers: <span class="nowrap">735–</span>763. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2Ft-aiee.1906.4764762">10.1109/t-aiee.1906.4764762</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 19,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Medical+Research+Spending+Doubled+Over+Past+Decade&rft.pub=MedPage+Today&rft.date=2005-09-20&rft.au=Neil+Osterweil&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.medpagetoday.com%2FPublicHealthPolicy%2FHealthPolicy%2Ftb%2F1767&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+and+industrial+history+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBartlett1984" class="citation cs2">Bartlett, Louisa (1984), "American Silver", <i>Bulletin (St. Louis Art Museum)</i>, <b>17</b> (1), St. Louis: St. Louis Art Museum: <span class="nowrap">1–</span>60, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40716254">40716254</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+%28St.+Louis+Art+Museum%29&rft.atitle=American+Silver&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E60&rft.date=1984&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40716254%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Bartlett&rft.aufirst=Louisa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+and+industrial+history+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurianNixPittDurrans2000" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-unfit">Burian, Steven J.; Nix, Stephan J.; Pitt, Robert E.; Durrans, S. Rocky (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050314232916/http://www.sewerhistory.org/articles/whregion/urban_wwm_mgmt/urban_wwm_mgmt.pdf">"Urban Wastewater Management in the United States: Past, Present, and Future"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of Urban Technology</i>. <b>7</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">33–</span>62. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F713684134">10.1080/713684134</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:23561154">23561154</a>. Archived from the original on March 14, 2005.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Urban+Technology&rft.atitle=Urban+Wastewater+Management+in+the+United+States%3A+Past%2C+Present%2C+and+Future&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E33-%3C%2Fspan%3E62&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F713684134&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A23561154%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Burian&rft.aufirst=Steven+J.&rft.au=Nix%2C+Stephan+J.&rft.au=Pitt%2C+Robert+E.&rft.au=Durrans%2C+S.+Rocky&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sewerhistory.org%2Farticles%2Fwhregion%2Furban_wwm_mgmt%2Furban_wwm_mgmt.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+and+industrial+history+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCowan1997" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Schwartz_Cowan" title="Ruth Schwartz Cowan">Cowan, Ruth Schwartz</a> (1997), <i>A Social History of American Technology</i>, New York: Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-504605-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-504605-6"><bdi>0-19-504605-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Social+History+of+American+Technology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-19-504605-6&rft.aulast=Cowan&rft.aufirst=Ruth+Schwartz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+and+industrial+history+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartello2010" class="citation cs2">Martello, Robert (2010), <i>Midnight Ride, Industrial Dawn: Paul Revere and the Growth of American Enterprise</i>, Balitimore: Johns Hopkins Studies in the History of Technology, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781421401003" title="Special:BookSources/9781421401003"><bdi>9781421401003</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Midnight+Ride%2C+Industrial+Dawn%3A+Paul+Revere+and+the+Growth+of+American+Enterprise&rft.place=Balitimore&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+Studies+in+the+History+of+Technology&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9781421401003&rft.aulast=Martello&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+and+industrial+history+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkerry1988" class="citation cs2">Skerry, Janine (1988), "The Revolutionary Revere: A Critical Assessment of the Silver of Paul Revere", in Paul Revere Memorial Association (ed.), <i>Paul Revere: artisan, businessman, and patriot—the man behind the myth</i>, Boston: Paul Revere Memorial Association, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780961999902" title="Special:BookSources/9780961999902"><bdi>9780961999902</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Revolutionary+Revere%3A+A+Critical+Assessment+of+the+Silver+of+Paul+Revere&rft.btitle=Paul+Revere%3A+artisan%2C+businessman%2C+and+patriot%26mdash%3Bthe+man+behind+the+myth&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Paul+Revere+Memorial+Association&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=9780961999902&rft.aulast=Skerry&rft.aufirst=Janine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+and+industrial+history+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStover1997" class="citation book cs1">Stover, John F. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=R4vjgmic44QC"><i>American Railroads</i></a> (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-77658-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-77658-3"><bdi>978-0-226-77658-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Railroads&rft.place=Chicago&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-226-77658-3&rft.aulast=Stover&rft.aufirst=John+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DR4vjgmic44QC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+and+industrial+history+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTunis1965" class="citation cs2">Tunis, E. (1965), <i>Colonial craftsmen and the beginnings of American industry</i> (1st ed.), Cleveland: World Pub. Co</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Colonial+craftsmen+and+the+beginnings+of+American+industry&rft.place=Cleveland&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=World+Pub.+Co&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Tunis&rft.aufirst=E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+and+industrial+history+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaters1977" class="citation cs2">Waters, Deborah (1977), "From Pure Coin: The Manufacture of American Silver Flatware 1800–1860", <i>Winterthur Portfolio</i>, <b>12</b>: <span class="nowrap">19–</span>33, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F495849">10.1086/495849</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1180578">1180578</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162318347">162318347</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Winterthur+Portfolio&rft.atitle=From+Pure+Coin%3A+The+Manufacture+of+American+Silver+Flatware+1800%E2%80%931860&rft.volume=12&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E19-%3C%2Fspan%3E33&rft.date=1977&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162318347%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1180578%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F495849&rft.aulast=Waters&rft.aufirst=Deborah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+and+industrial+history+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrossSzostak2004" class="citation cs2">Cross, Gary; Szostak, Rich (2004), <i>Technology and American Society</i>, New York: Prentice Hall, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-189643-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-13-189643-1"><bdi>0-13-189643-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Technology+and+American+Society&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-13-189643-1&rft.aulast=Cross&rft.aufirst=Gary&rft.au=Szostak%2C+Rich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+and+industrial+history+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCutcliffeReynolds1997" class="citation cs2">Cutcliffe, Stephen H.; Reynolds, Terry S. (1997), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226710280"><i>Technology & American History</i></a>, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-71027-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-71027-0"><bdi>0-226-71027-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Technology+%26+American+History&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-226-71027-0&rft.aulast=Cutcliffe&rft.aufirst=Stephen+H.&rft.au=Reynolds%2C+Terry+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780226710280&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+and+industrial+history+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeitch2001" class="citation cs2">Deitch, Joanne Weisman (2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uY0IvxDQIDgC"><i>A Nation of Inventors</i></a>, Carlisle, Massachusetts: Discovery Enterprises, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57960-077-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57960-077-8"><bdi>978-1-57960-077-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Nation+of+Inventors&rft.place=Carlisle%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Discovery+Enterprises&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-57960-077-8&rft.aulast=Deitch&rft.aufirst=Joanne+Weisman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuY0IvxDQIDgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+and+industrial+history+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFField2011" class="citation cs2">Field, Alexander J. (2011), <i>A Great Leap Forward: 1930s Depression and U.S. Economic Growth</i>, New Haven, London: Yale University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-15109-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-15109-1"><bdi>978-0-300-15109-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Great+Leap+Forward%3A+1930s+Depression+and+U.S.+Economic+Growth&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+London&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-300-15109-1&rft.aulast=Field&rft.aufirst=Alexander+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+and+industrial+history+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHindleLubar1986" class="citation cs2">Hindle, Brooke; Lubar, Steven (1986), <i>Engines of Change: the American Industrial Revolution, 1790-1860</i>, Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87474-539-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-87474-539-X"><bdi>0-87474-539-X</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Engines+of+Change%3A+the+American+Industrial+Revolution%2C+1790-1860&rft.place=Washington&rft.pub=Smithsonian+Institution+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0-87474-539-X&rft.aulast=Hindle&rft.aufirst=Brooke&rft.au=Lubar%2C+Steven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+and+industrial+history+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHughes1989" class="citation cs2">Hughes, Thomas Parke (1989), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americangenesisc00hugh"><i>American Genesis: A History of the American Genius for Invention</i></a>, New York: Penguin Books, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-009741-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-009741-4"><bdi>0-14-009741-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Genesis%3A+A+History+of+the+American+Genius+for+Invention&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0-14-009741-4&rft.aulast=Hughes&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Parke&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Famericangenesisc00hugh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+and+industrial+history+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarcusSegal1998" class="citation cs2">Marcus, Alan I.; <a href="/wiki/Howard_P._Segal" title="Howard P. Segal">Segal, Howard P.</a> (1998), <i>Technology in America</i>, New York: Wadsworth Publishing, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-15-505531-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-15-505531-3"><bdi>0-15-505531-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Technology+in+America&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Wadsworth+Publishing&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-15-505531-3&rft.aulast=Marcus&rft.aufirst=Alan+I.&rft.au=Segal%2C+Howard+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+and+industrial+history+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGaw1994" class="citation cs2">McGaw, Judith A. (1994), <i>Early American Technology: Making and Doing Things from the Colonial Era to 1850</i>, Charlottesville: University of North Carolina Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8078-4484-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8078-4484-5"><bdi>0-8078-4484-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+American+Technology%3A+Making+and+Doing+Things+from+the+Colonial+Era+to+1850&rft.place=Charlottesville&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-8078-4484-5&rft.aulast=McGaw&rft.aufirst=Judith+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+and+industrial+history+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoweryRosenberg1998" class="citation cs2">Mowery, David C.; Rosenberg, Nathan (1998), <i>Paths of Innovation: Technological Change in 20th Century America</i>, Cambridge, Eng., New York: Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-64653-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-64653-7"><bdi>0-521-64653-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Paths+of+Innovation%3A+Technological+Change+in+20th+Century+America&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Eng.%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-521-64653-7&rft.aulast=Mowery&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rft.au=Rosenberg%2C+Nathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+and+industrial+history+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPursell1995" class="citation cs2">Pursell, Carroll (1995), <i>The Machine in America: A Social History of Technology</i>, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8018-4818-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8018-4818-0"><bdi>0-8018-4818-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Machine+in+America%3A+A+Social+History+of+Technology&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-8018-4818-0&rft.aulast=Pursell&rft.aufirst=Carroll&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+and+industrial+history+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Servos" title="John Servos">Servos, John W.</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1UZjU2WfLAoC"><i>Physical chemistry from Ostwald to Pauling : the making of a science in America</i></a>, Princeton, N.J. : Princeton University Press, 1990. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-08566-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-08566-8">0-691-08566-8</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmithClancey1996" class="citation cs2">Smith, Merrit Roe; Clancey, Gregory (1996), <i>Major Problems in the History of American Technology</i>, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-669-35472-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-669-35472-4"><bdi>0-669-35472-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Major+Problems+in+the+History+of+American+Technology&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-669-35472-4&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Merrit+Roe&rft.au=Clancey%2C+Gregory&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+and+industrial+history+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor1951" class="citation cs2">Taylor, George Rogers (1951), <i>The Transportation Revolution, 1815–1860</i>, New York, Toronto: Rinehart & Co., <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87332-101-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87332-101-3"><bdi>978-0-87332-101-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Transportation+Revolution%2C+1815%E2%80%931860&rft.place=New+York%2C+Toronto&rft.pub=Rinehart+%26+Co.&rft.date=1951&rft.isbn=978-0-87332-101-3&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=George+Rogers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATechnological+and+industrial+history+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historyoftechnology.org">Society for the History of Technology</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/browse/ListSome.php?category=Technology,+Industry">American Memory from the Library of Congress - Technology & Industry</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output 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history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_United_States_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Outline of United States history">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Events495" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Events</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-Colonial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_North_America" title="Geological history of North America">Prehistoric</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-Columbian Era</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Colonial history of the United States">Colonial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_North_America" title="Exploration of North America">Exploration of North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_disease_and_epidemics" title="Native American disease and epidemics">Native American epidemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jamestown,_Virginia_(1607%E2%80%931699)" title="History of Jamestown, Virginia (1607–1699)">Settlement of Jamestown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_William%27s_War" title="King William's War">King William's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_War" title="Queen Anne's War">Queen Anne's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dummer%27s_War" title="Dummer's War">Dummer's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Great_Awakening" title="First Great Awakening">First Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Jenkins%27_Ear" title="War of Jenkins' Ear">War of Jenkins' Ear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_George%27s_War" title="King George's War">King George's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution#Origin" title="American Revolution">Prelude to Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">American Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">French and Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Proclamation_of_1763" title="Royal Proclamation of 1763">Proclamation of 1763</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar_Act" title="Sugar Act">Sugar Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamp_Act_Congress" title="Stamp Act Congress">Stamp Act Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sons_of_Liberty" title="Sons of Liberty">Sons of Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Massacre" title="Boston Massacre">Boston Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Tea_Party" title="Boston Tea Party">Boston Tea Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intolerable_Acts" title="Intolerable Acts">Intolerable Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Continental_Congress" title="First Continental Congress">First Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Association" title="Continental Association">Continental Association</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1776%E2%80%931789)" title="History of the United States (1776–1789)">1776–1789</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Resolution" title="Lee Resolution">Lee Resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)" title="Treaty of Paris (1783)">Treaty of Paris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_period" title="Confederation period">Confederation period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a> <a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Union" title="Perpetual Union">and Perpetual Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Mutiny_of_1783" title="Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783">Pennsylvania Mutiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shays%27_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Shays' Rebellion">Shays' Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Ordinance" title="Northwest Ordinance">Northwest Ordinance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">Drafting and ratification of the Constitution</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1789%E2%80%931815)" title="History of the United States (1789–1815)">1789–1815</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Era" title="Federalist Era">Federalist Era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Whiskey_Rebellion" title="Whiskey Rebellion">Whiskey Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-War" title="Quasi-War">Quasi-War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffersonian_democracy" title="Jeffersonian democracy">Jeffersonian era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Louisiana Purchase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1815%E2%80%931849)" title="History of the United States (1815–1849)">1815–1849</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Good_Feelings" title="Era of Good Feelings">Era of Good Feelings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_Compromise" title="Missouri Compromise">Missouri Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine" title="Monroe Doctrine">Monroe Doctrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacksonian_democracy" title="Jacksonian democracy">Jacksonian era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">Nat Turner's slave rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nullification_crisis" title="Nullification crisis">Nullification crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Westward expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_Falls_Convention" title="Seneca Falls Convention">Seneca Falls Convention</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution#United_States" title="Industrial Revolution">First Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Awakening" title="Second Great Awakening">Second Great Awakening</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1849%E2%80%931865)" title="History of the United States (1849–1865)">1849–1865</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antebellum_South" title="Antebellum South">Antebellum Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_Gold_Rush" class="mw-redirect" title="California Gold Rush">California Gold Rush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Origins of the American Civil War">Prelude to War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1850" title="Compromise of 1850">Compromise of 1850</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1850">Fugitive Slave Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kansas%E2%80%93Nebraska_Act" title="Kansas–Nebraska Act">Kansas–Nebraska Act</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bleeding_Kansas" title="Bleeding Kansas">Bleeding Kansas</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott decision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1860_United_States_presidential_election" title="1860 United States presidential election">Election of Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America#Secession" title="Confederate States of America">Secession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Assassination of Abraham Lincoln">Assassination of Abraham Lincoln</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1865%E2%80%931917)" title="History of the United States (1865–1917)">1865–1917</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_transcontinental_railroad" title="First transcontinental railroad">First transcontinental railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Acts" title="Enforcement Acts">Enforcement Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1877" title="Compromise of 1877">Compromise of 1877</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution#United_States" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Gospel_of_Wealth" title="The Gospel of Wealth">The Gospel of Wealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_James_A._Garfield" title="Assassination of James A. Garfield">Assassination of James A. Garfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Exclusion_Act" title="Chinese Exclusion Act">Chinese Exclusion Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pendleton_Civil_Service_Reform_Act" title="Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act">Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymarket_affair" title="Haymarket affair">Haymarket affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherman_Antitrust_Act" title="Sherman Antitrust Act">Sherman Antitrust Act</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" class="mw-redirect" title="American imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_William_McKinley" title="Assassination of William McKinley">Assassination of William McKinley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Square_Deal" title="Square Deal">Square Deal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1917%E2%80%931945)" title="History of the United States (1917–1945)">1917–1945</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I" title="United States in World War I">World War I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference_(1919%E2%80%931920)#American_approach" title="Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)">Paris Peace Conference</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Red_Scare" title="First Red Scare">First Red Scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States" title="Prohibition in the United States">Prohibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">Women's suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan#Second_Klan:_1915–1944" title="Ku Klux Klan">Second Klan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bath_School_disaster" title="Bath School disaster">Bath School disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wall_Street_crash_of_1929" title="Wall Street crash of 1929">Wall Street crash of 1929</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust_Bowl" title="Dust Bowl">Dust Bowl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">Pearl Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United States home front during World War II">home front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1945%E2%80%931964)" title="History of the United States (1945–1964)">1945–1964</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_strike_wave_of_1945%E2%80%931946" title="United States strike wave of 1945–1946">Strike wave of 1945–1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1947%E2%80%931948)" title="Cold War (1947–1948)">Start of Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1948%E2%80%931953)" title="Cold War (1948–1953)">Early Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_Treaty" title="North Atlantic Treaty">North Atlantic Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivy_Mike" title="Ivy Mike">Ivy Mike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93World_War_II_economic_expansion" title="Post–World War II economic expansion">Post-war boom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Project Mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil Rights Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)" title="Cold War (1953–1962)">Early–mid Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Assassination of John F. Kennedy">Assassination of John F. Kennedy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1964%E2%80%931980)" title="History of the United States (1964–1980)">1964–1980</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Society" title="Great Society">Great Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Project_Gemini" title="Project Gemini">Project Gemini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo program</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1962%E2%80%931979)" title="Cold War (1962–1979)">Mid Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">Détente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Saigon" title="Fall of Saigon">Fall of Saigon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.">Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s" title="Counterculture of the 1960s">Counterculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-wave_feminism" title="Second-wave feminism">Second-wave feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_liberation" title="Gay liberation">Gay liberation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stonewall_riots" title="Stonewall riots">Stonewall riots</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watergate_scandal" title="Watergate scandal">Watergate scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_hostage_crisis" title="Iran hostage crisis">Iran hostage crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_Majority" title="Moral Majority">Moral Majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1980%E2%80%931991)" title="History of the United States (1980–1991)">1980–1991</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_era" title="Reagan era">Reagan era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reaganomics" title="Reaganomics">Reaganomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair" title="Iran–Contra affair">Iran–Contra affair</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crack_epidemic_in_the_United_States" title="Crack epidemic in the United States">Crack epidemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1979%E2%80%931985)" title="Cold War (1979–1985)">Late Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Grenada" title="United States invasion of Grenada">Invasion of Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1985%E2%80%931991)" title="Cold War (1985–1991)">End of the Cold War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program" title="Space Shuttle program">Space Shuttle program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_drugs" title="War on drugs">War on drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Panama" title="United States invasion of Panama">Invasion of Panama</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1991%E2%80%932008)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the United States (1991–2008)">1991–2008</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="North American Free Trade Agreement">NAFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_Los_Angeles_riots" title="1992 Los Angeles riots"> Los Angeles riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1993_World_Trade_Center_bombing" title="1993 World Trade Center bombing">WTC bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waco_siege" title="Waco siege">Waco siege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Revolution" title="Republican Revolution">Republican Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_City_bombing" title="Oklahoma City bombing">Oklahoma City bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbine_High_School_massacre" title="Columbine High School massacre">Columbine</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bush_v._Gore" title="Bush v. Gore">Bush v. Gore</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">War in Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina" title="Hurricane Katrina">Hurricane Katrina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Tech_shooting" title="Virginia Tech shooting">Virginia Tech shooting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_the_United_States" title="Great Recession in the United States">Great Recession</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(2008%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the United States (2008–present)">2008–present</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Osama_bin_Laden" title="Killing of Osama bin Laden">Killing of Osama bin Laden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mass_shootings_in_the_United_States" title="List of mass shootings in the United States">Rise in mass shootings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2011_Tucson_shooting" title="2011 Tucson shooting">Tucson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_Aurora_theater_shooting" title="2012 Aurora theater shooting">Aurora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandy_Hook_Elementary_School_shooting" title="Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting">Sandy Hook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulse_nightclub_shooting" title="Pulse nightclub shooting">Orlando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_Las_Vegas_shooting" title="2017 Las Vegas shooting">Las Vegas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parkland_high_school_shooting" title="Parkland high school shooting">Parkland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_El_Paso_shooting" class="mw-redirect" title="2019 El Paso shooting">El Paso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uvalde_school_shooting" title="Uvalde school shooting">Uvalde</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">Black Lives Matter</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges" title="Obergefell v. Hodges">Obergefell v. Hodges</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unite_the_Right_rally" title="Unite the Right rally">Unite the Right rally</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States" title="COVID-19 pandemic in the United States">COVID-19 pandemic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_recession" title="COVID-19 recession">recession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">George Floyd protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_6_United_States_Capitol_attack" title="January 6 United States Capitol attack">January 6 insurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%932021_US_troop_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="2020–2021 US troop withdrawal from Afghanistan">Afghanistan withdrawal</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dobbs_v._Jackson_Women%27s_Health_Organization" title="Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization">Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_involvement_in_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Foreign involvement in the Russian invasion of Ukraine">Support of Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump#Investigations,_criminal_charges,_civil_lawsuits" title="Donald Trump">Indictments of Donald Trump</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Topics495" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/American_Century" title="American Century">American Century</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="History of antisemitism in the United States">Antisemitism</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history_of_the_United_States" title="Cultural history of the United States">Cultural</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cinema_in_the_United_States" title="History of cinema in the United States">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_history_of_the_United_States" title="Music history of the United States">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_newspapers" title="History of American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sports_in_the_United_States" title="History of sports in the United States">Sports</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Demographic history of the United States">Demography</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="History of immigration to the United States">Immigration</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Economic history of the United States">Economy</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_banking_in_the_United_States" title="History of banking in the United States">Banking</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_the_United_States" title="History of education in the United States">Education</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_higher_education_in_the_United_States" title="History of higher education in the United States">Higher education</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_flags_of_the_United_States" title="List of flags of the United States">Flag</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_government" title="History of the United States government">Government</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_abortion_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of abortion in the United States">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_capital_punishment_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of capital punishment in the United States">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_civil_rights_in_the_United_States" title="History of civil rights in the United States">Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_corruption_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of corruption in the United States">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">The Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_debt_ceiling" title="History of the United States debt ceiling">Debt ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_direct_democracy_in_the_United_States" title="History of direct democracy in the United States">Direct democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_United_States_foreign_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of United States foreign policy">Foreign policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_law_enforcement_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of law enforcement in the United States">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_the_United_States" title="Postage stamps and postal history of the United States">Postal service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_taxation_in_the_United_States" title="History of taxation in the United States">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Voting rights in the United States">Voting rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_journalism" title="History of American journalism">Journalism</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Merchant_Marine" title="History of the United States Merchant Marine">Merchant Marine</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States" title="Military history of the United States">Military</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Army" title="History of the United States Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps" title="History of the United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Navy" title="History of the United States Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Air_Force" title="History of the United States Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force" title="History of the United States Space Force">Space Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="History of the United States Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Political_eras_of_the_United_States" title="Political eras of the United States">Party Systems</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Party_System" title="First Party System">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Party_System" title="Second Party System">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Party_System" title="Third Party System">Third</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Party_System" title="Fourth Party System">Fourth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Party_System" title="Fifth Party System">Fifth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Party_System" title="Sixth Party System">Sixth</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_the_United_States" title="History of religion in the United States">Religion</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Genocide</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sexual_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="History of sexual slavery in the United States">Sexual slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Technology and industry</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="History of agriculture in the United States">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_history_of_the_United_States" title="Labor history of the United States">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_lumber_industry_in_the_United_States" title="History of the lumber industry in the United States">Lumber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine_in_the_United_States" title="History of medicine in the United States">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_rail_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="History of rail transportation in the United States">Railway</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Groups495" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Groups</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">African American</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Asian_Americans" title="History of Asian Americans">Asian American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chinese_Americans" title="History of Chinese Americans">Chinese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Filipino_Americans" title="History of Filipino Americans">Filipino American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian-American_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian-American history">Indian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japanese_Americans" title="History of Japanese Americans">Japanese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Korean_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Korean Americans">Korean American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Thai_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Thai Americans">Thai American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vietnamese_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Vietnamese Americans">Vietnamese American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/European_American#History" class="mw-redirect" title="European American">European American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Albanian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Albanian Americans">Albanian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_English_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of English Americans">English American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Estonian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Estonian Americans">Estonian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Finnish_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Finnish Americans">Finnish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Americans#History" title="Irish Americans">Irish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_American#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian American">Italian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuanian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Lithuanian Americans">Lithuanian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poles_in_the_United_States" title="History of Poles in the United States">Polish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Serbian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Serbian Americans">Serbian American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Hispanic and Latino Americans">Hispanic and Latino American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexican_Americans" title="History of Mexican Americans">Mexican American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States" title="History of the Jews in the United States">Jewish American</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Middle_Eastern_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Middle Eastern Americans">Middle Eastern American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egyptian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Egyptian Americans">Egyptian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iranian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Iranian Americans">Iranian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraqi_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Iraqi Americans">Iraqi American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lebanese_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Lebanese Americans">Lebanese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Palestinian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Palestinian Americans">Palestinian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Saudi_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Saudi Americans">Saudi American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="History of Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_history" title="Cherokee history">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comanche_history" title="Comanche history">Comanche</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_the_United_States" title="History of women in the United States">Women</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_history_in_the_United_States" title="LGBTQ history in the United States">LGBTQ</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_gay_men_in_the_United_States" title="History of gay men in the United States">Gay men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_lesbianism_in_the_United_States" title="History of lesbianism in the United States">Lesbians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_history_in_the_United_States" title="Transgender history in the United States">Transgender people</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Places495" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Places</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">Territorial evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_by_date_of_admission_to_the_Union" title="List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union">Admission to the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_regions_of_the_United_States" title="Historical regions of the United States">Historical regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_frontier" title="American frontier">American frontier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Manifest destiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_England" title="History of New England">New England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Southern_United_States" title="History of the Southern United States">The South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_west_coast_of_North_America" title="History of the west coast of North America">The West Coast</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alabama" title="History of Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alaska" title="History of Alaska">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arizona" title="History of Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arkansas" title="History of Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_California" title="History of California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Colorado" title="History of Colorado">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Connecticut" title="History of Connecticut">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Delaware" title="History of Delaware">Delaware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Florida" title="History of Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="History of Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hawaii" title="History of Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Idaho" title="History of Idaho">Idaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Illinois" title="History of Illinois">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Indiana" title="History of Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iowa" title="History of Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kansas" title="History of Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kentucky" title="History of Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Louisiana" title="History of Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maine" title="History of Maine">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maryland" title="History of Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Massachusetts" title="History of Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Michigan" title="History of Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Minnesota" title="History of Minnesota">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mississippi" title="History of Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Missouri" title="History of Missouri">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Montana" title="History of Montana">Montana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nebraska" title="History of Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nevada" title="History of Nevada">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Hampshire" title="History of New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Jersey" title="History of New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Mexico" title="History of New Mexico">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_York_(state)" title="History of New York (state)">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Carolina" title="History of North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Dakota" title="History of North Dakota">North Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ohio" title="History of Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oklahoma" title="History of Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oregon" title="History of Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Pennsylvania" title="History of Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rhode_Island" title="History of Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Carolina" title="History of South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Dakota" title="History of South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tennessee" title="History of Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Texas" title="History of Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Utah" title="History of Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vermont" title="History of Vermont">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Virginia" title="History of Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Washington_(state)" title="History of Washington (state)">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_West_Virginia" title="History of West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wisconsin" title="History of Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wyoming" title="History of Wyoming">Wyoming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Federal District</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Washington,_D.C." title="History of Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Insular areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_Samoa" title="History of American Samoa">American Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Guam" title="History of Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Northern Mariana Islands">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Puerto_Rico" title="History of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands" title="History of the United States Virgin Islands">U.S. Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Outlying islands</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Baker_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Baker Island">Baker Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Howland_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Howland Island">Howland Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jarvis_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Jarvis Island">Jarvis Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Johnston_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Johnston Atoll">Johnston Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kingman_Reef" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Kingman Reef">Kingman Reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Midway_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Midway Atoll">Midway Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Navassa_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Navassa Island">Navassa Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Palmyra_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Palmyra Atoll">Palmyra Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wake_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Wake Island">Wake Island</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_urban_history" title="American urban history">Urban history</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Histories_of_cities_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Histories of cities in the United States">Cities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_the_United_States" title="List of years in the United States">List of years</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_United_States" title="Historiography of the United States">Historiography</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_United_States" title="Category:History of the United States">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="United_States_articles608" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:United_States_topics" title="Template:United States topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:United_States_topics" title="Template talk:United States topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:United_States_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:United States topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_States_articles608" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> articles</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States" title="History of the United States">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1776%E2%80%931789)" title="History of the United States (1776–1789)">1776–1789</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1789%E2%80%931815)" title="History of the United States (1789–1815)">1789–1815</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1815%E2%80%931849)" title="History of the United States (1815–1849)">1815–1849</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1849%E2%80%931865)" title="History of the United States (1849–1865)">1849–1865</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1865%E2%80%931917)" title="History of the United States (1865–1917)">1865–1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1917%E2%80%931945)" title="History of the United States (1917–1945)">1917–1945</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1945%E2%80%931964)" title="History of the United States (1945–1964)">1945–1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1964%E2%80%931980)" title="History of the United States (1964–1980)">1964–1980</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1980%E2%80%931991)" title="History of the United States (1980–1991)">1980–1991</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1991%E2%80%932008)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the United States (1991–2008)">1991–2008</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(2008%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the United States (2008–present)">2008–present</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By event</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-colonial era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Colonial history of the United States">Colonial era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stamp_Act_Congress" title="Stamp Act Congress">Stamp Act Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Congress" title="Continental Congress">Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Association" title="Continental Association">Continental Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Colonies" title="United Colonies">United Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_American_military_history" title="Colonial American military history">military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halifax_Resolves" title="Halifax Resolves">Halifax Resolves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Resolution" title="Lee Resolution">Lee Resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)" title="Treaty of Paris (1783)">Treaty of Paris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Union" title="Perpetual Union">Perpetual Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_period" title="Confederation period">Confederation period</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_frontier" title="American frontier">American frontier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_drafting_and_ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution">drafting and ratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Era" title="Federalist Era">Federalist Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">Territorial evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Wars" title="American Indian Wars">Indian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Native genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">Women's suffrage</a></li> <li>Civil rights movement <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">1865–1896</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">1896–1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">1954–1968</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" class="mw-redirect" title="American imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I" title="United States in World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United States home front during World War II">home front</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Century" title="American Century">American Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-wave_feminism" title="Second-wave feminism">Feminist Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_liberation" title="Gay liberation">LGBT Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1991%E2%80%932008)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the United States (1991–2008)">Post-Cold War (1991–2008)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on Terror</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">War in Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_the_United_States" title="Great Recession in the United States">Great Recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States" title="COVID-19 pandemic in the United States">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_history_of_the_United_States" title="Outline of the history of the United States">Outline of U.S. history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Demographic history of the United States">Demographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_discoveries" title="Timeline of United States discoveries">Discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Economic history of the United States">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions" title="Timeline of United States inventions">Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States" title="Military history of the United States">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_the_United_States" title="Postage stamps and postal history of the United States">Postal</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Technological and industrial</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_United_States" title="Geography of the United States">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/U.S._territorial_sovereignty" title="U.S. territorial sovereignty">Territory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contiguous_United_States" title="Contiguous United States">Contiguous United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_(United_States)" title="County (United States)">counties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">federal district</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_enclave" title="Federal enclave">federal enclaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Indian reservations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States" title="Territories of the United States">insular zones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Minor_Outlying_Islands" title="United States Minor Outlying Islands">minor outlying islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_populated_places_in_the_United_States" title="Lists of populated places in the United States">populated places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">states</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_the_United_States" title="List of earthquakes in the United States">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extreme_points_of_the_United_States" title="List of extreme points of the United States">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_the_United_States" title="List of islands of the United States">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_of_the_United_States" title="List of mountains of the United States">Mountains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountain_peaks_of_the_United_States" title="List of mountain peaks of the United States">peaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountain_ranges#United_States" title="List of mountain ranges">ranges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appalachian_Mountains" title="Appalachian Mountains">Appalachian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocky_Mountains" title="Rocky Mountains">Rocky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Nevada" title="Sierra Nevada">Sierra Nevada</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">National Park Service</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_areas_in_the_United_States_National_Park_System" title="List of areas in the United States National Park System">National Parks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_of_the_United_States" title="List of regions of the United States">Regions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="East Coast of the United States">East Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="West Coast of the United States">West Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Plains" title="Great Plains">Great Plains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="Gulf Coast of the United States">Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_(United_States)" title="Mid-Atlantic (United States)">Mid-Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midwestern_United_States" title="Midwestern United States">Midwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="West Coast of the United States">Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_United_States" title="Central United States">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_United_States" title="Eastern United States">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_United_States" title="Northern United States">Northern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_United_States" title="Northeastern United States">Northeastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwestern_United_States" title="Northwestern United States">Northwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeastern_United_States" title="Southeastern United States">Southeastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_United_States" title="Southwestern United States">Southwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_United_States" title="Western United States">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li>Longest <a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_the_United_States" title="List of rivers of the United States">rivers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arkansas_River" title="Arkansas River">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorado_River" title="Colorado River">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_River" title="Columbia River">Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_River" title="Missouri River">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_River_of_the_South" title="Red River of the South">Red (South)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rio_Grande" title="Rio Grande">Rio Grande</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yukon_River" title="Yukon River">Yukon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_in_the_United_States" title="Time in the United States">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_United_States" title="Water supply and sanitation in the United States">Water supply and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_the_United_States" title="List of World Heritage Sites in the United States">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_United_States" title="Politics of the United States">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">Federal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Executive</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Powers_of_the_president_of_the_United_States" title="Powers of the president of the United States">powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Office_of_the_President_of_the_United_States" title="Executive Office of the President of the United States">Executive Office</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">Vice President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_States" title="Cabinet of the United States">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_executive_departments" title="United States federal executive departments">Executive departments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_agencies_of_the_United_States_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent agencies of the United States government">Independent agencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Intelligence_Community" title="United States Intelligence Community">Intelligence Community</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Director_of_National_Intelligence" title="Director of National Intelligence">Director of National Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Security_Agency" title="National Security Agency">National Security Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Reconnaissance_Office" title="National Reconnaissance Office">National Reconnaissance Office</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_law_enforcement_in_the_United_States" title="Federal law enforcement in the United States">Law enforcement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Alcohol,_Tobacco,_Firearms_and_Explosives" title="Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives">ATF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._Customs_and_Border_Protection" title="U.S. Customs and Border Protection">CBP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Diplomatic_Security" title="Bureau of Diplomatic Security">Diplomatic Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_Enforcement_Administration" title="Drug Enforcement Administration">DEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Federal Bureau of Investigation">FBI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._Immigration_and_Customs_Enforcement" title="U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement">ICE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marshals_Service" title="United States Marshals Service">Marshals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secret_Service" title="United States Secret Service">Secret Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_Security_Administration" title="Transportation Security Administration">TSA</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_Inspector_General_(United_States)" title="Office of Inspector General (United States)">Inspector generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_civil_service" title="United States federal civil service">Civil service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Public policy of the United States">Public policy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Legislative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_members_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" class="mw-redirect" title="List of current members of the United States House of Representatives">current members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speaker_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Speaker of the United States House of Representatives">Speaker</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_senators" title="List of current United States senators">current members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_pro_tempore_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="President pro tempore of the United States Senate">President pro tempore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States#President_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="Vice President of the United States">President</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Capitol_Police" title="United States Capitol Police">Capitol Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Budget_Office" title="Congressional Budget Office">Congressional Budget Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_Accountability_Office" title="Government Accountability Office">Government Accountability Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Government_Publishing_Office" title="United States Government Publishing Office">Government Publishing Office</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Federal_judiciary_of_the_United_States" title="Federal judiciary of the United States">Judicial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States">Associate Justices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_courts_of_appeals" title="United States courts of appeals">Courts of appeals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_circuit_judges" title="List of current United States circuit judges">list of judges</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_district_court" title="United States district court">District courts</a>/<a href="/wiki/United_States_territorial_court" title="United States territorial court">Territorial courts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_district_and_territorial_courts" title="List of United States district and territorial courts">list of courts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_district_judges" title="List of current United States district judges">list of judges</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_tribunals_in_the_United_States" title="Federal tribunals in the United States">Other tribunals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney" title="United States Attorney">U.S. attorney</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_States" title="Law of the United States">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties_in_the_United_States" title="Civil liberties in the United States">civil liberties</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_Federal_Regulations" title="Code of Federal Regulations">Code of Federal Regulations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federalism_in_the_United_States" title="Federalism in the United States">federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_preemption" title="Federal preemption">preemption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Separation of powers under the United States Constitution">separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">civil rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Code" title="United States Code">United States Code</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Uniformed_services_of_the_United_States" title="Uniformed services of the United States">Uniformed</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces" title="United States Armed Forces">Armed Forces</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps" title="United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Force" title="United States Space Force">Space Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard" title="United States Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Guard_(United_States)" title="National Guard (United States)">National Guard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NOAA_Commissioned_Officer_Corps" title="NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps">NOAA Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service_Commissioned_Corps" title="United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps">Public Health Service Corps</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_governments_of_the_United_States" title="State governments of the United States">State</a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_District_of_Columbia" title="Government of the District of Columbia">Federal District</a>,<br />and <a href="/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States" title="Territories of the United States">Territorial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_constitutional_officer" title="State constitutional officer">Executive</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Governor_(United_States)" title="Governor (United States)">Governor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_governors" title="List of current United States governors">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_governor_(United_States)" title="Lieutenant governor (United States)">Lieutenant governor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_lieutenant_governors" title="List of current United States lieutenant governors">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_state_(U.S._state_government)" title="Secretary of state (U.S. state government)">Secretary of state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_attorney_general" title="State attorney general">Attorney general</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_treasurer" title="State treasurer">Treasurer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_auditor" title="State auditor">Auditor/Comptroller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_commissioner" title="Agriculture commissioner">Agriculture commissioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_commissioner" title="Insurance commissioner">Insurance commissioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_utilities_commission" title="Public utilities commission">Public utilities commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_police_(United_States)" title="State police (United States)">State police</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_state_and_local_law_enforcement_agencies" title="List of United States state and local law enforcement agencies">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_legislature_(United_States)" title="State legislature (United States)">Legislative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_state_legislatures" title="List of United States state legislatures">List of legislatures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_legislators" title="List of U.S. state legislators">List of legislators</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_court_(United_States)" title="State court (United States)">Judicial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_supreme_court" title="State supreme court">Supreme courts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_state_chief_justices" title="List of state chief justices">Chief justices</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_attorney" title="District attorney">District attorney</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_district_attorneys_by_county" class="mw-redirect" title="List of district attorneys by county">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_law_(United_States)" title="State law (United States)">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_constitutions_in_the_United_States" title="State constitutions in the United States">State constitutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_statutory_codes" title="List of U.S. state statutory codes">Statutory codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniform_act" title="Uniform act">Uniform act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_U.S._state_and_territory_governments" title="Comparison of U.S. state and territory governments">Comparison of governments</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tribe_(Native_American)" title="Tribe (Native American)">Tribal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States" title="Tribal sovereignty in the United States">Tribal sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_recognition_in_the_United_States" title="Native American recognition in the United States">Native American recognition in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_in_the_contiguous_United_States" title="List of federally recognized tribes in the contiguous United States">Federally recognized tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Alaska_Native_tribal_entities" title="List of Alaska Native tribal entities">Federally recognized Alaska Native tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-recognized_tribes_in_the_United_States" title="State-recognized tribes in the United States">State-recognized tribes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Indian reservation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_reservations_in_the_United_States" title="List of Indian reservations in the United States">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_home_land" title="Hawaiian home land">Hawaiian home land</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_the_United_States" title="Local government in the United States">Local</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/County_(United_States)" title="County (United States)">County</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_counties_and_county_equivalents" title="List of United States counties and county equivalents">List of counties and county equivalents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_executive" title="County executive">County executive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheriffs_in_the_United_States" title="Sheriffs in the United States">Sheriff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_clerk" title="Municipal clerk">Clerk</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consolidated_city-county" title="Consolidated city-county">Consolidated city-county</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_city_(United_States)" title="Independent city (United States)">Independent city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coterminous_municipality" title="Coterminous municipality">Coterminous municipality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_charter#United_States" title="Municipal charter">Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayor%E2%80%93council_government" title="Mayor–council government">Mayor–council government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council%E2%80%93manager_government" title="Council–manager government">Council–manager government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_commission_government" title="City commission government">City commission government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayoralty_in_the_United_States" title="Mayoralty in the United States">Mayor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_manager" title="City manager">City manager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_council#United_States" title="Municipal council">City council</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Minor_civil_division" title="Minor civil division">Minor divisions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_township" title="Civil township">Township</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Town_meeting" title="Town meeting">Town meeting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Special_district_(United_States)" title="Special district (United States)">Special district</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/School_district" title="School district">School district</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_school_districts_in_the_United_States" title="Lists of school districts in the United States">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_the_United_States" title="Corruption in the United States">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_the_United_States" title="Elections in the United States">Elections</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Electoral_College" title="United States Electoral College">Electoral College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_states_and_blue_states" title="Red states and blue states">Red states and blue states</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign relations of the United States">Foreign relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign policy of the United States">foreign policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_presidency" title="Imperial presidency">Imperial presidency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ideologies_in_the_United_States" title="Political ideologies in the United States">Ideologies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Americanism" title="Anti-Americanism">Anti-Americanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_exceptionalism" title="American exceptionalism">exceptionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_nationalism" title="American nationalism">nationalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_parties_in_the_United_States" title="Political parties in the United States">Parties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_party_(U.S._politics)" title="Third party (U.S. politics)">Third parties</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_political_scandals_in_the_United_States" title="List of federal political scandals in the United States">Scandals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States" title="Economy of the United States">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States_by_sector" title="Economy of the United States by sector">By sector</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Agriculture in the United States">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_the_United_States" title="Banking in the United States">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_in_the_United_States" title="Communications in the United States">Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_the_United_States_by_state" title="List of companies of the United States by state">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_the_United_States" title="Energy in the United States">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Insurance in the United States">Insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing_in_the_United_States" title="Manufacturing in the United States">Manufacturing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_in_the_United_States" title="Mining in the United States">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_United_States" title="Science and technology in the United States">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_the_United_States" title="Tourism in the United States">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_trade_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign trade of the United States">Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_the_United_States_by_state" title="List of companies of the United States by state">by state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exports_of_the_United_States" title="List of exports of the United States">Exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_budget" title="United States federal budget">Federal budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States" title="Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States">Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve" title="Federal Reserve">Federal Reserve System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_position_of_the_United_States" title="Financial position of the United States">Financial position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_unions_in_the_United_States" title="Labor unions in the United States">Labor unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_debt_of_the_United_States" title="National debt of the United States">Public debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_programs_in_the_United_States" title="Social programs in the United States">Social welfare programs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_the_United_States" title="Taxation in the United States">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unemployment_in_the_United_States" title="Unemployment in the United States">Unemployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wall_Street" title="Wall Street">Wall Street</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Transport in the United States">Transport</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_in_the_United_States" title="Aviation in the United States">Aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Driving_in_the_United_States" title="Driving in the United States">Driving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="Public transportation in the United States">Public transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="Rail transportation in the United States">Rail transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Transportation policy of the United States">Transportation policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_safety_in_the_United_States" title="Transportation safety in the United States">Transportation safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trucking_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Trucking industry in the United States">Trucking industry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Society of the United States">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_United_States" title="Culture of the United States">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Americana_(culture)" title="Americana (culture)">Americana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_in_the_United_States" title="Architecture in the United States">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_the_United_States" title="Cinema of the United States">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_the_United_States" title="Crime in the United States">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_cuisine" title="American cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dance_in_the_United_States" title="Dance in the United States">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_United_States" title="Demographics of the United States">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States" title="Economy of the United States">Economic issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affluence_in_the_United_States" title="Affluence in the United States">affluence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eviction_in_the_United_States" title="Eviction in the United States">eviction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeownership_in_the_United_States" title="Homeownership in the United States">homeownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Household_income_in_the_United_States" title="Household income in the United States">household income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_inequality_in_the_United_States" title="Income inequality in the United States">income inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_middle_class" title="American middle class">middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_income_in_the_United_States" title="Personal income in the United States">personal income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty in the United States">poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_the_United_States" title="Standard of living in the United States">standard of living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affluence_in_the_United_States" title="Affluence in the United States">wealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_class_in_the_United_States" title="Working class in the United States">working class</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_United_States" title="Education in the United States">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Educational_attainment_in_the_United_States" title="Educational attainment in the United States">attainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literacy_in_the_United_States" title="Literacy in the United States">literacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_in_the_United_States" title="Family in the United States">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashion_in_the_United_States" title="Fashion in the United States">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_States" title="Flag of the United States">Flag</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_flags_of_the_United_States" title="List of flags of the United States">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folklore_of_the_United_States" title="Folklore of the United States">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_the_United_States" title="Public holidays in the United States">Holidays</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federal_holidays_in_the_United_States" title="Federal holidays in the United States">Federal holidays</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_the_United_States" title="Homelessness in the United States">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_in_the_United_States" title="Housing in the United States">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Human rights in the United States">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_United_States" title="Languages of the United States">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Indigenous languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">ASL</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_literature" title="American literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_the_United_States" title="Mass media in the United States">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_journalism" title="History of American journalism">journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_the_United_States" title="Internet in the United States">internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_newspapers" title="History of American newspapers">newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_in_the_United_States" title="Radio in the United States">radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_the_United_States" title="Television in the United States">television</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_United_States" title="Music of the United States">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naming_in_the_United_States" title="Naming in the United States">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Star-Spangled_Banner" title="The Star-Spangled Banner">National anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_the_United_States" title="National symbols of the United States">National symbols</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_(personification)" title="Columbia (personification)">Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Rushmore" title="Mount Rushmore">Mount Rushmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Liberty" title="Statue of Liberty">Statue of Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncle_Sam" title="Uncle Sam">Uncle Sam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americans" title="Americans">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ideologies_in_the_United_States" title="Political ideologies in the United States">Political ideologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States" title="Race and ethnicity in the United States">Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_States" title="Religion in the United States">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_the_United_States" title="Sexuality in the United States">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Social class in the United States">Social class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_United_States" title="Society of the United States">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_in_the_United_States" title="Sports in the United States">Sports</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sports_in_the_United_States" title="History of sports in the United States">history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theater_in_the_United_States" title="Theater in the United States">Theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_in_the_United_States" title="Transportation in the United States">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_games_in_the_United_States" title="Video games in the United States">Video games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_art_of_the_United_States" title="Visual art of the United States">Visual art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Social class in the United States">Social class</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affluence_in_the_United_States" title="Affluence in the United States">Affluence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Dream" title="American Dream">American Dream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_attainment_in_the_United_States" title="Educational attainment in the United States">Educational attainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_the_United_States" title="Homelessness in the United States">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeownership_in_the_United_States" title="Homeownership in the United States">Homeownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Household_income_in_the_United_States" title="Household income in the United States">Household income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_inequality_in_the_United_States" title="Income inequality in the United States">Income inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_middle_class" title="American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_income_in_the_United_States" title="Personal income in the United States">Personal income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty in the United States">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_the_United_States" title="Standard of living in the United States">Standard of living</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Health_in_the_United_States" title="Health in the United States">Health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aging_of_the_United_States" title="Aging of the United States">Aging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_the_United_States" title="Healthcare in the United States">Healthcare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_the_United_States" title="Abortion in the United States">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control_in_the_United_States" title="Birth control in the United States">Birth control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prenatal_care_in_the_United_States" title="Prenatal care in the United States">Prenatal care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospice_care_in_the_United_States" title="Hospice care in the United States">Hospice care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigrant_health_care_in_the_United_States" title="Immigrant health care in the United States">Immigrant health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_rationing_in_the_United_States" title="Healthcare rationing in the United States">Rationing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_finance_in_the_United_States" title="Health care finance in the United States">Health care finance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_insurance_costs_in_the_United_States" title="Health insurance costs in the United States">Health insurance costs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_prices_in_the_United_States" title="Health care prices in the United States">Health care prices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prescription_drug_prices_in_the_United_States" title="Prescription drug prices in the United States">Prescription drug prices</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_in_the_United_States" title="Disability in the United States">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Health insurance in the United States">Health insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety_in_the_United_States" title="Food safety in the United States">Food safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physician_shortage_in_the_United_States" title="Physician shortage in the United States">Physician shortage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_and_health_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty and health in the United States">Poverty and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_health_in_the_United_States" title="Race and health in the United States">Race and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obesity_in_the_United_States" title="Obesity in the United States">Obesity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_deserts_in_the_United_States" title="Medical deserts in the United States">Medical deserts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_reproductive_health_in_the_United_States" title="Women's reproductive health in the United States">Women's reproductive health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_life_expectancy" title="List of U.S. states and territories by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_the_United_States" title="Capital punishment in the United States">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_the_United_States" title="Crime in the United States">Crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Incarceration_in_the_United_States" title="Incarceration in the United States">incarceration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_United_States_government" title="Criticism of the United States government">Criticism of government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_in_the_United_States" title="Discrimination in the United States">Discrimination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States" title="Affirmative action in the United States">affirmative action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="Antisemitism in the United States">antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Intersex rights in the United States">intersex rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia_in_the_United_States" title="Islamophobia in the United States">Islamophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in the United States">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States" title="Racism in the United States">racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Racism against Native Americans in the United States">Native American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">African American</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Energy policy of the United States">Energy policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental issues in the United States">Environmental issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_movement_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental movement in the United States">Environmental movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change in the United States">Climate change</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_politics_in_the_United_States" title="Gun politics in the United States">Gun politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_shootings_in_the_United_States" title="Mass shootings in the United States">Mass shootings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunger_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Hunger in the United States">Hunger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobacco_in_the_United_States" title="Tobacco in the United States">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Human rights in the United States">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Immigration to the United States">Immigration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Illegal immigration to the United States">illegal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_security_of_the_United_States" title="National security of the United States">National security</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_the_United_States" title="Terrorism in the United States">Terrorism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opioid_epidemic_in_the_United_States" title="Opioid epidemic in the United States">Opioid epidemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States" title="Separation of church and state in the United States">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia_in_the_United_States" title="Xenophobia in the United States">Xenophobia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;;font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_United_States" title="Outline of the United States">Outline</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_United_States" title="Outline of the United States">Index</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States" title="Category:United States">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Technological_and_industrial_history_of_North_America188" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:North_America_topic" title="Template:North America topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:North_America_topic" title="Template talk:North America topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:North_America_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:North America topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Technological_and_industrial_history_of_North_America188" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Technological and industrial history of North America</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_Antigua_and_Barbuda&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Technological and industrial history of Antigua and Barbuda (page does not exist)">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_Bahamas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Technological and industrial history of the Bahamas (page does not exist)">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_Barbados&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Technological and industrial history of Barbados (page does not exist)">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_Belize&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Technological and industrial history of Belize (page does not exist)">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_Canada" title="Technological and industrial history of Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_Costa_Rica&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Technological and industrial history of Costa Rica (page does not exist)">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_Cuba&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Technological and industrial history of Cuba (page does not exist)">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_Dominica&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Technological and industrial history of Dominica (page does not exist)">Dominica</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_Dominican_Republic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Technological and industrial history of the Dominican Republic (page does not exist)">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_El_Salvador&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Technological and industrial history of El Salvador (page does not exist)">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_Grenada&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Technological and industrial history of Grenada (page does not exist)">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_Guatemala&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Technological and industrial history of Guatemala (page does not exist)">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_Haiti&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Technological and industrial history of Haiti (page does not exist)">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_Honduras&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Technological and industrial history of Honduras (page does not exist)">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_Jamaica&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Technological and industrial history of Jamaica (page does not exist)">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_Mexico&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Technological and industrial history of Mexico (page does not exist)">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_Nicaragua&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Technological and industrial history of Nicaragua (page does not exist)">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_Panama&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Technological and industrial history of Panama (page does not exist)">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Technological and industrial history of Saint Kitts and Nevis (page does not exist)">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_Saint_Lucia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Technological and industrial history of Saint Lucia (page does not exist)">Saint Lucia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Technological and industrial history of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (page does not exist)">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Technological and industrial history of Trinidad and Tobago (page does not exist)">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Dependencies and<br />other territories</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_Anguilla&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Technological and industrial history of Anguilla (page does not exist)">Anguilla</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_Aruba&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Technological and industrial history of Aruba (page does not exist)">Aruba</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_Bermuda&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Technological and industrial history of Bermuda (page does not exist)">Bermuda</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_Bonaire&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Technological and industrial history of Bonaire (page does not exist)">Bonaire</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_British_Virgin_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Technological and industrial history of the British Virgin Islands (page does not exist)">British Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_Cayman_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Technological and industrial history of the Cayman Islands (page does not exist)">Cayman Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_Cura%C3%A7ao&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Technological and industrial history of Curaçao (page does not exist)">Curaçao</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_Greenland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Technological and industrial history of Greenland (page does not exist)">Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_Guadeloupe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Technological and industrial history of Guadeloupe (page does not exist)">Guadeloupe</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_Martinique&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Technological and industrial history of Martinique (page does not exist)">Martinique</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_Montserrat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Technological and industrial history of Montserrat (page does not exist)">Montserrat</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_Puerto_Rico&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Technological and industrial history of Puerto Rico (page does not exist)">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_Saint_Barth%C3%A9lemy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Technological and industrial history of Saint Barthélemy (page does not exist)">Saint Barthélemy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_Collectivity_of_Saint_Martin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Technological and industrial history of the Collectivity of Saint Martin (page does not exist)">Saint Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_Saint_Pierre_and_Miquelon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Technological and industrial history of Saint Pierre and Miquelon (page does not exist)">Saint Pierre and Miquelon</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_Saba_(island)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Technological and industrial history of Saba (island) (page does not exist)">Saba</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_Sint_Eustatius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Technological and industrial history of Sint Eustatius (page does not exist)">Sint Eustatius</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_Sint_Maarten&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Technological and industrial history of Sint Maarten (page does not exist)">Sint Maarten</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_Turks_and_Caicos_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Technological and industrial history of the Turks and Caicos Islands (page does not exist)">Turks and Caicos Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Technological and industrial history of the United States Virgin Islands (page does not exist)">United States Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States&oldid=1275166218">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States&oldid=1275166218</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div 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