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cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Main ISO phases of LCA subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Main_ISO_phases_of_LCA-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Goal_and_scope" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Goal_and_scope"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Goal and scope </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Goal_and_scope-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Life_cycle_inventory_(LCI)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Life_cycle_inventory_(LCI)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Life cycle inventory (LCI) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Life_cycle_inventory_(LCI)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Life_cycle_impact_assessment_(LCIA)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Life_cycle_impact_assessment_(LCIA)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Life_cycle_impact_assessment_(LCIA)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interpretation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interpretation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Interpretation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interpretation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-LCA_uses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#LCA_uses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 LCA uses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-LCA_uses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Data_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Data_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Data analysis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Data_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Variants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Variants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Variants </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Variants-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Variants subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Variants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cradle-to-grave_or_life_cycle_assessment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cradle-to-grave_or_life_cycle_assessment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Cradle-to-grave or life cycle assessment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cradle-to-grave_or_life_cycle_assessment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cradle-to-gate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cradle-to-gate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Cradle-to-gate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cradle-to-gate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cradle-to-cradle_or_closed_loop_production" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cradle-to-cradle_or_closed_loop_production"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Cradle-to-cradle or closed loop production </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cradle-to-cradle_or_closed_loop_production-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gate-to-gate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gate-to-gate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Gate-to-gate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gate-to-gate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Well-to-wheel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Well-to-wheel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Well-to-wheel </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Well-to-wheel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_input–output_life_cycle_assessment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_input–output_life_cycle_assessment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 Economic input–output life cycle assessment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_input–output_life_cycle_assessment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ecologically_based_LCA" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecologically_based_LCA"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.7 Ecologically based LCA </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ecologically_based_LCA-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exergy-based_LCA" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exergy-based_LCA"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.8 Exergy-based LCA </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exergy-based_LCA-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Life_cycle_energy_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Life_cycle_energy_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Life cycle energy analysis </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Life_cycle_energy_analysis-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Life cycle energy analysis subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Life_cycle_energy_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Energy_production" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Energy_production"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Energy production </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Energy_production-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Energy_recovery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Energy_recovery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Energy recovery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Energy_recovery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Criticism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-LCA_dataset_creation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#LCA_dataset_creation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 LCA dataset creation </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-LCA_dataset_creation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle LCA dataset creation subsection </button> <ul id="toc-LCA_dataset_creation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-LCA_dataset_platforms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#LCA_dataset_platforms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 LCA dataset platforms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-LCA_dataset_platforms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dataset_optimization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dataset_optimization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Dataset optimization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dataset_optimization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Integration_in_systems_and_systems_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Integration_in_systems_and_systems_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Integration in systems and systems theory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Integration_in_systems_and_systems_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Critiques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Critiques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Critiques </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Critiques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Life-cycle assessment</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" 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Available in 25 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-25" aria-hidden="true" > 25 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%82%D9%8A%D9%8A%D9%85_%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A9" title="تقييم دورة الحياة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تقييم دورة الحياة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/An%C3%A0lisi_del_cicle_de_vida" title="Anàlisi del cicle de vida – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Anàlisi del cicle de vida" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posuzov%C3%A1n%C3%AD_%C5%BEivotn%C3%ADho_cyklu" title="Posuzování životního cyklu – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Posuzování životního cyklu" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livscyklusvurdering" title="Livscyklusvurdering – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Livscyklusvurdering" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebenszyklusanalyse" title="Lebenszyklusanalyse – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Lebenszyklusanalyse" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olelusringi_hindamine" title="Olelusringi hindamine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Olelusringi hindamine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/An%C3%A1lisis_de_ciclo_de_vida" title="Análisis de ciclo de vida – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Análisis de ciclo de vida" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bizi_zikloaren_analisi" title="Bizi zikloaren analisi – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Bizi zikloaren analisi" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%A8%DB%8C_%DA%86%D8%B1%D8%AE%D9%87_%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%B1" title="ارزیابی چرخه عمر – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ارزیابی چرخه عمر" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analyse_du_cycle_de_vie" title="Analyse du cycle de vie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Analyse du cycle de vie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/An%C3%A1lise_do_ciclo_de_vida" title="Análise do ciclo de vida – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Análise do ciclo de vida" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%84_%EA%B3%BC%EC%A0%95_%ED%8F%89%EA%B0%80" title="전 과정 평가 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="전 과정 평가" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADfsferilsgreining" title="Lífsferilsgreining – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Lífsferilsgreining" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analisi_del_ciclo_di_vita" title="Analisi del ciclo di vita – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Analisi del ciclo di vita" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89letciklus-%C3%A9rt%C3%A9kel%C3%A9s" title="Életciklus-értékelés – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Életciklus-értékelés" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levenscyclusanalyse" title="Levenscyclusanalyse – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Levenscyclusanalyse" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%A9%E3%82%A4%E3%83%95%E3%82%B5%E3%82%A4%E3%82%AF%E3%83%AB%E3%82%A2%E3%82%BB%E3%82%B9%E3%83%A1%E3%83%B3%E3%83%88" title="ライフサイクルアセスメント – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ライフサイクルアセスメント" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livssyklusanalyse" title="Livssyklusanalyse – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Livssyklusanalyse" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Arodowiskowa_ocena_cyklu_%C5%BCycia" title="Środowiskowa ocena cyklu życia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Środowiskowa ocena cyklu życia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avalia%C3%A7%C3%A3o_do_ciclo_de_vida" title="Avaliação do ciclo de vida – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Avaliação do ciclo de vida" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaluarea_ciclului_de_via%C8%9B%C4%83" title="Evaluarea ciclului de viață – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Evaluarea ciclului de viață" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elinkaariarviointi" title="Elinkaariarviointi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Elinkaariarviointi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livscykelanalys" title="Livscykelanalys – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Livscykelanalys" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%88_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%81" title="வாழ்க்கை வட்டப் பகுப்பாய்வு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="வாழ்க்கை வட்டப் பகுப்பாய்வு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" 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free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Life_cycle_assessment&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Life cycle assessment">Life cycle assessment</a>)</div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Methodology for assessing environmental impacts</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Cradle-to-grave" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Cradle_to_the_grave_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Cradle to the grave (disambiguation)">Cradle to the grave (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the environment impacts of products. For the ultimate cost of business decisions, see <a href="/wiki/Life_cycle_cost_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Life cycle cost analysis">Life cycle cost analysis</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PhasesOfLifeCycleAnalysis.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/PhasesOfLifeCycleAnalysis.png/250px-PhasesOfLifeCycleAnalysis.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/PhasesOfLifeCycleAnalysis.png 1.5x" data-file-width="340" data-file-height="359" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of the general phases of a life cycle assessment, as described by ISO 14040</figcaption></figure> Life cycle assessment (LCA), also known as life cycle analysis, is a <a href="/wiki/Methodology" title="Methodology">methodology</a> for assessing <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact">environmental impacts</a> associated with all the stages of the <a href="/wiki/Product_lifecycle" title="Product lifecycle">life cycle of a commercial product</a>, <a href="/wiki/Process_lifecycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Process lifecycle">process</a>, or service. For instance, in the case of a <a href="/wiki/Manufactured_product" class="mw-redirect" title="Manufactured product">manufactured product</a>, <a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues" title="Environmental issues">environmental impacts</a> are assessed from <a href="/wiki/Raw_material" title="Raw material">raw material</a> extraction and processing (cradle), through the product's manufacture, distribution and use, to the <a href="/wiki/Recycling" title="Recycling">recycling</a> or final disposal of the materials composing it (grave).<a href="#cite_note-IlginGuptaJEM2010-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-EPAnrmrl2012-2">[2]</a> An LCA study involves a thorough inventory of the <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Material" title="Material">materials</a> that are required across the supply chain and <a href="/wiki/Value_chain" title="Value chain">value chain</a> of a product, process or service, and calculates the corresponding emissions to the environment.<a href="#cite_note-EPAnrmrl2012-2">[2]</a> LCA thus assesses cumulative potential environmental impacts. The aim is to document and improve the overall environmental profile of the product<a href="#cite_note-EPAnrmrl2012-2">[2]</a> by serving as a holistic baseline upon which carbon footprints can be accurately compared. The LCA method is based on ISO 14040 (2006) and ISO 14044 (2006) standards.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Widely recognized procedures for conducting LCAs are included in the <a href="/wiki/ISO_14000" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 14000">14000 series</a> of <a href="/wiki/Environmental_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental management">environmental management</a> standards of the <a href="/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardization" title="International Organization for Standardization">International Organization for Standardization</a> (ISO), in particular, in ISO 14040 and ISO 14044. ISO 14040 provides the 'principles and framework' of the Standard, while ISO 14044 provides an outline of the 'requirements and guidelines'. Generally, ISO 14040 was written for a managerial audience and ISO 14044 for practitioners.<a href="#cite_note-:1-5">[5]</a> As part of the introductory section of ISO 14040, LCA has been defined as the following:<a href="#cite_note-:2-6">[6]</a><blockquote>LCA studies the environmental aspects and potential impacts throughout a product's life cycle (i.e., cradle-to-grave) from raw materials acquisition through production, use and disposal. The general categories of environmental impacts needing consideration include resource use, human health, and ecological consequences.</blockquote>Criticisms have been leveled against the LCA approach, both in general and with regard to specific cases (e.g., in the consistency of the methodology, the difficulty in performing, the cost in performing, revealing of intellectual property, and the understanding of system boundaries). When the understood methodology of performing an LCA is not followed, it can be completed based on a practitioner's views or the economic and political incentives of the sponsoring entity (an issue plaguing all known data-gathering practices). In turn, an LCA completed by 10 different parties could yield 10 different results. The ISO LCA Standard aims to normalize this; however, the guidelines are not overly restrictive and 10 different answers may still be generated.<a href="#cite_note-:1-5">[5]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition,_synonyms,_goals,_and_purpose">Definition, synonyms, goals, and purpose</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Life-cycle_assessment&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition, synonyms, goals, and purpose">edit</a>]</div> Life cycle assessment (LCA) is sometimes referred to synonymously as life cycle analysis in the scholarly and agency report literatures.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-IlginGuptaJEM2010-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> Also, due to the general nature of an LCA study of examining the life cycle impacts from raw material extraction (cradle) through disposal (grave), it is sometimes referred to as "cradle-to-grave analysis".<a href="#cite_note-:2-6">[6]</a> As stated by the National Risk Management Research Laboratory of the <a href="/wiki/EPA" class="mw-redirect" title="EPA">EPA</a>, "LCA is a technique to assess the environmental aspects and potential impacts associated with a product, process, or service, by: <ul><li>Compiling an inventory of relevant energy and material inputs and environmental releases</li> <li>Evaluating the potential environmental impacts associated with identified inputs and releases</li> <li>Interpreting the results to help you make a more informed decision".<a href="#cite_note-EPAnrmrl2012-2">[2]</a></li></ul> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Example_Life_Cycle_Assessment_Stages_diagram.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Example_Life_Cycle_Assessment_Stages_diagram.png/441px-Example_Life_Cycle_Assessment_Stages_diagram.png" decoding="async" width="441" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Example_Life_Cycle_Assessment_Stages_diagram.png/662px-Example_Life_Cycle_Assessment_Stages_diagram.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Example_Life_Cycle_Assessment_Stages_diagram.png/882px-Example_Life_Cycle_Assessment_Stages_diagram.png 2x" data-file-width="1018" data-file-height="462" /></a><figcaption>Example life cycle assessment (LCA) stages diagram</figcaption></figure> Hence, it is a technique to assess environmental impacts associated with all the stages of a product's life from raw material extraction through materials processing, manufacture, distribution, use, repair and <a href="/wiki/Maintenance_(technical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Maintenance (technical)">maintenance</a>, and disposal or recycling. The results are used to help decision-makers select products or processes that result in the least impact to the environment by considering an entire product system and avoiding sub-optimization that could occur if only a single process were used.<a href="#cite_note-:3-9">[9]</a> Therefore, the goal of LCA is to compare the full range of environmental effects assignable to products and services by quantifying all inputs and outputs of material flows and assessing how these material flows affect the environment.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> This information is used to improve processes, support policy and provide a sound basis for informed decisions. The term life cycle refers to the notion that a fair, <a href="/wiki/Holistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Holistic">holistic</a> assessment requires the assessment of raw-material production, manufacture, <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_distribution" title="Sustainable distribution">distribution</a>, use and <a href="/wiki/Waste_management" title="Waste management">disposal</a> including all intervening transportation steps necessary or caused by the product's existence.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Despite attempts to standardize LCA, results from different LCAs are often contradictory, therefore it is unrealistic to expect these results to be unique and objective. Thus, it should not be considered as such, but rather as a family of methods attempting to quantify results through a different point-of-view.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> Among these methods are two main types: Attributional LCA and Consequential LCA.<a href="#cite_note-:8-13">[13]</a> Attributional LCAs seek to attribute the burdens associated with the production and use of a product, or with a specific service or process, for an identified temporal period.<a href="#cite_note-:5-14">[14]</a> Consequential LCAs seek to identify the environmental consequences of a decision or a proposed change in a system under study, and thus are oriented to the future and require that market and economic implications must be taken into account.<a href="#cite_note-:5-14">[14]</a> In other words, Attributional LCA "attempts to answer 'how are things (i.e. pollutants, resources, and exchanges among processes) flowing within the chosen temporal window?', while Consequential LCA attempts to answer 'how will flows beyond the immediate system change in response to decisions?"<a href="#cite_note-:3-9">[9]</a> A third type of LCA, termed "social LCA", is also under development and is a distinct approach to that is intended to assess potential social and socio-economic implications and impacts.<a href="#cite_note-:6-15">[15]</a> Social life cycle assessment (SLCA) is a useful tool for companies to identify and assess potential social impacts along the lifecycle of a product or service on various stakeholders (for example: workers, local communities, consumers).<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> SLCA is framed by the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lifecycleinitiative.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/S-LCA_methodological_sheets_11.11.13.pdf">UNEP/SETAC’s Guidelines for social life cycle assessment of products</a> published in 2009 in Quebec.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> The tool builds on the <a href="/wiki/ISO_26000" title="ISO 26000">ISO 26000</a>:2010 Guidelines for Social Responsibility and the <a href="/wiki/Global_Reporting_Initiative" title="Global Reporting Initiative">Global Reporting Initiative</a> (GRI) Guidelines.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> The limitations of LCA to focus solely on the ecological aspects of sustainability, and not the economical or social aspects, distinguishes it from product line analysis (PLA) and similar methods. This limitation was made deliberately to avoid method overload but recognizes these factors should not be ignored when making product decisions.<a href="#cite_note-:2-6">[6]</a> Some widely recognized procedures for LCA are included in the <a href="/wiki/ISO_14000" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 14000">ISO 14000</a> series of environmental management standards, in particular, ISO 14040 and 14044.<a href="#cite_note-14040_2006-19">[19]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-14044_2006-20">[20]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">Greenhouse gas</a> (GHG) product life cycle assessments can also comply with specifications such as <a href="/wiki/Publicly_Available_Specification" title="Publicly Available Specification">Publicly Available Specification</a> (PAS) 2050 and the <a href="/wiki/Carbon_emissions_reporting#Greenhouse_Gas_Protocol" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon emissions reporting">GHG Protocol Life Cycle Accounting and Reporting Standard</a>.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Life_cycle_analysis_and_GHG_carbon_accounting.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Life_cycle_analysis_and_GHG_carbon_accounting.jpg/220px-Life_cycle_analysis_and_GHG_carbon_accounting.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="313" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Life_cycle_analysis_and_GHG_carbon_accounting.jpg/330px-Life_cycle_analysis_and_GHG_carbon_accounting.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Life_cycle_analysis_and_GHG_carbon_accounting.jpg/440px-Life_cycle_analysis_and_GHG_carbon_accounting.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4618" data-file-height="6565" /></a><figcaption>Life cycle analysis and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_accounting" title="Carbon accounting">carbon accounting</a> for <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse gas emissions</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Main_ISO_phases_of_LCA">Main ISO phases of LCA</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Life-cycle_assessment&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Main ISO phases of LCA">edit</a>]</div> According to standards in the ISO 14040 and 14044, an LCA is carried out in four distinct phases,<a href="#cite_note-:2-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-14040_2006-19">[19]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-14044_2006-20">[20]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] as illustrated in the figure shown at the above right (at opening of the article). The phases are often interdependent, in that the results of one phase will inform how other phases are completed. Therefore, none of the stages should be considered finalized until the entire study is complete.<a href="#cite_note-:1-5">[5]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Goal_and_scope">Goal and scope</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Life-cycle_assessment&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Goal and scope">edit</a>]</div> An LCA study begins with a goal and scope definition phase, which includes the product function, functional unit, product system and its boundaries, assumptions, data categories, allocation procedures, and review method to be employed in the analysis.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> The ISO LCA Standard requires a series of parameters to be quantitatively and qualitatively expressed, which are occasionally referred to as study design parameters (SPDs). The two main SPDs for an LCA are the Goal and Scope, both which must be explicitly stated. It is recommended that a study uses the keywords represented in the Standard when documenting these details (e.g., "The goal of the study is...") to make sure there is no confusion and ensure the study is being interpreted for its intended use.<a href="#cite_note-:1-5">[5]</a> Generally, an LCA study starts with a clear statement of its goal, outlining the study's context and detailing how and to whom the results will be communicated. Per ISO guidelines, the goal must unambiguously state the following items: <ol><li>The intended application</li> <li>Reasons for carrying out the study</li> <li>The audience</li> <li>Whether the results will be used in a comparative assertion released publicly<a href="#cite_note-:1-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-:7-25">[25]</a></li></ol> The goal should also be defined with the commissioner for the study, and it is recommended a detailed description for why the study is being carried out is acquired from the commissioner.<a href="#cite_note-:7-25">[25]</a> Following the goal, the scope must be defined by outlining the qualitative and quantitative information included in the study. Unlike the goal, which may only include a few sentences, the scope often requires multiple pages.<a href="#cite_note-:1-5">[5]</a> It is set to describe the detail and depth of the study and demonstrate that the goal can be achieved within the stated limitations.<a href="#cite_note-:7-25">[25]</a> Under the ISO LCA Standard guidelines, the scope of the study should outline the following:<a href="#cite_note-Curran_2017_1–62-26">[26]</a> <ul><li>Product system, which is a collection of processes (activities that transform inputs to outputs) that are needed to perform a specified function and are within the system boundary of the study. It is representative of all the processes in the life cycle of a product or process.<a href="#cite_note-:1-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-:7-25">[25]</a></li> <li>Functional unit, which defines precisely what is being studied, quantifies the service delivered by the system, provides a reference to which the inputs and outputs can be related, and provides a basis for comparing/analyzing alternative goods or services.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> The functional unit is a very important component of LCA and needs to be clearly defined.<a href="#cite_note-:7-25">[25]</a> It is used as a basis for selecting one or more product systems that can provide the function. Therefore, the functional unit enables different systems to be treated as functionally equivalent. The defined functional unit should be quantifiable, include units, consider temporal coverage, and not contain product system inputs and outputs (e.g., kg CO2 emissions).<a href="#cite_note-:1-5">[5]</a> Another way to look at it is by considering the following questions: <ol><li>What?</li> <li>How much?</li> <li>For how long / how many times?</li> <li>Where?</li> <li>How well?<a href="#cite_note-:8-13">[13]</a></li></ol></li> <li>Reference flow, which is the amount of product or energy that is needed to realize the functional unit.<a href="#cite_note-:7-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-:8-13">[13]</a> Typically, the reference flow is different qualitatively and quantitatively for different products or systems across the same reference flow; however, there are instances where they can be the same.<a href="#cite_note-:8-13">[13]</a></li> <li>System boundary, which delimits which processes should be included in the analysis of a product system, including whether the system produces any co-products that must be accounted for by system expansion or allocation.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> The system boundary should be in accordance with the stated goal of the study.<a href="#cite_note-:1-5">[5]</a></li> <li>Assumptions and limitations,<a href="#cite_note-:7-25">[25]</a> which includes any assumptions or decisions made throughout the study that may influence the final results. It is important these are made transmitted as the omittance may result in misinterpretation of the results. Additional assumptions and limitations necessary to accomplish the project are often made throughout the project and should recorded as necessary.<a href="#cite_note-:3-9">[9]</a></li> <li>Data quality requirements, which specify the kinds of data that will be included and what restrictions.<a href="#cite_note-:0-29">[29]</a> According to ISO 14044, the following data quality considerations should be documented in the scope: <ol><li>Temporal coverage</li> <li>Geographical coverage</li> <li>Technological coverage</li> <li>Precision, completeness, and representativeness of the data</li> <li>Consistency and reproducibility of the methods used in the study</li> <li>Sources of data</li> <li>Uncertainty of information and any recognized data gaps<a href="#cite_note-:7-25">[25]</a></li></ol></li> <li>Allocation procedure, which is used to partition the inputs and outputs of a product and is necessary for processes that produce multiple products, or co-products.<a href="#cite_note-:7-25">[25]</a> This is also known as multifunctionality of a product system.<a href="#cite_note-:8-13">[13]</a> ISO 14044 presents a hierarchy of solutions to deal with multifunctionality issues, as the choice of allocation method for co-products can significantly impact results of an LCA.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> The hierarchy methods are as follows: <ol><li>Avoid Allocation by Sub-Division - this method attempts to disaggregate the unit process into smaller sub-processes in order to separate the production of the product from the production of the co-product.<a href="#cite_note-:8-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-:9-31">[31]</a></li> <li>Avoid Allocation through System Expansion (or substitution) - this method attempts to expand the process of the co-product with the most likely way of providing the secondary function of the determining product (or reference product). In other words, by expanding the system of the co-product in the most likely alternative way of producing the co-product independently (System 2). The impacts resulting from the alternative way of producing the co-product (System 2) are then subtracted from the determining product to isolate the impacts in System 1.<a href="#cite_note-:8-13">[13]</a></li> <li>Allocation (or partition) based on Physical Relationship - this method attempts to divide inputs and outputs and allocate them based on physical relationships between the products (e.g., mass, energy-use, etc.).<a href="#cite_note-:8-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-:9-31">[31]</a></li> <li>Allocation (or partition) based on Other Relationship (non-physical) - this method attempts to divide inputs and outputs and allocate them based on non-physical relationships (e.g., economic value).<a href="#cite_note-:8-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-:9-31">[31]</a></li></ol></li> <li>Impact assessment, which includes an outline of the impact categories identified under interest for the study, and the selected methodology used to calculate the respective impacts. Specifically, life cycle inventory data is translated into environmental impact scores,<a href="#cite_note-:8-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-:9-31">[31]</a> which might include such categories as human <a href="/wiki/Toxicity" title="Toxicity">toxicity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Smog" title="Smog">smog</a>, <a href="/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">global warming</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">eutrophication</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-29">[29]</a> As part of the scope, only an overview needs to be provided, as the main analysis on the impact categories is discussed in the Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) phase of the study.</li> <li>Documentation of data, which is the explicit documentation of the inputs/outputs (individual flows) used within the study. This is necessary as most analyses do not consider all inputs and outputs of a product system, so this provides the audience with a transparent representation of the selected data. It also provides transparency for why the system boundary, product system, functional unit, etc. was chosen.<a href="#cite_note-:9-31">[31]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Life_cycle_inventory_(LCI)">Life cycle inventory (LCI)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Life-cycle_assessment&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Life cycle inventory (LCI)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LCI_Diagram.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/LCI_Diagram.png/220px-LCI_Diagram.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/LCI_Diagram.png/330px-LCI_Diagram.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/LCI_Diagram.png/440px-LCI_Diagram.png 2x" data-file-width="1020" data-file-height="628" /></a><figcaption>An example of a life cycle inventory (LCI) diagram</figcaption></figure> Life cycle inventory (LCI) analysis involves creating an inventory of flows from and to nature (ecosphere) for a product system.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> It is the process of quantifying raw material and energy requirements, atmospheric emissions, land emissions, water emissions, resource uses, and other releases over the life cycle of a product or process.<a href="#cite_note-:10-33">[33]</a> In other words, it is the aggregation of all elementary flows related to each unit process within a product system. To develop the inventory, it is often recommended to start with a flow model of the technical system using data on inputs and outputs of the product system.<a href="#cite_note-:10-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-:19-34">[34]</a> The flow model is typically illustrated with a flow diagram that includes the activities that are going to be assessed in the relevant supply chain and gives a clear picture of the technical system boundaries.<a href="#cite_note-:19-34">[34]</a> Generally, the more detailed and complex the flow diagram, the more accurate the study and results.<a href="#cite_note-:10-33">[33]</a> The input and output data needed for the construction of the model is collected for all activities within the system boundary, including from the supply chain (referred to as inputs from the technosphere).<a href="#cite_note-:19-34">[34]</a> According to ISO 14044, an LCI should be documented using the following steps: <ol><li>Preparation of data collection based on goal and scope</li> <li>Data collection</li> <li>Data validation (even if using another work's data)</li> <li>Data allocation (if needed)</li> <li>Relating data to the unit process</li> <li>Relating data to the functional unit</li> <li>Data aggregation<a href="#cite_note-:12-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></li></ol> As referenced in the ISO 14044 standard, the data must be related to the functional unit, as well as the goal and scope. However, since the LCA stages are iterative in nature, the data collection phase may cause the goal or scope to change.<a href="#cite_note-Curran_2017_1–62-26">[26]</a> Conversely, a change in the goal or scope during the course of the study may cause additional collection of data or removal of previously collected data in the LCI.<a href="#cite_note-:12-35">[35]</a> The output of an LCI is a compiled inventory of elementary flows from all of the processes in the studied product system(s). The data is typically detailed in charts and requires a structured approach due to its complex nature.<a href="#cite_note-:11-37">[37]</a> When collecting the data for each process within the system boundary, the ISO LCA standard requires the study to measure or estimate the data in order to quantitatively represent each process in the product system. Ideally, when collecting data, a practitioner should aim to collect data from primary sources (e.g., measuring inputs and outputs of a process on-site or other physical means).<a href="#cite_note-:12-35">[35]</a> Questionnaire are frequently used to collect data on-site and can even be issued to the respective manufacturer or company to complete. Items on the questionnaire to be recorded may include: <ol><li>Product for data collection</li> <li>Data collector and date</li> <li>Period of data collection</li> <li>Detailed explanation of the process</li> <li>Inputs (raw materials, ancillary materials, energy, transportation)</li> <li>Outputs (emissions to air, water, and land)</li> <li>Quantity and quality of each input and output<a href="#cite_note-:13-38">[38]</a></li></ol> Oftentimes, the collection of primary data may be difficult and deemed proprietary or confidential by the owner.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> An alternative to primary data is secondary data, which is data that comes from LCA databases, literature sources, and other past studies. With secondary sources, it is often you find data that is similar to a process but not exact (e.g., data from a different country, slightly different process, similar but different machine, etc.).<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> As such, it is important to explicitly document the differences in such data. However, secondary data is not always inferior to primary data. For example, referencing another work's data in which the author used very accurate primary data.<a href="#cite_note-:12-35">[35]</a> Along with primary data, secondary data should document the source, reliability, and temporal, geographical, and technological representativeness. When identifying the inputs and outputs to document for each unit process within the product system of an LCI, a practitioner may come across the instance where a process has multiple input streams or generate multiple output streams. In such case, the practitioner should allocate the flows based on the "Allocation procedure"<a href="#cite_note-:10-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-:12-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-:13-38">[38]</a> outlined in the previous "Goal and scope" section of this article. The technosphere is more simply defined as the human-made world, and considered by geologists as secondary resources, these resources are in theory 100% recyclable; however, in a practical sense, the primary goal is salvage.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> For an LCI, these technosphere products (supply chain products) are those that have been produced by humans, including products such as forestry, materials, and energy flows.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Typically, they will not have access to data concerning inputs and outputs for previous production processes of the product.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> The entity undertaking the LCA must then turn to secondary sources if it does not already have that data from its own previous studies. National databases or data sets that come with LCA-practitioner tools, or that can be readily accessed, are the usual sources for that information.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> Care must then be taken to ensure that the secondary data source properly reflects regional or national conditions.<a href="#cite_note-:12-35">[35]</a> LCI methods include "process-based LCAs", economic input–output LCA (<a href="/wiki/EIOLCA" class="mw-redirect" title="EIOLCA">EIOLCA</a>), and hybrid approaches.<a href="#cite_note-:11-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-:12-35">[35]</a> Process-based LCA is a bottom-up LCI approach the constructs an LCI using knowledge about industrial processes within the life cycle of a product, and the physical flows connecting them.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> EIOLCA is a top-down approach to LCI and uses information on elementary flows associated with one unit of economic activity across different sectors.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> This information is typically pulled from government agency national statistics tracking trade and services between sectors.<a href="#cite_note-:11-37">[37]</a> Hybrid LCA is a combination of process-based LCA and EIOLCA.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> The quality of LCI data is typically evaluated with the use of a pedigree matrix. Different pedigree matrices are available, but all contain a number of data quality indicators and a set of qualitative criteria per indicator.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> There is another hybrid approach integrates the widely used, semi-quantitative approach that uses a pedigree matrix, into a qualitative analysis to better illustrate the quality of LCI data for non-technical audiences, in particular policymakers.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Life_cycle_impact_assessment_(LCIA)">Life cycle impact assessment (LCIA)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Life-cycle_assessment&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Life cycle impact assessment (LCIA)">edit</a>]</div> Life cycle inventory analysis is followed by a life cycle impact assessment (LCIA). This phase of LCA is aimed at evaluating the potential environmental and human health impacts resulting from the elementary flows determined in the LCI. The ISO 14040 and 14044 standards require the following mandatory steps for completing an LCIA:<a href="#cite_note-:14-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-:15-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> Mandatory <ul><li>Selection of impaction categories, category indicators, and characterization models. The ISO Standard requires that a study selects multiple impacts that encompass "a comprehensive set of environmental issues". The impacts should be relevant to the geographical region of the study and justification for each chosen impact should be discussed.<a href="#cite_note-:15-53">[53]</a> Often times in practice, this is completed by choosing an already existing LCIA method (e.g., TRACI, ReCiPe, AWARE, etc.).<a href="#cite_note-:14-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></li> <li>Classification of inventory results. In this step, the LCI results are assigned to the chosen impact categories based on their known environmental effects. In practice, this is often completed using LCI databases or LCA software.<a href="#cite_note-:14-52">[52]</a> Common impact categories include Global Warming, Ozone Depletion, Acidification, Human Toxicity, etc.<a href="#cite_note-:16-56">[56]</a></li> <li>Characterization, which quantitatively transforms the LCI results within each impact category via "characterization factors" (also referred to as equivalency factors) to create "impact category indicators."<a href="#cite_note-:15-53">[53]</a> In other words, this step is aimed at answering "how much does each result contribute to the impact category?"<a href="#cite_note-:14-52">[52]</a> A main purpose of this step is to convert all classified flows for an impact into common units for comparison. For example, for Global Warming Potential, the unit is generally defined as CO2-equiv or CO2-e (CO2 equivalents) where CO2 is given a value of 1 and all other units are converted respective to their related impact.<a href="#cite_note-:15-53">[53]</a></li></ul> In many LCAs, characterization concludes the LCIA analysis, as it is the last compulsory stage according to ISO 14044.<a href="#cite_note-14044_2006-20">[20]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-:15-53">[53]</a> However, the ISO Standard provides the following optional steps to be taken in addition to the aforementioned mandatory steps: Optional <ul><li>Normalization of results. This step aims to answer "Is that a lot?" by expressing the LCIA results in respect to a chosen reference system.<a href="#cite_note-:14-52">[52]</a> A separate reference value is often chosen for each impact category, and the rationale for the step is to provide temporal and spatial perspective and to help validate the LCIA results.<a href="#cite_note-:15-53">[53]</a> Standard references are typical impacts per impact category per: geographical zone, inhabitant of geographical zone (per person), industrial sector, or another product system or baseline reference scenario.<a href="#cite_note-:14-52">[52]</a></li> <li>Grouping of LCIA results. This step is accomplished by sorting or ranking the LCIA results (either characterized or normalized depending on the prior steps chosen) into a single group or several groups as defined within the goal and scope.<a href="#cite_note-:14-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-:15-53">[53]</a> However, grouping is subjective and may be inconsistent across studies.</li> <li>Weighting of impact categories. This step aims to determine the significance of each category and how important it is relative to the others. It allows studies to aggregate impact scores into a single indicator for comparison.<a href="#cite_note-:14-52">[52]</a> Weighting is highly subjective and as it is often decided based on the interested parties' ethics.<a href="#cite_note-:15-53">[53]</a> There are three main categories of weighting methods: the panel method, monetization method, and target method.<a href="#cite_note-:16-56">[56]</a> ISO 14044 generally advises against weighting, stating that "weighting, shall not be used in LCA studies intended to be used in comparative assertions intended to be disclosed to the public".<a href="#cite_note-14044_2006-20">[20]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] If a study decides to weight results, then the weighted results should always be reported together with the non-weighted results for transparency.<a href="#cite_note-:11-37">[37]</a></li></ul> Life cycle impacts can also be categorized under the several phases of the development, production, use, and disposal of a product. Broadly speaking, these impacts can be divided into first impacts, use impacts, and end of life impacts. First impacts include extraction of raw materials, manufacturing (conversion of raw materials into a product), transportation of the product to a market or site, construction/installation, and the beginning of the use or occupancy.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> Use impacts include physical impacts of operating the product or facility (such as energy, water, etc.), and any maintenance, renovation, or repairs that are required to continue to use the product or facility.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> End of life impacts include demolition and processing of waste or recyclable materials.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interpretation">Interpretation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Life-cycle_assessment&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Interpretation">edit</a>]</div> Life cycle interpretation is a systematic technique to identify, quantify, check, and evaluate information from the results of the life cycle inventory and/or the life cycle impact assessment. The results from the inventory analysis and impact assessment are summarized during the interpretation phase. The outcome of the interpretation phase is a set of conclusions and recommendations for the study. According to ISO 14043,<a href="#cite_note-14040_2006-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-:17-62">[62]</a> the interpretation should include the following: <ul><li>Identification of significant issues based on the results of the LCI and LCIA phases of an LCA</li> <li>Evaluation of the study considering completeness, sensitivity and consistency checks</li> <li>Conclusions, limitations and recommendations<a href="#cite_note-:17-62">[62]</a></li></ul> A key purpose of performing life cycle interpretation is to determine the level of confidence in the final results and communicate them in a fair, complete, and accurate manner. Interpreting the results of an LCA is not as simple as "3 is better than 2, therefore Alternative A is the best choice".<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> Interpretation begins with understanding the accuracy of the results, and ensuring they meet the goal of the study. This is accomplished by identifying the data elements that contribute significantly to each impact category, <a href="/wiki/Sensitivity_analysis" title="Sensitivity analysis">evaluating the sensitivity</a> of these significant data elements, assessing the completeness and consistency of the study, and drawing conclusions and recommendations based on a clear understanding of how the LCA was conducted and the results were developed.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-:17-62">[62]</a> Specifically, as voiced by M.A. Curran, the goal of the LCA interpretation phase is to identify the alternative that has the least cradle-to-grave environmental negative impact on land, sea, and air resources.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="LCA_uses">LCA uses</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Life-cycle_assessment&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: LCA uses">edit</a>]</div> LCA was primarily used as a comparison tool, providing informative information on the environmental impacts of a product and comparing it to available alternatives.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> Its potential applications expanded to include marketing, product design, product development, strategic planning, consumer education, ecolabeling and government policy.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> ISO specifies three types of classification in regard to standards and environmental labels: <ul><li>Type I environmental labelling requires a third-party certification process to verify a products compliance against a set of criteria, according to ISO 14024.</li> <li>Type II environmental labels are self-declared environmental claims, according to ISO 14021.</li> <li>Type III environmental declaration, also known as environmental product declaration (EPD), uses LCA as a tool to report the environmental performance of a product, while conforming to the ISO standards 14040 and 14044.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a></li></ul> EPDs provide a level of transparency that is being increasingly demanded through policies and standards around the world. They are used in the built environment as a tool for experts in the industry to compose whole building life cycle assessments more easily, as the environmental impact of individual products are known.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Data_analysis">Data analysis</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Life-cycle_assessment&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Data analysis">edit</a>]</div> A life cycle analysis is only as accurate and valid as is its basis set of <a href="/wiki/Data" title="Data">data</a>.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> There are two fundamental types of LCA data–unit process data, and environmental input-output (EIO) data.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> A unit process data collects data around a single industrial activity and its product(s), including resources used from the environment and other industries, as well as its generated emissions throughout its life cycle.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> EIO data are based on national economic input-output data.<a href="#cite_note-greet-73">[73]</a> In 2001, ISO published a technical specification on data documentation, describing the format for life cycle inventory data (ISO 14048).<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> The format includes three areas: process, modeling and validation, and administrative information.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> When comparing LCAs, the data used in each LCA should be of equivalent quality, since no just comparison can be done if one product has a much higher availability of accurate and valid data, as compared to another product which has lower availability of such data.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> Moreover, time horizon is a sensitive parameter and was shown to introduce inadvertent bias by providing one perspective on the outcome of LCA, when comparing the toxicity potential between petrochemicals and biopolymers for instance.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Therefore, conducting sensitivity analysis in LCA are important to determine which parameters considerably impact the results, and can also be used to identify which parameters cause uncertainties.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> Data sources used in LCAs are typically large databases.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> Common data sources include:<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 13em;"> <ul><li>HESTIA (University of Oxford)</li> <li>soca</li> <li>EuGeos' 15804-IA</li> <li>NEEDS</li> <li>CarbonCloud <a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a></li> <li>ecoinvent</li> <li>PSILCA</li> <li>ESU World Food</li> <li>GaBi</li> <li>ELCD</li> <li>LC-Inventories.ch</li> <li>Social Hotspots</li> <li>ProBas</li> <li>bioenergiedat</li> <li>Agribalyse</li> <li>USDA</li> <li>Ökobaudat</li> <li>Agri-footprint</li> <li>Comprehensive Environmental Data Archive (CEDA)<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a></li></ul> </div> As noted above, the inventory in the LCA usually considers a number of stages including materials extraction, processing and manufacturing, product use, and product disposal.<a href="#cite_note-IlginGuptaJEM2010-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-EPAnrmrl2012-2">[2]</a> When an LCA is done on a product across all stages, the stage with the highest environmental impact can be determined and altered.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> For example, woolen-garment was evaluated on its environmental impacts during its production, use and end-of-life, and identified the contribution of fossil fuel energy to be dominated by wool processing and GHG emissions to be dominated by wool production.<a href="#cite_note-:4-84">[84]</a> However, the most influential factor was the number of garment wear and length of garment lifetime, indicating that the consumer has the largest influence on this products' overall environmental impact.<a href="#cite_note-:4-84">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Variants">Variants</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Life-cycle_assessment&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Variants">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cradle-to-grave_or_life_cycle_assessment">Cradle-to-grave or life cycle assessment</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Life-cycle_assessment&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Cradle-to-grave or life cycle assessment">edit</a>]</div> Cradle-to-grave is the full life cycle assessment from resource extraction ('cradle'), to manufacturing, usage, and maintenance, all the way through to its disposal phase ('grave').<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> For example, trees produce paper, which can be recycled into low-energy production <a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a> (fiberised paper) <a href="/wiki/Building_insulation" title="Building insulation">insulation</a>, then used as an energy-saving device in the ceiling of a home for 40 years, saving 2,000 times the <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil-fuel</a> energy used in its production. After 40 years the <a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a> fibers are replaced and the old fibers are disposed of, possibly incinerated. All inputs and outputs are considered for all the phases of the life cycle.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cradle-to-gate">Cradle-to-gate</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Life-cycle_assessment&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Cradle-to-gate">edit</a>]</div> Cradle-to-gate is an assessment of a partial product life cycle from resource extraction (cradle) to the factory gate (i.e., before it is transported to the consumer). The use phase and disposal phase of the product are omitted in this case. Cradle-to-gate assessments are sometimes the basis for <a href="/wiki/Environmental_product_declarations" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental product declarations">environmental product declarations</a> (EPD) termed business-to-business EPDs.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] One of the significant uses of the cradle-to-gate approach compiles the life cycle inventory (LCI) using cradle-to-gate. This allows the LCA to collect all of the impacts leading up to resources being purchased by the facility. They can then add the steps involved in their transport to plant and manufacture process to more easily produce their own cradle-to-gate values for their products.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cradle-to-cradle_or_closed_loop_production">Cradle-to-cradle or closed loop production</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Life-cycle_assessment&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Cradle-to-cradle or closed loop production">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cradle-to-cradle_design" title="Cradle-to-cradle design">Cradle-to-cradle design</a></div> Cradle-to-cradle is a specific kind of cradle-to-grave assessment, where the end-of-life disposal step for the product is a recycling process. It is a method used to minimize the environmental impact of products by employing sustainable production, operation, and disposal practices and aims to incorporate social responsibility into product development.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> From the recycling process originate new, identical products (e.g., asphalt pavement from discarded asphalt pavement, glass bottles from collected glass bottles), or different products (e.g., glass wool insulation from collected glass bottles).<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> Allocation of burden for products in open loop production systems presents considerable challenges for LCA. Various methods, such as the <a href="/wiki/Avoided_burden" title="Avoided burden">avoided burden</a> approach have been proposed to deal with the issues involved.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gate-to-gate">Gate-to-gate</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Life-cycle_assessment&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Gate-to-gate">edit</a>]</div> Gate-to-gate is a partial LCA looking at only one value-added process in the entire production chain. Gate-to-gate modules may also later be linked in their appropriate production chain to form a complete cradle-to-gate evaluation.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Well-to-wheel">Well-to-wheel</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Life-cycle_assessment&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Well-to-wheel">edit</a>]</div> Well-to-wheel (WtW) is the specific LCA used for <a href="/wiki/Transport" title="Transport">transport</a> <a href="/wiki/Fuel" title="Fuel">fuels</a> and vehicles. The analysis is often broken down into stages entitled "well-to-station", or "well-to-tank", and "station-to-wheel" or "tank-to-wheel", or "plug-to-wheel". The first stage, which incorporates the feedstock or fuel production and processing and fuel delivery or energy transmission, and is called the "upstream" stage, while the stage that deals with vehicle operation itself is sometimes called the "downstream" stage. The well-to-wheel analysis is commonly used to assess total energy consumption, or the <a href="/wiki/Energy_conversion_efficiency" title="Energy conversion efficiency">energy conversion efficiency</a> and <a href="/wiki/Exhaust_gas" title="Exhaust gas">emissions</a> impact of <a href="/wiki/Marine_vessel" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine vessel">marine vessels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aircraft" title="Aircraft">aircraft</a> and <a href="/wiki/Motor_vehicle" title="Motor vehicle">motor vehicles</a>, including their <a href="/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">carbon footprint</a>, and the fuels used in each of these transport modes.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-VDI-94">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> WtW analysis is useful for reflecting the different efficiencies and emissions of energy technologies and fuels at both the upstream and downstream stages, giving a more complete picture of real emissions.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> The well-to-wheel variant has a significant input on a model developed by the <a href="/wiki/Argonne_National_Laboratory" title="Argonne National Laboratory">Argonne National Laboratory</a>. The <a href="/wiki/GREET_Model" title="GREET Model">Greenhouse gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy use in Transportation (GREET) model</a> was developed to evaluate the impacts of new fuels and vehicle technologies. The model evaluates the impacts of fuel use using a well-to-wheel evaluation while a traditional cradle-to-grave approach is used to determine the impacts from the vehicle itself. The model reports energy use, <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse gas emissions</a>, and six additional pollutants: <a href="/wiki/Volatile_organic_compounds" class="mw-redirect" title="Volatile organic compounds">volatile organic compounds</a> (VOCs), <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a> (CO), <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_oxide" title="Nitrogen oxide">nitrogen oxide</a> (NOx), <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_particulate_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmospheric particulate matter">particulate matter</a> with size smaller than 10 micrometer (PM10), particulate matter with size smaller than 2.5 micrometer (PM2.5), and <a href="/wiki/Sulfur_oxide" title="Sulfur oxide">sulfur oxides</a> (SOx).<a href="#cite_note-greet-73">[73]</a> Quantitative values of greenhouse gas emissions calculated with the WTW or with the LCA method can differ, since the LCA is considering more emission sources. For example, while assessing the GHG emissions of a <a href="/wiki/Battery_electric_vehicle" title="Battery electric vehicle">battery electric vehicle</a> in comparison with a conventional internal combustion engine vehicle, the WTW (accounting only the GHG for manufacturing the fuels) concludes that an electric vehicle can save around 50–60% of GHG.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> On the other hand, using a hybrid LCA-WTW method, concludes that GHG emission savings are 10-13% lower than the WTW results, as the GHG due to the manufacturing and the end of life of the battery are also considered.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_input–output_life_cycle_assessment">Economic input–output life cycle assessment</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Life-cycle_assessment&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Economic input–output life cycle assessment">edit</a>]</div> Economic input–output LCA (<a href="/wiki/EIOLCA" class="mw-redirect" title="EIOLCA">EIOLCA</a>) involves use of aggregate sector-level data on how much environmental impact can be attributed to each sector of the economy and how much each sector purchases from other sectors.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> Such analysis can account for long chains (for example, building an automobile requires energy, but producing energy requires vehicles, and building those vehicles requires energy, etc.), which somewhat alleviates the scoping problem of process LCA; however, EIOLCA relies on sector-level averages that may or may not be representative of the specific subset of the sector relevant to a particular product and therefore is not suitable for evaluating the environmental impacts of products. Additionally, the translation of economic quantities into environmental impacts is not validated.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ecologically_based_LCA">Ecologically based LCA</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Life-cycle_assessment&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Ecologically based LCA">edit</a>]</div> While a conventional LCA uses many of the same approaches and strategies as an Eco-LCA, the latter considers a much broader range of ecological impacts. It was designed to provide a guide to wise management of human activities by understanding the direct and indirect impacts on ecological resources and surrounding ecosystems. Developed by Ohio State University Center for resilience, Eco-LCA is a methodology that quantitatively takes into account regulating and supporting services during the life cycle of economic goods and products. In this approach services are categorized in four main groups: supporting, regulating, provisioning and cultural services.<a href="#cite_note-Singh&baksshi-102">[102]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Exergy-based_LCA">Exergy-based LCA</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Life-cycle_assessment&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Exergy-based LCA">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Exergy" title="Exergy">Exergy</a> of a system is the maximum useful work possible during a process that brings the system into equilibrium with a heat reservoir.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> Wall<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> clearly states the relation between exergy analysis and resource accounting.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> This intuition confirmed by DeWulf<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> and Sciubba<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> lead to Exergo-economic accounting<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> and to methods specifically dedicated to LCA such as Exergetic material input per unit of service (EMIPS).<a href="#cite_note-:18-110">[110]</a> The concept of material input per unit of service (MIPS) is quantified in terms of the <a href="/wiki/Second_law_of_thermodynamics" title="Second law of thermodynamics">second law of thermodynamics</a>, allowing the calculation of both resource input and service output in exergy terms. This exergetic material input per unit of service (EMIPS) has been elaborated for <a href="/wiki/Transport" title="Transport">transport</a> technology. The service not only takes into account the total mass to be transported and the total distance, but also the mass per single transport and the delivery time.<a href="#cite_note-:18-110">[110]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Life_cycle_energy_analysis">Life cycle energy analysis</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Life-cycle_assessment&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Life cycle energy analysis">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Energy_Return_on_Energy_Invested" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy Return on Energy Invested">Energy Return on Energy Invested</a></div> Life cycle energy analysis (LCEA) is an approach in which all <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a> inputs to a product are accounted for, not only direct energy inputs during manufacture, but also all energy inputs needed to produce components, materials and services needed for the manufacturing process.<a href="#cite_note-Ramesh2010-111">[111]</a> With LCEA, the total life cycle energy input is established.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Energy_production">Energy production</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Life-cycle_assessment&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Energy production">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Energy_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy production">Energy production</a></div> It is recognized that much energy is lost in the production of energy commodities themselves, such as <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear energy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photovoltaic">photovoltaic</a> electricity or high-quality <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_products" class="mw-redirect" title="Petroleum products">petroleum products</a>. Net energy content is the energy content of the product minus energy input used during extraction and <a href="/wiki/Energy_conversion" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy conversion">conversion</a>, directly or indirectly. A controversial early result of LCEA claimed that manufacturing <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">solar cells</a> requires more energy than can be recovered in using the solar cell.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> Although these results were true when solar cells were first manufactured, their efficiency increased greatly over the years.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> Currently, energy payback time of photovoltaic solar panels range from a few months to several years.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> Module recycling could further reduce the energy payback time to around one month.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> Another new concept that flows from life cycle assessments is <a href="/wiki/Energy_Cannibalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy Cannibalism">energy cannibalism</a>. Energy cannibalism refers to an effect where rapid growth of an entire energy-intensive industry creates a need for energy that uses (or cannibalizes) the energy of existing power plants. Thus, during rapid growth, the industry as a whole produces no energy because new energy is used to fuel the <a href="/wiki/Embodied_energy" title="Embodied energy">embodied energy</a> of future power plants. Work has been undertaken in the UK to determine the life cycle energy (alongside full LCA) impacts of a number of renewable technologies.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Energy_recovery">Energy recovery</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Life-cycle_assessment&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Energy recovery">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Energy_recovery" title="Energy recovery">Energy recovery</a></div> If materials are incinerated during the disposal process, the energy released during burning can be harnessed and used for <a href="/wiki/Electricity_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Electricity production">electricity production</a>. This provides a low-impact energy source, especially when compared with <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a> and natural gas.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> While <a href="/wiki/Incineration" title="Incineration">incineration</a> produces more <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse gas emissions</a> than <a href="/wiki/Landfill" title="Landfill">landfills</a>, the waste plants are well-fitted with regulated pollution control equipment to minimize this negative impact. A study comparing energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions from landfills (without energy recovery) against incineration (with energy recovery) found incineration to be superior in all cases except for when <a href="/wiki/Landfill_gas" title="Landfill gas">landfill gas</a> is recovered for electricity production.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criticism">Criticism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Life-cycle_assessment&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Criticism">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Efficient_energy_use" title="Efficient energy use">Energy efficiency</a> is arguably only one consideration in deciding which alternative process to employ, and should not be elevated as the only criterion for determining environmental acceptability.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> For example, a simple energy analysis does not take into account the renewability of energy flows or the toxicity of waste products.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> Incorporating "dynamic LCAs", e.g., with regard to renewable energy technologies—which use sensitivity analyses to project future improvements in renewable systems and their share of the power grid—may help mitigate this criticism.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> In recent years, the literature on life cycle assessment of <a href="/wiki/Energy_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy technology">energy technology</a> has begun to reflect the interactions between the current <a href="/wiki/Electrical_grid" title="Electrical grid">electrical grid</a> and future <a href="/wiki/Energy_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy technology">energy technology</a>. Some papers have focused on <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a> life cycle,<a href="#cite_note-Pearce2-126">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pearce1-127">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-dynamic-128">[128]</a> while others have focused on <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> (CO2) and other <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gases" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenhouse gases">greenhouse gases</a>.<a href="#cite_note-RKCL-129">[129]</a> The essential critique given by these sources is that when considering <a href="/wiki/Energy_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy technology">energy technology</a>, the growing nature of the power grid must be taken into consideration. If this is not done, a given class <a href="/wiki/Energy_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy technology">energy technology</a> may emit more CO2 over its lifetime than it initially thought it would mitigate, with this most well documented {{Citation needed|reason=Please include a study|date=October 2023}} in wind energy's case. A problem that arises when using the energy analysis method is that different energy forms—<a href="/wiki/Heat" title="Heat">heat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">electricity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemical_energy" title="Chemical energy">chemical energy</a> etc.—have inconsistent functional units, different quality, and different values.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> This is due to the fact that the <a href="/wiki/First_law_of_thermodynamics" title="First law of thermodynamics">first law of thermodynamics</a> measures the change in internal energy,<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> whereas the <a href="/wiki/Second_law_of_thermodynamics" title="Second law of thermodynamics">second law</a> measures entropy increase.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> Approaches such as <a href="/wiki/Cost_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Cost analysis">cost analysis</a> or <a href="/wiki/Exergy" title="Exergy">exergy</a> may be used as the metric for LCA, instead of energy.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="LCA_dataset_creation">LCA dataset creation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Life-cycle_assessment&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: LCA dataset creation">edit</a>]</div> There are structured systematic datasets of and for LCAs. A 2022 dataset provided <a href="/wiki/Standardization" title="Standardization">standardized</a> calculated detailed environmental impacts of >57,000 <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_food_system" title="Sustainable food system">food</a> <a href="/wiki/Product_(business)" title="Product (business)">products</a> in supermarkets, potentially e.g., informing consumers or <a href="/wiki/Policy" title="Policy">policy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.1073/pnas.2120584119-135">[135]</a> There also is at least one <a href="/wiki/Crowdsourced" class="mw-redirect" title="Crowdsourced">crowdsourced</a> database for collecting LCA data for food products.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> Datasets can also consist of options, activities, or approaches, rather than of products – for example one dataset assesses PET bottle <a href="/wiki/Waste_management" title="Waste management">waste management</a> options in Bauru, Brazil.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> There are also LCA databases about buildings – complex products – which a 2014 study compared.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="LCA_dataset_platforms">LCA dataset platforms</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Life-cycle_assessment&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: LCA dataset platforms">edit</a>]</div> There are some initiatives to develop, integrate, populate, standardize, quality control, combine and maintain such datasets or LCAs<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> – for example: <ul><li>The goal of the LCA Digital Commons Project of the U.S. <a href="/wiki/National_Agricultural_Library" class="mw-redirect" title="National Agricultural Library">National Agricultural Library</a> is "to develop a database and tool set intended to provide data for use in LCAs of food, biofuels, and a variety of other bioproducts".<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a></li> <li>The Global LCA Data Access network (GLAD) by the UN's Life Cycle Initiative is a "platform which allows to search, convert and download datasets from different life cycle assessment dataset providers".<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a></li> <li>The BONSAI project "aims to build a shared resource where the community can contribute to data generation, validation, and management decisions" for "<a href="/wiki/Environmental_footprint" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental footprint">product footprinting</a>" with its first goal being "to produce an <a href="/wiki/Open_data" title="Open data">open dataset</a> and an <a href="/wiki/Free_and_open_source_software" class="mw-redirect" title="Free and open source software">open source</a> toolchain capable of supporting LCA calculations".<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> With product footprints they refer to the goal of "reliable, unbiased <a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">sustainability</a> information on products".<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dataset_optimization">Dataset optimization</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Life-cycle_assessment&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Dataset optimization">edit</a>]</div> Datasets that are suboptimal in accuracy or have gaps can be, temporarily until the complete data is available or permanently, be patched or optimized by various methods such as mechanisms for "selection of a dataset that represents the missing dataset that leads in most cases to a much better approximation of environmental impacts than a dataset selected by default or by geographical proximity"<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> or <a href="/wiki/Machine_learning" title="Machine learning">machine learning</a>.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.1073/pnas.2120584119-135">[135]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Integration_in_systems_and_systems_theory">Integration in systems and systems theory</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Life-cycle_assessment&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Integration in systems and systems theory">edit</a>]</div> Life cycle assessments can be integrated as routine processes of systems, as input for modeled future socio-economic pathways, or, more broadly, into a larger context<a href="#cite_note-10.1186/s40309-022-00203-9-147">[147]</a> (such as qualitative scenarios). For example, a study estimated the environmental benefits of microbial protein within a future socio-economic pathway, showing substantial <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a> reduction (56%) and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">climate change mitigation</a> if only <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style>20% of per-capita beef <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_meat_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of meat production">was replaced</a> by <a href="/wiki/Microbial_food_cultures" title="Microbial food cultures">microbial protein</a> by 2050.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> Life cycle assessments, including as <a href="/wiki/Product_analysis#Technology_analysis" title="Product analysis">product/technology analyses</a>, can also be integrated in analyses of potentials, barriers and methods to <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_consumption#Consumption_shifting" title="Sustainable consumption">shift</a> or regulate consumption or production. The life cycle perspective also allows considering losses and lifetimes of rare goods and services in the economy. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Circular_economy" title="Circular economy">usespans</a> of, often scarce, <a href="/wiki/Technology-critical_element" title="Technology-critical element">tech-critical metals</a> were found to be short as of 2022.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> Such data could be combined with conventional life cycle analyses, e.g., to enable <a href="/wiki/Life-cycle_cost_analysis" title="Life-cycle cost analysis">life-cycle material/labor cost analyses</a> and long-term economic viability or <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_design" title="Sustainable design">sustainable design</a>.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> One study suggests that in LCAs, resource availability is, as of 2013, "evaluated by means of models based on depletion time, surplus energy, etc."<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> Broadly, various types of life cycle assessments (or commissioning such) could be used in various ways in various types of societal <a href="/wiki/Decision-making" title="Decision-making">decision-making</a>,<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.1186/s40309-022-00203-9-147">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> especially because financial markets of the economy typically do not consider life cycle impacts or induced societal problems in the future and present—the "<a href="/wiki/Externality" title="Externality">externalities</a>" to the contemporary economy.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Critiques">Critiques</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Life-cycle_assessment&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Critiques">edit</a>]</div> Life cycle assessment is a powerful tool for analyzing <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/commensurable" class="extiw" title="wikt:commensurable">commensurable</a> aspects of quantifiable systems.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Not every factor, however, can be reduced to a number and inserted into a model. Rigid system boundaries make accounting for changes in the system difficult.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> This is sometimes referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Boundary_critique" title="Boundary critique">boundary critique</a> to <a href="/wiki/Systems_thinking" title="Systems thinking">systems thinking</a>. The accuracy and availability of data can also contribute to inaccuracy. For instance, data from generic processes may be based on <a href="/wiki/Average" title="Average">averages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sampling_error" title="Sampling error">unrepresentative sampling</a>, or outdated results.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> This is especially the case for the use and end of life phases in the LCA.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> Additionally, social implications of products are generally lacking in LCAs. Comparative life cycle analysis is often used to determine a better process or product to use. However, because of aspects like differing system boundaries, different statistical information, different product uses, etc., these studies can easily be swayed in favor of one product or process over another in one study and the opposite in another study based on varying parameters and different available data.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> There are guidelines to help reduce such conflicts in results but the method still provides a lot of room for the researcher to decide what is important, how the product is typically manufactured, and how it is typically used.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> An in-depth review of 13 LCA studies of wood and paper products<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> found a lack of consistency in the methods and assumptions used to track carbon during the <a href="/wiki/Product_lifecycle" title="Product lifecycle">product lifecycle</a>. A wide variety of methods and assumptions were used, leading to different and potentially contrary conclusions—particularly with regard to <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">carbon sequestration</a> and <a href="/wiki/Methanogenesis" title="Methanogenesis">methane generation</a> in landfills and with <a href="/wiki/Carbon_accounting" title="Carbon accounting">carbon accounting</a> during forest growth and product use.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> Moreover, the fidelity of LCAs can vary substantially as various data may not be incorporated, especially in early versions: for example, LCAs that do not consider regional emission information can under-estimate the life cycle environmental impact.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Life-cycle_assessment&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 18em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agroecology" title="Agroecology">Agroecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agroecosystem_analysis" title="Agroecosystem analysis">Agroecosystem analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropogenic_metabolism" title="Anthropogenic metabolism">Anthropogenic metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">Biofuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">Carbon footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depreciation" title="Depreciation">Depreciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Design_for_the_environment" title="Design for the environment">Design for the environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecodesign" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecodesign">Ecodesign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End-of-life_(product)" class="mw-redirect" title="End-of-life (product)">End-of-life (product)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_15686" title="ISO 15686">ISO 15686</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimension_stone#Life_cycle_assessment_and_best_practices" title="Dimension stone">Dimension stone § Life cycle assessment and best practices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/True_cost_accounting" title="True cost accounting">True cost accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_footprint" title="Water footprint">Water footprint</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Life-cycle_assessment&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-IlginGuptaJEM2010-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-IlginGuptaJEM2010_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-IlginGuptaJEM2010_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-IlginGuptaJEM2010_1-2">c</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFIlginGupta2010" class="citation journal cs1">Ilgin, Mehmet Ali; Gupta, Surendra M. (2010). "Environmentally Conscious Manufacturing and Product Recovery (ECMPRO): A Review of the State of the Art". Journal of Environmental Management. 91 (3): 563–591. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010JEnvM..91..563I">2010JEnvM..91..563I</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jenvman.2009.09.037">10.1016/j.jenvman.2009.09.037</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19853369">19853369</a>. <q>Life cycle analysis (LCA) is a method used to evaluate the environmental impact of a product through its life cycle encompassing extraction and processing of the raw materials, manufacturing, distribution, use, recycling, and final disposal.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Environmental+Management&rft.atitle=Environmentally+Conscious+Manufacturing+and+Product+Recovery+%28ECMPRO%29%3A+A+Review+of+the+State+of+the+Art&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=563-591&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19853369&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jenvman.2009.09.037&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010JEnvM..91..563I&rft.aulast=Ilgin&rft.aufirst=Mehmet+Ali&rft.au=Gupta%2C+Surendra+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALife-cycle+assessment" class="Z3988">. </li> <li id="cite_note-EPAnrmrl2012-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EPAnrmrl2012_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EPAnrmrl2012_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EPAnrmrl2012_2-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EPAnrmrl2012_2-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EPAnrmrl2012_2-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120306122239/http://www.epa.gov/nrmrl/std/lca/lca.html">"Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)"</a>. EPA.gov. Washington, DC. <a href="/wiki/EPA" class="mw-redirect" title="EPA">EPA</a> National Risk Management Research Laboratory (NRMRL). 6 March 2012. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.epa.gov/nrmrl/std/lca/lca.html">the original</a> on 6 March 2012. Retrieved 8 December 2019. <q>LCA is a technique to assess the environmental aspects and potential impacts associated with a product, process, or service, by: / * Compiling an inventory of relevant energy and material inputs and environmental releases/ * Evaluating the potential environmental impacts associated with identified inputs and releases / * Interpreting the results to help you make a more informed decision</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=EPA.gov&rft.atitle=Life+Cycle+Assessment+%28LCA%29&rft.date=2012-03-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fnrmrl%2Fstd%2Flca%2Flca.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALife-cycle+assessment" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iso.org/standard/37456.html">"ISO 14040:2006"</a>. ISO.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ISO&rft.atitle=ISO+14040%3A2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fstandard%2F37456.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALife-cycle+assessment" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iso.org/standard/38498.html">"ISO 14044:2006"</a>. ISO.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ISO&rft.atitle=ISO+14044%3A2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fstandard%2F38498.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALife-cycle+assessment" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_5-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_5-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_5-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_5-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_5-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_5-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_5-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_5-8">i</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatthews2014" class="citation book cs1">Matthews, H. Scott, Chris T. Hendrickson, and Deanna H. Matthews (2014). Life Cycle Assessment: Quantitative Approaches for Decisions That Matter. pp. 83–95.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life+Cycle+Assessment%3A+Quantitative+Approaches+for+Decisions+That+Matter&rft.pages=83-95&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Matthews&rft.aufirst=H.+Scott%2C+Chris+T.+Hendrickson%2C+and+Deanna+H.+Matthews&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALife-cycle+assessment" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_6-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_6-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_6-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlopffer2014" class="citation book cs1">Klopffer, Walter and Birgit Grahl (2014). Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. pp. 1–2.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life+Cycle+Assessment+%28LCA%29&rft.pages=1-2&rft.pub=Wiley-VCH+Verlag+GmbH+%26+Co.+KGaA.&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Klopffer&rft.aufirst=Walter+and+Birgit+Grahl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALife-cycle+assessment" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonkerHarmsen2012" class="citation book cs1">Jonker, Gerald; Harmsen, Jan (2012). "Creating Design Solutions". Engineering for Sustainability. Amsterdam, NL: Elsevier. pp. 61–81, esp. 70. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-444-53846-8.00004-4">10.1016/B978-0-444-53846-8.00004-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780444538468" title="Special:BookSources/9780444538468"><bdi>9780444538468</bdi></a>. <q>It is very important to first set the goal of the life cycle analysis or assessment. In the conceptual design stage, the goal in general will be identifying the major environmental impacts of the reference process and showing how the new design reduces these impacts</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Creating+Design+Solutions&rft.btitle=Engineering+for+Sustainability&rft.place=Amsterdam%2C+NL&rft.pages=61-81%2C+esp.+70&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-0-444-53846-8.00004-4&rft.isbn=9780444538468&rft.aulast=Jonker&rft.aufirst=Gerald&rft.au=Harmsen%2C+Jan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALife-cycle+assessment" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSánchez-BarrosoBotejara-AntúnezGarcía-Sanz-CalcedoZamora-Polo2021" class="citation journal cs1">Sánchez-Barroso, Gonzalo; Botejara-Antúnez, Manuel; García-Sanz-Calcedo, Justo; Zamora-Polo, Francisco (September 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S235271022100245X">"A life cycle analysis of ionizing radiation shielding construction systems in healthcare buildings"</a>. Journal of Building Engineering. 41: 102387. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jobe.2021.102387">10.1016/j.jobe.2021.102387</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11441%2F152353">11441/152353</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Building+Engineering&rft.atitle=A+life+cycle+analysis+of+ionizing+radiation+shielding+construction+systems+in+healthcare+buildings&rft.volume=41&rft.pages=102387&rft.date=2021-09&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11441%2F152353&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jobe.2021.102387&rft.aulast=S%C3%A1nchez-Barroso&rft.aufirst=Gonzalo&rft.au=Botejara-Ant%C3%BAnez%2C+Manuel&rft.au=Garc%C3%ADa-Sanz-Calcedo%2C+Justo&rft.au=Zamora-Polo%2C+Francisco&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS235271022100245X&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALife-cycle+assessment" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_9-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_9-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Life Cycle Assessment: Principles and Practice. Cincinnati, Ohio: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2006. pp. 3–9.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life+Cycle+Assessment%3A+Principles+and+Practice&rft.place=Cincinnati%2C+Ohio&rft.pages=3-9&rft.pub=U.S.+Environmental+Protection+Agency&rft.date=2006&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALife-cycle+assessment" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sftool.gov/plan/400/life-cycle-assessment-lca-overview">"Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Overview"</a>. SFTool. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140714145139/https://sftool.gov/plan/400/life-cycle-assessment-lca-overview">Archived</a> from the original on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 1 July 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=SFTool&rft.atitle=Life+Cycle+Assessment+%28LCA%29+Overview&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsftool.gov%2Fplan%2F400%2Flife-cycle-assessment-lca-overview&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALife-cycle+assessment" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fao.org/faoterm/viewentry/en/?entryId=168005">"Entry details | FAO Term Portal"</a>. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved 13 August 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Food+and+Agriculture+Organization+of+the+United+Nations&rft.atitle=Entry+details+%7C+FAO+Term+Portal&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fao.org%2Ffaoterm%2Fviewentry%2Fen%2F%3FentryId%3D168005&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALife-cycle+assessment" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEkvall2019" class="citation book cs1">Ekvall, Tomas (24 September 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/69212">"Attributional and Consequential Life Cycle Assessment"</a>. Sustainability Assessment at the 21st century. IntechOpen. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5772%2Fintechopen.89202">10.5772/intechopen.89202</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781789849776" title="Special:BookSources/9781789849776"><bdi>9781789849776</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:210353428">210353428</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240118024839/https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/69212">Archived</a> from the original on 18 January 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Attributional+and+Consequential+Life+Cycle+Assessment&rft.btitle=Sustainability+Assessment+at+the+21st+century&rft.pub=IntechOpen&rft.date=2019-09-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A210353428%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5772%2Fintechopen.89202&rft.isbn=9781789849776&rft.aulast=Ekvall&rft.aufirst=Tomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.intechopen.com%2Fchapters%2F69212&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALife-cycle+assessment" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:8-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:8_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_13-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_13-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_13-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_13-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_13-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_13-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_13-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_13-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_13-9">j</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHauschild2018" class="citation book cs1">Hauschild, Michael Z., Ralph K. Rosenbaum, & Stig Irving Olsen (2018). Life Cycle Assessment: Theory and Practice. Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing. pp. 83–84. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-56474-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-56474-6"><bdi>978-3-319-56474-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life+Cycle+Assessment%3A+Theory+and+Practice&rft.place=Cham%2C+Switzerland&rft.pages=83-84&rft.pub=Springer+International+Publishing&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-3-319-56474-6&rft.aulast=Hauschild&rft.aufirst=Michael+Z.%2C+Ralph+K.+Rosenbaum%2C+%26+Stig+Irving+Olsen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALife-cycle+assessment" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_14-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGongYou2017" class="citation journal cs1">Gong, Jian; You, Fengqi (2017). "Consequential Life Cycle Optimization: General Conceptual Framework and Application to Algal Renewable Diesel Production". ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering. 5 (7): 5887–5911. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Facssuschemeng.7b00631">10.1021/acssuschemeng.7b00631</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ACS+Sustainable+Chemistry+%26+Engineering&rft.atitle=Consequential+Life+Cycle+Optimization%3A+General+Conceptual+Framework+and+Application+to+Algal+Renewable+Diesel+Production&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=5887-5911&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Facssuschemeng.7b00631&rft.aulast=Gong&rft.aufirst=Jian&rft.au=You%2C+Fengqi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALife-cycle+assessment" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-15"><a href="#cite_ref-:6_15-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unep.fr/shared/publications/pdf/DTIx1164xPA-guidelines_sLCA.pdf">Guidelines for Social Life Cycle Assessment of Products</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120118063849/http://www.unep.fr/shared/publications/pdf/DTIx1164xPA-guidelines_sLCA.pdf">Archived</a> 18 January 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, United Nations Environment Programme, 2009. </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenoîtMazijn2013" class="citation book cs1">Benoît, Catherine; Mazijn, Bernard. (2013). Guidelines for social life cycle assessment of products. United Nations Environment Programme. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1059219275">1059219275</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Guidelines+for+social+life+cycle+assessment+of+products&rft.pub=United+Nations+Environment+Programme&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1059219275&rft.aulast=Beno%C3%AEt&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rft.au=Mazijn%2C+Bernard.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALife-cycle+assessment" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenoîtNorrisValdiviaCiroth2010" class="citation journal cs1">Benoît, Catherine; Norris, Gregory A.; Valdivia, Sonia; Ciroth, Andreas; Moberg, Asa; Bos, Ulrike; Prakash, Siddharth; Ugaya, Cassia; Beck, Tabea (February 2010). "The guidelines for social life cycle assessment of products: just in time!". The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment. 15 (2): 156–163. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010IJLCA..15..156B">2010IJLCA..15..156B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11367-009-0147-8">10.1007/s11367-009-0147-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:110017051">110017051</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+International+Journal+of+Life+Cycle+Assessment&rft.atitle=The+guidelines+for+social+life+cycle+assessment+of+products%3A+just+in+time%21&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=156-163&rft.date=2010-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A110017051%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11367-009-0147-8&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010IJLCA..15..156B&rft.aulast=Beno%C3%AEt&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rft.au=Norris%2C+Gregory+A.&rft.au=Valdivia%2C+Sonia&rft.au=Ciroth%2C+Andreas&rft.au=Moberg%2C+Asa&rft.au=Bos%2C+Ulrike&rft.au=Prakash%2C+Siddharth&rft.au=Ugaya%2C+Cassia&rft.au=Beck%2C+Tabea&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALife-cycle+assessment" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarrido2017" class="citation book cs1">Garrido, Sara Russo (1 January 2017). "Social Life-Cycle Assessment: An Introduction". In Abraham, Martin A. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Sustainable Technologies. Elsevier. pp. 253–265. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fb978-0-12-409548-9.10089-2">10.1016/b978-0-12-409548-9.10089-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-804792-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-804792-7"><bdi>978-0-12-804792-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Social+Life-Cycle+Assessment%3A+An+Introduction&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Sustainable+Technologies&rft.pages=253-265&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2017-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fb978-0-12-409548-9.10089-2&rft.isbn=978-0-12-804792-7&rft.aulast=Garrido&rft.aufirst=Sara+Russo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALife-cycle+assessment" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14040_2006-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-14040_2006_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-14040_2006_19-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-14040_2006_19-2">c</a> E.g., see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaling2006" class="citation report cs1">Saling, Peter (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iso.org/standard/37456.html">ISO 14040: Environmental management—Life cycle assessment, Principles and framework</a> (Report). Geneve, CH: International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Retrieved 11 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=ISO+14040%3A+Environmental+management%E2%80%94Life+cycle+assessment%2C+Principles+and+framework&rft.place=Geneve%2C+CH&rft.pub=International+Organization+for+Standardization+%28ISO%29&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Saling&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fstandard%2F37456.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALife-cycle+assessment" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] For the PDF of the 1997 version, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.stanford.edu/class/cee214/Readings/ISOLCA.pdf">see this Stanford University course reading</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-14044_2006-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-14044_2006_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-14044_2006_20-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-14044_2006_20-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-14044_2006_20-3">d</a> E.g., see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaling2006" class="citation report cs1">Saling, Peter (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iso.org/standard/38498.html">ISO 14044: Environmental management—Life cycle assessment, Requirements and guidelines</a> (Report). Geneve, CH: International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Retrieved 11 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=ISO+14044%3A+Environmental+management%E2%80%94Life+cycle+assessment%2C+Requirements+and+guidelines&rft.place=Geneve%2C+CH&rft.pub=International+Organization+for+Standardization+%28ISO%29&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Saling&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fstandard%2F38498.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALife-cycle+assessment" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> ISO 14044 replaced earlier versions of ISO 14041 to ISO 14043.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://shop.bsigroup.com/en/forms/PASs/PAS-2050">"PAS 2050:2011 Specification for the assessment of the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of goods and services"</a>. BSI. Retrieved on: 25 April 2013. </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ghgprotocol.org/standards/product-standard">"Product Life Cycle Accounting and Reporting Standard"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130509224311/http://www.ghgprotocol.org/standards/product-standard">Archived</a> 9 May 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. GHG Protocol. Retrieved on: 25 April 2013. </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJollietSaade-SbeihShakedJolliet2015" class="citation book cs1">Jolliet, Olivier; Saade-Sbeih, Myriam; Shaked, Shanna; Jolliet, Alexandre; Crettaz, Pierre (18 November 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/20.500.12657/43927/1/external_content.pdf">Environmental Life Cycle Assessment</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1201%2Fb19138">10.1201/b19138</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4398-8770-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4398-8770-7"><bdi>978-1-4398-8770-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Environmental+Life+Cycle+Assessment&rft.date=2015-11-18&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1201%2Fb19138&rft.isbn=978-1-4398-8770-7&rft.aulast=Jolliet&rft.aufirst=Olivier&rft.au=Saade-Sbeih%2C+Myriam&rft.au=Shaked%2C+Shanna&rft.au=Jolliet%2C+Alexandre&rft.au=Crettaz%2C+Pierre&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibrary.oapen.org%2Fbitstream%2F20.500.12657%2F43927%2F1%2Fexternal_content.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALife-cycle+assessment" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:7-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:7_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_25-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_25-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_25-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_25-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_25-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_25-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_25-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_25-8">i</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalsson2011" class="citation web cs1">Palsson, Ann-Christin & Ellen Riise (31 August 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://users.rowan.edu/~everett/courses/SCEE/docs/LCA-Goal&scope-2011.pdf">"Defining the goal and scope of the LCA study"</a> (PDF). Rowan University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Defining+the+goal+and+scope+of+the+LCA+study&rft.pub=Rowan+University&rft.date=2011-08-31&rft.aulast=Palsson&rft.aufirst=Ann-Christin+%26+Ellen+Riise&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fusers.rowan.edu%2F~everett%2Fcourses%2FSCEE%2Fdocs%2FLCA-Goal%26scope-2011.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALife-cycle+assessment" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Curran_2017_1–62-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Curran_2017_1–62_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Curran_2017_1–62_26-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCurran2017" class="citation book cs1">Curran, Mary Ann (2017). "Overview of Goal and Scope Definition in Life Cycle Assessment". Goal and Scope Definition in Life Cycle Assessment. 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Argonne National Laboratory. Transportation Technology R&D Center </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerkinsSuh2019" class="citation journal cs1">Perkins, Jessica; Suh, Sangwon (2 April 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3m14m2zp">"Uncertainty Implications of Hybrid Approach in LCA: Precision versus Accuracy"</a>. Environmental Science & Technology. 53 (7): 3681–3688. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019EnST...53.3681P">2019EnST...53.3681P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Facs.est.9b00084">10.1021/acs.est.9b00084</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30844258">30844258</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Science+%26+Technology&rft.atitle=Uncertainty+Implications+of+Hybrid+Approach+in+LCA%3A+Precision+versus+Accuracy&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=3681-3688&rft.date=2019-04-02&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30844258&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Facs.est.9b00084&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019EnST...53.3681P&rft.aulast=Perkins&rft.aufirst=Jessica&rft.au=Suh%2C+Sangwon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fescholarship.org%2Fuc%2Fitem%2F3m14m2zp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALife-cycle+assessment" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBjörklund2002" class="citation journal cs1">Björklund, Anna E. (March 2002). "Survey of approaches to improve reliability in lca". The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment. 7 (2): 64. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002IJLCA...7...64B">2002IJLCA...7...64B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02978849">10.1007/BF02978849</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+International+Journal+of+Life+Cycle+Assessment&rft.atitle=Survey+of+approaches+to+improve+reliability+in+lca&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=64&rft.date=2002-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF02978849&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002IJLCA...7...64B&rft.aulast=Bj%C3%B6rklund&rft.aufirst=Anna+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALife-cycle+assessment" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncasi.org/publications/Detail.aspx?id=2628">National Council for Air and Stream Improvement Special Report No: 04-03</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130507101939/http://www.ncasi.org/publications/Detail.aspx?id=2628">Archived</a> 7 May 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Ncasi.org. Retrieved on 14 December 2011. </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSathre2010" class="citation book cs1">Sathre, Roger (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120321215904/http://www.forintek.ca/public/pdf/Public_Information/technical_rpt/TR19%20Complete%20Pub-web.pdf">A synthesis of research on wood products and greenhouse gas impacts</a> (PDF) (2nd ed.). Pointe-Claire, Québec: FPInnovations. p. 40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86488-546-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86488-546-3"><bdi>978-0-86488-546-3</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.forintek.ca/public/pdf/Public_Information/technical_rpt/TR19%20Complete%20Pub-web.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 21 March 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+synthesis+of+research+on+wood+products+and+greenhouse+gas+impacts&rft.place=Pointe-Claire%2C+Qu%C3%A9bec&rft.pages=40&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=FPInnovations&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-86488-546-3&rft.aulast=Sathre&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.forintek.ca%2Fpublic%2Fpdf%2FPublic_Information%2Ftechnical_rpt%2FTR19%2520Complete%2520Pub-web.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALife-cycle+assessment" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKimYalaltdinovaSirinaBaranovskaya2015" class="citation journal cs1">Kim, Junbeum; Yalaltdinova, Albina; Sirina, Natalia; Baranovskaya, Natalia (2015). "Integration of life cycle assessment and regional emission information in agricultural systems". Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 95 (12): 2544–2553. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015JSFA...95.2544K">2015JSFA...95.2544K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fjsfa.7149">10.1002/jsfa.7149</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25707850">25707850</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Science+of+Food+and+Agriculture&rft.atitle=Integration+of+life+cycle+assessment+and+regional+emission+information+in+agricultural+systems&rft.volume=95&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=2544-2553&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25707850&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fjsfa.7149&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015JSFA...95.2544K&rft.aulast=Kim&rft.aufirst=Junbeum&rft.au=Yalaltdinova%2C+Albina&rft.au=Sirina%2C+Natalia&rft.au=Baranovskaya%2C+Natalia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALife-cycle+assessment" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Life-cycle_assessment&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ol><li>Crawford, R.H. (2011) Life Cycle Assessment in the Built Environment, London: Taylor and Francis.</li> <li>J. Guinée, ed:, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/onderzoek/onderzoeksprojecten/wiskunde-en-natuurwetenschappen/cml-new-dutch-lca-guide">Handbook on Life Cycle Assessment: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards</a>, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2002.</li> <li>Baumann, H. och Tillman, A-M. The hitchhiker's guide to LCA : an orientation in life cycle assessment methodology and application. 2004. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/91-44-02364-2" title="Special:BookSources/91-44-02364-2">91-44-02364-2</a></li> <li>Curran, Mary A. "Environmental Life Cycle Assessment", McGraw-Hill Professional Publishing, 1996, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-015063-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-015063-8">978-0-07-015063-8</a></li> <li>Ciambrone, D. F. (1997). Environmental Life Cycle Analysis. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56670-214-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-56670-214-3">1-56670-214-3</a>.</li> <li>Horne, Ralph., et al. "LCA: Principles, Practice and Prospects". CSIRO Publishing, Victoria, Australia, 2009., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-643-09452-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-643-09452-0">0-643-09452-0</a></li> <li>Vallero, Daniel A. and Brasier, Chris (2008), "Sustainable Design: The Science of Sustainability and Green Engineering", John Wiley and Sons, Inc., Hoboken, NJ, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0470130628" title="Special:BookSources/0470130628">0470130628</a>. 350 pages.</li> <li>Vigon, B. W. (1994). Life Cycle Assessment: Inventory Guidelines and Principles. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56670-015-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-56670-015-9">1-56670-015-9</a>.</li> <li>Vogtländer, J.G., "A practical guide to LCA for students, designers, and business managers", VSSD, 2010, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-6562-253-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-6562-253-2">978-90-6562-253-2</a>.</li> <li>When</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Life-cycle_assessment&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Life-cycle_assessment" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Life-cycle assessment">Life-cycle assessment</a> at Wikimedia Commons <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071024195424/http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/yourhome/technical/fs31.htm">Embodied Energy: Life Cycle Assessment. Your Home Technical Manual. A joint initiative of the Australian Government and the design and construction industries.</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (archived 24 October 2007)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sftool.gov/plan/402/lca-example-light-emitting-diodes-leds-">LCA Example: Light Emitting Diode (LED) from GSA's Sustainable Facilities Tool</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output 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.navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Industrial_ecology" title="Template:Industrial ecology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Industrial_ecology" title="Template talk:Industrial ecology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li 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href="/wiki/Environmental_full-cost_accounting" title="Environmental full-cost accounting">Environmental full-cost accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Environmental impact assessment">Environmental impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_management_system" title="Environmental management system">Environmental management system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EIO-LCA" title="EIO-LCA">EIO-LCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Input%E2%80%93output_model" title="Input–output model">Input–output model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_chain_management" title="Integrated chain management">Integrated chain management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_14000" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 14000">ISO 14000</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Life-cycle assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life-cycle_cost_analysis" title="Life-cycle cost analysis">Life-cycle cost analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Material_flow_analysis" title="Material flow analysis">Material flow analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MET_Matrix" title="MET Matrix">MET Matrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stakeholder_analysis" title="Stakeholder analysis">Stakeholder analysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#7FBF7F;;width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circular_economy" title="Circular economy">Circular economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cradle-to-cradle_design" title="Cradle-to-cradle design">Cradle-to-cradle design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dematerialization_(products)" title="Dematerialization (products)">Dematerialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-efficiency" title="Eco-efficiency">Eco-efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-industrial_development" title="Eco-industrial development">Eco-industrial development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-industrial_park" title="Eco-industrial park">Eco-industrial park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_modernization" title="Ecological modernization">Ecological modernization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Efficient_energy_use" title="Efficient energy use">Efficient energy use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exergy" title="Exergy">Exergy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_producer_responsibility" title="Extended producer responsibility">Extended producer responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_metabolism" title="Industrial metabolism">Industrial metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_symbiosis" title="Industrial symbiosis">Industrial symbiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polluter_pays_principle" title="Polluter pays principle">Polluter pays principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precautionary_principle" title="Precautionary principle">Precautionary principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebound_effect_(conservation)" title="Rebound effect (conservation)">Rebound effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_hierarchy" title="Waste hierarchy">Waste hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_minimisation" title="Waste minimisation">Waste minimisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_valorization" title="Waste valorization">Waste valorization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#7FBF7F;;width:1%">Related fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cleaner_production" title="Cleaner production">Cleaner production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Design_for_the_Environment" class="mw-redirect" title="Design for the Environment">Design for environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_systems_engineering_and_management" title="Earth systems engineering and management">Earth systems engineering and management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_modernization" title="Ecological modernization">Ecological modernization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_economics" title="Environmental economics">Environmental economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_chemistry" title="Green chemistry">Green chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_development" title="Sustainable development">Sustainable development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_ecology" title="Urban ecology">Urban ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_metabolism" title="Urban metabolism">Urban metabolism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_and_environmental_accountability" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_accountability" title="Template:Social accountability"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_accountability" title="Template talk:Social accountability"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_accountability" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social accountability"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_and_environmental_accountability" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Social_accounting#Formal_accountability" title="Social accounting">Social</a> and <a href="/wiki/Environmental_accounting" title="Environmental accounting">environmental</a> <a href="/wiki/Accountability" title="Accountability">accountability</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Business_ethics" title="Business ethics">Ethics</a> and principles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aarhus_Convention" title="Aarhus Convention">Aarhus Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_justice" title="Climate justice">Climate justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_crime" title="Corporate crime">Corporate accountability</a> / <a href="/wiki/Corporate_behaviour" title="Corporate behaviour">behaviour</a> / <a href="/wiki/Corporate_environmental_responsibility" title="Corporate environmental responsibility">environmental responsibility</a> / <a href="/wiki/Corporate_responsibility" title="Corporate responsibility">responsibility</a> / <a href="/wiki/Corporate_social_responsibility" title="Corporate social responsibility">social responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirty_hands" class="mw-redirect" title="Dirty hands">Dirty hands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism" title="Environmental racism">Environmental racism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism_in_Russia" title="Environmental racism in Russia">in Russia</a> / <a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental racism in the United States">in the United States</a> / <a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism_in_Western_Europe" title="Environmental racism in Western Europe">in Western Europe</a> / <a href="/wiki/Environmental_inequality_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Environmental inequality in the United Kingdom"> inequality in the UK</a> / <a href="/wiki/Environmental_injustice_in_Europe" title="Environmental injustice in Europe">injustice in Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_banking" title="Ethical banking">Ethical banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_code" title="Ethical code">Ethical code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_producer_responsibility" title="Extended producer responsibility">Extended producer responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Externality" title="Externality">Externality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harm" title="Harm">Harm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Eichmanns" title="Little Eichmanns">Little Eichmanns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss_and_damage" class="mw-redirect" title="Loss and damage">Loss and damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_ethics" title="Organizational ethics">Organizational ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_justice" title="Organizational justice">Organizational justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principles_for_Responsible_Investment" title="Principles for Responsible Investment">Principles for Responsible Investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_Assessment" class="mw-redirect" title="Impact Assessment"> Social impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_responsibility" title="Social responsibility">Social responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stakeholder_theory" title="Stakeholder theory">Stakeholder theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sullivan_principles" title="Sullivan principles">Sullivan principles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transparency_(behavior)" title="Transparency (behavior)">Transparency (behavioral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transparency_(behavior)" title="Transparency (behavior)">social)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Global_Compact" title="United Nations Global Compact">UN Global Compact</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:OilCleanupAfterValdezSpill.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Clean up after the Exxon Valdez oil spill"><img alt="Clean up after the Exxon Valdez oil spill" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/OilCleanupAfterValdezSpill.jpg/125px-OilCleanupAfterValdezSpill.jpg" decoding="async" width="125" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/OilCleanupAfterValdezSpill.jpg/188px-OilCleanupAfterValdezSpill.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/OilCleanupAfterValdezSpill.jpg/250px-OilCleanupAfterValdezSpill.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="259" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_accounting" title="Social accounting">Social accounting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_crime" title="Corporate crime">Corporate crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_bottom_line" title="Double bottom line">Double bottom line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_positioning_index" title="Ethical positioning index">Ethical positioning index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Higg_Index" title="Higg Index">Higg Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_assessment" title="Impact assessment">Impact assessment</a> (<a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Environmental impact assessment">environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equality_impact_assessment" title="Equality impact assessment">equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_impact_assessment" title="Social impact assessment">social</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_26000" title="ISO 26000">ISO 26000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_45001" title="ISO 45001">ISO 45001</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genuine_progress_indicator" title="Genuine progress indicator">Genuine progress indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performance_indicator" title="Performance indicator">Performance indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SA8000" title="SA8000">SA8000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_return_on_investment" title="Social return on investment">Social return on investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whole-life_cost" title="Whole-life cost">Whole-life cost</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_accounting" title="Environmental accounting">Environmental accounting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_accounting" title="Carbon accounting">Carbon accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-Management_and_Audit_Scheme" title="Eco-Management and Audit Scheme">Eco-Management and Audit Scheme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emission_inventory" title="Emission inventory">Emission inventory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_full-cost_accounting" title="Environmental full-cost accounting">Environmental full-cost accounting</a> / <a href="/wiki/Environmental_conflict" title="Environmental conflict">Environmental conflict</a> / <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Environmental impact assessment">impact assessment</a> / <a href="/wiki/Environmental_management_system" title="Environmental management system">management system</a> / <a href="/wiki/Environmental_profit_and_loss_account" title="Environmental profit and loss account">profit-and-loss account</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_14000" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 14000">ISO 14000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_14031" title="ISO 14031">ISO 14031</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Life-cycle assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollutant_release_and_transfer_register" title="Pollutant release and transfer register">Pollutant release and transfer register</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_accounting" title="Sustainability accounting">Sustainability accounting</a> / <a href="/wiki/Sustainability_measurement" title="Sustainability measurement">measurement</a> / <a href="/wiki/Sustainability_metrics_and_indices" title="Sustainability metrics and indices">metrics and indices</a> / <a href="/wiki/Sustainability_standards_and_certification" title="Sustainability standards and certification">standards and certification</a> / <a href="/wiki/Supply_chain_sustainability" title="Supply chain sustainability">supply chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxics_Release_Inventory" title="Toxics Release Inventory">Toxics Release Inventory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple_bottom_line" title="Triple bottom line">Triple bottom line</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reporting</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_Reporting_Initiative" title="Global Reporting Initiative">Global Reporting Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GxP" title="GxP">GxP guidelines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_reporting" title="Sustainability reporting">Sustainability reporting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Audit" title="Audit">Auditing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Community-based_monitoring" title="Community-based monitoring">Community-based monitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_audit" title="Environmental audit">Environmental</a> (<a href="/wiki/Environmental_certification" title="Environmental certification">certification</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fair_trade" title="Fair trade">Fair trade</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fair_trade_certification" title="Fair trade certification">certification</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_19011" title="ISO 19011">ISO 19011</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accord_on_Fire_and_Building_Safety_in_Bangladesh" title="Accord on Fire and Building Safety in Bangladesh">Bangladesh Accord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benefit_corporation" title="Benefit corporation">Benefit corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_labour" title="Child labour">Child labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_interest_company" title="Community interest company">Community interest company</a></li> <li><a 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