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href="#Phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Phonology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Phonology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_developments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_developments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Early developments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_developments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Consonants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Vowels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diphthongs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diphthongs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Diphthongs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diphthongs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Grammar</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Grammar subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Morphology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Nouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Verbs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syntax" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syntax"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Syntax</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syntax-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Orthography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orthography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Orthography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Orthography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Text_sample" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Text_sample"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Text sample</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Text_sample-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Bibliography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>General</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lexicons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lexicons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Lexicons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lexicons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.4</span> <span>External history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Old Saxon</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 38 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-38" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">38 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ealdseaxisc_spr%C7%A3c" title="Ealdseaxisc sprǣc – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Ealdseaxisc sprǣc" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ænglisc</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sax%C3%B3n_antiguu" title="Saxón antiguu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Saxón antiguu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Старажытнасаксонская мова – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Старажытнасаксонская мова" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gammelsaksisk_(sprog)" title="Gammelsaksisk (sprog) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Gammelsaksisk (sprog)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alts%C3%A4chsische_Sprache" title="Altsächsische Sprache – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Altsächsische Sprache" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saj%C3%B3n_antiguo" title="Sajón antiguo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Sajón antiguo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malnovsaksa_lingvo" title="Malnovsaksa lingvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Malnovsaksa lingvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="ساکسونی باستان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ساکسونی باستان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vieux_saxon" title="Vieux saxon – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Vieux saxon" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldsaksysk" title="Aldsaksysk – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Aldsaksysk" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%A0%EB%8C%80_%EC%9E%91%EC%84%BC%EC%96%B4" title="고대 작센어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="고대 작센어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starosaski_jezik" title="Starosaski jezik – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Starosaski jezik" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Saksen_Kuno" title="Bahasa Saksen Kuno – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Saksen Kuno" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_sassone_antica" title="Lingua sassone antica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua sassone antica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B6_%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8B%D1%81_%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%87_%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%B2" title="Важ улыс немеч кыв – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="Важ улыс немеч кыв" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Коми</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Saxonica_antiqua" title="Lingua Saxonica antiqua – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Lingua Saxonica antiqua" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengua_sassun" title="Lengua sassun – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Lengua sassun" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%93sz%C3%A1sz_nyelv" title="Ószász nyelv – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ószász nyelv" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Старосаксонски јазик – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Старосаксонски јазик" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oudsaksisch" title="Oudsaksisch – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Oudsaksisch" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oldsassisk" title="Oldsassisk – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Oldsassisk" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E3%82%B6%E3%82%AF%E3%82%BB%E3%83%B3%E8%AA%9E" title="古ザクセン語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="古ザクセン語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ualsaksisk" title="Ualsaksisk – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Ualsaksisk" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gammelsaksisk" title="Gammelsaksisk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Gammelsaksisk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gammalsaksisk" title="Gammalsaksisk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Gammalsaksisk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ooldsassische_Spraak" title="Ooldsassische Spraak – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Ooldsassische Spraak" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyk_starosakso%C5%84ski" title="Język starosaksoński – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Język starosaksoński" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sax%C3%A3o_antigo" title="Saxão antigo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Saxão antigo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Древнесаксонский язык – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Древнесаксонский язык" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auld_Saxon_leid" title="Auld Saxon leid – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Auld Saxon leid" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ooldsaksisk" title="Ooldsaksisk – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Ooldsaksisk" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saksonishtja_e_vjet%C3%ABr" title="Saksonishtja e vjetër – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Saksonishtja e vjetër" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Saxon" title="Old Saxon – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Old Saxon" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muinaissaksi" title="Muinaissaksi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Muinaissaksi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fornsaxiska" title="Fornsaxiska – Swedish" lang="sv" 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</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Germanic language spoken from the 8th to 12th centuries</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the ancient language of the continental Saxons. For the Anglo-Saxon language, see <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a>. For the ancient Saxon people who spoke the language, see <a href="/wiki/Saxons" title="Saxons">Saxons</a>. For all other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Saxon_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Saxon (disambiguation)">Saxon (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Old Saxon</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Old Low German</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;"><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">Sahsisk</i></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Region</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Northwest <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, Northeast <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>, Southern <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a> (North Schleswig)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Ethnicity</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Saxons" title="Saxons">Saxons</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Era</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">8th–12th centuries; mostly developed into <a href="/wiki/Middle_Low_German" title="Middle Low German">Middle Low German</a> at the end of the 12th century</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West Germanic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Germanic" title="North Sea Germanic">North Sea Germanic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><b>Old Saxon</b></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Runic" class="mw-redirect" title="Runic">Runic</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>, later <a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/osx" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:osx">osx</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Linguist_List" title="Linguist List">Linguist List</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200101010101/http://multitree.org/codes/osx">osx</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><i><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/olds1250">olds1250</a></code></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:OldSaxonArea.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/OldSaxonArea.png/320px-OldSaxonArea.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/OldSaxonArea.png/480px-OldSaxonArea.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/OldSaxonArea.png/640px-OldSaxonArea.png 2x" data-file-width="670" data-file-height="560" /></a></span><div style="text-align:left;">Area in which Old Saxon was spoken in yellow</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below noprint selfref" style="background-color:#E7E7FF;color:inherit;padding:0.3em 0.5em;text-align:left;line-height:1.3;"><b>This article contains <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> phonetic symbols.</b> Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA#Rendering_issues" title="Help:IPA">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <p><b>Old Saxon</b> (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: <i lang="de">altsächsische Sprache</i>), also known as <b>Old Low German</b> (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: <i lang="de">altniederdeutsche Sprache</i>), was a <a href="/wiki/Germanic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic language">Germanic language</a> and the earliest recorded form of <a href="/wiki/Low_German" title="Low German">Low German</a> (spoken nowadays in <a href="/wiki/Northern_Germany" title="Northern Germany">Northern Germany</a>, the northeastern Netherlands, southern Denmark, the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a> and parts of <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a>). It is a <a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West Germanic</a> language, closely related to the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Frisian" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Frisian">Anglo-Frisian</a> languages.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is documented from the 8th century until the 12th century, when it gradually evolved into <a href="/wiki/Middle_Low_German" title="Middle Low German">Middle Low German</a>. It was spoken throughout modern northwestern Germany, primarily in the coastal regions and in the eastern <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> by <a href="/wiki/Saxon_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Saxon people">Saxons</a>, a Germanic tribe that inhabited the region of <a href="/wiki/Old_Saxony" title="Old Saxony">Saxony</a>. It partially shares <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Frisian" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Frisian">Anglo-Frisian</a>'s (<a href="/wiki/Old_Frisian" title="Old Frisian">Old Frisian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a>) <a href="/wiki/Ingvaeonic_nasal_spirant_law" title="Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law">Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law</a> which sets it apart from <a href="/wiki/Low_Franconian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Low Franconian languages">Low Franconian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Irminonic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Irminonic languages">Irminonic</a> languages, such as <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Luxembourgish Language">Luxembourgish</a> and <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>. </p><p>The grammar of Old Saxon was fully <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">inflected</a> with five <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">grammatical cases</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nominative" class="mw-redirect" title="Nominative">nominative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Accusative" class="mw-redirect" title="Accusative">accusative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Genitive">genitive</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dative_case" title="Dative case">dative</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Instrumental_case" title="Instrumental case">instrumental</a>), three <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">grammatical numbers</a> (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/singular" class="extiw" title="wikt:singular">singular</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plural" title="Plural">plural</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dual_(grammatical_number)" title="Dual (grammatical number)">dual</a>), and three <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">grammatical genders</a> (<a href="/wiki/Masculine" class="mw-redirect" title="Masculine">masculine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feminine" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminine">feminine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Neuter_gender" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuter gender">neuter</a>). The <a href="/wiki/Dual_(grammatical_number)" title="Dual (grammatical number)">dual</a> forms occurred in the first and second persons only. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Characteristics">Characteristics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Saxon&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Characteristics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relation_with_other_West_Germanic_languages">Relation with other West Germanic languages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Saxon&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Relation with other West Germanic languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the early <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Dialect_continuum" title="Dialect continuum">dialect continuum</a> existed between <a href="/wiki/Old_Dutch" title="Old Dutch">Old Dutch</a> and Old Saxon, a continuum which has since been interrupted by the simultaneous dissemination of standard languages within each nation and the dissolution of folk dialects. Although they share some features, a number of differences separate Old Saxon, <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a>, and Old Dutch. One such difference is the Old Dutch utilization of <i>-a</i> as its plural a-stem noun ending, while Old Saxon and Old English employ <i>-as</i> or <i>-os</i>. However, it seems that <a href="/wiki/Middle_Dutch" title="Middle Dutch">Middle Dutch</a> took the Old Saxon a-stem ending from some <a href="/wiki/Middle_Low_German" title="Middle Low German">Middle Low German</a> dialects, as modern Dutch includes the plural ending <i>-s</i> added to certain words. Another difference is the so-called "unified plural": Old Saxon, like Old Frisian and Old English, has one verb form for all three persons in the plural, whereas Old Dutch retained three distinct forms (reduced to two in Middle Dutch). </p><p>Old Saxon (or Old Low German) probably evolved primarily from <a href="/wiki/Ingvaeonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ingvaeonic">Ingvaeonic</a> dialects in the <a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West Germanic</a> branch of <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Germanic">Proto-Germanic</a> in the 5th century. However, Old Saxon, even considered as an Ingvaeonic language, is not a pure Ingvaeonic dialect like <a href="/wiki/Old_Frisian" title="Old Frisian">Old Frisian</a> and Old English, the latter two sharing some other Ingvaeonic characteristics, which Old Saxon lacked. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relation_to_Middle_Low_German">Relation to Middle Low German</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Saxon&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Relation to Middle Low German"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Old Saxon naturally evolved into Middle Low German over the course of the 11th and 12th centuries, with a great shift from <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> to Low German writing happening around 1150, so that the development of the language can be traced from that period. </p><p>The most striking difference between Middle Low German and Old Saxon is in a feature of speech known as <a href="/wiki/Vowel_reduction" title="Vowel reduction">vowel reduction</a>, which took place in most other <a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West Germanic languages</a> and some Scandinavian dialects such as <a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a>, reducing all unstressed vowels to <a href="/wiki/Schwa" class="mw-redirect" title="Schwa">schwa</a>. Thus, such Old Saxon words like <span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">gisprekan</i></span> (<span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">spoken</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>) or <span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">dagō</i></span> (<span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">days'</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> – gen. pl.) became <span title="Middle Low German-language text"><i lang="gml">gesprēken</i></span> and <span title="Middle Low German-language text"><i lang="gml">dāge</i></span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Saxon&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Old_Saxon_phonology" title="Old Saxon phonology">Old Saxon phonology</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_developments">Early developments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Saxon&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Early developments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Old Saxon did not participate in the <a href="/wiki/High_German_consonant_shift" title="High German consonant shift">High German consonant shift</a>, and thus preserves stop consonants <i>p</i>, <i>t</i>, <i>k</i> that have been shifted in <a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a> to various <a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">fricatives</a> and <a href="/wiki/Affricate" title="Affricate">affricates</a>. The Germanic diphthongs <i>ai</i>, <i>au</i> consistently develop into long vowels <i>ē</i>, <i>ō</i>, whereas in Old High German they appear either as <i>ei</i>, <i>ou</i> or <i>ē</i>, <i>ō</i> depending on the following consonant. </p><p>Old Saxon, alone of the West Germanic languages except for Frisian, consistently preserves Germanic <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a>/</span> after a consonant, e.g. <span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">hēliand</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">savior</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> (<a href="/wiki/Old_High_German_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old High German language">Old High German</a>: <i lang="goh">heilant</i>, <a href="/wiki/Old_English_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old English language">Old English</a>: <i lang="ang">hǣlend</i>, but <a href="/wiki/Gothic_language" title="Gothic language">Gothic</a>: <i lang="got">háiljands</i>). <a href="/wiki/Germanic_umlaut" title="Germanic umlaut">Germanic umlaut</a>, when it occurs with short <i>a</i>, is inconsistent, e.g. <span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">hebbean</i></span> or <span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">habbian</i></span> "to have" (<a href="/wiki/Old_English_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old English language">Old English</a>: <i lang="ang">habban</i>). This feature was carried over into the descendant-language of Old Saxon, Middle Low German, where e.g. the adjective <span title="Middle Low German-language text"><i lang="gml">krank</i></span> (<span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">sick, ill</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>) had the comparative forms <span title="Middle Low German-language text"><i lang="gml">krenker</i></span> and <span title="Middle Low German-language text"><i lang="gml">kranker</i></span>. Apart from the <i>e</i>, however, the umlaut is not marked in writing. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Saxon&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Consonants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The table below lists the consonants of Old Saxon. Phonemes written in parentheses represent <a href="/wiki/Allophone" title="Allophone">allophones</a> and are not independent phonemes. </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <caption>Old Saxon consonant phonemes </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Dental</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Plosive_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Plosive consonant">Plosive</a> </th> <th><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voiceless</a></span> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a></span> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_fricative" title="Voiced velar fricative">ɣ</a></span> (<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a></span>) </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Fricative</a> </th> <th><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Sibilant_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Sibilant consonant">sibilant</a></span> </th> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_apico-alveolar_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless apico-alveolar fricative">s̺</a></span> (<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a></span>) </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><span style="font-size:85%;">non-sibilant</span> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a></span> (<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiced labiodental fricative">v</a></span>) </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_fricative" title="Voiceless dental fricative">θ</a></span> (<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_fricative" title="Voiced dental fricative">ð</a></span>) </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Approximant_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Approximant consonant">Approximant</a> </th> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Rhotic_consonant" title="Rhotic consonant">Rhotic</a> </th> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Notes: </p> <ul><li>The voiceless spirants <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/f/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/θ/</span>, and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/s/</span> gain voiced allophones (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[v]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ð]</span>, and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[z]</span>) when between vowels. This change is only faithfully reflected in writing for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[v]</span> (represented with letters such as <span class="nowrap">⟨ƀ⟩</span> and <span class="nowrap">⟨u⟩</span>). The other two allophones continued to be written as before.</li> <li>Fricatives were devoiced again word-finally. Beginning in the later Old Saxon period, <a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">stops</a> became devoiced word-finally as well.</li> <li>Most consonants could be <a href="/wiki/Gemination" title="Gemination">geminated</a>. Notably, geminated <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/v/</span> gave <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/bː/</span>, and geminated <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɣ/</span> probably gave <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɡː/</span>; Geminated <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/h/</span> resulted in <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/xː/</span>.</li> <li>Germanic <i>*h</i> is retained as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[x]</span> in these positions and thus merges with devoiced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɣ/</span>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Saxon&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Vowels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <caption>Old Saxon monophthongs </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="3"> </th> <th colspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr class="small"> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Roundedness" title="Roundedness">unrounded</a> </th> <th colspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Roundedness" title="Roundedness">rounded</a> </th></tr> <tr class="small"> <th><a href="/wiki/Short_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Short vowel">short</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Long_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Long vowel">long</a> </th> <th>short </th> <th>long </th> <th>short </th> <th>long </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɪ</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">iː</span> </td> <td>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʏ</span>) </td> <td>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">yː</span>) </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʊ</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">uː</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Near-close_vowel" title="Near-close vowel">Close-mid</a> </th> <td>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e</span>) </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">eː</span> </td> <td> </td> <td>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">øː</span>) </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">oː</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open-mid" class="mw-redirect" title="Open-mid">Open-mid</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɛ</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɛː</span> </td> <td>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">œ</span>) </td> <td>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">œː</span>) </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɔ</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɔː</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Near-open_vowel" title="Near-open vowel">Near-open</a> </th> <td>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">æ</span>) </td> <td>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">æː</span>) </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɑ</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɑː</span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Notes: </p> <ul><li>Long vowels were rare in unstressed syllables and mostly occurred due to suffixation or compounding.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diphthongs">Diphthongs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Saxon&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Diphthongs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <caption>Old Saxon diphthongs </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Opening </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">io</span>  (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ia</span>  <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ie</span>) </td> <td>(uo) </td></tr> <tr> <th>Height-harmonic </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">iu</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Closing </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">aːi</span>  <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɛi</span>  <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɛu</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɑu</span>  <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɔːi</span>  <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">oːi</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Notes: </p> <ul><li>The closing diphthongs <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ei/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ou/</span> sometimes occur in texts (especially in <a href="/wiki/Old_Saxon_Genesis" title="Old Saxon Genesis">Genesis</a>), probably under the influence of <a href="/wiki/Franconian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Franconian languages">Franconian</a> or <a href="/wiki/High_German_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="High German dialect">High German dialects</a>, where they replace Old Saxon developments <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɛː/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɔː/</span> (which evolved from <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ai/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/au/</span>).</li> <li>The situation for the front opening diphthongs is somewhat unclear in some texts. Words written with ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">io</span>⟩ in the <a href="/wiki/Heliand" title="Heliand">Heliand</a>, the most extensive record of Old Saxon writing, are often found written variably with ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ia</span>⟩ or even ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ie</span>⟩ in most other texts, notably the later ones. The diphthong eventually merges into <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/eː/</span> in almost every Middle Low German dialect.</li> <li>There also existed 'long' diphthongs <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/oːu/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/aːu/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/eːu/</span>. These were, however, treated as two-syllable sequences of a long vowel followed by a short one, not proper diphthongs.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Saxon&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Grammar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Old_Saxon_grammar" title="Old Saxon grammar">Old Saxon grammar</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Morphology">Morphology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Saxon&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Morphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Unlike modern English, Old Saxon was an <a href="/wiki/Inflected_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflected language">inflected language</a> rich in <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphological</a> diversity. It kept five out of the six distinct cases of <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Germanic">Proto-Germanic</a>: the <a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">nominative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Accusative_case" title="Accusative case">accusative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">genitive</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dative_case" title="Dative case">dative</a> and (Vestigially in the oldest texts) <a href="/wiki/Instrumental_case" title="Instrumental case">instrumental</a>. </p><p>Old Saxon also had three <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">grammatical numbers</a> (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/singular" class="extiw" title="wikt:singular">singular</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dual_(grammatical_number)" title="Dual (grammatical number)">dual</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Plural" title="Plural">plural</a>) and three <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">grammatical genders</a> (<a href="/wiki/Masculine" class="mw-redirect" title="Masculine">masculine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feminine" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminine">feminine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Neuter_gender" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuter gender">neuter</a>). The dual forms occurred in the first and second persons only and referred to groups of exactly two. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nouns">Nouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Saxon&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Nouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Old Saxon nouns were inflected in very different ways following their classes. Here are the endings for <span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">dag</i></span>, <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">day</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> an a-stem masculine noun: </p> <table border="1" width="30%" style="text-align:center; margin:1em 1em 1em 0; border:1px #999 solid; border-collapse:collapse;"> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="3" style="background:#afefef;"><b><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">dag</i></span></b> 'day' <i>m.</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#FBEC5D;">Case </th> <th style="background:#FBEC5D;">Singular </th> <th style="background:#FBEC5D;">Plural </th></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#CCCCFF;"><b>Nominative, Accusative</b></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">dag</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">dagos</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#CCCCFF;"><b>Genitive</b></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">dages, -as</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">dago</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#CCCCFF;"><b>Dative</b></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">dage, -a</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">dagum, -un</i></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>At the end of the Old Saxon period, distinctions between noun classes began to disappear, and endings from one were often transferred to the other declension, and vice versa. This happened to be a large process, and the most common noun classes started to cause the least represented to disappear. As a result, in Middle Low German, only the former weak n-stem and strong a-stem classes remained. These two noun inflection classes started being added to words not only following the historical belonging of this word, but also following the root of the word. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verbs">Verbs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Saxon&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Verbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Old Saxon verb inflection system reflects an intermediate stage between Old English and Old Dutch, and further Old High German. Unlike Old High German and Old Dutch, but similarly to Old English, it did not preserve the three different verb endings in the plural, all featured as <i>-ad</i> (also <i>-iad</i> or <i>-iod</i> following the different verb inflection classes). Like Old Dutch, it had only two classes of weak verb, with only a few relic verbs of the third weak class (namely four verbs: <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/libbian#Old_Saxon" class="extiw" title="wikt:libbian">libbian</a></i>, <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/seggian#Old_Saxon" class="extiw" title="wikt:seggian">seggian</a></i>, <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/huggian#Old_Saxon" class="extiw" title="wikt:huggian">huggian</a></i> and <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hebbian#Old_Saxon" class="extiw" title="wikt:hebbian">hebbian</a></i>). </p><p>This table sums up all seven Old Saxon strong verb classes and the three weak verb classes: </p> <table border="1" width="100%" style="text-align:center; margin:1em 1em 1em 0; border:1px #999 solid; border-collapse:collapse;"> <tbody><tr> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="2"> </th> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="7">Strong verbs </th> <th style="background:#afefef;" colspan="3">Weak verbs </th></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#FBEC5D;"><b>Conjugation</b> </th> <th style="background:#FBEC5D;"><b>Pronoun</b> </th> <th style="background:#FBEC5D;">'to ride' </th> <th style="background:#FBEC5D;">'to fly' </th> <th style="background:#FBEC5D;">'to help' </th> <th style="background:#FBEC5D;">'to break' </th> <th style="background:#FBEC5D;">'to speak' </th> <th style="background:#FBEC5D;">'to travel' </th> <th style="background:#FBEC5D;">'to wield' </th> <th style="background:#FBEC5D;">'to deem' </th> <th style="background:#FBEC5D;">'to declare' </th> <th style="background:#FBEC5D;">'to say' </th></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#CCCCFF;" colspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Infinitive" title="Infinitive">Infinitive</a></b></td> <td><i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ridan#Old_Saxon" class="extiw" title="wikt:ridan">rīdan</a></i></td> <td><i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fliogan#Old_Saxon" class="extiw" title="wikt:fliogan">fliogan</a></i></td> <td><i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/helpan#Old_Saxon" class="extiw" title="wikt:helpan">helpan</a></i></td> <td><i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/brekan#Old_Saxon" class="extiw" title="wikt:brekan">brekan</a></i></td> <td><i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sprekan#Old_Saxon" class="extiw" title="wikt:sprekan">sprekan</a></i></td> <td><i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/faran#Old_Saxon" class="extiw" title="wikt:faran">faran</a></i></td> <td><i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/waldan#Old_Saxon" class="extiw" title="wikt:waldan">waldan</a></i></td> <td><i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/domian#Old_Saxon" class="extiw" title="wikt:domian">dōmian</a></i></td> <td><i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mahlon#Old_Saxon" class="extiw" title="wikt:mahlon">mahlon</a></i></td> <td><i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/seggian#Old_Saxon" class="extiw" title="wikt:seggian">seggian</a></i> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#CCCCFF;" rowspan="5"><b><a href="/wiki/Indicative" class="mw-redirect" title="Indicative">Present indicative</a></b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#CCCCFF;"><b><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">ik</i></span></b></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">rīdu</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">fliugu</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">hilpu</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">briku</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">spriku</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">faru</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">waldu</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">dōmiu</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">mahlo(n)</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">seggiu</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#CCCCFF;"><b><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">thū</i></span></b></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">rīdis</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">fliugis</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">hilpis</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">brikis</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">sprikis</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">feris</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">weldis</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">dōmis</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">mahlos</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">sages</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#CCCCFF;"><b><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">hē/it/siu</i></span></b></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">rīdid</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">fliugid</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">hilpid</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">brikid</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">sprikid</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">ferid</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">weldid</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">dōmid</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">mahlod</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">saged</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#CCCCFF;"><b><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">wī/gī/sia</i></span></b></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">rīdad</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">fliogad</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">helpad</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">brekad</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">sprekad</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">farad</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">waldad</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">dōmiad</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">mahliod</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">seggiad</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#CCCCFF;" rowspan="5"><b><a href="/wiki/Indicative" class="mw-redirect" title="Indicative">Past indicative</a></b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#CCCCFF;"><b><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">ik</i></span></b></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">rēd</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">flōg</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">halp</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">brak</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">sprak</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">fōr</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">wēld</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">dōmda</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">mahloda</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">sagda</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#CCCCFF;"><b><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">thū</i></span></b></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">ridi</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">flugi</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">hulpi</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">brāki</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">sprāki</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">fōri</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">wēldi</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">dōmdes</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">mahlodes</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">sagdes</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#CCCCFF;"><b><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">hē/it/siu</i></span></b></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">rēd</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">flōg</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">halp</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">brak</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">sprak</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">fōr</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">wēld</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">dōmda</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">mahloda</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">sagda</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#CCCCFF;"><b><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">wī/gī/sia</i></span></b></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">ridun</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">flugun</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">hulpun</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">brākun</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">sprākun</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">fōrun</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">wēldun</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">dōmdun</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">mahlodun</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">sagdun</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#CCCCFF;" rowspan="5"><b><a href="/wiki/Subjunctive" class="mw-redirect" title="Subjunctive">Present subjunctive</a></b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#CCCCFF;"><b><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">ik</i></span></b></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">rīde</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">flioge</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">helpe</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">breke</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">spreke</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">fare</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">walde</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">dōmie</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">mahlo</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">seggie</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#CCCCFF;"><b><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">thū</i></span></b></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">rīdes</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">flioges</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">helpes</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">brekes</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">sprekes</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">fares</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">waldes</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">dōmies</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">mahlos</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">seggies</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#CCCCFF;"><b><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">hē/it/siu</i></span></b></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">rīde</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">flioge</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">helpe</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">breke</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">spreke</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">fare</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">walde</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">dōmie</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">mahlo</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">seggie</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#CCCCFF;"><b><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">wī/gī/sia</i></span></b></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">rīden</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">fliogen</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">helpen</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">breken</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">spreken</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">faren</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">walden</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">dōmien</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">mahlion</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">seggien</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#CCCCFF;" rowspan="5"><b><a href="/wiki/Subjunctive" class="mw-redirect" title="Subjunctive">Past subjunctive</a></b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#CCCCFF;"><b><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">ik</i></span></b></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">ridi</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">flugi</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">hulpi</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">brāki</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">sprāki</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">fōri</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">wēldi</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">dōmdi</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">mahlodi</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">sagdi</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#CCCCFF;"><b><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">thū</i></span></b></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">ridis</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">flugis</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">hulpis</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">brākis</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">sprākis</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">fōris</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">wēldis</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">dōmdis</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">mahlodis</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">sagdis</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#CCCCFF;"><b><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">hē/it/siu</i></span></b></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">ridi</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">flugi</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">hulpi</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">brāki</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">sprāki</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">fōri</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">wēldi</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">dōmdi</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">mahlodi</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">sagdi</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#CCCCFF;"><b><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">wī/gī/sia</i></span></b></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">ridin</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">flugin</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">hulpin</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">brākin</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">sprākin</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">fōrin</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">wēldin</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">dōmdin</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">mahlodin</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">sagdin</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#CCCCFF;" rowspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Imperative_mood" title="Imperative mood">Imperative</a></b> </td> <td style="background:#CCCCFF;"><b>Singular</b></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">rīd</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">fliog</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">help</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">brek</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">sprek</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">far</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">wald</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">dōmi</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">mahlo</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">sage</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#CCCCFF;"><b>Plural</b></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">rīdad</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">fliogad</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">helpad</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">brekad</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">sprekad</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">farad</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">waldad</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">dōmiad</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">mahliod</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">seggiad</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#CCCCFF;" colspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Present_participle" class="mw-redirect" title="Present participle">Present participle</a></b></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">rīdandi</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">fliogandi</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">helpandi</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">brekandi</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">sprekandi</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">farandi</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">waldandi</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">dōmiandi</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">mahlondi</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">seggiandi</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#CCCCFF;" colspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Past_participle" class="mw-redirect" title="Past participle">Past participle</a></b></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">(gi)ridan</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">(gi)flogan</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">(gi)holpan</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">(gi)brokan</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">(gi)sprekan</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">(gi)faran</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">(gi)waldan</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">(gi)dōmid</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">(gi)mahlod</i></span></td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">(gi)sagd</i></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>It should be noticed that the third weak verb class includes only four verbs (namely <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/libbian#Old_Saxon" class="extiw" title="wikt:libbian">libbian</a></i>, <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/seggian#Old_Saxon" class="extiw" title="wikt:seggian">seggian</a></i>, <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/huggian#Old_Saxon" class="extiw" title="wikt:huggian">huggian</a></i> and <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hebbian#Old_Saxon" class="extiw" title="wikt:hebbian">hebbian</a></i>); it is a remnant of an older and larger class that was kept in Old High German. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syntax">Syntax</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Saxon&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Syntax"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Old Saxon syntax is mostly different from that of <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">modern English</a>. Some were simply consequences of the greater level of nominal and verbal inflection – e.g., word order was generally freer. In addition: </p> <ul><li>The default <a href="/wiki/Word_order" title="Word order">word order</a> was <a href="/wiki/Verb-second" class="mw-redirect" title="Verb-second">verb-second</a>, very close to that of <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">modern Dutch</a> or <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">modern German</a>.</li> <li>There was no <a href="/wiki/Do-support" title="Do-support"><i>do</i>-support</a> in questions and negatives.</li> <li>Multiple negatives could stack up in a sentence and intensify each other (<a href="/wiki/Negative_concord" class="mw-redirect" title="Negative concord">negative concord</a>), which is not always the case in modern English, modern <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>, or modern <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>.</li> <li>Sentences with subordinate clauses of the type "when X, Y" (e.g. "When I got home, I ate dinner.") did not use a <i>wh-</i>type conjunction, but rather used a <i>th-</i>type <a href="/wiki/Correlative_conjunction" class="mw-redirect" title="Correlative conjunction">correlative conjunction</a> (e.g. <i>thô X, thô Y</i> in place of "when X, Y"). The <i>wh-</i>type conjunctions were used only as <a href="/wiki/Interrogative_pronoun" class="mw-redirect" title="Interrogative pronoun">interrogative pronouns</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indefinite_pronouns" class="mw-redirect" title="Indefinite pronouns">indefinite pronouns</a>.</li> <li>Similarly, <i>wh-</i> forms were not used as <a href="/wiki/Relative_pronoun" title="Relative pronoun">relative pronouns</a> (as in "the man who saw me" or "the car which I bought"). Instead, an indeclinable word <i>the</i> was used, often in conjunction with the <a href="/wiki/Definite_article" class="mw-redirect" title="Definite article">definite article</a> (which was declined for case, number and gender).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Orthography">Orthography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Saxon&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Orthography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Old Saxon comes down in a number of different manuscripts whose spelling systems sometimes differ markedly. In this section, only the letters used in normalized versions of the <i><a href="/wiki/Heliand" title="Heliand">Heliand</a></i> will be kept, and the sounds modern scholars have traditionally assigned to these letters. Where spelling deviations in other texts may point to significant pronunciation variants, this will be indicated. </p><p>In general, the spelling of Old Saxon corresponds quite well to that of the other ancient <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic languages</a>, such as Old High German or <a href="/wiki/Gothic_language" title="Gothic language">Gothic</a>. </p> <ul><li>⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">c</span>⟩ and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">k</span>⟩ were both used for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[k]</span>. However, it seems that, as in other <a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West-Germanic</a> dialects, when <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[k]</span> was followed by ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">i</span>⟩ or ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">e</span>⟩, it had the pronunciation <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ts/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kʲsʲ/</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The letters ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">c</span>⟩ and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">x</span>⟩ were preferred for the <a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(sound_change)" title="Palatalization (sound change)">palatalisations</a>, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">k</span>⟩ and even sometimes ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ch</span>⟩ being rather used before ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">u</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">o</span>⟩ or ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">a</span>⟩ for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/k/</span> (<span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">kuning</i></span> for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kʏnɪŋk]</span> 'king', modern <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">köning</i></span>; <span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">crûci</i></span> for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kryːtsi]</span> ; <span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">forsachistu</i></span> for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[forsakistuː]</span>).</li> <li>⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">g</span>⟩ represented <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɣ]</span> or its allophone <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɡ]</span>: <span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">brengian</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[brɛŋɡjan]</span> 'to bring', <span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">seggian</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[sɛɡɡjan]</span> 'to say', <span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">wege</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[wɛɣe]</span> 'way' (dative).</li> <li>⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">g</span>⟩ seems, at least in a few dialects, to have had the pronunciation <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[j]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʝ]</span> at the beginning of a word, only when followed by ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">i</span>⟩ or ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">e</span>⟩. Thus we find <span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">giār</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[jaːr]</span> 'year' and even <span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">gēr</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[jeːr]</span> 'year', the latter betraying a strong Old Frisian influence.</li> <li>⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">h</span>⟩ represents <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[h]</span> and its allophone <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[x]</span>: <span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">holt</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[hɔlt]</span> 'wood', <span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">naht</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[naxt]</span> 'night' (mod. <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">nacht</i></span>).</li> <li>⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">i</span>⟩ is used for both the vowels <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɪ]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[iː]</span> and the consonant <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[j]</span>: <span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">ik</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɪk]</span> 'I' (mod. <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">ich</i></span>, <span title="Dutch-language text"><i lang="nl">ik</i></span>), <span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">iār</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[jaːr]</span> 'year'.</li> <li>⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">qu</span>⟩ and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">kw</span>⟩ always represent <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kw]</span>: <span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">quāmun</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kwaːmʊn]</span> 'they came'.</li> <li>⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">s</span>⟩ represented <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[s]</span>, and between two vowels also <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[z]</span>.</li> <li>⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">th</span>⟩ is used to indicate <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[θ]</span>: <span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">thōhtun</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[θoːxtun]</span> 'they thought'. ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ð</span>⟩ is used for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ð]</span>, occasionally also written ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">dh</span>⟩.</li> <li>⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">u</span>⟩ represented the vowels <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʊ]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[uː]</span>, or the consonant <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[β]</span> ~ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[v]</span>, which was denoted sporadically across manuscripts by either ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ƀ</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">b</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">u</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">v</span>⟩, or ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">f</span>⟩'.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">uu</span>⟩ was normally used to represent <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[w]</span>, predating the letter ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">w</span>⟩.</li> <li>⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">z</span>⟩ only appeared in a few texts due to <a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a> influence.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literature">Literature</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Saxon&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Heliand_Excerpt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Heliand_Excerpt.jpg/220px-Heliand_Excerpt.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="308" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Heliand_Excerpt.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="276" data-file-height="386" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Heliand" title="Heliand">Heliand</a> excerpt from the <a href="/wiki/German_Historical_Museum" title="German Historical Museum">German Historical Museum</a> in Berlin</figcaption></figure> <p>Only a few texts survive, predominantly baptismal vows the Saxons were required to perform at the behest of <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a>. The only literary texts preserved are <i><a href="/wiki/Heliand" title="Heliand">Heliand</a></i> and fragments of the <a href="/wiki/Old_Saxon_Genesis" title="Old Saxon Genesis">Old Saxon Genesis</a>. There is also: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beda" class="mw-redirect" title="Beda">Beda</a> homily (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Homilie Bedas</i></span>)</li> <li><i>Credo</i> (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Abrenunciatio diaboli et credo</i></span>) → Old Saxon baptismal vow.</li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Essener Heberegister</i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Saxon_Baptismal_Vow" title="Old Saxon Baptismal Vow">Old Saxon Baptismal Vow</a> (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: <i lang="de"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A4chsisches_Taufgel%C3%B6bnis" class="extiw" title="de:Sächsisches Taufgelöbnis">Sächsisches Taufgelöbnis</a></i>)</li> <li>Penitentiary (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">altsächsische Beichte, altwestfälische Beichte</i></span>)</li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Trierer Blutsegen</i></span> (<span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></span> <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/s:Ad_catarrum_dic" class="extiw" title="de:s:Ad catarrum dic">de</a>.)</li> <li><i>Spurihalz</i> (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Wiener Pferdsegen</i></span>) (<span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></span> <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/s:De_hoc_quod_spurihalz_dicunt" class="extiw" title="de:s:De hoc quod spurihalz dicunt">de</a>.)</li> <li><i>Wurmsegen</i> (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Wiener Wurmsegen</i></span>) (<span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></span> <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/s:Contra_vermes" class="extiw" title="de:s:Contra vermes">de)</a>.</li> <li>Psalms commentary (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Gernroder Psalmenkommentar</i></span>)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Text_sample">Text sample</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Saxon&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Text sample"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A poetic version of the <a href="/wiki/Lord%27s_Prayer" title="Lord's Prayer">Lord's Prayer</a> in the form of the traditional Germanic <a href="/wiki/Alliterative_verse" title="Alliterative verse">alliterative verse</a> is given in Old Saxon below as it appears in the <i>Heliand</i>. </p> <table cellspacing="10"> <tbody><tr> <th>Line</th> <th>Original</th> <th>Translation </th></tr> <tr> <td>[1600]</td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">Fadar usa // firiho barno,</i></span> </td> <td>Father our [our Father/Father of us], men's sons [the sons of men], </td></tr> <tr> <td>[1601]</td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">thu bist an them hohon // himila rikea,</i></span> </td> <td>Thou art [You are] in the high heavenly domain [kingdom of the heavens], </td></tr> <tr> <td>[1602]</td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">geuuihid si thin namo // uuordo gehuuilico,</i></span> </td> <td>Hallowed be Thy [Your] name (with) every word, </td></tr> <tr> <td>[1603]</td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">Cuma thin // craftag riki.</i></span> </td> <td>May Thy [Your] mighty domain [kingdom] come. </td></tr> <tr> <td>[1604]</td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">UUerða thin uuilleo // oƀar thesa werold alla,</i></span> </td> <td>Worth [May] Thy [Your] will (be done) over all this world, </td></tr> <tr> <td>[1605]</td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">so sama an erðo, // so thar uppa ist</i></span> </td> <td>Just the same on earth, as (it) is up there </td></tr> <tr> <td>[1606]</td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">an them hohon // himilo rikea.</i></span> </td> <td>in the high heavenly domain [kingdom of the heavens]. </td></tr> <tr> <td>[1607]</td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">Gef us dag gehuuilikes rad, // drohtin the godo,</i></span> </td> <td>Give us every day rede [advice/counsel], (oh) Drighten [Lord] the Good, </td></tr> <tr> <td>[1608]</td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">thina helaga helpa, // endi alat us, heƀenes uuard,</i></span> </td> <td>(and) Thy [Your] holy help, and deliver [set free/absolve] us, (oh) Heaven's Ward [Lord/Ruler of Heaven], </td></tr> <tr> <td>[1609]</td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">managoro mensculdio, // al so uue oðrum mannum doan.</i></span> </td> <td>(of our) many crimes, just as we (shall) do (to) other men [people]. </td></tr> <tr> <td>[1610]</td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">Ne lat us farledean // leða uuihti</i></span> </td> <td>Do not let loath(some) wights forlead [mislead, seduce] us </td></tr> <tr> <td>[1611]</td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">so forð an iro uuilleon, // so uui uuirðige sind,</i></span> </td> <td>so forth in [to go on with] their will, so [given that] we are worthy, </td></tr> <tr> <td>[1612]</td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">ac help us uuiðar allun // uƀilon dadiun.</i></span> </td> <td>but (rather) help us wither [against] all evil deeds. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span 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title="Low German">Low German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingvaeonic_nasal_spirant_law" title="Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law">Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Saxon&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Old-Saxon-language">"Old Saxon language | Old Saxon language | West Germanic, Low German | Britannica"</a>. <i>www.britannica.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-01-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britannica.com&rft.atitle=Old+Saxon+language+%7C+Old+Saxon+language+%7C+West+Germanic%2C+Low+German+%7C+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FOld-Saxon-language&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Saxon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Lasch">Lasch 1914</a>, §339</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Altsächsische Grammatik</i>. pp. 126–128, 161.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alts%C3%A4chsische+Grammatik&rft.pages=126-128%2C+161&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Saxon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Saxon&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Saxon&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalleé1910" class="citation book cs1">Galleé, Johan Hendrik (1910). <i>Altsächsische Grammatik</i>. Halle: Max Niemeyer.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alts%C3%A4chsische+Grammatik&rft.place=Halle&rft.pub=Max+Niemeyer&rft.date=1910&rft.aulast=Galle%C3%A9&rft.aufirst=Johan+Hendrik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Saxon" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Lasch" class="citation book cs1">Lasch, Agathe (1914). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mittelniederdeu00lasc"><i>Mittelniederdeutsche Grammatik</i></a>. Halle: Max Niemeyer.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mittelniederdeutsche+Grammatik&rft.place=Halle&rft.pub=Max+Niemeyer&rft.date=1914&rft.aulast=Lasch&rft.aufirst=Agathe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmittelniederdeu00lasc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Saxon" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General">General</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Saxon&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: General"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Euler, Wolfram (2013). <i>Das Westgermanische – von der Herausbildung im 3. bis zur Aufgliederung im 7. Jahrhundert – Analyse und Rekonstruktion</i> (West Germanic – from its Emergence in the 3rd up until its Dissolution in the 7th Century CE – Analyses and Reconstruction). 244 p., in German with English summary, London/Berlin 2013, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-9812110-7-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-9812110-7-8">978-3-9812110-7-8</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRauch1992" class="citation book cs1">Rauch, Irmengard (1992). <i>The Old Saxon Language</i>. Berkeley Models of Grammar: Peter Lang Publishing.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Old+Saxon+Language&rft.place=Berkeley+Models+of+Grammar&rft.pub=Peter+Lang+Publishing&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Rauch&rft.aufirst=Irmengard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Saxon" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Ringe" title="Donald Ringe">Ringe, Donald R.</a> and Taylor, Ann (2014). <i>The Development of Old English – A Linguistic History of English, vol. II</i>, 632p. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199207848" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199207848">978-0199207848</a>. Oxford.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolthausen1923" class="citation book cs1">Holthausen, Ferdinand (1923). <i>Altsächsisches Elementarbuch</i>. Ulan Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alts%C3%A4chsisches+Elementarbuch&rft.pub=Ulan+Press&rft.date=1923&rft.aulast=Holthausen&rft.aufirst=Ferdinand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Saxon" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lexicons">Lexicons</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Saxon&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Lexicons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTiefenbach2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Tiefenbach" title="Heinrich Tiefenbach">Tiefenbach, Heinrich</a> (2010). <i>Altsächsisches Handwörterbuch / A Concise Old Saxon Dictionary</i>. De Gruyter.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alts%C3%A4chsisches+Handw%C3%B6rterbuch+%2F+A+Concise+Old+Saxon+Dictionary&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Tiefenbach&rft.aufirst=Heinrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Saxon" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.koeblergerhard.de/aswbhinw.html">Gerhard Köbler: Altsächsisches Wörterbuch, (5. Auflage) 2014. ("An Old Saxon Dictionary")</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="External_history">External history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Saxon&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: External history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmmon1922" class="citation book cs1">Ammon, Hermann (1922). <i>Repetitorium der deutschen sprache, gotisch, althochdeutsch, altsächsisch</i>. Michigan: University of Michigan Library.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Repetitorium+der+deutschen+sprache%2C+gotisch%2C+althochdeutsch%2C+alts%C3%A4chsisch&rft.place=Michigan&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Library&rft.date=1922&rft.aulast=Ammon&rft.aufirst=Hermann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Saxon" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHelfenstein1901" class="citation book cs1">Helfenstein, Jacob (1901). <i>Comparative Grammar of the Teutonic languages</i>. Oxford: Forgotten Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Comparative+Grammar+of+the+Teutonic+languages&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Forgotten+Books&rft.date=1901&rft.aulast=Helfenstein&rft.aufirst=Jacob&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Saxon" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeidinger1923" class="citation book cs1">Meidinger, Heinrich (1923). <i>Vergleichendes Etymologisches Wörterbuch Der Gothisch-Teutonischen Mundarten</i>. Ulan Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vergleichendes+Etymologisches+W%C3%B6rterbuch+Der+Gothisch-Teutonischen+Mundarten&rft.pub=Ulan+Press&rft.date=1923&rft.aulast=Meidinger&rft.aufirst=Heinrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Saxon" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobinson1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Orrin_W._Robinson_(philologist)" title="Orrin W. Robinson (philologist)">Robinson, Orrin W.</a> (1992). <i>Old English and its closest relatives</i>. Stanford: Stanford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Old+English+and+its+closest+relatives&rft.place=Stanford&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Robinson&rft.aufirst=Orrin+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Saxon" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchade1923" class="citation book cs1">Schade, Oskar (1923). <i>Altdeutsches Lesebuch</i>. Ulan Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Altdeutsches+Lesebuch&rft.pub=Ulan+Press&rft.date=1923&rft.aulast=Schade&rft.aufirst=Oskar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Saxon" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_Saxon&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Old_Saxon" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Old Saxon">Old Saxon</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">For a list of words relating to Old Saxon, see the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Old_Saxon_language" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Category:Old Saxon language"><i><b>Old Saxon language</b></i> category of words</a> in <a href="/wiki/Wiktionary" title="Wiktionary">Wiktionary</a>, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Old_Saxon" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Old Saxon">Old Saxon</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.indogermanistik.uni-jena.de/dokumente/PDF/Einf%C3%BChrung%20in%20das%20Alts%C3%A4chsische.pdf">Einführung in das Altsächsische</a> (An Introduction to Old Saxon) by Roland Schuhmann (in German); <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140308181018/http://www.indogermanistik.uni-jena.de/dokumente/PDF/Einf%C3%BChrung%20in%20das%20Alts%C3%A4chsische.pdf">copy</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalleé1910" class="citation book cs1">Galleé, Johan Hendrik (1910). <i>Altsächsische Grammatik</i>. Halle: Max Niemeyer.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alts%C3%A4chsische+Grammatik&rft.place=Halle&rft.pub=Max+Niemeyer&rft.date=1910&rft.aulast=Galle%C3%A9&rft.aufirst=Johan+Hendrik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+Saxon" class="Z3988"></span> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_IkwzAQAAMAAJ">at the Internet Archive</a>)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Frisian_languages" title="Anglo-Frisian languages">Anglo-Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anglic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglic languages">Anglic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dialects_of_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialects of English">dialects</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English">Modern English</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_English" title="Early Modern English">Early Modern English</a></i></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><i>Irish Middle English</i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Fingallian" title="Fingallian">Fingallian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kildare_Poems#Linguistic_features" title="Kildare Poems">Kildare</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yola_dialect" title="Yola dialect">Yola</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Early_Scots" title="Early Scots">Early Scots</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Scots" title="Middle Scots">Middle Scots</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Frisian_languages" title="Frisian languages">Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Frisian" title="Old Frisian">Old Frisian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Frisian" title="Middle Frisian">Middle Frisian</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Frisian_language" title="East Frisian language">East Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Ems <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saterland_Frisian_language" title="Saterland Frisian language">Saterland Frisian</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>Weser</i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Wangerooge_Frisian" title="Wangerooge Frisian">Wangerooge Frisian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wursten_Frisian" title="Wursten Frisian">Wursten Frisian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harlingerland_Frisian" title="Harlingerland Frisian">Harlingerland Frisian</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Frisian_language" title="North Frisian language">North Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Insular <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Eiderstedt_Frisian" title="Eiderstedt Frisian">Eiderstedt</a></i></li> <li>Föhr–Amrum <ul><li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%B6hr_North_Frisian" title="Föhr North Frisian">Föhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amrum_North_Frisian" title="Amrum North Frisian">Amrum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heligoland_Frisian" title="Heligoland Frisian">Heligolandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylt_North_Frisian" title="Sylt North Frisian">Sylt</a></li></ul></li> <li>Mainland <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%B6kingharde_North_Frisian" title="Bökingharde North Frisian">Bökingharde</a> <ul><li>Mooring</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halligen_Frisian" title="Halligen Frisian">Halligen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goesharde_Frisian" title="Goesharde Frisian">Goesharde</a> <ul><li>Northern</li> <li>Central</li> <li><i>Southern</i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karrharde_Frisian" title="Karrharde Frisian">Karrharde</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Strand_Frisian" title="Strand Frisian">Strand</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiedingharde_Frisian" title="Wiedingharde Frisian">Wiedingharde</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_languages" title="West Frisian languages">West Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindeloopen_Frisian" title="Hindeloopen Frisian">Hindeloopen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schiermonnikoog_Frisian" title="Schiermonnikoog Frisian">Schiermonnikoog</a></li> <li>Westlauwers–Terschellings <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_language" title="West Frisian language">Mainland West Frisian</a> <ul><li>Clay Frisian</li> <li>Wood Frisian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Westereendersk" title="Westereendersk">Westereendersk</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terschelling_Frisian" title="Terschelling Frisian">Terschelling</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Low_German" title="Low German">Low German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Old Saxon</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Low_German" title="Middle Low German">Middle Low German</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Low_German" class="mw-redirect" title="West Low German">West Low German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Low_Saxon" title="Dutch Low Saxon">Dutch Low Saxon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stellingwarfs_dialect" title="Stellingwarfs dialect">Stellingwarfs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tweants_dialect" title="Tweants dialect">Tweants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gronings_dialect" title="Gronings dialect">Gronings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dr%C3%A8ents_dialects" title="Drèents dialects">Drèents</a></li> <li>Gelders-Overijssels <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achterhooks" title="Achterhooks">Achterhooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallaans_dialect" title="Sallaans dialect">Sallaans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urkers_dialect" title="Urkers dialect">Urkers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veluws_dialect" title="Veluws dialect">Veluws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Low_Saxon" title="Northern Low Saxon">Northern Low Saxon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Frisian_Low_Saxon" title="East Frisian Low Saxon">East Frisian Low Saxon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastphalian_language" title="Eastphalian language">Eastphalian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westphalian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Westphalian language">Westphalian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Low_German" title="East Low German">East Low German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch_dialect" title="Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch dialect">Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brandenburgisch_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Brandenburgisch dialect">Brandenburgisch</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Central_Pomeranian&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Central Pomeranian (page does not exist)">Central Pomeranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Pomeranian" class="mw-redirect" title="East Pomeranian">East Pomeranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_Prussian_dialect" title="Low Prussian dialect">Low Prussian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plautdietsch" title="Plautdietsch">Plautdietsch / Mennonite Low German</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Low_Franconian" title="Low Franconian">Low Franconian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_language" title="Frankish language">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Dutch" title="Old Dutch">Old Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Dutch" title="Middle Dutch">Middle Dutch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">Standard variants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaans" title="Afrikaans">Afrikaans</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kaaps" title="Kaaps">Kaaps</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">West Low Franconian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Dutch_dialects" title="Central Dutch dialects">Central Dutch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hollandic_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Hollandic dialect">Hollandic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Flemish" title="West Flemish">West Flemish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Flemish" title="French Flemish">French Flemish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeelandic" title="Zeelandic">Zeelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Flemish" title="East Flemish">East Flemish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brabantian_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Brabantian dialect">Brabantian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleverlandish" title="Kleverlandish">Kleverlandish</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Surinamese_Dutch" title="Surinamese Dutch">Surinamese Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jersey_Dutch_language" title="Jersey Dutch language">Jersey Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohawk_Dutch" title="Mohawk Dutch">Mohawk Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stadsfries_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Stadsfries dialects">Stadsfries</a>/<a href="/wiki/Bildts" title="Bildts">Bildts</a>/<a href="/wiki/Amelands" title="Amelands">Amelands</a>/<a href="/w/index.php?title=Midslands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Midslands (page does not exist)">Midslands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Low_Franconian" title="South Low Franconian">East Low Franconian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Limburgish" title="Limburgish">Limburgish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cover groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bergish_dialects" title="Bergish dialects">Bergish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meuse-Rhenish" title="Meuse-Rhenish">Meuse-Rhenish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/High_German_languages" title="High German languages">High German</a> <br /> (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_High_German" title="Middle High German">Middle High German</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_High_German" title="New High German">New High German</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Early_New_High_German" title="Early New High German">Early New High German</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Standard_German" title="Standard German">Standard German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Standard_German" title="German Standard German">German Standard German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_German" title="Austrian German">Austrian Standard German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Standard_German" title="Swiss Standard German">Swiss Standard German</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-<a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">standard variants</a><br /> and <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">creoles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Namibian_German" class="mw-redirect" title="Namibian German">Namibian German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namibian_Black_German" title="Namibian Black German">Namibian Black German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_German" title="Berlin German">Berlinerisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unserdeutsch" title="Unserdeutsch">Unserdeutsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barossa_German" title="Barossa German">Barossa German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotwelsch" title="Rotwelsch">Rotwelsch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lotegorisch" title="Lotegorisch">Lotegorisch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yenish_language" title="Yenish language">Yenish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects#Eastern_Yiddish" title="Yiddish dialects">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects#Western_Yiddish" title="Yiddish dialects">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Scotland#"Scots-Yiddish"" title="History of the Jews in Scotland">Scots Yiddish</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Klezmer-loshn" title="Klezmer-loshn">Klezmer-loshn</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lachoudisch" title="Lachoudisch">Lachoudisch</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_German" title="Central German">Central German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Central_German" title="West Central German">West Central German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Franconian_languages" title="Central Franconian languages">Central Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ripuarian_language" title="Ripuarian language">Ripuarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colognian_dialect" title="Colognian dialect">Colognian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Limburgish_dialect" title="Southeast Limburgish dialect">Southeast Limburgish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moselle_Franconian_language" title="Moselle Franconian language">Moselle Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish" title="Luxembourgish">Luxembourgish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transylvanian_Saxon_dialect" title="Transylvanian Saxon dialect">Transylvanian Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunsr%C3%BCckisch_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Hunsrückisch dialect">Hunsrückisch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hunsrik" title="Hunsrik">Hunsrik</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhenish_Franconian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhenish Franconian languages">Rhine Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lorraine_Franconian" title="Lorraine Franconian">Lorraine Franconian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palatine_German_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Palatine German language">Palatine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Volga_Germans#Language" title="Volga Germans">Volga German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Dutch_language" title="Pennsylvania Dutch language">Pennsylvania Dutch</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hessian_dialects" title="Hessian dialects">Hessian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Hessian" title="Central Hessian">Central Hessian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amana_German" title="Amana German">Amana German</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Central_German" title="East Central German">East Central German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thuringian_dialect" title="Thuringian dialect">Thuringian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Saxon_German" title="Upper Saxon German">Upper Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erzgebirgisch" title="Erzgebirgisch">Erzgebirgisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusatian_dialects" title="Lusatian dialects">Lusatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_German" title="Silesian German">Silesian German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Prussian_dialect" title="High Prussian dialect">High Prussian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wymysorys_language" title="Wymysorys language">Wymysorys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alzenau_dialect" title="Alzenau dialect">Halcnovian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Upper_German" title="Upper German">Upper German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alemannic_German" title="Alemannic German">Alemannic</a> in the broad sense <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Low_Alemannic_German" title="Low Alemannic German">Low Alemannic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alsatian_dialect" title="Alsatian dialect">Alsatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonia_Tovar_dialect" title="Colonia Tovar dialect">Coloniero</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Alemannic_German" title="High Alemannic German">High Alemannic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_German" title="Swiss German">Swiss German</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highest_Alemannic_German" title="Highest Alemannic German">Highest Alemannic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Walser_German" title="Walser German">Walser German</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swabian_German" title="Swabian German">Swabian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bavarian_language" title="Bavarian language">Bavarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Bavarian" title="Northern Bavarian">Northern Bavarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bavarian" title="Central Bavarian">Central Bavarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viennese_German" title="Viennese German">Viennese German</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Bavarian" title="Southern Bavarian">Southern Bavarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Tyrolean_dialect" title="South Tyrolean dialect">South Tyrolean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cimbrian_language" title="Cimbrian language">Cimbrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%B2cheno_language" title="Mòcheno language">Mòcheno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hutterite_German" title="Hutterite German">Hutterite German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottscheerish" title="Gottscheerish">Gottscheerish</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Franconian_German" title="South Franconian German">South Franconian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Franconian_German" title="East Franconian German">East Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vogtlandian" title="Vogtlandian">Vogtlandian</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lombardic_language" title="Lombardic language">Langobardic</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="North_and_East" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North</a> and <a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Norse_language" title="Proto-Norse language">Proto-Norse</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a></i> <ul><li><i>Old West Norse</i></li> <li><i>Old East Norse</i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Gutnish" title="Old Gutnish">Old Gutnish</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">West</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bergensk" title="Bergensk">Bergensk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kebabnorsk" title="Kebabnorsk">Kebabnorsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sognam%C3%A5l_dialect" title="Sognamål dialect">Sognamål</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%C3%B8ndersk" title="Trøndersk">Trøndersk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallingm%C3%A5l-Valdris" title="Hallingmål-Valdris">Valdris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vestlandsk" title="Vestlandsk">Vestlandsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vikv%C3%A6rsk" class="mw-redirect" title="Vikværsk">Vikværsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bokm%C3%A5l" title="Bokmål">Bokmål</a> (written)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nynorsk" title="Nynorsk">Nynorsk</a> (written)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Norwegian" title="Old Norwegian">Old Norwegian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Norwegian" title="Middle Norwegian">Middle Norwegian</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faroese_language" title="Faroese language">Faroese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_language" title="Icelandic language">Icelandic</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse#Old_Icelandic" title="Old Norse">Old Icelandic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Icelandic#Middle_Icelandic_(1350–1550)" title="History of Icelandic">Middle Icelandic</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Greenlandic_Norse" title="Greenlandic Norse">Greenlandic Norse</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Norn_language" title="Norn language">Norn</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">East</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_dialects" title="Swedish dialects">Swedish dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rinkeby_Swedish" title="Rinkeby Swedish">Rinkebysvenska</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Danish_dialects" title="Danish dialects">Danish dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_Danish" title="Insular Danish">Insular Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jutlandic_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Jutlandic dialect">Jutlandic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Jutlandic" title="South Jutlandic">South Jutlandic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Danish" title="East Danish">East Danish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bornholm_dialect" title="Bornholm dialect">Bornholmsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scanian_dialect" title="Scanian dialect">Scanian</a> (historically)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Schleswig_Danish" title="Southern Schleswig Danish">Southern Schleswig Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B8tudanskt_accent" title="Gøtudanskt accent">Gøtudanskt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perkerdansk" title="Perkerdansk">Perkerdansk</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Danish" title="History of Danish">Old Danish</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Danish" title="History of Danish">Middle Danish</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalecarlian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Dalecarlian language">Dalecarlian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elfdalian" title="Elfdalian">Elfdalian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Gutnish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gutnish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gutnish language">Mainland Gutnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A5r%C3%B6m%C3%A5l_dialect" title="Fårömål dialect">Fårö Gutnish</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Gothic_language" title="Gothic language">Gothic</a></i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Gothic" title="Crimean Gothic">Crimean Gothic</a></i>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Burgundians#Language" title="Burgundians">Burgundian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vandalic_language" title="Vandalic language">Vandalic</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Philology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_philology" title="Germanic philology">Philology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Maurer_(linguist)" title="Friedrich Maurer (linguist)">Language subgroups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elbe_Germanic" title="Elbe Germanic">Elbe (Irminonic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weser-Rhine_Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Weser-Rhine Germanic">Weser-Rhine (Istvaeonic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Germanic" title="North Sea Germanic">North Sea (Ingvaeonic)</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Germanic" title="Northwest Germanic">Northwest</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gotho-Nordic" class="mw-redirect" title="Gotho-Nordic">Gotho-Nordic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/South_Germanic" title="South Germanic">South</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reconstructed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_grammar" title="Proto-Germanic grammar">Proto-Germanic grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_parent_language" title="Germanic parent language">Germanic parent language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Belgian_language" title="Ancient Belgian language">Ancient Belgian language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diachronic features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grimm%27s_law" title="Grimm's law">Grimm's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verner%27s_law" title="Verner's law">Verner's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holtzmann%27s_law" title="Holtzmann's law">Holtzmann's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sievers%27s_law" title="Sievers's law">Sievers's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kluge%27s_law" title="Kluge's law">Kluge's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_substrate_hypothesis" title="Germanic substrate hypothesis">Germanic substrate hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_gemination" title="West Germanic gemination">West Germanic gemination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_German_consonant_shift" title="High German consonant shift">High German consonant shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_a-mutation" title="Germanic a-mutation">Germanic a-mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_umlaut" title="Germanic umlaut">Germanic umlaut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_spirant_law" title="Germanic spirant law">Germanic spirant law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingvaeonic_nasal_spirant_law" title="Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law">Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Vowel_Shift" title="Great Vowel Shift">Great Vowel Shift</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Synchronic features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic verb">Germanic verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb" title="Germanic strong verb">Germanic strong verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_weak_verb" title="Germanic weak verb">Germanic weak verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_verb#Preterite-presents" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic verb">Preterite-present verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatischer_Wechsel" title="Grammatischer Wechsel">Grammatischer Wechsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut" title="Indo-European ablaut">Indo-European ablaut</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a></li> <li>Languages between parentheses are <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">varieties</a> of the language on their left.</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q35219#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q35219#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q35219#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85094563">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Vieux saxon (langue)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11945980v">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Vieux saxon (langue)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11945980v">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007546029605171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/027412709">IdRef</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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