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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Strong_verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Strong_verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Strong verbs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Strong_verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Weak_verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Weak_verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Weak verbs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Weak_verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Preterite-presents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Preterite-presents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Preterite-presents</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Preterite-presents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Preterite-presents_in_Proto-Germanic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Preterite-presents_in_Proto-Germanic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.2</span> <span>Preterite-presents in Proto-Germanic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Preterite-presents_in_Proto-Germanic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ablaut" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ablaut"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.3</span> <span>Ablaut</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ablaut-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_endings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_endings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.4</span> <span>Personal endings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_endings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subsequent_developments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subsequent_developments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.5</span> <span>Subsequent developments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subsequent_developments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Suppletive_verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Suppletive_verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Suppletive verbs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Suppletive_verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-IE_optative" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#IE_optative"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>IE optative</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-IE_optative-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regular_and_irregular_verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regular_and_irregular_verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Regular and irregular verbs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regular_and_irregular_verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle See also subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-General" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>General</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Specialist_subsidiary_and_related_articles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Specialist_subsidiary_and_related_articles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Specialist subsidiary and related articles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Specialist_subsidiary_and_related_articles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_verb_in_particular_Germanic_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_verb_in_particular_Germanic_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>The verb in particular Germanic languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_verb_in_particular_Germanic_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_aspects_of_Germanic_verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_aspects_of_Germanic_verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Other aspects of Germanic verbs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_aspects_of_Germanic_verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> 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id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Verb form derived from common earlier Germanic languages</div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic language family</a> is one of the language groups that resulted from the breakup of <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a> (PIE). It in turn divided into <a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North</a>, <a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West</a> and <a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East</a> Germanic groups, and ultimately produced a large group of mediaeval and modern languages, most importantly: <a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a> (North); <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a> and <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> (West); and <a href="/wiki/Gothic_language" title="Gothic language">Gothic</a> (East, extinct). </p><p>The <b>Germanic verb system</b> lends itself to both <a href="/wiki/Descriptive_linguistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Descriptive linguistics">descriptive (synchronic)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">historical (diachronic)</a> comparative analysis. This overview article is intended to lead into a series of specialist articles discussing historical aspects of these verbs, showing how they developed out of PIE, and how they came to have their present diversity. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Verb_types">Verb types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_verbs&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Verb types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Germanic verb system carried two innovations over the previous <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-European verb">Proto-Indo-European verb</a> system: </p> <ol><li>Simplification to two tenses: present (also conveying future meaning) and past (sometimes called "preterite" and conveying the meaning of all of the following English forms: "I did, I have done, I had done, I was doing, I have been doing, I had been doing").</li> <li>Development of a new way of indicating the preterite and past participle, using a dental suffix.</li></ol> <p>Later Germanic languages developed further tenses periphrastically, that is, using auxiliary verbs, but the constituent parts of even the most elaborate periphrastic constructions are still only in either present or preterite tenses (or <a href="/wiki/Finite_verb" title="Finite verb">non-finite forms</a>, compare <i>I would have been doing</i>, an English conditional perfect progressive with <i>would</i> in the preterite, the other three parts being non-finite). </p><p>Germanic verbs fall into two broad types, strong and weak. Elements of both are present in the preterite-present verbs. Despite various irregularities, most verbs fall into one of these categories. Suppletive verbs are completely irregular, being composed of parts of more than one Indo-European verb. There is one verb (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/d%C5%8Dn%C4%85" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/dōną">*<i>dōną</i></a> 'to do') that is in a category of its own, based on an Indo-European "athematic" form, and having a "weak" preterite but a "strong" passive participle. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Strong_verbs">Strong verbs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_verbs&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Strong verbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb" title="Germanic strong verb">Germanic strong verb</a></div> <p>Strong (or vocalic) verbs display vowel gradation or <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut" title="Indo-European ablaut">ablaut</a>, that is, the past tense is marked by a change in the vowel in the stem syllable. Examples include: </p><p>Modern English: </p> <ul><li>fall – fell – fallen</li> <li>sing – sang – sung</li></ul> <p>Old English: </p> <ul><li><span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">fallan</i></span> – <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">feoll</i></span> – <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">feollon</i></span> – <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">(ge)fallen</i></span> (to fall)</li> <li><span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">hātan – hēt – hēton – (ge)hāten</i></span> (to be called)</li></ul> <p>Old High German: </p> <ul><li><span title="Old High German (ca. 750-1050)-language text"><i lang="goh">fallan – fiall – fiallun – (gi)fallan</i></span> (to fall)</li> <li><span title="Old High German (ca. 750-1050)-language text"><i lang="goh">heizan – hiaz – hiazun – (gi)heizan</i></span> (to be called)</li></ul> <p>In the older languages, these verbs may also be <a href="/wiki/Reduplication" title="Reduplication">reduplicating</a>, that is, the past tense forms add a prefix with the same consonant as the first consonant of the stem syllable. An example in Gothic is <span title="Gothic-language text"><i lang="got-Latn">lētan – laílōt – laílōtum – lētans</i></span> (to have). </p><p>In Proto-Germanic, consonant alternations known as <i><a href="/wiki/Grammatischer_Wechsel" title="Grammatischer Wechsel">grammatischer Wechsel</a></i> developed, as a result of <a href="/wiki/Verner%27s_law" title="Verner's law">Verner's law</a>. This involves an originally regular change in the consonant at the end of the stem syllable. An example in modern Dutch is <span title="Dutch-language text"><i lang="nl">verliezen – verloor – verloren</i></span> (to lose) </p><p>These are the direct descendants of the verb in <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a>, and are paralleled in other <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a>. Examples include: </p> <ul><li><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc">leipō – leloipa – elipon</i></span> (Greek: to leave)</li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">fallō – fallere – fefellī – falsum</i></span> (Latin: to cheat)</li></ul> <p>All Indo-European verbs that passed into Germanic as functioning verbs were strong, apart from the small group of irregular verbs discussed below. The preterite of strong verbs are the reflex of the Indo-European perfect. Because the perfect in late Indo-European was no longer simply <a href="/wiki/Stative_verb" title="Stative verb">stative</a>, but began to be used especially of stative actions whose source was a completed action in the past (e.g., Greek), this anterior aspect of it was emphasized in a couple of Indo-European daughter languages (e.g., Latin), and so it was with Germanic that the perfect came to be used as a simple past tense. The semantic justification for this change is that actions of stative verbs generally have an implied prior inception. An example of this is the typical and widespread PIE stative <span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">woida</i></span> 'I know': one who "knows" something at some point in the past "came to know" it, much as the natural inference from noting someone in a sitting state is that a prior action of becoming seated occurred. The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">classical</a>/<a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a> perfect is essentially an early step in the development of the stative aspect to a past tense, being a hybrid of the two that emphasizes the ongoing (present/stative) effects of a past action (e.g., <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc">leloipa</i></span> 'I have left"). Apparently it was this latter anterior respect that is responsible for the Indo-European perfect showing up as a past tense in Germanic, Italic, and Celtic. </p><p>The Indo-European perfect took o-grade in the singular and <a href="/wiki/Zero_grade" class="mw-redirect" title="Zero grade">zero grade</a> in the dual and plural. The Germanic strong preterite shows the expected Germanic development of short <i>o</i> to short <i>a</i> in the singular and zero grade in the plural; these make up the second and third principal parts of the strong verb. The Indo-European perfect originally carried its own set of personal endings, the remnants of which are seen in the Germanic strong preterite. The reduplication characteristic of the Indo-European perfect remains in a number of verbs (seen most clearly in Gothic), a distinction by which they are grouped together as the seventh class of Germanic strong verbs. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Weak_verbs">Weak verbs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_verbs&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Weak verbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Germanic_weak_verb" title="Germanic weak verb">Germanic weak verb</a></div> <p>Weak (or consonantal) verbs are those that use a dental suffix in the past or "preterite" tense, either <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">-t-</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">-d-</span>. In <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Germanic">Proto-Germanic</a>, such verbs had no <a href="/wiki/Ablaut" class="mw-redirect" title="Ablaut">ablaut</a>—that is, all forms of all tenses were formed from the same stem, with no vowel alternations within the stem. This meant that weak verbs were "simpler" to form, and as a result strong verbs gradually ceased to be <a href="/wiki/Productivity_(linguistics)" title="Productivity (linguistics)">productive</a>. Already in the earliest attested Germanic languages, strong verbs had become essentially closed classes and almost all new verbs were formed using one of the weak conjugations. This pattern later repeated itself—further sound changes meant that stem alternations appeared in some weak classes in some daughter languages, and these classes generally became unproductive. This happened, for example, in all of the West Germanic languages besides <a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a>, where <a href="/wiki/Germanic_umlaut" title="Germanic umlaut">umlaut</a> produced stem alternations in Class III weak verbs and, as a result, the class became unproductive and most of its verbs were transferred to other classes. Later, in <a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a>, stem alternations between long and short vowels appeared in Class I weak verbs (examples are "meet" vs. "met" and "hear" vs. "heard"), and the class in its turn became unproductive, leaving the original Class II as the only productive verb class in <a href="/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English">Modern English</a>. </p><p>In Proto-Germanic, there were five main classes of weak verbs: </p> <ul><li>Class I verbs were formed with a suffix <b>-j-</b> (<b>-i-</b> in the past), e.g., <a href="/wiki/Gothic_language" title="Gothic language">Gothic</a> <span title="Gothic-language text"><i lang="got-Latn"><b>satjan</b></i></span> "to set" (<a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang"><b>settan</b></i></span>), <b>sandjan</b> "to send" (Old English <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang"><b>sendan</b></i></span>), <span title="Gothic-language text"><i lang="got-Latn"><b>sōkjan</b></i></span> "to seek" (Old English <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang"><b>sēcan</b></i></span>). As shown in the Old English cognates, the <b>-j-</b> produced umlaut of the stem vowel in languages other than Gothic and then disappeared in most verbs in old Germanic languages other than Gothic and <a href="/wiki/Old_Saxon" title="Old Saxon">Old Saxon</a>. (It also resulted in <a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_gemination" title="West Germanic gemination">West Germanic gemination</a> in some verbs, and <a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(sound_change)" title="Palatalization (sound change)">palatalization</a> of <a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">velar consonants</a> in Old English.)</li> <li>Class II verbs were formed with a suffix <b>-ō-</b> (extended to <b>-ōja-</b> in the <a href="/wiki/Ingvaeonic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Ingvaeonic languages">Ingvaeonic languages</a>), e.g., Gothic <span title="Gothic-language text"><i lang="got-Latn"><b>salbōn</b></i></span> "to anoint", Old English <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang"><b>sealfian</b> ← <b>*salbōjan</b></i></span>, compare "to salve".</li> <li>Class III stative verbs were formed with a suffix that was <b>-ja-</b> or <b>-ai-</b> (later <b>-ē-</b>) in the present and was null in the past, e.g., Old English <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang"><b>hebban</b></i></span> "to have" ← <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang"><b>*habjan</b></i></span>, past tense <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang"><b>iċ hæfde</b></i></span> "I had". The West Germanic languages outside of Old High German preserved this conjugation best, but in these languages the conjugation had become vestigial and had only four verbs in it. In other languages, it was merged with the Class III <a href="/wiki/Causative" title="Causative">factitive</a> verbs (see below) and significantly modified, e.g., Gothic <span title="Gothic-language text"><i lang="got-Latn"><b>haban</b></i></span>, past tense <span title="Gothic-language text"><i lang="got-Latn"><b>ik habáida</b></i></span>; Old High German <span title="Old High German (ca. 750-1050)-language text"><i lang="goh"><b>habēn</b></i></span>, past tense <span title="Old High German (ca. 750-1050)-language text"><i lang="goh"><b>ih habēta</b></i></span>.</li> <li>Class III factitive verbs were formed with a suffix that was <b>-ā-</b> or <b>-ai-</b> in the present and <b>-a-</b> in the past. This class merged with the Class III stative verbs in Gothic, Old High German and (mostly) <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a>, but vanished in the other Germanic languages.</li> <li>Class IV verbs were formed with a suffix <b>-n-</b> (<b>-nō-</b> in the past), e.g. Gothic <span title="Gothic-language text"><i lang="got-Latn"><b>fullnan</b></i></span> "to become full", past tense <span title="Gothic-language text"><i lang="got-Latn"><b>ik fullnōda</b></i></span>. This class vanished in other Germanic languages; however, a significant number of cognate verbs appear as Class II verbs in Old Norse and as Class III verbs in Old High German.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Preterite-presents">Preterite-presents</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_verbs&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Preterite-presents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The so-called <b>preterite-present verbs</b> are a small group of anomalous verbs in the <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic languages</a> in which the present tense shows the form of the strong preterite. The preterite of the preterite-present verbs is weak.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As an example, take the third-person forms of modern German <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">können</i></span> "to be able to". <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Kann</i></span> "can, am/is able to" (present tense) displays the vowel change and lack of a personal ending that would otherwise mark a strong preterite. <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Konnte</i></span> "could, was able to" (preterite) displays the dental suffix of the weak preterites. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sources">Sources</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_verbs&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to one "widely-held view",<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the preterite-present verbs are derived from the Proto-Indo-European <a href="/wiki/Perfect_(grammar)" title="Perfect (grammar)">perfect</a>. The PIE perfect usually developed into a Germanic past tense. In the case of the preterite-presents, however, it evolved into a present-tense verb. Hence, the preterite-presents have a present-tense meaning on the one hand and a form that resembles that of a preterite or past-tense verb on the other. </p><p>Reconstructions of this process differ depending on how they interpret the PIE perfect. An example is the PIE perfect *<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">woide</i></span>. It is the ancestor of the Germanic preterite-presents meaning "(s/he) knows", represented here by Gothic <span title="Gothic-language text"><i lang="got-Latn">wait</i></span>: </p> <ul><li>If the PIE perfect was stative-resultative, *<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">woide</i></span> can be glossed as "knows as a result of having seen" (the state of knowing results from a past action, i.e., seeing). In <span title="Gothic-language text"><i lang="got-Latn">wait</i></span>, the meaning "knows" was retained as a present tense. The reference to the past ("having seen") was lost semantically, but it was preserved etymologically in the past-tense form of the preterite-present. However, it is hard to identify similar combinations of past action and present state for some of the other preterite-presents.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (The different semantic facets involved in this example can be observed in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc">oîda</i></span> and <a href="/wiki/Vedic" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedic">Vedic</a> <span title="Sanskrit-language text"><i lang="sa">veda</i></span> "I know" and in Latin <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">vīdī</i></span> 'I saw' [probably an old root <a href="/wiki/Aorist" title="Aorist">aorist</a>]; compare also <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a> <span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru">videtʹ</i></span> [to see] and <span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru">vedatʹ</i></span> [to know]).</li></ul> <ul><li>If the PIE perfect was purely stative, *<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">woide</i></span> can be glossed as "knows" (the state of knowing). The meaning "knows" was carried over as a present tense into <span title="Gothic-language text"><i lang="got-Latn">wait</i></span>. In this understanding, the preterite-presents constitute a retention of the non-past nature of the Indo-European perfect.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many linguists, however, do not share this view: "most accounts of the PIE perfect do not treat it as purely stative".<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>One response to these and other problems has been to argue that the preterite-presents are instead the descendants of a separate PIE stative category, from which the stative-resultative PIE perfect was also derived.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This approach allows the preterite-presents to be treated as purely stative in origin without depriving the PIE perfect of a temporal element. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Preterite-presents_in_Proto-Germanic">Preterite-presents in Proto-Germanic</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_verbs&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Preterite-presents in Proto-Germanic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The known verbs in <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Germanic">Proto-Germanic</a> (PGmc): </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Infinitive </th> <th>Meaning </th> <th>Present verbal descendants </th> <th>Class </th> <th>Present singular </th> <th>Present plural </th> <th>Preterite </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/witan%C4%85" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/witaną">*<i>witaną</i></a> </td> <td>"know" </td> <td>Dutch <span title="Dutch-language text"><i lang="nl">weten</i></span>, German <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">wissen</i></span>, Swedish <span title="Swedish-language text"><i lang="sv">veta</i></span>, Norwegian Nynorsk <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/vite#Norwegian_Nynorsk" class="extiw" title="wikt:vite"><i>vita</i></a>, English <i>wit</i> </td> <td>I </td> <td><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">wait</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">witun</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">wissē</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/lizan%C4%85" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/lizaną">*<i>lizaną</i></a> </td> <td>"know" </td> <td> </td> <td>I </td> <td><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">lais</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">lizun</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">listē</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/aigan%C4%85" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/aiganą">*<i>aiganą</i></a> </td> <td>"have", "own" </td> <td>Dutch <span title="Dutch-language text"><i lang="nl">eigenen</i></span>, German <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">eignen</i></span>, Swedish <span title="Swedish-language text"><i lang="sv">äga</i></span>, Norwegian Bokmål <span title="Bokmål-language text"><i lang="nb">eie</i></span>, Norwegian Nynorsk <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/eiga#Norwegian_Nynorsk" class="extiw" title="wikt:eiga"><i>eige</i></a>, English <i>owe</i> and <i>ought</i> </td> <td>I </td> <td><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">aih</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">aigun</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">aihtē</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/dugan%C4%85" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/duganą">*<i>duganą</i></a> </td> <td>"be useful" </td> <td>Dutch <span title="Dutch-language text"><i lang="nl">deugen/gedogen</i></span>, German <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">taugen</i></span>, Swedish <span title="Swedish-language text"><i lang="sv">duga</i></span>, Norwegian <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/duge#Norwegian" class="extiw" title="wikt:duge"><i>duga</i></a>, English <i>dow</i> </td> <td>II </td> <td><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">daug</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">dugun</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">duhtē</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/unnan%C4%85" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/unnaną">*<i>unnaną</i></a> </td> <td>"grant" </td> <td>Dutch <span title="Dutch-language text"><i lang="nl">gunnen</i></span>, German <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">gönnen</i></span>, Swedish <span title="Swedish-language text"><i lang="sv">unna</i></span>, Norwegian <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/unne#Norwegian" class="extiw" title="wikt:unne"><i>unna</i></a> </td> <td>III </td> <td><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">ann</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">unnun</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">unþē</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/kunnan%C4%85" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/kunnaną">*<i>kunnaną</i></a> </td> <td>"know (how to)", later "can" </td> <td>Dutch <span title="Dutch-language text"><i lang="nl">kunnen</i></span>, German <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">können</i></span>, Norwegian <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/kunne#Norwegian_Nynorsk" class="extiw" title="wikt:kunne"><i>kunne</i></a>, Swedish <span title="Swedish-language text"><i lang="sv">kunna</i></span>, English <i>can</i> </td> <td>III </td> <td><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">kann</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">kunnun</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">kunþē</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/%C3%BEurban%C4%85" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/þurbaną">*<i>þurbaną</i></a> </td> <td>"need" </td> <td>Dutch (dated) <span title="Dutch-language text"><i lang="nl">durven</i></span>, German <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">dürfen</i></span>, Norwegian Nynorsk <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/turve#Norwegian_Nynorsk" class="extiw" title="wikt:turve"><i>turva</i></a>, Swedish (archaic) <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%C3%BEorva" class="extiw" title="wikt:þorva">torva<i>/</i>tarva<i></i></a>, English (dialectal) <i>tharf</i> </td> <td>III </td> <td><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">þarf</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">þurbun</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">þurftē</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/durzan%C4%85" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/durzaną">*<i>durzaną</i></a> </td> <td>"dare" </td> <td>Norwegian Nynorsk <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tore#Norwegian_Nynorsk" class="extiw" title="wikt:tore"><i>tora</i></a>, English <i>dare</i> </td> <td>III </td> <td><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">dars</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">durzun</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">durstē</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/skulan%C4%85" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/skulaną">*<i>skulaną</i></a> </td> <td>"must", later "shall" </td> <td>Dutch <span title="Dutch-language text"><i lang="nl">zullen</i></span>, German <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">sollen</i></span>, Norwegian Nynorsk <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/skulle#Norwegian_Nynorsk" class="extiw" title="wikt:skulle"><i>skulla</i></a>, Swedish <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/skola#Etymology_1" class="extiw" title="wikt:skola"><i>skola</i></a>, English <i>shall</i> </td> <td>IV </td> <td><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">skal</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">skulun</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">skuldē</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="nowrap"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/munan%C4%85" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/munaną">*<i>(ga)munaną</i></a></span> </td> <td>"think" </td> <td>Icelandic <span title="Icelandic-language text"><i lang="is">muna</i></span>, Norwegian Nynorsk <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mune#Norwegian_Nynorsk" class="extiw" title="wikt:mune"><i>muna</i></a>, English northern dialectal <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mun" class="extiw" title="wikt:mun">mun</a></i> </td> <td>IV </td> <td><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">(ga)man</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">(ga)munun</i></span> </td> <td><span class="nowrap"><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">(ga)mundē</i></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/ganugan%C4%85" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/ganuganą">*<i>ganuganą</i></a> </td> <td>"be enough", "suffice" </td> <td>German <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">genügen</i></span> </td> <td>V </td> <td><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">ganah</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">ganugun</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">ganuhtē</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/magan%C4%85" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/maganą">*<i>maganą</i></a> </td> <td>"can", later "may" </td> <td>Dutch <span title="Dutch-language text"><i lang="nl">mogen</i></span>, German <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">mögen</i></span>, Swedish <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/m%C3%A5#Etymology_1" class="extiw" title="wikt:må"><i>må</i></a>, English <i>may</i> </td> <td>VI </td> <td><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">mag</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">magun</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">mahtē</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/agan%C4%85" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/aganą">*<i>aganą</i></a> </td> <td>"fear" </td> <td>Norwegian Nynorsk <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/age#Norwegian_Nynorsk" class="extiw" title="wikt:age"><i>age</i></a> </td> <td>VI </td> <td><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">ag</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">ōgun</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">ahtē</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/m%C5%8Dtan%C4%85" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/mōtaną">*<i>(ga)mōtaną</i></a> </td> <td>"may", later "must" </td> <td>Dutch <span title="Dutch-language text"><i lang="nl">moeten</i></span>, German <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">müssen</i></span>, Swedish <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/m%C3%A5ste#Verb" class="extiw" title="wikt:måste"><i>måsta</i></a>, English <i>mote</i> and <i>must</i> </td> <td>VI </td> <td><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">(ga)mōt</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">(ga)mōtun</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">(ga)mōsē</i></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ablaut">Ablaut</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_verbs&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Ablaut"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The present tense has the form of a vocalic (strong) preterite, with vowel-alternation between singular and plural. A new <a href="/wiki/Germanic_weak_verb" title="Germanic weak verb">weak</a> preterite is formed with a dental suffix. The root shape of the preterite (in <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut" title="Indo-European ablaut">zero-grade</a>) serves as the basis for the infinitive and past participle, thus Old English infinitive <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">witan</i></span> and past participle <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">(ge)witen</i></span>; this contrasts with all other Germanic verb types, in which the basis for those forms is the present stem. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Gothic_language" title="Gothic language">Gothic</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Old_Saxon_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Saxon language">Old Saxon</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Old_English_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old English language">Old English</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Old_High_German_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old High German language">Old High German</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Norse language">Old Norse</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_language" title="Icelandic language">Icelandic</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian Bokmål/Nynorsk</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Infinitive" title="Infinitive">infinitive</a> </th> <td><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">witaną</i></span> </td> <td colspan="3"><span title="Gothic-language text"><i lang="got-Latn">witan</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Old High German (ca. 750-1050)-language text"><i lang="goh">wizzan</i></span> </td> <td><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">wissen</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Dutch-language text"><i lang="nl">weten</i></span> </td> <td>[to] wit </td> <td colspan="2"><span title="Old Norse-language text"><i lang="non">vita</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Danish-language text"><i lang="da">vide</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Swedish-language text"><i lang="sv">veta</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Bokmål-language text"><i lang="nb">vite/vita</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Present_tense" title="Present tense">present</a> 1st & 3rd sg </th> <td colspan="2"><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">wait</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">wēt</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">wāt</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Old High German (ca. 750-1050)-language text"><i lang="goh">weiz</i></span> </td> <td><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">weiß</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Dutch-language text"><i lang="nl">weet</i></span> </td> <td>wot </td> <td colspan="2"><span title="Old Norse-language text"><i lang="non">veit</i></span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Danish-language text"><i lang="da">ved</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Swedish-language text"><i lang="sv">vet</i></span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Bokmål-language text"><i lang="nb">vet</i></span>, <span title="Bokmål-language text"><i lang="nb">veit</i></span> / <span title="Nynorsk-language text"><i lang="nn">veit</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Present_tense" title="Present tense">present</a> 3rd pl </th> <td colspan="3"><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">witun</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">witon</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Old High German (ca. 750-1050)-language text"><i lang="goh">wizzun</i></span> </td> <td><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">wissen</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Dutch-language text"><i lang="nl">weten</i></span> </td> <td>wit </td> <td><span title="Old Norse-language text"><i lang="non">vitu</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Icelandic-language text"><i lang="is">vita</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Swedish-language text"><i lang="sv">(veta)*</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Preterite" title="Preterite">preterite</a> 1st & 3rd sg </th> <td><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">wissǭ, wissē</i></span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span title="Gothic-language text"><i lang="got-Latn">wissa</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">wisse</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Old High German (ca. 750-1050)-language text"><i lang="goh">wissa</i></span> </td> <td><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">wusste</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Dutch-language text"><i lang="nl">wist</i></span> </td> <td>wist </td> <td><span title="Old Norse-language text"><i lang="non">vissa, vissi</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Icelandic-language text"><i lang="is">vissi</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Danish-language text"><i lang="da">vidste</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Swedish-language text"><i lang="sv">visste</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Bokmål-language text"><i lang="nb">visste</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Present_participle" class="mw-redirect" title="Present participle">present participle</a> </th> <td><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">witandz</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Gothic-language text"><i lang="got-Latn">witands</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">witandi</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">witende</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Old High German (ca. 750-1050)-language text"><i lang="goh">wizzanti</i></span> </td> <td><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">wissend</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Dutch-language text"><i lang="nl">wetend</i></span> </td> <td>witting** </td> <td colspan="2"><span title="Old Norse-language text"><i lang="non">vitandi</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Danish-language text"><i lang="da">vidende</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Swedish-language text"><i lang="sv">vetande</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Bokmål-language text"><i lang="nb">vitende/vitande</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Past_participle" class="mw-redirect" title="Past participle">past participle</a> </th> <td><span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">wissaz</i></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span title="Old Saxon-language text"><i lang="osx">(gi)witan</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">(ge)witen</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Old High German (ca. 750-1050)-language text"><i lang="goh">giwizzan</i></span> </td> <td><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">gewusst</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Dutch-language text"><i lang="nl">geweten</i></span> </td> <td>wist** </td> <td><span title="Old Norse-language text"><i lang="non">vitat***</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Icelandic-language text"><i lang="is">vitað***</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Danish-language text"><i lang="da">vidst</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Swedish-language text"><i lang="sv">vetat***</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Bokmål-language text"><i lang="nb">visst</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="14">*<small>(Plural forms have been lost in modern central Swedish, but are retained in some dialects.)</small><br />**<small>(English gerund and present participle have merged, and often the past participle with the preterit.)</small><br />***<small>(Actually, not the past participle but the <a href="/wiki/Supine" title="Supine">supine</a>.)</small> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Personal_endings">Personal endings</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_verbs&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Personal endings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For the most part, the personal endings of the strong preterite are used for the present tense. In fact, in West Germanic the endings of the present tense of preterite-present verbs represent the original Indo-European perfect endings better than that subgroup's strong preterite verbs do: the expected Protogermanic strong preterite second-person singular form ending in <i>-t</i> was retained rather than replaced by the endings <i>-e</i> or <i>-i</i> elsewhere adopted for strong preterites in West Germanic. </p><p>The endings of the preterite (except for <span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">kunnana</i></span>) are the same as the endings of Class I weak verbs. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Subsequent_developments">Subsequent developments</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_verbs&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Subsequent developments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In modern English, preterite-present verbs are identifiable by the absence of an -s suffix on the third-person singular present tense form. Compare, for instance, <i>he can</i> with <i>he sing<b>s</b></i> (preterite: <i>he sang</i>); the present paradigm of <i>can</i> is thus parallel with the past tense of a <a href="/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb" title="Germanic strong verb">strong verb</a>. (See <a href="/wiki/English_modal_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="English modal verb">English modal verb</a>.) In modern German there is also an <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut" title="Indo-European ablaut">ablaut</a> shift between singular <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">ich kann</i></span> (I can) and plural <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">wir können</i></span> (we can). In the older stages of the Germanic languages (<a href="/wiki/Old_English_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old English language">Old English</a>, <a href="/wiki/Middle_High_German" title="Middle High German">Middle High German</a>) the past tense of strong verbs also showed different ablaut grades in singular and plural. </p><p>Many of the preterite-present verbs function as <a href="/wiki/Modal_verb" title="Modal verb">modal verbs</a> (auxiliaries which are followed by a <a href="/wiki/Infinitive" title="Infinitive">bare infinitive</a>, without "to" in English, and which convey <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_modality" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic modality">modality</a>) and indeed most of the traditional modal verbs are preterite-presents. Examples are English <i>must</i> and <i>shall/should</i>, German <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">dürfen</i></span> (may), <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">sollen</i></span> (ought), <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">mögen</i></span> (like), and <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">müssen</i></span> (must). The early history of <i>will</i> (German <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">wollen</i></span>) is more complicated, as it goes back to an Indo-European <a href="/wiki/Optative_mood" title="Optative mood">optative mood</a>, but the result in the modern languages is likewise a preterite-present paradigm. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Suppletive_verbs">Suppletive verbs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_verbs&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Suppletive verbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_copula" title="Indo-European copula">Indo-European copula</a> and <a href="/wiki/Go_(verb)" title="Go (verb)">Go (verb)</a></div> <p>A small number of Germanic verbs show the phenomenon of <a href="/wiki/Suppletion" title="Suppletion">suppletion</a>, that is, they are made up from more than one stem. In English, there are two of these: <i>to be</i> and <i>to go</i>. </p><p>The copula (the verb <i>to be</i> and its equivalents in the other languages) has its forms from three or four IE roots (<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">h₁es-, *bʰuH-, *h₂wes-</i></span>, and possibly <span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">h₁er-</i></span>. </p><p>The phenomenon of verb paradigms being composites of parts of different earlier verbs can best be observed in an example from recorded language history. The English verb <i>to go</i> was always suppletive, having the past tense <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">ēode</i></span> in Old English (this is believed to represent the original Proto-Germanic situation <span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">gāną</i></span> "to go" ~ <span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">ijjǭ</i></span> "I went", <span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">ijjēdum</i></span> "we went"). In the 15th century, however, this was replaced by a new irregular past tense <i>went</i>. In fact <i>went</i> is originally the past tense of the verb <i>to wend</i> (compare <i>wend</i>~<i>went</i> with <i>send</i>~<i>sent</i>); today <i>wend</i> has the regular past tense <i>wended</i>. In most other modern Germanic languages the verb "go" takes its preterite from the Proto-Germanic verb <span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">ganganą</i></span> "to walk" (e.g., German <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">gehen, ging</i></span>; Dutch <span title="Dutch-language text"><i lang="nl">gaan, ging</i></span>; Swedish <span title="Swedish-language text"><i lang="sv">gå, gick</i></span>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="IE_optative">IE optative</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_verbs&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: IE optative"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A special case is <span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">wiljaną</i></span> (to want, will), which has its present tense forms from the IE <a href="/wiki/Optative_mood" title="Optative mood">optative</a>. </p><p>Today, the optative survives in the <a href="/wiki/Subjunctive_mood" title="Subjunctive mood">subjunctive</a> of the Germanic languages. In <a href="/wiki/Faroese_language" title="Faroese language">Faroese</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it is confined to the present tense and used only as a conjunctive. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Regular_and_irregular_verbs">Regular and irregular verbs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_verbs&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Regular and irregular verbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When teaching modern languages, it is usually most useful to have a narrow definition of a "regular verb" and treat all other groups as irregular. See the article <a href="/wiki/Irregular_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Irregular verb">irregular verb</a>. Thus for example, most text books for learning English or German treat all strong verbs as irregular, and only the most straightforward weak verb counts as regular. In historical linguistics, however, regular patterns are examined diachronically, and verbs tend only to be described as "irregular" when such patterns cannot be found. Most of the supposedly "irregular" Germanic verbs belong to historical categories that are regular within their own terms. However, the suppletive verbs are irregular by any standard, and for most purposes the preterite-presents can also count as irregular. Beyond this, isolated irregularities occur in all Germanic languages in both the strong and the weak verb system. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_verbs&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General">General</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_verbs&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: General"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">Verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regular_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Regular verb">Regular verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irregular_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Irregular verb">Irregular verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copula_(linguistics)" title="Copula (linguistics)">Copula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principal_parts" title="Principal parts">Principal parts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinitive" title="Infinitive">Infinitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Past_tense" title="Past tense">Past tense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Present_tense" title="Present tense">Present tense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_tense" title="Future tense">Future tense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suppletion" title="Suppletion">Suppletion</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Specialist_subsidiary_and_related_articles">Specialist subsidiary and related articles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_verbs&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Specialist subsidiary and related articles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_weak_verb" title="Germanic weak verb">Germanic weak verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb" title="Germanic strong verb">Germanic strong verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_copula" title="Indo-European copula">Indo-European copula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Go_(verb)" title="Go (verb)">Go (verb)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_verb_in_particular_Germanic_languages">The verb in particular Germanic languages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_verbs&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: The verb in particular Germanic languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_grammar" title="English grammar">English grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_verbs" title="English verbs">English verbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_irregular_verbs" title="English irregular verbs">English irregular verbs</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Irregular_verbs:English" class="extiw" title="wikt:Appendix:Irregular verbs:English">Wiktionary appendix: Irregular English verbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_verbs" title="German verbs">German verbs</a></li> <li><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liste_starker_Verben_(deutsche_Sprache)" class="extiw" title="de:Liste starker Verben (deutsche Sprache)">de:Liste starker Verben (deutsche Sprache)</a></li> <li><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liste_starker_Verben_(bairische_Sprache)" class="extiw" title="de:Liste starker Verben (bairische Sprache)">de:Liste starker Verben (bairische Sprache)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_conjugation" title="Dutch conjugation">Dutch conjugation</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_aspects_of_Germanic_verbs">Other aspects of Germanic verbs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_verbs&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Other aspects of Germanic verbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut" title="Indo-European ablaut">Indo-European ablaut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_Umlaut" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic Umlaut">Germanic Umlaut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verner%27s_law" title="Verner's law">Verner's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatischer_Wechsel" title="Grammatischer Wechsel">Grammatischer Wechsel</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_verbs&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRandallJones2015" class="citation journal cs1">Randall, William; Jones, Howard (2015-07-01). "On the early origins of the Germanic preterite presents". <i>Transactions of the Philological Society</i>. <b>113</b> (2): 137. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1467-968X.12045">10.1111/1467-968X.12045</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1467-968X">1467-968X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+Philological+Society&rft.atitle=On+the+early+origins+of+the+Germanic+preterite+presents&rft.volume=113&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=137&rft.date=2015-07-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1467-968X.12045&rft.issn=1467-968X&rft.aulast=Randall&rft.aufirst=William&rft.au=Jones%2C+Howard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+verbs" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Randall and Jones, p. 140.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Randall & Jones, pp. 140–141.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRinge2006" class="citation book cs1">Ringe, Donald (2006). <i>From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 151–157.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Proto-Indo-European+to+Proto-Germanic&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=151-157&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Ringe&rft.aufirst=Donald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+verbs" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Randall & Jones, p.142.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Randall & Jones, pp. 174–175.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OGj4rnr0oxYC&pg=PA138">An Introduction to Modern Faroese, pp. 136-137</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanic_verbs&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBennett1980" class="citation book cs1">Bennett, William Holmes (1980). <i>An Introduction to the Gothic Language</i>. New York: Modern Language Association of America.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+the+Gothic+Language&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Modern+Language+Association+of+America&rft.date=1980&rft.aulast=Bennett&rft.aufirst=William+Holmes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+verbs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbell1959" class="citation book cs1">Campbell, A. (1959). <i>Old English Grammar</i>. London: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Old+English+Grammar&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+verbs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalleé1910" class="citation book cs1">Galleé, Johan Hendrik (1910). <i>Altsächsische Grammatik</i>. Halle: Max Niemeyer.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alts%C3%A4chsische+Grammatik&rft.place=Halle&rft.pub=Max+Niemeyer&rft.date=1910&rft.aulast=Galle%C3%A9&rft.aufirst=Johan+Hendrik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+verbs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGordon1927" class="citation book cs1">Gordon, E.V. (1927). <i>An Introduction to Old Norse</i>. London: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Old+Norse&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1927&rft.aulast=Gordon&rft.aufirst=E.V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+verbs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeuser1903" class="citation book cs1">Heuser, Wilhelm (1903). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/altfriesischesle00heusuoft"><i>Altfriesisches Lesebuch mit Grammatik und Glossar</i></a>. Heidelberg: Carl Winter's Universitätsbuchhandlung.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Altfriesisches+Lesebuch+mit+Grammatik+und+Glossar&rft.place=Heidelberg&rft.pub=Carl+Winter%27s+Universit%C3%A4tsbuchhandlung&rft.date=1903&rft.aulast=Heuser&rft.aufirst=Wilhelm&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Faltfriesischesle00heusuoft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+verbs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKroonen2013" class="citation book cs1">Kroonen, Guus (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.brill.nl/default.aspx?partid=227&pid=24855"><i>Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Germanic</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_Etymological_Dictionary" title="Indo-European Etymological Dictionary">Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series</a>. Vol. 11. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Academic Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-18340-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-18340-7"><bdi>978-90-04-18340-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Etymological+Dictionary+of+Proto-Germanic&rft.series=Leiden+Indo-European+Etymological+Dictionary+Series&rft.pub=Brill+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-90-04-18340-7&rft.aulast=Kroonen&rft.aufirst=Guus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.brill.nl%2Fdefault.aspx%3Fpartid%3D227%26pid%3D24855&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+verbs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRinge2008" class="citation book cs1">Ringe, Don (2008). <i>From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic</i>. Oxford: OUP. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-955229-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-955229-0"><bdi>978-0-19-955229-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Proto-Indo-European+to+Proto-Germanic&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=OUP&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-955229-0&rft.aulast=Ringe&rft.aufirst=Don&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+verbs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkeat1868" class="citation book cs1">Skeat, Walter William (1868). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/amoesogothicglo00skeagoog"><i>A Moeso-Gothic glossary</i></a>. London: Asher & Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Moeso-Gothic+glossary&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Asher+%26+Co.&rft.date=1868&rft.aulast=Skeat&rft.aufirst=Walter+William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Famoesogothicglo00skeagoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+verbs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVoyles1992" class="citation book cs1">Voyles, Joseph B. (1992). <i>Early Germanic Grammar</i>. San Diego: Academic Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-728270-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-728270-1"><bdi>978-0-12-728270-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Germanic+Grammar&rft.place=San+Diego&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-12-728270-1&rft.aulast=Voyles&rft.aufirst=Joseph+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+verbs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright1906" class="citation book cs1">Wright, Joseph (1906). <i>An Old High German Primer</i> (Second ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Old+High+German+Primer&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1906&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+verbs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright1910" class="citation book cs1">Wright, Joseph (1910). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.272068"><i>Grammar of the Gothic Language</i></a>. Oxford: Clarendon Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grammar+of+the+Gothic+Language&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1910&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.272068&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+verbs" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWrightWright1925" class="citation book cs1">Wright, Joseph; Wright, Elizabeth Mary (1925). <i>Old English Grammar</i> (Third ed.). London: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Old+English+Grammar&rft.place=London&rft.edition=Third&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1925&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft.au=Wright%2C+Elizabeth+Mary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanic+verbs" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Germanic_languages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Germanic_languages" title="Template:Germanic languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Germanic_languages" title="Template talk:Germanic languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Germanic_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Germanic languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Germanic_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>According to contemporary <a href="/wiki/Germanic_philology" title="Germanic philology">philology</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="West" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Frisian_languages" title="Anglo-Frisian languages">Anglo-Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anglic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglic languages">Anglic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dialects_of_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialects of English">dialects</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English">Modern English</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_English" title="Early Modern English">Early Modern English</a></i></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><i>Irish Middle English</i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Fingallian" title="Fingallian">Fingallian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kildare_Poems#Linguistic_features" title="Kildare Poems">Kildare</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yola_dialect" title="Yola dialect">Yola</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Early_Scots" title="Early Scots">Early Scots</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Scots" title="Middle Scots">Middle Scots</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Frisian_languages" title="Frisian languages">Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Frisian" title="Old Frisian">Old Frisian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Frisian" title="Middle Frisian">Middle Frisian</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Frisian_language" title="East Frisian language">East Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Ems <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saterland_Frisian_language" title="Saterland Frisian language">Saterland Frisian</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>Weser</i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Wangerooge_Frisian" title="Wangerooge Frisian">Wangerooge Frisian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wursten_Frisian" title="Wursten Frisian">Wursten Frisian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harlingerland_Frisian" title="Harlingerland Frisian">Harlingerland Frisian</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Frisian_language" title="North Frisian language">North Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Insular <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Eiderstedt_Frisian" title="Eiderstedt Frisian">Eiderstedt</a></i></li> <li>Föhr–Amrum <ul><li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%B6hr_North_Frisian" title="Föhr North Frisian">Föhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amrum_North_Frisian" title="Amrum North Frisian">Amrum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heligoland_Frisian" title="Heligoland Frisian">Heligolandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylt_North_Frisian" title="Sylt North Frisian">Sylt</a></li></ul></li> <li>Mainland <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%B6kingharde_North_Frisian" title="Bökingharde North Frisian">Bökingharde</a> <ul><li>Mooring</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halligen_Frisian" title="Halligen Frisian">Halligen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goesharde_Frisian" title="Goesharde Frisian">Goesharde</a> <ul><li>Northern</li> <li>Central</li> <li><i>Southern</i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karrharde_Frisian" title="Karrharde Frisian">Karrharde</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Strand_Frisian" title="Strand Frisian">Strand</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiedingharde_Frisian" title="Wiedingharde Frisian">Wiedingharde</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_languages" title="West Frisian languages">West Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindeloopen_Frisian" title="Hindeloopen Frisian">Hindeloopen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schiermonnikoog_Frisian" title="Schiermonnikoog Frisian">Schiermonnikoog</a></li> <li>Westlauwers–Terschellings <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_language" title="West Frisian language">Mainland West Frisian</a> <ul><li>Clay Frisian</li> <li>Wood Frisian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Westereendersk" title="Westereendersk">Westereendersk</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terschelling_Frisian" title="Terschelling Frisian">Terschelling</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Low_German" title="Low German">Low German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Saxon" title="Old Saxon">Old Saxon</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Low_German" title="Middle Low German">Middle Low German</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Low_German" class="mw-redirect" title="West Low German">West Low German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Low_Saxon" title="Dutch Low Saxon">Dutch Low Saxon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stellingwarfs_dialect" title="Stellingwarfs dialect">Stellingwarfs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tweants_dialect" title="Tweants dialect">Tweants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gronings_dialect" title="Gronings dialect">Gronings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dr%C3%A8ents_dialects" title="Drèents dialects">Drèents</a></li> <li>Gelders-Overijssels <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achterhooks" title="Achterhooks">Achterhooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallaans_dialect" title="Sallaans dialect">Sallaans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urkers_dialect" title="Urkers dialect">Urkers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veluws_dialect" title="Veluws dialect">Veluws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Low_Saxon" title="Northern Low Saxon">Northern Low Saxon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Frisian_Low_Saxon" title="East Frisian Low Saxon">East Frisian Low Saxon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastphalian_language" title="Eastphalian language">Eastphalian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westphalian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Westphalian language">Westphalian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Low_German" title="East Low German">East Low German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch_dialect" title="Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch dialect">Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brandenburgisch_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Brandenburgisch dialect">Brandenburgisch</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Central_Pomeranian&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Central Pomeranian (page does not exist)">Central Pomeranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Pomeranian" class="mw-redirect" title="East Pomeranian">East Pomeranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_Prussian_dialect" title="Low Prussian dialect">Low Prussian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plautdietsch" title="Plautdietsch">Plautdietsch / Mennonite Low German</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Low_Franconian" title="Low Franconian">Low Franconian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_language" title="Frankish language">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Dutch" title="Old Dutch">Old Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Dutch" title="Middle Dutch">Middle Dutch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">Standard variants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaans" title="Afrikaans">Afrikaans</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kaaps" title="Kaaps">Kaaps</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">West Low Franconian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Dutch_dialects" title="Central Dutch dialects">Central Dutch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hollandic_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Hollandic dialect">Hollandic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Flemish" title="West Flemish">West Flemish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Flemish" title="French Flemish">French Flemish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeelandic" title="Zeelandic">Zeelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Flemish" title="East Flemish">East Flemish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brabantian_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Brabantian dialect">Brabantian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleverlandish" title="Kleverlandish">Kleverlandish</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Surinamese_Dutch" title="Surinamese Dutch">Surinamese Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jersey_Dutch_language" title="Jersey Dutch language">Jersey Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohawk_Dutch" title="Mohawk Dutch">Mohawk Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stadsfries_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Stadsfries dialects">Stadsfries</a>/<a href="/wiki/Bildts" title="Bildts">Bildts</a>/<a href="/wiki/Amelands" title="Amelands">Amelands</a>/<a href="/w/index.php?title=Midslands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Midslands (page does not exist)">Midslands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Low_Franconian" title="South Low Franconian">East Low Franconian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Limburgish" title="Limburgish">Limburgish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cover groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bergish_dialects" title="Bergish dialects">Bergish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meuse-Rhenish" title="Meuse-Rhenish">Meuse-Rhenish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/High_German_languages" title="High German languages">High German</a> <br /> (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_High_German" title="Middle High German">Middle High German</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_High_German" title="New High German">New High German</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Early_New_High_German" title="Early New High German">Early New High German</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Standard_German" title="Standard German">Standard German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Standard_German" title="German Standard German">German Standard German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_German" title="Austrian German">Austrian Standard German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Standard_German" title="Swiss Standard German">Swiss Standard German</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-<a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">standard variants</a><br /> and <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">creoles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Namibian_German" class="mw-redirect" title="Namibian German">Namibian German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namibian_Black_German" title="Namibian Black German">Namibian Black German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_German" title="Berlin German">Berlinerisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unserdeutsch" title="Unserdeutsch">Unserdeutsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barossa_German" title="Barossa German">Barossa German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotwelsch" title="Rotwelsch">Rotwelsch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lotegorisch" title="Lotegorisch">Lotegorisch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yenish_language" title="Yenish language">Yenish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects#Eastern_Yiddish" title="Yiddish dialects">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects#Western_Yiddish" title="Yiddish dialects">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Scotland#"Scots-Yiddish"" title="History of the Jews in Scotland">Scots Yiddish</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Klezmer-loshn" title="Klezmer-loshn">Klezmer-loshn</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lachoudisch" title="Lachoudisch">Lachoudisch</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_German" title="Central German">Central German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Central_German" title="West Central German">West Central German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Franconian_languages" title="Central Franconian languages">Central Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ripuarian_language" title="Ripuarian language">Ripuarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colognian_dialect" title="Colognian dialect">Colognian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Limburgish_dialect" title="Southeast Limburgish dialect">Southeast Limburgish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moselle_Franconian_language" title="Moselle Franconian language">Moselle Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish" title="Luxembourgish">Luxembourgish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transylvanian_Saxon_dialect" title="Transylvanian Saxon dialect">Transylvanian Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunsr%C3%BCckisch_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Hunsrückisch dialect">Hunsrückisch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hunsrik" title="Hunsrik">Hunsrik</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhenish_Franconian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhenish Franconian languages">Rhine Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lorraine_Franconian" title="Lorraine Franconian">Lorraine Franconian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palatine_German_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Palatine German language">Palatine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Volga_Germans#Language" title="Volga Germans">Volga German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Dutch_language" title="Pennsylvania Dutch language">Pennsylvania Dutch</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hessian_dialects" title="Hessian dialects">Hessian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Hessian" title="Central Hessian">Central Hessian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amana_German" title="Amana German">Amana German</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Central_German" title="East Central German">East Central German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thuringian_dialect" title="Thuringian dialect">Thuringian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Saxon_German" title="Upper Saxon German">Upper Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erzgebirgisch" title="Erzgebirgisch">Erzgebirgisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusatian_dialects" title="Lusatian dialects">Lusatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_German" title="Silesian German">Silesian German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Prussian_dialect" title="High Prussian dialect">High Prussian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wymysorys_language" title="Wymysorys language">Wymysorys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alzenau_dialect" title="Alzenau dialect">Halcnovian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Upper_German" title="Upper German">Upper German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alemannic_German" title="Alemannic German">Alemannic</a> in the broad sense <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Low_Alemannic_German" title="Low Alemannic German">Low Alemannic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alsatian_dialect" title="Alsatian dialect">Alsatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonia_Tovar_dialect" title="Colonia Tovar dialect">Coloniero</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Alemannic_German" title="High Alemannic German">High Alemannic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_German" title="Swiss German">Swiss German</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highest_Alemannic_German" title="Highest Alemannic German">Highest Alemannic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Walser_German" title="Walser German">Walser German</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swabian_German" title="Swabian German">Swabian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bavarian_language" title="Bavarian language">Bavarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Bavarian" title="Northern Bavarian">Northern Bavarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bavarian" title="Central Bavarian">Central Bavarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viennese_German" title="Viennese German">Viennese German</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Bavarian" title="Southern Bavarian">Southern Bavarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Tyrolean_dialect" title="South Tyrolean dialect">South Tyrolean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cimbrian_language" title="Cimbrian language">Cimbrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%B2cheno_language" title="Mòcheno language">Mòcheno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hutterite_German" title="Hutterite German">Hutterite German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottscheerish" title="Gottscheerish">Gottscheerish</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Franconian_German" title="South Franconian German">South Franconian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Franconian_German" title="East Franconian German">East Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vogtlandian" title="Vogtlandian">Vogtlandian</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lombardic_language" title="Lombardic language">Langobardic</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="North_and_East" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North</a> and <a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Norse_language" title="Proto-Norse language">Proto-Norse</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a></i> <ul><li><i>Old West Norse</i></li> <li><i>Old East Norse</i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Gutnish" title="Old Gutnish">Old Gutnish</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">West</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bergensk" title="Bergensk">Bergensk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kebabnorsk" title="Kebabnorsk">Kebabnorsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sognam%C3%A5l_dialect" title="Sognamål dialect">Sognamål</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%C3%B8ndersk" title="Trøndersk">Trøndersk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallingm%C3%A5l-Valdris" title="Hallingmål-Valdris">Valdris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vestlandsk" title="Vestlandsk">Vestlandsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vikv%C3%A6rsk" class="mw-redirect" title="Vikværsk">Vikværsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bokm%C3%A5l" title="Bokmål">Bokmål</a> (written)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nynorsk" title="Nynorsk">Nynorsk</a> (written)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Norwegian" title="Old Norwegian">Old Norwegian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Norwegian" title="Middle Norwegian">Middle Norwegian</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faroese_language" title="Faroese language">Faroese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_language" title="Icelandic language">Icelandic</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse#Old_Icelandic" title="Old Norse">Old Icelandic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Icelandic#Middle_Icelandic_(1350–1550)" title="History of Icelandic">Middle Icelandic</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Greenlandic_Norse" title="Greenlandic Norse">Greenlandic Norse</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Norn_language" title="Norn language">Norn</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">East</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_dialects" title="Swedish dialects">Swedish dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rinkeby_Swedish" title="Rinkeby Swedish">Rinkebysvenska</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Danish_dialects" title="Danish dialects">Danish dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_Danish" title="Insular Danish">Insular Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jutlandic_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Jutlandic dialect">Jutlandic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Jutlandic" title="South Jutlandic">South Jutlandic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Danish" title="East Danish">East Danish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bornholm_dialect" title="Bornholm dialect">Bornholmsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scanian_dialect" title="Scanian dialect">Scanian</a> (historically)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Schleswig_Danish" title="Southern Schleswig Danish">Southern Schleswig Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B8tudanskt_accent" title="Gøtudanskt accent">Gøtudanskt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perkerdansk" title="Perkerdansk">Perkerdansk</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Danish" title="History of Danish">Old Danish</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Danish" title="History of Danish">Middle Danish</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalecarlian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Dalecarlian language">Dalecarlian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elfdalian" title="Elfdalian">Elfdalian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Gutnish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gutnish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gutnish language">Mainland Gutnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A5r%C3%B6m%C3%A5l_dialect" title="Fårömål dialect">Fårö Gutnish</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Gothic_language" title="Gothic language">Gothic</a></i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Gothic" title="Crimean Gothic">Crimean Gothic</a></i>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Burgundians#Language" title="Burgundians">Burgundian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vandalic_language" title="Vandalic language">Vandalic</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Philology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_philology" title="Germanic philology">Philology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Maurer_(linguist)" title="Friedrich Maurer (linguist)">Language subgroups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elbe_Germanic" title="Elbe Germanic">Elbe (Irminonic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weser-Rhine_Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Weser-Rhine Germanic">Weser-Rhine (Istvaeonic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Germanic" title="North Sea Germanic">North Sea (Ingvaeonic)</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Germanic" title="Northwest Germanic">Northwest</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gotho-Nordic" class="mw-redirect" title="Gotho-Nordic">Gotho-Nordic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/South_Germanic" title="South Germanic">South</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reconstructed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_grammar" title="Proto-Germanic grammar">Proto-Germanic grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_parent_language" title="Germanic parent language">Germanic parent language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Belgian_language" title="Ancient Belgian language">Ancient Belgian language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diachronic features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grimm%27s_law" title="Grimm's law">Grimm's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verner%27s_law" title="Verner's law">Verner's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holtzmann%27s_law" title="Holtzmann's law">Holtzmann's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sievers%27s_law" title="Sievers's law">Sievers's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kluge%27s_law" title="Kluge's law">Kluge's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_substrate_hypothesis" title="Germanic substrate hypothesis">Germanic substrate hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_gemination" title="West Germanic gemination">West Germanic gemination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_German_consonant_shift" title="High German consonant shift">High German consonant shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_a-mutation" title="Germanic a-mutation">Germanic a-mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_umlaut" title="Germanic umlaut">Germanic umlaut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_spirant_law" title="Germanic spirant law">Germanic spirant law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingvaeonic_nasal_spirant_law" title="Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law">Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Vowel_Shift" title="Great Vowel Shift">Great Vowel Shift</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Synchronic features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic verb">Germanic verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb" title="Germanic strong verb">Germanic strong verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_weak_verb" title="Germanic weak verb">Germanic weak verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_verb#Preterite-presents" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic verb">Preterite-present verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatischer_Wechsel" title="Grammatischer Wechsel">Grammatischer Wechsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut" title="Indo-European ablaut">Indo-European ablaut</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a></li> <li>Languages between parentheses are <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">varieties</a> of the language on their left.</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Verbs_of_the_world&#039;s_languages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_verbs" title="Template:Language verbs"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Language_verbs" title="Template talk:Language verbs"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Language_verbs" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Language verbs"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Verbs_of_the_world&#039;s_languages" class="wraplinks" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">Verbs</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_languages" title="Lists of languages">world's languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_phonologies" title="Template:Language phonologies">Phonologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_orthographies" title="Template:Language orthographies">Orthographies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_grammars" title="Template:Language grammars">Grammars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_adjectives" title="Template:Language adjectives">Adjectives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_determiners" title="Template:Language determiners">Determiners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_nouns" title="Template:Language nouns">Nouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_prepositions" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Language prepositions">Prepositions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_pronouns" title="Template:Language pronouns">Pronouns</a></li> <li><b>Verbs</b></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indo-European<br />(<a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_verbs" title="Proto-Indo-European verbs">proto-language</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Germanic</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Germanic_strong_verbs" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic strong verbs">strong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Germanic_weak_verbs" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic weak verbs">weak</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_verbs" title="English verbs">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_auxiliary_verbs" title="English auxiliary verbs">auxiliary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_modal_verbs" class="mw-redirect" title="English modal verbs">modal</a></li></ul></li> <li>Dutch <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_conjugation" title="Dutch conjugation">conjugation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_verbs" title="German verbs">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_verbs" title="Gothic verbs">Gothic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Celtic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Irish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_conjugation" title="Irish conjugation">conjugation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Italic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Latin <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_conjugation" title="Latin conjugation">conjugation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_tenses" title="Latin tenses">tenses</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Romance_verbs" title="Romance verbs">Romance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Catalan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catalan_conjugation" title="Catalan conjugation">conjugation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conjugation_of_auxiliary_Catalan_verbs" title="Conjugation of auxiliary Catalan verbs">auxiliary verbs</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_verbs" title="French verbs">French</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_conjugation" title="French conjugation">conjugation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_verb_morphology" title="French verb morphology">morphology</a></li></ul></li> <li>Italian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_conjugation" title="Italian conjugation">conjugation</a></li></ul></li> <li>Occitan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Occitan_conjugation" title="Occitan conjugation">conjugation</a></li></ul></li> <li>Portuguese <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_conjugation" title="Portuguese conjugation">conjugation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_verbs" title="Romanian verbs">Romanian</a></li> <li>Sardinian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sardinian_conjugation" title="Sardinian conjugation">conjugation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_verbs" title="Spanish verbs">Spanish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conjugation" title="Spanish conjugation">conjugation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_irregular_verbs" title="Spanish irregular verbs">irregularity</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Slavic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_verbs" title="Bulgarian verbs">Bulgarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_conjugation" title="Bulgarian conjugation">conjugation</a></li></ul></li> <li>Czech <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Czech_conjugation" title="Czech conjugation">conjugation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morphological_classification_of_Czech_verbs" title="Morphological classification of Czech verbs">morphology</a></li></ul></li> <li>Macedonian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_conjugation" title="Macedonian conjugation">conjugation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovene_verbs" title="Slovene verbs">Slovene</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Iranian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_verbs" title="Persian verbs">Persian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indo-Aryan</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindustani_verbs" title="Hindustani verbs">Hindustani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_verbs" title="Sanskrit verbs">Sanskrit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_verbs" title="Armenian verbs">Armenian</a></li> <li>Greek <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pure_verbs" title="Pure verbs">pure verbs</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Uralic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Finnish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_conjugation" title="Finnish conjugation">conjugation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_verbs" title="Hungarian verbs">Hungarian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other European</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adyghe_verbs" title="Adyghe verbs">Adyghe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_verbs" title="Basque verbs">Basque</a></li> <li>Georgian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_conjugation" title="Georgian conjugation">conjugation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabardian_verbs" title="Kabardian verbs">Kabardian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Afroasiatic<br />(<a href="/wiki/Derived_stem" title="Derived stem">Derived stem</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_verbs" title="Arabic verbs">Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew_verbs" title="Modern Hebrew verbs">Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigrinya_verbs" title="Tigrinya verbs">Tigrinya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Niger–Congo</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Chichewa <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chichewa_tenses" title="Chichewa tenses">tenses</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sotho_verbs" title="Sotho verbs">Sotho</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sotho_deficient_verbs" title="Sotho deficient verbs">deficient verbs</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Japonic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Japanese <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_conjugation" title="Japanese conjugation">conjugation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kagoshima_verb_conjugations" title="Kagoshima verb conjugations">Kagoshima dialect</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_godan_and_ichidan_verbs" title="Japanese godan and ichidan verbs">godan and ichidan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_irregular_verbs" title="Japanese irregular verbs">irregular verbs</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korean_verbs" title="Korean verbs">Korean</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ilocano_verbs" title="Ilocano verbs">Ilocano</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Germanic_verbs&oldid=1252732750">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Germanic_verbs&oldid=1252732750</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:English_grammar" title="Category:English grammar">English grammar</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:German_grammar" title="Category:German grammar">German 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