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class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Early traditions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_traditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Composition_of_the_Torah_narrative" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Composition_of_the_Torah_narrative"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Composition of the Torah narrative</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Composition_of_the_Torah_narrative-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hellenistic_Egyptian_parallel_narratives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hellenistic_Egyptian_parallel_narratives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Hellenistic Egyptian parallel narratives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hellenistic_Egyptian_parallel_narratives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religious_and_cultural_significance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_and_cultural_significance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Religious and cultural significance</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Religious_and_cultural_significance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Religious and cultural significance subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Religious_and_cultural_significance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_Judaism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_Judaism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>In Judaism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_Judaism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_Christianity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_Christianity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>In Christianity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_Christianity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_Islam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_Islam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>In Islam</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_Islam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-As_historical_inspiration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#As_historical_inspiration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>As historical inspiration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-As_historical_inspiration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">The Exodus</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 29 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-29" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">29 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eksodus_(uittog)" title="Eksodus (uittog) – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Eksodus (uittog)" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%87" title="تيه – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تيه" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="বাইবেলীয় প্রস্থান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বাইবেলীয় প্রস্থান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B7%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%BE%D1%82_%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Изход от Египет – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Изход от Египет" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auszug_aus_%C3%84gypten" title="Auszug aus Ägypten – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Auszug aus Ägypten" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_%C3%89xodo" title="El Éxodo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="El Éxodo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eliro_(historia_evento)" title="Eliro (historia evento) – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Eliro (historia evento)" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AC_%D8%A8%D9%86%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C%D9%84_%D8%A7%D8%B2_%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1" title="خروج بنی‌اسرائیل از مصر – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="خروج بنی‌اسرائیل از مصر" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exode_hors_d%27%C3%89gypte" title="Exode hors d'Égypte – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Exode hors d'Égypte" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B6%9C%EC%95%A0%EA%B5%BD" title="출애굽 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="출애굽" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peristiwa_Keluaran" title="Peristiwa Keluaran – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Peristiwa Keluaran" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esodo_(racconto_biblico)" title="Esodo (racconto biblico) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Esodo (racconto biblico)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%90%D7%AA_%D7%9E%D7%A6%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9D" title="יציאת מצרים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="יציאת מצרים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fivoahan%27_ny_Zanak%27_i_Israely_avy_any_Egipta" title="Fivoahan' ny Zanak' i Israely avy any Egipta – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fivoahan' ny Zanak' i Israely avy any Egipta" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%87" title="التيه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="التيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uittocht_uit_Egypte" title="Uittocht uit Egypte – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Uittocht uit Egypte" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utferden_fra_Egypt" title="Utferden fra Egypt – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Utferden fra Egypt" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AC" title="خروج – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="خروج" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wyj%C5%9Bcie_Izraelit%C3%B3w_z_Egiptu" title="Wyjście Izraelitów z Egiptu – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wyjście Izraelitów z Egiptu" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Axodo" title="Êxodo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Êxodo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exodul" title="Exodul – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Exodul" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Исход – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Исход" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egzodus" title="Egzodus – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Egzodus" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israelilaisten_pako_Egyptist%C3%A4" title="Israelilaisten pako Egyptistä – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Israelilaisten pako Egyptistä" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utt%C3%A5get_ur_Egypten" title="Uttåget ur Egypten – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Uttåget ur Egypten" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87%C4%B1k%C4%B1%C5%9F" title="Çıkış – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Çıkış" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%85%D1%96%D0%B4_%D0%B7_%D0%84%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D1%82%D1%83" title="Вихід з Єгипту – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Вихід з Єгипту" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AC" title="خروج – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="خروج" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%90%D7%AA_%D7%9E%D7%A6%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9D" title="יציאת מצרים – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="יציאת מצרים" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1290338#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/The_Exodus" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:The_Exodus" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the 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navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the events related in the Bible. For the second book of the Bible, see <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Exodus" title="Book of Exodus">Book of Exodus</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Exodus_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Exodus (disambiguation)">Exodus</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:David_Roberts-IsraelitesLeavingEgypt_1828.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/David_Roberts-IsraelitesLeavingEgypt_1828.jpg/300px-David_Roberts-IsraelitesLeavingEgypt_1828.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/David_Roberts-IsraelitesLeavingEgypt_1828.jpg/450px-David_Roberts-IsraelitesLeavingEgypt_1828.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/David_Roberts-IsraelitesLeavingEgypt_1828.jpg/600px-David_Roberts-IsraelitesLeavingEgypt_1828.jpg 2x" data-file-width="9447" data-file-height="6825" /></a><figcaption><i>Departure of the Israelites</i> (<a href="/wiki/David_Roberts_(painter)" title="David Roberts (painter)">David Roberts</a>, 1829)</figcaption></figure> <p><b>The Exodus</b> (<a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: יציאת מצרים, <i>Yəṣīʾat Mīṣrayīm</i>: <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">Departure from Egypt</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) is the <a href="/wiki/Origin_myth#Founding_myth" title="Origin myth">founding myth</a><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of the <a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Israelites</a> whose narrative is spread over four of the five books of the <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Pentateuch</a> (specifically, <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Exodus" title="Book of Exodus">Exodus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Leviticus" title="Book of Leviticus">Leviticus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Numbers" title="Book of Numbers">Numbers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Deuteronomy" title="Book of Deuteronomy">Deuteronomy</a>). The narrative of the Exodus describes a history of Egyptian bondage of the Israelites followed by their exodus from Egypt through a <a href="/wiki/Crossing_the_Red_Sea" title="Crossing the Red Sea">passage in the Red Sea</a>, in pursuit of the <a href="/wiki/Promised_Land" title="Promised Land">Promised Land</a> under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a>. </p><p>The story of the Exodus is central in <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>. It is recounted daily in <a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_prayers_and_blessings" title="List of Jewish prayers and blessings">Jewish prayers</a> and celebrated in festivals such as <a href="/wiki/Passover" title="Passover">Passover</a>. Early Christians saw the Exodus as a <a href="/wiki/Typology_(theology)" title="Typology (theology)">typological</a> prefiguration of <a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">resurrection</a> and <a href="/wiki/Salvation_in_Christianity" title="Salvation in Christianity">salvation</a> by <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a>. The Exodus is also recounted in the <a href="/wiki/Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a> as part of the extensive referencing of the <a href="/wiki/Moses_in_Islam" title="Moses in Islam">life of Moses</a>, a major prophet in Islam. The narrative has also resonated with various groups in more recent centuries, such as among <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a> striving for freedom and <a href="/wiki/Civil_and_political_rights" title="Civil and political rights">civil rights</a>, and in <a href="/wiki/Liberation_theology" title="Liberation theology">liberation theology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETigay2004_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETigay2004-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaden2019xiv_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaden2019xiv-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The consensus of modern scholars on the <a href="/wiki/Sources_and_parallels_of_the_Exodus" title="Sources and parallels of the Exodus">historicity of the Exodus</a> is that the Pentateuch does not give an accurate account of the origins of the Israelites, who appear instead to have formed as an entity in the central highlands of <a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a> in the late second millennium BCE (around the time of the <a href="/wiki/Late_Bronze_Age_collapse" title="Late Bronze Age collapse">Late Bronze Age collapse</a>) from the indigenous Canaanite culture.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrabbe201736_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrabbe201736-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeyers20056–7_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyers20056–7-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMooreKelle201181_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMooreKelle201181-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most modern scholars believe that some elements in the story of the Exodus might have some historical basis, but that any such basis has little resemblance to the story told in the Pentateuch.<sup id="cite_ref-Grabbe2017_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grabbe2017-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaust2015476_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaust2015476-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERedmount200187_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERedmount200187-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the majority of modern scholars date the composition of the Pentateuch to the period of the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> (5th century BCE), some of the elements of this narrative are older, since allusions to the story are made by 8th-century BCE <a href="/wiki/Prophets_in_Judaism" title="Prophets in Judaism">prophets</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Amos_(prophet)" title="Amos (prophet)">Amos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hosea" title="Hosea">Hosea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERedmount200187_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERedmount200187-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemche1985327_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemche1985327-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_the_Bible">In the Bible</h2></div> <p>The Exodus tells a story of the <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">enslavement</a> of the Israelites, the <a href="/wiki/Plagues_of_Egypt" title="Plagues of Egypt">Plagues of Egypt</a>, the departure of the Israelites from Egypt, the revelations at <a href="/wiki/Mount_Sinai_(Bible)" title="Mount Sinai (Bible)">Mount Sinai</a>, and the Israelite wanderings in the wilderness up to the borders of <a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERedmount200159_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERedmount200159-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its message is that the Israelites were delivered from slavery by <a href="/wiki/Yahweh" title="Yahweh">Yahweh</a> their god, and therefore belong to him by <a href="/wiki/Covenant_(biblical)" title="Covenant (biblical)">covenant</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESparks201073_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESparks201073-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Narrative">Narrative</h3></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1867_Edward_Poynter_-_Israel_in_Egypt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/1867_Edward_Poynter_-_Israel_in_Egypt.jpg/400px-1867_Edward_Poynter_-_Israel_in_Egypt.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/1867_Edward_Poynter_-_Israel_in_Egypt.jpg/600px-1867_Edward_Poynter_-_Israel_in_Egypt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/1867_Edward_Poynter_-_Israel_in_Egypt.jpg/800px-1867_Edward_Poynter_-_Israel_in_Egypt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2767" data-file-height="1160" /></a><figcaption><i>Israel in Egypt</i> (<a href="/wiki/Edward_Poynter" title="Edward Poynter">Edward Poynter</a>, 1867)</figcaption></figure> <p>The story of the Exodus is told in the first half of Exodus, with the remainder recounting the 1st year in the wilderness, and followed by a narrative of 39 more years in the books of Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, the last four of the first five books of the Bible (also called the Torah or Pentateuch).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERedmount200159_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERedmount200159-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the first book of the Pentateuch, the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Genesis" title="Book of Genesis">Book of Genesis</a>, the Israelites had come to live in Egypt in the <a href="/wiki/Land_of_Goshen" title="Land of Goshen">Land of Goshen</a> during a famine, under the protection of an Israelite, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_(Genesis)" title="Joseph (Genesis)">Joseph</a>, who had become a high official in the court of the Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">pharaoh</a>. Exodus begins with the death of Joseph and the ascension of a new pharaoh "who did not know Joseph" (Exodus 1:8).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERedmount200159_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERedmount200159-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The pharaoh becomes concerned by the number and strength of the Israelites in Egypt and enslaves them, commanding them to build at two "supply" or "store cities" called <a href="/wiki/Pithom" title="Pithom">Pithom</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pi-Ramesses" title="Pi-Ramesses">Rameses</a> (Exodus 1:11).<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The pharaoh also orders the slaughter at birth of all male Hebrew children. One Hebrew child, however, is rescued and abandoned in a floating basket on the <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a>. He is found and adopted by <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh%27s_daughter_(Exodus)" title="Pharaoh's daughter (Exodus)">Pharaoh's daughter</a>, who names him <a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a>. Grown to a young man, Moses kills an Egyptian he sees beating a Hebrew slave, and takes refuge in to the land of <a href="/wiki/Midian" title="Midian">Midian</a>, where he marries <a href="/wiki/Zipporah" title="Zipporah">Tzipporah</a>, a daughter of the Midianite priest <a href="/wiki/Jethro_(biblical_figure)" title="Jethro (biblical figure)">Jethro</a>. The old pharaoh dies and a new one ascends the throne.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERedmount200159_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERedmount200159-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Ezekiel 20:8-9, the enslaved Israelites also practised "abominations" and worshiped the gods of Egypt. This provoked Yahweh to destroy them but he relented to avoid his name being "profaned".<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Meanwhile, Moses goes to <a href="/wiki/Mount_Horeb" title="Mount Horeb">Mount Horeb</a>, where Yahweh appears in a <a href="/wiki/Burning_bush" title="Burning bush">burning bush</a> and commands him to go to Egypt to free the Hebrew slaves and bring them to the <a href="/wiki/Promised_Land" title="Promised Land">Promised Land</a> in Canaan. Yahweh also speaks to Moses's brother <a href="/wiki/Aaron" title="Aaron">Aaron</a>, and the two assemble the Israelites and perform miraculous signs to rouse their belief in Yahweh's promise. Moses and Aaron then go to Pharaoh and ask him to let the Israelites go into the desert for a religious festival, but he refuses and increases their workload, commanding them to make <a href="/wiki/Bricks_without_straw" title="Bricks without straw">bricks without straw</a>. Moses and Aaron return to Pharaoh and ask him to free the Israelites and let them depart. Pharaoh demands Moses to perform a <a href="/wiki/Miracle" title="Miracle">miracle</a>, and Aaron throws down <a href="/wiki/Staff_of_Moses" title="Staff of Moses">Moses' staff</a>, which turns into a <span title="Hebrew-language text"><i lang="he">tannin</i></span> (sea monster<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDozemanShectman2016149_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDozemanShectman2016149-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or snake) (Exodus 7:8-13); however, Pharaoh's magicians<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are also able to do this, though Moses' serpent devours the others. Pharaoh refuses to let the Israelites go. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lamentations_over_the_Death_of_the_First-Born_of_Egypt_by_Charles_Sprague_Pearce.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Lamentations_over_the_Death_of_the_First-Born_of_Egypt_by_Charles_Sprague_Pearce.JPG/220px-Lamentations_over_the_Death_of_the_First-Born_of_Egypt_by_Charles_Sprague_Pearce.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Lamentations_over_the_Death_of_the_First-Born_of_Egypt_by_Charles_Sprague_Pearce.JPG/330px-Lamentations_over_the_Death_of_the_First-Born_of_Egypt_by_Charles_Sprague_Pearce.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Lamentations_over_the_Death_of_the_First-Born_of_Egypt_by_Charles_Sprague_Pearce.JPG/440px-Lamentations_over_the_Death_of_the_First-Born_of_Egypt_by_Charles_Sprague_Pearce.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3305" data-file-height="2459" /></a><figcaption><i>Lamentations over the Death of the First-Born of Egypt</i> by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sprague_Pearce" title="Charles Sprague Pearce">Charles Sprague Pearce</a> (1877)</figcaption></figure> <p>After this, Yahweh inflicts a series of <a href="/wiki/Plagues_of_Egypt" title="Plagues of Egypt">Plagues</a> on the Egyptians each time Moses repeats his demand and Pharaoh refuses to release the Israelites. Pharaoh's magicians are able to match the first plagues, in which Yahweh turns the Nile to blood and produces a plague of frogs, but they cannot match any plagues starting with the third, the plague of <a href="/wiki/Gnat" title="Gnat">gnats</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssmann2018139–142_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssmann2018139–142-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After each plague, Pharaoh asks the Israelites to worship Yahweh to remove the plague, then still refuses to free them. </p><p>Moses is commanded to fix the <a href="/wiki/Nisan" title="Nisan">first month</a> of <a href="/wiki/Aviv" title="Aviv">Aviv</a> at the head of the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_calendar" title="Hebrew calendar">Hebrew calendar</a>. He instructs the Israelites to take a lamb on the 10th day, and on the 14th day to slaughter it and daub its blood on their <a href="/wiki/Mezuzot" class="mw-redirect" title="Mezuzot">doorposts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lintel" title="Lintel">lintels</a>, and to observe the Passover meal that night, the night of the <a href="/wiki/Paschal_full_moon" class="mw-redirect" title="Paschal full moon">full moon</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/Plagues_of_Egypt#10._Death_of_firstborn_son:_Ex._11:1–12:36" title="Plagues of Egypt">final plague</a>, Yahweh sends an angel to each house to kill the firstborn son and firstborn cattle, but the houses of the Israelites are spared by the blood on their doorposts. Yahweh commands the Israelites to commemorate this event in "a perpetual ordinance" (Exodus 12:14).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERedmount200159–60_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERedmount200159–60-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pharaoh finally casts the Israelites out of Egypt after his firstborn son is killed. Yahweh leads the Israelites in the form of a <a href="/wiki/Pillar_of_cloud" class="mw-redirect" title="Pillar of cloud">pillar of cloud</a> in the day and a <a href="/wiki/Pillar_of_fire_(theophany)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pillar of fire (theophany)">pillar of fire</a> at night. However, once the Israelites have left, Yahweh "hardens" Pharaoh's heart to change his mind and pursue the Israelites to the shore of the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a>. Moses uses his staff to <a href="/wiki/Crossing_the_Red_Sea" title="Crossing the Red Sea">part the Red Sea</a>, and the Israelites cross on dry ground, but the sea closes on the pursuing Egyptians, drowning them all.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERedmount200159–60_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERedmount200159–60-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Israel%27s_Escape_from_Egypt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Israel%27s_Escape_from_Egypt.jpg/220px-Israel%27s_Escape_from_Egypt.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Israel%27s_Escape_from_Egypt.jpg/330px-Israel%27s_Escape_from_Egypt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Israel%27s_Escape_from_Egypt.jpg/440px-Israel%27s_Escape_from_Egypt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="776" data-file-height="888" /></a><figcaption>Moses parts the Red Sea (1907 print)</figcaption></figure> <p>The Israelites begin to complain, and Yahweh miraculously provides them with water and food, eventually raining <a href="/wiki/Manna" title="Manna">manna</a> down for them to eat. The <a href="/wiki/Amalek" title="Amalek">Amalekites</a> attack at <a href="/wiki/Rephidim" title="Rephidim">Rephidim</a>, but are defeated. Jethro, the father-in-law of Moses, convinces him to appoint judges for the tribes of Israel. The Israelites reach the <a href="/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula" title="Sinai Peninsula">Sinai Desert</a> and Yahweh calls Moses to <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Mount_Sinai" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical Mount Sinai">Mount Sinai</a>, where Yahweh reveals himself to his people and establishes the <a href="/wiki/Ten_Commandments" title="Ten Commandments">Ten Commandments</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mosaic_covenant" title="Mosaic covenant">Mosaic covenant</a>: the Israelites are to keep his <i>torah</i> (law, instruction), and Yahweh promises them the land of Canaan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERedmount200160_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERedmount200160-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Yahweh establishes the <a href="/wiki/Kohen" title="Kohen">Aaronic priesthood</a> and detailed rules for ritual worship, among other laws. However, in Moses's absence the Israelites sin against Yahweh by creating the idol of a <a href="/wiki/Golden_calf" title="Golden calf">golden calf</a>. As punishment Yahweh has the <a href="/wiki/Levites" class="mw-redirect" title="Levites">Levites</a> kill three thousand of the Israelites (Exodus 32:28), and Yahweh sends a plague on them. The Israelites now accept the covenant, which is reestablished; they build a <a href="/wiki/Tabernacle" title="Tabernacle">tabernacle</a> for Yahweh, and receive their laws. Yahweh commands Moses to take a <a href="/wiki/Census" title="Census">census</a> of the Israelites and establishes the duties of the Levites. Then the Israelites depart from Mount Sinai.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERedmount200160_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERedmount200160-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Yahweh commands Moses to send <a href="/wiki/The_Twelve_Spies" title="The Twelve Spies">twelve spies</a> ahead to Canaan to scout the land. The spies discover that the Canaanites are formidable, and to dissuade the Israelites from invading, the spies falsely report that Canaan is full of giants (Numbers 13:30-33). The Israelites refuse to go to Canaan, and Yahweh declares that the generation that left Egypt will have to pass away before the Israelites can enter the promised land. The Israelites will have to remain in the wilderness for forty years,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERedmount200160_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERedmount200160-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Yahweh kills the spies through a plague except for the righteous <a href="/wiki/Joshua" title="Joshua">Joshua</a> and <a href="/wiki/Caleb" title="Caleb">Caleb</a>, who will be allowed to enter the promised land (Numbers 13:36-38). A group of Israelites led by <a href="/wiki/Korah" title="Korah">Korah</a>, son of Izhar, rebels against Moses, but Yahweh opens the earth and sends them living to <a href="/wiki/Sheol" title="Sheol">Sheol</a> (Numbers 16:1-33).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDouglas1993210_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDouglas1993210-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Israelites come to the oasis of <a href="/wiki/Kadesh_Barnea" class="mw-redirect" title="Kadesh Barnea">Kadesh Barnea</a>, where <a href="/wiki/Miriam" title="Miriam">Miriam</a> dies and the Israelites remain for nineteen years.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERedmount200160_24-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERedmount200160-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To provide water, Yahweh commands Moses to get water from a rock by speaking to it, but Moses instead strikes the rock with his staff, for which Yahweh forbids him from entering the <a href="/wiki/Promised_Land" title="Promised Land">Promised Land</a>. Moses sends a messenger to the king of <a href="/wiki/Edom" title="Edom">Edom</a> requesting passage through his land to Canaan, but the king refuses. The Israelites then go to <a href="/wiki/Mount_Hor" title="Mount Hor">Mount Hor</a>, where Aaron dies. The Israelites try to go around Edom, but the Israelites complain about lack of bread and water, so Yahweh sends a plague of poisonous snakes to afflict them (Numbers 21:4-7). </p><p>After Moses prays for deliverance, Yahweh has him create a <a href="/wiki/Brazen_serpent" class="mw-redirect" title="Brazen serpent">brazen serpent</a>, and the Israelites who look at it are cured (Numbers 21:8-9). The Israelites are soon in conflict with various other kingdoms, and king <a href="/wiki/Balak" title="Balak">Balak</a> of <a href="/wiki/Moab" title="Moab">Moab</a> asks the seer <a href="/wiki/Balaam" title="Balaam">Balaam</a> to curse the Israelites, but Balaam blesses them instead. Some Israelites begin having sexual relations with Moabite women and <a href="/wiki/Heresy_of_Peor" class="mw-redirect" title="Heresy of Peor">worshipping Moabite gods</a>, so Yahweh orders Moses to <a href="/wiki/Impalement" title="Impalement">impale</a> the idolators and sends another plague. The full extent of Yahweh's wrath is averted when <a href="/wiki/Phinehas" title="Phinehas">Phinehas</a> impales <a href="/wiki/Zimri_(prince)" title="Zimri (prince)">an Israelite</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Cozbi" title="Cozbi">Midianite woman</a> having intercourse (Numbers 25:7-9). Yahweh commands the Israelites to destroy the Midianites, and Moses and Phinehas take another census. Then they conquer the lands of <a href="/wiki/Og" title="Og">Og</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sihon" title="Sihon">Sihon</a> in <a href="/wiki/Transjordan_(region)" title="Transjordan (region)">Transjordan</a>, settling the <a href="/wiki/Gadites" class="mw-redirect" title="Gadites">Gadites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reubenites" class="mw-redirect" title="Reubenites">Reubenites</a>, and half the <a href="/wiki/Tribe_of_Manasseh" title="Tribe of Manasseh">Tribe of Manasseh</a> there. </p><p>Moses then addresses the Israelites for a final time on the banks of the <a href="/wiki/Jordan_River" title="Jordan River">Jordan River</a>, reviewing their travels and giving them further laws. Yahweh tells Moses to summon Joshua to lead the <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Canaan" class="mw-redirect" title="Conquest of Canaan">conquest of Canaan</a>. Yahweh tells Moses to ascend <a href="/wiki/Mount_Nebo" title="Mount Nebo">Mount Nebo</a>, from where he sees the Promised Land, and dies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERedmount200160_24-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERedmount200160-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Covenant_and_law">Covenant and law</h3></div> <p>The climax of the Exodus is the covenant (binding legal agreement) between God and the Israelites mediated by Moses at Sinai: Yahweh will protect the Israelites as his chosen people for all time, and the Israelites will keep Yahweh's laws and worship only him.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBandstra200828-29_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBandstra200828-29-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The covenant is described in stages: at Exodus 24:3–8 the Israelites agree to abide by the "book of the covenant" that Moses has just read to them; shortly afterwards God writes the "words of the covenant" – the <a href="/wiki/Ten_Commandments" title="Ten Commandments">Ten Commandments</a> – on stone tablets; and finally, as the people gather in Moab to cross into the promised land of Canaan, Moses reveals Yahweh's new covenant "beside the covenant he made with them at Horeb" (Deuteronomy 29:1).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcKenzie20054–5_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcKenzie20054–5-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The laws are set out in a number of codes:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBandstra2008146_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBandstra2008146-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_Decalogue" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethical Decalogue">Ethical Decalogue</a> or Ten Commandments, Exodus 20 and Deuteronomy 5;</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Covenant_Code" title="Covenant Code">Book of the Covenant</a>, Exodus 20:22–23:3;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritual_Decalogue" title="Ritual Decalogue">Ritual Decalogue</a>, Exodus 34;</li> <li>The ritual laws of <a href="/wiki/Leviticus" class="mw-redirect" title="Leviticus">Leviticus</a> 1–6 and <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Numbers" title="Book of Numbers">Numbers</a> 1–10;</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Holiness_Code" class="mw-redirect" title="Holiness Code">Holiness Code</a>, Leviticus 17–26;</li> <li>Deuteronomic Code, <a href="/wiki/Deuteronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Deuteronomy">Deuteronomy</a> 12–26.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins_and_historicity">Origins and historicity</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Sources_and_parallels_of_the_Exodus" title="Sources and parallels of the Exodus">Sources and parallels of the Exodus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Historicity_of_the_Bible" title="Historicity of the Bible">Historicity of the Bible</a></div> <p>There are two main positions on the historicity of the Exodus in modern scholarship.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrabbe201736_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrabbe201736-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The majority position is that the biblical Exodus narrative has some historical basis, although there is little of historical fact in it.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>e<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaust2015476_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaust2015476-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESparks201073_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESparks201073-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The other position, often associated with the school of <a href="/wiki/Biblical_minimalism" title="Biblical minimalism">Biblical minimalism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies200423–24_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies200423–24-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMooreKelle201186–87_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMooreKelle201186–87-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is that the biblical exodus traditions are the invention of the exilic and post-exilic Jewish community, with little to no historical basis.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell200911_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell200911-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The biblical Exodus narrative is best understood as a <a href="/wiki/Founding_myth" class="mw-redirect" title="Founding myth">founding myth</a> of the Jewish people, providing an ideological foundation for their culture and institutions, not an accurate depiction of the history of the Israelites.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECollins200546_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins200546-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESparks201073_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESparks201073-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The view that the biblical narrative is essentially correct unless it can explicitly be proved wrong (<a href="/wiki/Biblical_maximalism" title="Biblical maximalism">Biblical maximalism</a>) is today held by "few, if any [...] in mainstream scholarship, only on the more fundamentalist fringes."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrabbe201736_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrabbe201736-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is no direct evidence for any of the people or events of Exodus in non-biblical ancient texts or in archaeological remains, and this has led most scholars to omit the Exodus events from comprehensive histories of Israel.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMooreKelle201188_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMooreKelle201188-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reliability_of_the_biblical_account">Reliability of the biblical account</h3></div> <p>Most mainstream scholars do not accept the biblical Exodus account as history for a number of reasons. Most agree that the Exodus stories were written centuries after the apparent setting of the stories.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMooreKelle201181_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMooreKelle201181-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholars argue that the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Exodus" title="Book of Exodus">Book of Exodus</a> itself attempts to ground the event firmly in history, reconstructing a date for the exodus as the 2666th year after creation (Exodus 12:40-41), the construction of the tabernacle to year 2667 (Exodus 40:1-2, 17), stating that the Israelites dwelled in Egypt for 430 years (Exodus 12:40-41), and specifying place names such as <a href="/wiki/Land_of_Goshen" title="Land of Goshen">Goshen</a> (Gen. 46:28), <a href="/wiki/Pithom" title="Pithom">Pithom</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pi-Ramesses" title="Pi-Ramesses">Ramesses</a> (Exod. 1:11), as well as the count of 600,000 Israelite men (Exodus 12:37).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDozemanShectman2016138–139_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDozemanShectman2016138–139-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Numbers" title="Book of Numbers">Book of Numbers</a> further states that the number of Israelite males aged 20 years and older in the desert during the wandering was 603,550, which works out to a total population of 2.5-3 million including women and children—far more than could be supported by the <a href="/wiki/Sinai_Desert" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinai Desert">Sinai Desert</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDever200318–19_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDever200318–19-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The geography is vague with regions such as Goshen unidentified,<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>f<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and there are internal problems with dating in the Pentateuch.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDozemanShectman2016139_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDozemanShectman2016139-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> No modern attempt to identify a historical Egyptian as a prototype for Moses has found wide acceptance, and no period in Egyptian history matches the biblical accounts of the Exodus.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrabbe201463–64_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrabbe201463–64-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some elements of the story are <a href="/wiki/Miracle" title="Miracle">miraculous</a> and defy rational explanation, such as the <a href="/wiki/Plagues_of_Egypt" title="Plagues of Egypt">Plagues of Egypt</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Crossing_of_the_Red_Sea" class="mw-redirect" title="Crossing of the Red Sea">Crossing of the Red Sea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDever200315–17_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDever200315–17-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Bible does not mention the names of any of the pharaohs involved, further obscuring comparison of archaeologically recovered Egyptian history with the biblical narrative.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrabbe201469_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrabbe201469-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egyptian</a> texts from the <a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a> mention "Asiatics" living in Egypt as slaves and workers, these people cannot be securely connected to the Israelites, and no contemporary Egyptian text mentions a large-scale exodus of slaves like that described in the Bible.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarmash2015b2–3_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarmash2015b2–3-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest surviving historical mention of the Israelites, the Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Merneptah_Stele" title="Merneptah Stele">Merneptah Stele</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1207 BCE</span>), appears to place them in or around Canaan and gives no indication of any exodus.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrabbe201465–67_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrabbe201465–67-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Archaeologist <a href="/wiki/Israel_Finkelstein" title="Israel Finkelstein">Israel Finkelstein</a> argues from his analysis of the itinerary lists in the books of Exodus, Numbers and Deuteronomy that the biblical account represents a long-term cultural memory, spanning the 16th to 10th centuries BCE, rather than a specific event: "The beginning is vague and now untraceable."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFinkelstein201549_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinkelstein201549-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead, modern archaeology suggests continuity between Canaanite and Israelite settlement, indicating a primarily Canaanite origin for Israel, with no suggestion that a group of foreigners from Egypt comprised early Israel.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarmash2015b4_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarmash2015b4-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2002313_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2002313-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Potential_historical_origins">Potential historical origins</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ramses-ii-relief-from-memphis2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Ramses-ii-relief-from-memphis2.png/220px-Ramses-ii-relief-from-memphis2.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Ramses-ii-relief-from-memphis2.png/330px-Ramses-ii-relief-from-memphis2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Ramses-ii-relief-from-memphis2.png/440px-Ramses-ii-relief-from-memphis2.png 2x" data-file-width="967" data-file-height="1133" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ramesses_II" title="Ramesses II">Ramesses II</a>, one of several <a href="/wiki/Pharaohs_in_the_Bible#In_the_Book_of_Genesis" title="Pharaohs in the Bible">suggested pharaohs in the Exodus narrative. Created c. 1250 BCE</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Despite the absence of any archaeological evidence, most scholars nonetheless hold that the Exodus probably has some sort of historical basis,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaust2015476_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaust2015476-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERedmount200187_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERedmount200187-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with biblical scholar Kenton Sparks referring to it as "mythologized history".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESparks201073_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESparks201073-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholars posit that a small group of Egyptian origin may have joined the early Israelites, and contributed their own Egyptian Exodus story to all of Israel.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>g<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/William_G._Dever" title="William G. Dever">William G. Dever</a> cautiously identifies this group with the <a href="/wiki/Tribe_of_Joseph" title="Tribe of Joseph">Tribe of Joseph</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Richard_Elliott_Friedman" title="Richard Elliott Friedman">Richard Elliott Friedman</a> identifies it with the <a href="/wiki/Tribe_of_Levi" title="Tribe of Levi">Tribe of Levi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDever2003231_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDever2003231-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most scholars who accept a historical core of the exodus date this possible exodus group to the thirteenth century BCE at the time of <a href="/wiki/Ramses_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Ramses II">Ramses II</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt">19th dynasty</a>), with some instead dating it to the twelfth century BCE under <a href="/wiki/Ramses_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Ramses III">Ramses III</a> (<a href="/wiki/Twentieth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt">20th dynasty</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaust2015476_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaust2015476-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evidence in favor of historical traditions forming a background to the Exodus myth include the documented movements of small groups of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Semitic-speaking_peoples" title="Ancient Semitic-speaking peoples">Ancient Semitic-speaking peoples</a> into and out of Egypt during the <a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt">18th</a> and 19th dynasties, some elements of Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">folklore</a> and culture mentioned in the Exodus narrative,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeyers20058–10_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyers20058–10-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the names Moses, Aaron and Phinehas, which seem to have an Egyptian origin.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERedmount200165_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERedmount200165-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholarly estimates for how many could have been involved in such an exodus range from a few hundred to a few thousand people.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaust2015476_9-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaust2015476-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Joel S. Baden<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> noted the presence of Semitic-speaking slaves in Egypt who sometimes escaped in small numbers as potential inspirations for the Exodus.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaden20196–7_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaden20196–7-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is also possible that oppressive Egyptian rule of Canaan during the late second millennium BCE, during the 19th and especially the 20th dynasty, may have disposed some native Canaanites to adopt into their own mythology the exodus story of a small group of Egyptian refugees.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaust2015477_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaust2015477-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nadav Na'aman argues that oppressive Egyptian rule of Canaan may have inspired the Exodus narrative, forming a "<a href="/wiki/Collective_memory" title="Collective memory">collective memory</a>" of Egyptian oppression that was transferred from Canaan to Egypt itself in the popular consciousness.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENa'aman201162–69_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENa'aman201162–69-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Seventeenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt">17th dynasty</a> expulsion of the <a href="/wiki/Hyksos" title="Hyksos">Hyksos</a>, a group of Semitic invaders, is also frequently discussed as a potential historical parallel or origin for the story.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaust2015477_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaust2015477-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERedmount200178_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERedmount200178-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERedford1992412–413_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERedford1992412–413-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many other scholars reject this view, and instead see the biblical exodus traditions as the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_exile" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonian exile">exilic</a> and post-exilic Jewish community, with little to no historical basis.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell200911_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell200911-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Lester_Grabbe" class="mw-redirect" title="Lester Grabbe">Lester Grabbe</a>, for instance, argues that "[t]here is no compelling reason that the exodus has to be rooted in history",<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrabbe201484_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrabbe201484-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that the details of the story more closely fit the seventh through the fifth centuries BCE than the traditional dating to the second millennium BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrabbe201485_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrabbe201485-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Philip_R._Davies" title="Philip R. Davies">Philip R. Davies</a> suggests that the story may have been inspired by the return to Israel of Israelites and Judaeans who were placed in Egypt as garrison troops by the <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrians</a> in the fifth and sixth centuries BCE, during the exile.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies2015105_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies2015105-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development_and_final_composition">Development and final composition</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_traditions">Early traditions</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:109.Ezra_Reads_the_Law_to_the_People.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/109.Ezra_Reads_the_Law_to_the_People.jpg/220px-109.Ezra_Reads_the_Law_to_the_People.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/109.Ezra_Reads_the_Law_to_the_People.jpg/330px-109.Ezra_Reads_the_Law_to_the_People.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/109.Ezra_Reads_the_Law_to_the_People.jpg/440px-109.Ezra_Reads_the_Law_to_the_People.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2301" data-file-height="2907" /></a><figcaption><i>Ezra Reads the Law to the People</i> (<a href="/wiki/Gustave_Dor%C3%A9%27s_illustrations_for_La_Grande_Bible_de_Tours" title="Gustave Doré's illustrations for La Grande Bible de Tours">Gustave Doré's illustrations for <i>La Grande Bible de Tours</i></a>, 1866)</figcaption></figure> <p>The earliest traces of the traditions behind the exodus appear in the northern prophets <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Amos" title="Book of Amos">Amos</a><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Hosea" title="Book of Hosea">Hosea</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> both active in the 8th century BCE in northern <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(Samaria)" title="Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)">Israel</a>, but their southern contemporary <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Isaiah" title="Book of Isaiah">Isaiah</a> shows no knowledge of an exodus.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemche1985327_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemche1985327-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Micah" title="Book of Micah">Micah</a>, who was active in the south around the same time, references the exodus once (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Micah%206:4–5&version=nrsv">Micah 6:4–5</a>), but it is debated whether the passage is an addition by a later editor.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>h<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jeremiah" title="Jeremiah">Jeremiah</a>, active in the 7th century, mentions both Moses<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the Exodus.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The story may, therefore, have originated a few centuries earlier, perhaps in the 10th or 9th century BCE, and there are signs that it took different forms in Israel, in the <a href="/wiki/Transjordan_(region)" title="Transjordan (region)">Transjordan region</a>, and in the southern <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">Kingdom of Judah</a> before being unified in the Persian era.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell20091_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell20091-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Exodus narrative was most likely further altered and expanded under the influence of the return from the <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity">Babylonian captivity</a> in the sixth century BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENa'aman201140_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENa'aman201140-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Evidence from the Bible suggests that the Exodus from Egypt formed a "foundational mythology" or "state ideology" for the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(Samaria)" title="Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)">Northern Kingdom of Israel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssmann201850_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssmann201850-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The northern psalms <a href="/wiki/Psalm_80" title="Psalm 80">80</a> and <a href="/wiki/Psalm_81" title="Psalm 81">81</a> state that God "brought a vine out of Egypt" (Psalm 80:8) and record ritual observances of Israel's deliverance from Egypt as well as a version of part of the <a href="/wiki/Ten_Commandments" title="Ten Commandments">Ten Commandments</a> (Psalm 81:10-11).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarmash2015b10–12_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarmash2015b10–12-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Books_of_Kings" title="Books of Kings">Books of Kings</a> records the dedication of two <a href="/wiki/Golden_calf" title="Golden calf">golden calves</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bethel" title="Bethel">Bethel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dan_(ancient_city)" title="Dan (ancient city)">Dan</a> by the Israelite king <a href="/wiki/Jeroboam_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Jeroboam I">Jeroboam I</a>, who uses the words "Here are your gods, O Israel, which brought you up out of the land of Egypt" (1 Kings 12:28). Scholars relate Jeroboam's calves to the golden calf made by Aaron of Exodus 32. Both include a nearly identical dedication formula ("These are your gods, O Israel, who brought you up out of the land of Egypt", Exodus 32:8). This episode in Exodus is "widely regarded as a tendentious narrative against the Bethel calves".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell200941_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell200941-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Egyptologist <a href="/wiki/Jan_Assmann" title="Jan Assmann">Jan Assmann</a> suggests that event, which would have taken place <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 931 BCE</span>, may be partially historical due to its association with the historical pharaoh <a href="/wiki/Sheshonq_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Sheshonq I">Sheshonq I</a> (the biblical <a href="/wiki/Shishak" title="Shishak">Shishak</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssmann201850_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssmann201850-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Stephen Russell dates this tradition to "the eighth century BCE or earlier", and argued that it preserves a genuine Exodus tradition from the Northern Kingdom, but in a <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">Judahite</a> recension.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell200955_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell200955-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Russell and Frank Moore Cross argue that the Israelites of the Northern Kingdom may have believed that the calves at Bethel and Dan were made by Aaron. Russell suggests that the connection to Jeroboam may have been later, possibly coming from a Judahite redactor.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell200941–43,_46–47_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell200941–43,_46–47-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pauline Viviano, however, concludes that neither the references to Jeroboam's calves in Hosea (Hosea 8:6 and 10:5) nor the frequent prohibitions of idol worship in the seventh-century southern prophet <a href="/wiki/Jeremiah" title="Jeremiah">Jeremiah</a> show any knowledge of a tradition of a golden calf having been created in Sinai.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEViviano201946–47_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEViviano201946–47-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some of the earliest evidence for Judahite traditions of the exodus is found in <a href="/wiki/Psalm_78" title="Psalm 78">Psalm 78</a>, which portrays the Exodus as beginning a history culminating in the building of the temple at Jerusalem. Pamela Barmash argues that the psalm is a polemic against the Northern Kingdom; as it fails to mention that kingdom's destruction in 722 BCE, she concludes that it must have been written before then.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarmash2015b8-9_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarmash2015b8-9-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The psalm's version of the Exodus contains some important differences from what is found in the Pentateuch: there is no mention of Moses, and the <a href="/wiki/Manna" title="Manna">manna</a> is described as "food of the mighty" rather than as bread in the wilderness.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarmash2015b9_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarmash2015b9-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nadav Na'aman argues for other signs that the Exodus was a tradition in Judah before the destruction of the northern kingdom, including the <a href="/wiki/Song_of_the_Sea" title="Song of the Sea">Song of the Sea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Psalm_114" title="Psalm 114">Psalm 114</a>, as well as the great political importance that the narrative came to assume there.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENa'aman201140_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENa'aman201140-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>i<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A Judahite cultic object associated with the exodus was the brazen serpent or <a href="/wiki/Nehushtan" title="Nehushtan">nehushtan</a>: according to 2 Kings 18:4, the brazen serpent had been made by Moses and was worshiped in the <a href="/wiki/Solomon%27s_Temple" title="Solomon's Temple">temple</a> in Jerusalem until the time of king <a href="/wiki/Hezekiah" title="Hezekiah">Hezekiah</a> of Judah, who destroyed it as part of a religious reform, possibly <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 727 BCE</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartusch200341_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartusch200341-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>j<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the Pentateuch, Moses creates the brazen serpent in Numbers 21:4-9. Meindert Dijkstra writes that while the historicity of the Mosaic origin of the Nehushtan is unlikely, its association with Moses appears genuine rather than the work of a later redactor.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDijkstra200628_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDijkstra200628-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mark Walter Bartusch notes that the nehushtan is not mentioned at any prior point in Kings, and suggests that the brazen serpent was brought to Jerusalem from the Northern Kingdom after its destruction in 722 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartusch200341_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartusch200341-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Composition_of_the_Torah_narrative">Composition of the Torah narrative</h3></div> <p>The revelation of God on Sinai appears to have originally been a tradition unrelated to the Exodus.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaden20199_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaden20199-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Joel S. Baden notes that "[t]he seams [between the Exodus and Wilderness traditions] still show: in the narrative of Israel's rescue from Egypt there is little hint that they will be brought anywhere other than Canaan – yet they find themselves heading first, unexpectedly, and in no obvious geographical order, to an obscure mountain."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaden201910_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaden201910-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, there is widespread agreement that the revelation of the law in Deuteronomy was originally separate from the Exodus:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssmann2018204_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssmann2018204-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the original version of Deuteronomy is generally dated to the 7th century BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrabbe201749_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrabbe201749-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The contents of the books of <a href="/wiki/Leviticus" class="mw-redirect" title="Leviticus">Leviticus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Numbers" title="Book of Numbers">Numbers</a> are late additions to the narrative by priestly sources.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDever200199_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDever200199-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Scholars broadly agree that the publication of the Torah (or of a proto-Pentateuch) took place in the mid-Persian period (the 5th century BCE), echoing a traditional Jewish view which gives <a href="/wiki/Ezra" title="Ezra">Ezra</a>, the leader of the Jewish community on its return from Babylon, a pivotal role in its promulgation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERomer20082_and_fn.3_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERomer20082_and_fn.3-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many theories have been advanced to explain the composition of the first five books of the Bible, but two have been especially influential.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESka2006217_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESka2006217-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first of these, Persian Imperial authorisation, advanced by Peter Frei in 1985, is that the Persian authorities required the Jews of Jerusalem to present a single body of law as the price of local autonomy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESka2006218_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESka2006218-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Frei's theory was demolished at an interdisciplinary symposium held in 2000, but the relationship between the Persian authorities and Jerusalem remains a crucial question.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEskenazi200986_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEskenazi200986-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The second theory, associated with Joel P. Weinberg and called the "Citizen-Temple Community", is that the Exodus story was composed to serve the needs of a post-exilic Jewish community organized around the Temple, which acted in effect as a bank for those who belonged to it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESka2006226–227_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESka2006226–227-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The books containing the Exodus story served as an "identity card" defining who belonged to this community (i.e., to Israel), thus reinforcing Israel's unity through its new institutions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESka2006225_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESka2006225-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hellenistic_Egyptian_parallel_narratives">Hellenistic Egyptian parallel narratives</h2></div> <p>Writers in Greek and Latin during the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic Kingdom</a> (late 4th century BCE–late 1st century BCE) record several Egyptian tales of the expulsion of a group of foreigners connected to the Exodus.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDroge1996134_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDroge1996134-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These tales often include elements of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="Second Intermediate Period of Egypt">Second Intermediate Period</a> ("Hyksos period") and most are extremely <a href="/wiki/Anti-Judaism" title="Anti-Judaism">anti-Jewish</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssmann200929,_34–35_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssmann200929,_34–35-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The earliest non-biblical account is that of <a href="/wiki/Hecataeus_of_Abdera" title="Hecataeus of Abdera">Hecataeus of Abdera</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 320 BCE</span>) as preserved in the first century CE Jewish historian <a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Against_Apion" title="Against Apion">Against Apion</a></i> and in a variant version by the first-century BCE Greek historian <a href="/wiki/Diodorus" class="mw-redirect" title="Diodorus">Diodorus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDroge1996131_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDroge1996131-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hecataeus tells how the Egyptians blamed a plague on foreigners and expelled them from the country, whereupon Moses, their leader, took them to Canaan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssmann200934_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssmann200934-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this version, Moses is portrayed extremely positively.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDroge1996134_95-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDroge1996134-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Manetho" title="Manetho">Manetho</a>, also preserved in Josephus's <i>Against Apion</i>, tells how 80,000 lepers and other "impure people", led by a priest named <a href="/wiki/Osarseph" title="Osarseph">Osarseph</a>, join forces with the former Hyksos, now living in <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>, to take over Egypt. They wreak havoc until the Pharaoh and his son chase them out to the borders of <a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Syria</a>, where Osarseph gives the lepers a law code and changes his name to Moses. The identification of Osarseph with Moses in Manetho's account may be an interpolation or may come from Manetho.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDroge1996134–35_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDroge1996134–35-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFeldman1998342_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeldman1998342-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssmann200934_98-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssmann200934-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other versions of the story are recorded by the first-century BCE Egyptian grammarian <a href="/wiki/Lysimachus_of_Alexandria" title="Lysimachus of Alexandria">Lysimachus of Alexandria</a>, who set the story in the time of Pharaoh <a href="/wiki/Bakenranef" title="Bakenranef">Bakenranef</a> (Bocchoris), the first-century CE Egyptian historian <a href="/wiki/Chaeremon_of_Alexandria" title="Chaeremon of Alexandria">Chaeremon of Alexandria</a>, and the first-century BCE Gallo-Roman historian <a href="/wiki/Gnaeus_Pompeius_Trogus" title="Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus">Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssmann200935_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssmann200935-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first-century CE Roman historian <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a> included a version of the story that claims that the Hebrews worshipped a <a href="/wiki/Donkey" title="Donkey">donkey</a> as their god to ridicule Egyptian religion, whereas the Roman biographer <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a> claimed that the Egyptian god <a href="/wiki/Set_(deity)" title="Set (deity)">Seth</a> was expelled from Egypt and had two sons named Juda and Hierosolyma.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssmann200937_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssmann200937-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The stories may represent a polemical Egyptian response to the Exodus narrative.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGmirkin2006170_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGmirkin2006170-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Egyptologist <a href="/wiki/Jan_Assmann" title="Jan Assmann">Jan Assmann</a> proposed that the story comes from oral sources that "must [...] predate the first possible acquaintance of an Egyptian writer with the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssmann200934_98-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssmann200934-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Assmann suggested that the story has no single origin but rather combines numerous historical experiences, notably the <a href="/wiki/Amarna_Period" title="Amarna Period">Amarna</a> and Hyksos periods, into a folk memory.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssmann2003227_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssmann2003227-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is general agreement that the stories originally had nothing to do with the Jews.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDroge1996134_95-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDroge1996134-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Erich_S._Gruen" title="Erich S. Gruen">Erich S. Gruen</a> suggested that it may have been the Jews themselves that inserted themselves into Manetho's narrative, in which various negative actions from the point of view of the Egyptians, such as desecrating temples, are interpreted positively.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruen2016218–220_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruen2016218–220-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religious_and_cultural_significance">Religious and cultural significance</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_Judaism">In Judaism</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Passover" title="Passover">Passover</a> and <a href="/wiki/Passover_Seder" title="Passover Seder">Passover Seder</a></div> <p>Commemoration of the Exodus is central to Judaism, and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Jewish culture</a>. In the Bible, the Exodus is frequently mentioned as the event that created the Israelite people and forged their bond with God, being described as such by the prophets Hosea, Jeremiah, and <a href="/wiki/Ezekiel" title="Ezekiel">Ezekiel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaden201935–36_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaden201935–36-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Exodus is invoked daily in <a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_prayers_and_blessings" title="List of Jewish prayers and blessings">Jewish prayers</a> and celebrated each year during the Jewish holidays of <a href="/wiki/Passover" title="Passover">Passover</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shavuot" title="Shavuot">Shavuot</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sukkot" title="Sukkot">Sukkot</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETigay2004106_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETigay2004106-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fringes worn at the corners of traditional Jewish prayer shawls are described as a physical reminder of the obligation to observe the laws given at the climax of Exodus: "Look at it and recall all the commandments of the Lord" (Numbers).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESarason201553_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESarason201553-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The festivals associated with the Exodus began as agricultural and seasonal feasts but became completely subsumed into the Exodus narrative of Israel's deliverance from oppression at the hands of God.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETigay2004106_107-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETigay2004106-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENelson201543_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENelson201543-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_Seder_table_setting.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/A_Seder_table_setting.jpg/300px-A_Seder_table_setting.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/A_Seder_table_setting.jpg/450px-A_Seder_table_setting.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/A_Seder_table_setting.jpg/600px-A_Seder_table_setting.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1906" data-file-height="1429" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Passover_Seder" title="Passover Seder">Seder</a> table setting, commemorating the Passover and Exodus</figcaption></figure> <p>For Jews, the Passover celebrates the freedom of the Israelites from captivity in Egypt, the settling of Canaan by the Israelites, and the "passing over" of the angel of death during the <a href="/wiki/Plagues_of_Egypt#10._Death_of_firstborn_son:_Ex._11:1–12:36" title="Plagues of Egypt">death of the first-born</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlack201810_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlack201810-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlack201826_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlack201826-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Passover involves a ritual meal called a <a href="/wiki/Passover_Seder" title="Passover Seder">Seder</a> during which parts of the exodus narrative are retold.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlack201819_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlack201819-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Hagaddah" class="mw-redirect" title="Hagaddah">Hagaddah</a> of the Seder it is written that every generation is obliged to remind and identify itself in terms of the Exodus. Thus the following words from the <a href="/wiki/Pesachim" title="Pesachim">Pesaḥim (10:5)</a> are recited: "In every generation a person is duty-bound to regard himself as if he personally has gone forth from Egypt."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlein1979105_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlein1979105-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>k<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because the Israelites fled Egypt in haste without time for bread to rise, the unleavened bread <a href="/wiki/Matzoh" class="mw-redirect" title="Matzoh">matzoh</a> is eaten on Passover, and homes must be cleansed of any items containing leavening agents, known as <a href="/wiki/Chametz" title="Chametz">Chametz</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlack201822–23_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlack201822–23-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Shavuot celebrates the granting of the Law to Moses on Mount Sinai; Jews are called to rededicate themselves to the covenant on this day.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlack201819_112-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlack201819-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some denominations follow Shavuot with <a href="/wiki/The_Three_Weeks" title="The Three Weeks">The Three Weeks</a>, during which the "two most heinous sins committed by the Jews in their relationship to God" are mourned: the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Calf" class="mw-redirect" title="Golden Calf">Golden Calf</a> and the doubting of God's promise by <a href="/wiki/The_Twelve_Spies" title="The Twelve Spies">the Twelve Spies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlack201819–20_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlack201819–20-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A third Jewish festival, <a href="/wiki/Sukkot" title="Sukkot">Sukkot</a>, the Festival of Booths, is associated with the Israelites living in booths after they left their previous homes in Egypt.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETigay2004106_107-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETigay2004106-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It celebrates how God provided for the Israelites while they wandered in the desert without food or shelter.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlack201820_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlack201820-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is celebrated by building a <a href="/wiki/Sukkah" title="Sukkah">sukkah</a>, a temporary shelter also called a booth or tabernacle, in which the rituals of Sukkot are performed, recalling the impermanence of the Israelites' homes during the desert wanderings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlack201860–61_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlack201860–61-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_Christianity">In Christianity</h3></div> <p>The Christian ritual of the <a href="/wiki/Eucharist" title="Eucharist">eucharist</a> and the holiday of <a href="/wiki/Easter" title="Easter">Easter</a> draw directly on the imagery of the Passover and the Exodus.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaden201980–86_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaden201980–86-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> is frequently associated with motifs of the Exodus.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraves2019548_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraves2019548-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_Mark" title="Gospel of Mark">Gospel of Mark</a> has been suggested to be a <a href="/wiki/Midrash" title="Midrash">midrash</a> on the Exodus, though the scholar <a href="/wiki/Larry_J._Perkins" title="Larry J. Perkins">Larry J. Perkins</a> thinks this unlikely.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPerkins2006114_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerkins2006114-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mark suggests that the outpouring of Jesus' blood creates a new covenant (Mark 14:24) in the same way that Moses' sacrifice of bulls had created a covenant (Exodus 24:5).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPerkins2006107_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerkins2006107-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_Matthew" title="Gospel of Matthew">Gospel of Matthew</a>, Jesus reverses the direction of the Exodus by escaping from the <a href="/wiki/Massacre_of_the_Innocents" title="Massacre of the Innocents">Massacre of the Innocents</a> committed by <a href="/wiki/Herod_the_Great" title="Herod the Great">Herod the Great</a> before himself returning from Egypt (Matt 2:13-15).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaden201953_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaden201953-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other parallels in Matthew include that he is baptized by water (Matt 3:13-17), and tested in the desert; unlike the Israelites, he is able to resist temptation (Matt. 4.1-3). The <a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_John" title="Gospel of John">Gospel of John</a> repeatedly calls Jesus the Passover lamb (John 1:29, 13:1, 19:36), something also found in <a href="/wiki/1_Peter" class="mw-redirect" title="1 Peter">1 Peter</a> (1 Pet 1:18-20), and <a href="/wiki/1_Corinthians" class="mw-redirect" title="1 Corinthians">1 Corinthians</a> (1 Cor 5:7-8). Biblical scholar Michael Graves calls <a href="/wiki/Paul_(apostle)" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul (apostle)">Paul</a>'s discussion of the exodus in 1 Corinthians 5:7-8 and his comparison of the early church in Corinth to the Israelites in the desert "[t]he two most significant NT passages touching on the exodus".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraves2019548_121-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraves2019548-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> John also refers to Jesus as manna (John 6:31-5), water flowing from a rock in the desert (John 7:37-9), and as a pillar of fire (John 8:12). Early Christians frequently interpreted actions taken in the Exodus, and sometimes the Exodus as a whole, <a href="/wiki/Typology_(theology)" title="Typology (theology)">typologically</a> to prefigure Jesus or actions of Jesus.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraves2019548–549_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraves2019548–549-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/The_Epistle_to_the_Romans" class="mw-redirect" title="The Epistle to the Romans">Romans</a> 9:17, Paul interprets the hardened heart of Pharaoh during the Plagues of Egypt as referring to the hardened hearts of the Jews who rejected Christ.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDozemanShectman2016150_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDozemanShectman2016150-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early Christian authors such as <a href="/wiki/Justin_Martyr" title="Justin Martyr">Justin Martyr</a>, <a href="/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Irenaeus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Augustine" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustine">Augustine</a> all emphasized the <a href="/wiki/Supersession" class="mw-redirect" title="Supersession">supersession</a> of the Old Covenant of Moses by the New Covenant of Christ, which was open to all people rather than limited to the Jews.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDozemanShectman2016160_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDozemanShectman2016160-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_Islam">In Islam</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Moses_in_Islam" title="Moses in Islam">Moses in Islam</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <span class="anonymous-show"><span class="plainlinks"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AThe_Exodus&preload=Template%3ASubmit+an+edit+request%2Fpreload&action=edit&section=new&editintro=Template%3AEdit+protected%2Feditintro&preloadtitle=Protected+edit+request+on+14+February+2025&preloadparams%5B%5D=edit+fully-protected&preloadparams%5B%5D=The+Exodus">making an edit request</a></span></span><span class="user-show"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Exodus&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a> </span>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2024</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The story of the Exodus is also recounted in the <a href="/wiki/Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a>, in which Moses is one of the most prominent <a href="/wiki/Prophets_and_messengers_in_Islam" title="Prophets and messengers in Islam">prophets and messengers</a>. He is the mentioned 136 times, the most of any individual in the <a href="/wiki/Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a>, with and his life being narrated and recounted more than that of any other <a href="/wiki/Prophet" title="Prophet">prophet</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Keeler_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Keeler-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="As_historical_inspiration">As historical inspiration</h3></div> <p>A number of historical events and situations have been compared to the Exodus. Many early American settlers interpreted their flight from Europe to a new life in America as a new exodus. American "founding fathers" <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a> recommended for the <a href="/wiki/Great_Seal_of_the_United_States" title="Great Seal of the United States">Great Seal of the United States</a> to depict Moses leading the Israelites across the Red Sea. African Americans suffering under slavery and racial oppression interpreted their situation in terms of the Exodus, making it a catalyst for social change.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETigay2004107_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETigay2004107-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssmann2018335_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssmann2018335-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoomber2012123_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoomber2012123-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> South American <a href="/wiki/Liberation_theology" title="Liberation theology">Liberation theology</a> also takes much inspiration from the Exodus.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaden2019xiv_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaden2019xiv-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg/32px-Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg/48px-Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg/64px-Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1993" data-file-height="1300" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Bible" title="Portal:Bible">Bible portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/24px-Star_of_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="24" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/36px-Star_of_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/48px-Star_of_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="693" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Judaism" title="Portal:Judaism">Judaism portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Joshua" title="Book of Joshua">Book of Joshua</a>, the continuation of the narrative in the conquest of Canaan</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ipuwer_Papyrus" title="Ipuwer Papyrus">Ipuwer Papyrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_based_on_the_Bible#Moses_(Exodus_-_Deuteronomy)" title="List of films based on the Bible">List of films related to the Exodus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_in_Islam" title="Moses in Islam">Moses in Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stations_of_the_Exodus" title="Stations of the Exodus">Stations of the Exodus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Va%27eira" title="Va'eira">Va'eira</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bo_(parashah)" title="Bo (parashah)">Bo (parashah)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Beshalach" title="Beshalach">Beshalach</a>: <a href="/wiki/Parsha" class="mw-redirect" title="Parsha">Torah portions (<i>parashot</i>)</a> telling the Exodus story</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Exodus_Decoded" title="The Exodus Decoded">The Exodus Decoded</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The name "exodus" is from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> ἔξοδος <i>exodos</i>, "going out",</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The term <i><a href="/wiki/Myth" title="Myth">myth</a></i> is used here in its academic sense, meaning "a traditional story consisting of events that are ostensibly historical, though often supernatural, explaining the origins of a cultural practice or natural phenomenon." It is <i>not</i> being used to mean "something that is false".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A "store city" or "supply city" was a city used to store provisions and garrison an important campaign route.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssmann201894_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssmann201894-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Septuagint" title="Septuagint">Septuagint</a> version includes a reference to a third "supply city" built by the Hebrews: " On, which is <a href="/wiki/Heliopolis_(ancient_Egypt)" title="Heliopolis (ancient Egypt)">Heliopolis</a>" (LXX Exodus 1:11, trans. Larry J. Perkins<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPietersmaWright2014_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPietersmaWright2014-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDozemanShectman2016139_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDozemanShectman2016139-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">These magicians are referred to in the Hebrew text as <span title="Hebrew-language text"><i lang="he">ḥartummîm</i></span>, which derives from <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Ancient Egyptian</a> <span title="Ancient Egyptian-language text"><i lang="egy">ḥrj-tp</i></span> (<a href="/wiki/Demotic_(Egyptian)" title="Demotic (Egyptian)">Demotic</a> <span title="Ancient Egyptian-language text"><i lang="egy">p-hritob</i></span>, <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a>: <i lang="akk">ḥar-tibi</i>) a title meaning "chief" and shortened from "chief lector priest".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssmann2018139_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssmann2018139-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Pharaoh's magicians are able to replicate Moses and Aaron's actions until the third plague (gnats), when they are the first to recognize that a divine power is at work (Exodus 8:19). In plague four (festering boils), they themselves are afflicted and no longer contest with Moses and Aaron.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssmann2018139–142_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssmann2018139–142-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The biblical text has its own inner logic and consistency, largely divorced from the concerns of secular history. [...] conversely, the Bible, never intended to function primarily as a historical document, cannot meet modern canons of historical accuracy and reliability. There is, in fact, remarkably little of proven or provable historical worth or reliability in the biblical Exodus narrative, and no reliable independent witnesses attest to the historicity or date of the Exodus events."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERedmount200187_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERedmount200187-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">It must be stated, however, that while there is no consensus on the identity of the <a href="/wiki/Land_of_Goshen" title="Land of Goshen">Land of Goshen</a>, some proposals for its original location have been advanced.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBietak2022153–154_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBietak2022153–154-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"While there is a consensus among scholars that the Exodus did not take place in the manner described in the Bible, surprisingly most scholars agree that the narrative has a historical core, and that some of the highland settlers came, one way or another, from Egypt..." "Archaeology does not really contribute to the debate over the historicity or even historical background of the Exodus itself, but if there was indeed such a group, it contributed the Exodus story to that of all Israel. While I agree that it is most likely that there was such a group, I must stress that this is based on an overall understanding of the development of collective memory and of the authorship of the texts (and their editorial process). Archaeology, unfortunately, cannot directly contribute (yet?) to the study of this specific group of Israel's ancestors."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaust2015476_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaust2015476-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Micah 6:4–5 ("I brought you up out of Egypt and redeemed you from the land of slavery; I sent Moses to lead you, also Aaron and Miriam. My people, remember what Balak king of Moab plotted and what Balaam son of Beor answered. Remember your journey from Shittim to Gilgal, that you may know the righteous acts of the Lord") is a late addition to the original book. See <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemche1985315_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemche1985315-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMiller_II2013" class="citation book cs1">Miller II, Robert D. (25 November 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bXZfAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA19"><i>Illuminating Moses: A History of Reception from Exodus to the Renaissance</i></a>. BRILL. p. 19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-25854-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-25854-9"><bdi>978-90-04-25854-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Illuminating+Moses%3A+A+History+of+Reception+from+Exodus+to+the+Renaissance&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2013-11-25&rft.isbn=978-90-04-25854-9&rft.aulast=Miller+II&rft.aufirst=Robert+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbXZfAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcDermott2002" class="citation book cs1">McDermott, John J. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Dkr7rVd3hAQC&pg=PA90"><i>Reading the Pentateuch: A Historical Introduction</i></a>. Paulist Press. p. 90. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8091-4082-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8091-4082-4"><bdi>978-0-8091-4082-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reading+the+Pentateuch%3A+A+Historical+Introduction&rft.pages=90&rft.pub=Paulist+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8091-4082-4&rft.aulast=McDermott&rft.aufirst=John+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDkr7rVd3hAQC%26pg%3DPA90&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcKenzie2005" class="citation book cs1">McKenzie, Steven L. (2005). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/howtoreadbiblehi00mcke_0"><i>How to Read the Bible: History, Prophecy, Literature - Why Modern Readers Need to Know the Difference and What It Means for Faith Today</i></a></span>. Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/howtoreadbiblehi00mcke_0/page/78">78</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-803655-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-803655-5"><bdi>978-0-19-803655-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+to+Read+the+Bible%3A+History%2C+Prophecy%2C+Literature+-+Why+Modern+Readers+Need+to+Know+the+Difference+and+What+It+Means+for+Faith+Today&rft.pages=78&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-803655-5&rft.aulast=McKenzie&rft.aufirst=Steven+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhowtoreadbiblehi00mcke_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollins2018" class="citation book cs1">Collins, John J. (15 April 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ju49DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA354"><i>Introduction to the Hebrew Bible: Third Edition</i></a>. Augsburg Fortress, Publishers. p. 354. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5064-4605-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5064-4605-9"><bdi>978-1-5064-4605-9</bdi></a>. <q>Many scholars assume that the appeal to the exodus here is the work of a Deuteronomistic editor, but that is not necessarily so.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+the+Hebrew+Bible%3A+Third+Edition&rft.pages=354&rft.pub=Augsburg+Fortress%2C+Publishers&rft.date=2018-04-15&rft.isbn=978-1-5064-4605-9&rft.aulast=Collins&rft.aufirst=John+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJu49DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA354&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span> and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolff1990" class="citation book cs1">Wolff, Hans Walter (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m-nlsvSZomcC"><i>Micah: A Commentary</i></a>. Augsburg. p. 23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8066-2449-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8066-2449-5"><bdi>978-0-8066-2449-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Micah%3A+A+Commentary&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=Augsburg&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-8066-2449-5&rft.aulast=Wolff&rft.aufirst=Hans+Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dm-nlsvSZomcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span> apud <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamborg2012" class="citation book cs1">Hamborg, Graham R. (24 May 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=86OoAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA156"><i>Still Selling the Righteous: A Redaction-critical Investigation of Reasons for Judgment in Amos 2.6-16</i></a>. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. <span class="nowrap">156–</span>157. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-567-04860-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-567-04860-8"><bdi>978-0-567-04860-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Still+Selling+the+Righteous%3A+A+Redaction-critical+Investigation+of+Reasons+for+Judgment+in+Amos+2.6-16&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E156-%3C%2Fspan%3E157&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2012-05-24&rft.isbn=978-0-567-04860-8&rft.aulast=Hamborg&rft.aufirst=Graham+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D86OoAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA156&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> However, the date of composition of the Song of the Sea - ostensibly celebrating the victory at the <a href="/wiki/Yam_Suph" title="Yam Suph">Reed Sea</a> - ranges from an early mid-12th century BCE period through <a href="/wiki/Return_to_Zion" title="Return to Zion">post-exilic times</a>, down to as late as 350 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell200796_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell200796-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECross1997124_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECross1997124-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrenner20121–20,_15,_19_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrenner20121–20,_15,_19-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"[Hezekiah] broke in pieces the bronze serpent that Moses had made, for until those days the people of Israel had made offerings to it; it was called Nehushtan" (2 Kings 18:4).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"In every generation a person is duty-bound to regard himself as if he personally has gone forth from Egypt, since it is said 'And you shall tell your son in that day saying, it is because of that which the Lord did for me when I came forth out of Egypt." —Exodus 13:8<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeusner200575_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeusner200575-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETigay2004-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETigay2004_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTigay2004">Tigay 2004</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaden2019xiv-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaden2019xiv_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaden2019xiv_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaden2019">Baden 2019</a>, p. xiv.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrabbe201736-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrabbe201736_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrabbe201736_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrabbe201736_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGrabbe2017">Grabbe 2017</a>, p. 36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyers20056–7-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeyers20056–7_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMeyers2005">Meyers 2005</a>, pp. 6–7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMooreKelle201181-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMooreKelle201181_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMooreKelle201181_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMooreKelle2011">Moore & Kelle 2011</a>, p. 81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grabbe2017-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Grabbe2017_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sources for 'most scholars' or 'consensus':<div><ul><li><a href="#CITEREFGrabbe2017">Grabbe 2017</a>, p. 36: "The impression one has now is that the debate has settled down. Although they do not seem to admit it, the minimalists have triumphed in many ways. That is, most scholars reject the historicity of the 'patriarchal period', see the settlement as mostly made up of indigenous inhabitants of Canaan and are cautious about the early monarchy. The exodus is rejected or assumed to be based on an event much different from the biblical account. On the other hand, there is not the widespread rejection of the biblical text as a historical source that one finds among the main minimalists. There are few, if any, maximalists (defined as those who accept the biblical text unless it can be absolutely disproved) in mainstream scholarship, only on the more fundamentalist fringes."</li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerzog1999" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ze%27ev_Herzog" title="Ze'ev Herzog">Herzog, Ze'ev</a> (29 October 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20011110114548/http://lib1.library.cornell.edu/colldev/mideast/jerques.htm">"Deconstructing the walls of Jericho"</a>. <i>lib1.library.cornell.edu</i>. <a href="/wiki/Ha%27aretz" class="mw-redirect" title="Ha'aretz">Ha'aretz</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lib1.library.cornell.edu/colldev/mideast/jerques.htm">the original</a> on 10 November 2001<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 February</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=lib1.library.cornell.edu&rft.atitle=Deconstructing+the+walls+of+Jericho&rft.date=1999-10-29&rft.aulast=Herzog&rft.aufirst=Ze%27ev&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flib1.library.cornell.edu%2Fcolldev%2Fmideast%2Fjerques.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenbergSperling2007" class="citation book cs1">Greenberg, Moshe; Sperling, S. David (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/bible/old-testament/exodus">"Exodus, Book of."</a>. In Skolnik, Fred; Berenbaum, Michael; Thomson Gale (Firm) (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalog.hathitrust.org/api/volumes/oclc/70174939.html"><i>Encyclopaedia Judaica</i></a>. Vol. 6 (2nd ed.). pp. <span class="nowrap">612–</span>623. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-866097-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-866097-4"><bdi>978-0-02-866097-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/123527471">123527471</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 November</span> 2019</span>. <q>Current scholarly consensus based on archaeology holds the enslavement and exodus traditions to be unhistorical.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Exodus%2C+Book+of.&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Judaica&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E612-%3C%2Fspan%3E623&rft.edition=2nd&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F123527471&rft.isbn=978-0-02-866097-4&rft.aulast=Greenberg&rft.aufirst=Moshe&rft.au=Sperling%2C+S.+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Fphilosophy-and-religion%2Fbible%2Fold-testament%2Fexodus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPfoh2010" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Pfoh, Emanuel (September–December 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.24201%2Feaa.v45i3.1995">"UNA DECONSTRUCCIÓN DEL PASADO DE ISRAEL EN EL ANTIGUO ORIENTE: HACIA UNA NUEVA HISTORIA DE LA ANTIGUA PALESTINA"</a>. <i>Estudios de Asia y África</i> (in Spanish). <b>45</b> (3 (143)). Ciudad de México: El Colegio De Mexico: <span class="nowrap">669–</span>697. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.24201%2Feaa.v45i3.1995">10.24201/eaa.v45i3.1995</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0185-0164">0185-0164</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/i25822397">i25822397</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161105175">161105175</a>. <q>Históricamente, no podemos hablar más de un periodo de los Patriarcas, del Éxodo de los israelitas de Egipto, de la conquista de Canaán, de un periodo de los Jueces en Palestina, ni de una Monarquía Unida dominando desde el Éufrates hasta el Arco de Egipto.<sup>31</sup> Incluso la historicidad del Exilio de los israelitas de Palestina hacia Babilonia como un evento único ha sido puesta en seria duda recientemente.<sup>32</sup></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Estudios+de+Asia+y+%C3%81frica&rft.atitle=UNA+DECONSTRUCCI%C3%93N+DEL+PASADO+DE+ISRAEL+EN+EL+ANTIGUO+ORIENTE%3A+HACIA+UNA+NUEVA+HISTORIA+DE+LA+ANTIGUA+PALESTINA&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=3+%28143%29&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E669-%3C%2Fspan%3E697&rft.date=2010-09%2F2010-12&rft.issn=0185-0164&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161105175%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fi25822397%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.24201%2Feaa.v45i3.1995&rft.aulast=Pfoh&rft.aufirst=Emanuel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.24201%252Feaa.v45i3.1995&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaust2015476-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaust2015476_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaust2015476_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaust2015476_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaust2015476_9-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaust2015476_9-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaust2015476_9-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFaust2015">Faust 2015</a>, p. 476.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERedmount200187-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERedmount200187_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERedmount200187_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERedmount200187_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERedmount200187_10-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRedmount2001">Redmount 2001</a>, p. 87.</span> </li> <li 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href="#CITEREFAssmann2009">Assmann 2009</a>, pp. 29, 34–35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDroge1996131-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDroge1996131_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDroge1996">Droge 1996</a>, p. 131.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssmann200934-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssmann200934_98-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssmann200934_98-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssmann200934_98-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAssmann2009">Assmann 2009</a>, p. 34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDroge1996134–35-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDroge1996134–35_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDroge1996">Droge 1996</a>, pp. 134–35.</span> </li> <li 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href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETigay2004106_107-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTigay2004">Tigay 2004</a>, p. 106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESarason201553-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESarason201553_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSarason2015">Sarason 2015</a>, p. 53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENelson201543-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENelson201543_109-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNelson2015">Nelson 2015</a>, p. 43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlack201810-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlack201810_110-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlack2018">Black 2018</a>, p. 10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlack201826-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 January</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Third+Way+%28magazine%29&rft.pages=18&rft.date=1996-05&rft.aulast=Ltd&rft.aufirst=Hymns+Ancient+Modern&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Du20z-dBo6SIC%26pg%3DPA18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Keeler-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Keeler_129-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Annabel Keeler, "Moses from a Muslim Perspective", in: Solomon, Norman; Harries, Richard; Winter, Tim (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9A4JZ8CSJJwC&pg=PA55"><i>Abraham's Muslims in conversation</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160429081221/https://books.google.com/books?id=9A4JZ8CSJJwC&pg=PA55">Archived</a> 29 April 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, T&T Clark Publ. (2005), pp. 55–66.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETigay2004107-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETigay2004107_130-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTigay2004">Tigay 2004</a>, p. 107.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssmann2018335-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssmann2018335_131-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAssmann2018">Assmann 2018</a>, p. 335.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoomber2012123-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoomber2012123_132-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoomber2012">Coomber 2012</a>, p. 123.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAssmann2018" class="citation book cs1">Assmann, Jan (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K7s7DwAAQBAJ"><i>The Invention of Religion: Faith and Covenant in the Book of Exodus</i></a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-8923-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-8923-5"><bdi>978-1-4008-8923-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Invention+of+Religion%3A+Faith+and+Covenant+in+the+Book+of+Exodus&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-4008-8923-5&rft.aulast=Assmann&rft.aufirst=Jan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DK7s7DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAssmann2009" class="citation book cs1">Assmann, Jan (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IjUiie30Z9cC&pg=PA34"><i>Moses the Egyptian: The Memory of Egypt</i></a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02030-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02030-6"><bdi>978-0-674-02030-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Moses+the+Egyptian%3A+The+Memory+of+Egypt&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-674-02030-6&rft.aulast=Assmann&rft.aufirst=Jan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIjUiie30Z9cC%26pg%3DPA34&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAssmann2003" class="citation book cs1">Assmann, Jan (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XEMadfTi_U4C&q=Osarsiph&pg=PA227"><i>The mind of Egypt: history and meaning in the time of the Pharaohs</i></a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01211-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01211-0"><bdi>978-0-674-01211-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+mind+of+Egypt%3A+history+and+meaning+in+the+time+of+the+Pharaohs&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-674-01211-0&rft.aulast=Assmann&rft.aufirst=Jan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXEMadfTi_U4C%26q%3DOsarsiph%26pg%3DPA227&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaden2019" class="citation book cs1">Baden, Joel S. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ofp1DwAAQBAJ&q=Baden+Exodus+Biography"><i>The Book of Exodus: A Biography</i></a>. Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-16954-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-16954-5"><bdi>978-0-691-16954-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Book+of+Exodus%3A+A+Biography&rft.place=Princeton+and+Oxford&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-691-16954-5&rft.aulast=Baden&rft.aufirst=Joel+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOfp1DwAAQBAJ%26q%3DBaden%2BExodus%2BBiography&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBandstra2008" class="citation book cs1">Bandstra, Barry L. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vRY9mTUZKJcC"><i>Reading the Old Testament: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible</i></a>. Cengage Learning. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-495-39105-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-495-39105-0"><bdi>978-0-495-39105-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reading+the+Old+Testament%3A+Introduction+to+the+Hebrew+Bible&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-495-39105-0&rft.aulast=Bandstra&rft.aufirst=Barry+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvRY9mTUZKJcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarmash2015b" class="citation book cs1">Barmash, Pamela (2015b). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jKYlCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1">"Out of the Mists of History: The Exaltation of the Exodus in the Bible"</a>. In Barmash, Pamela; Nelson, W. David (eds.). <i>Exodus in the Jewish Experience: Echoes and Reverberations</i>. Lexington Books. pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4985-0293-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4985-0293-1"><bdi>978-1-4985-0293-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Out+of+the+Mists+of+History%3A+The+Exaltation+of+the+Exodus+in+the+Bible&rft.btitle=Exodus+in+the+Jewish+Experience%3A+Echoes+and+Reverberations&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E22&rft.pub=Lexington+Books&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-4985-0293-1&rft.aulast=Barmash&rft.aufirst=Pamela&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjKYlCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBartusch2003" class="citation book cs1">Bartusch, Mark W. (2003). <i>Understanding Dan: An Exegetical Study of a Biblical City, Tribe, and Ancestor</i>. Sheffield Academic Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+Dan%3A+An+Exegetical+Study+of+a+Biblical+City%2C+Tribe%2C+and+Ancestor&rft.pub=Sheffield+Academic+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Bartusch&rft.aufirst=Mark+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBietak2022" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Bietak, Manfred (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/72332757">"Ägypten und der Exodus: Ein altes Thema, ein neuer Ansatz"</a>. In Wimmer, S. J.; Zwickel, W. (eds.). <i>Ägypten und Altes Testament</i> (in German). Vol. 100. Zaphon. pp. <span class="nowrap">151–</span>180. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-96327-062-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-96327-062-8"><bdi>978-3-96327-062-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%C3%84gypten+und+der+Exodus%3A+Ein+altes+Thema%2C+ein+neuer+Ansatz&rft.btitle=%C3%84gypten+und+Altes+Testament&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E151-%3C%2Fspan%3E180&rft.pub=Zaphon&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-3-96327-062-8&rft.aulast=Bietak&rft.aufirst=Manfred&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F72332757&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlack2018" class="citation book cs1">Black, Kathy; et al. (2018). "The Jewish Year". <i>Rhythms of Religious Ritual: The Yearly Cycles of Jews, Christians, and Muslims</i>. Vol. 1. Claremont Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">9–</span>74. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctvwrm4gj.6">10.2307/j.ctvwrm4gj.6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-946230-15-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-946230-15-7"><bdi>978-1-946230-15-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvwrm4gj.6">j.ctvwrm4gj.6</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:160440464">160440464</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Jewish+Year&rft.btitle=Rhythms+of+Religious+Ritual%3A+The+Yearly+Cycles+of+Jews%2C+Christians%2C+and+Muslims&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E9-%3C%2Fspan%3E74&rft.pub=Claremont+Press&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2Fj.ctvwrm4gj.6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A160440464%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctvwrm4gj.6%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-1-946230-15-7&rft.aulast=Black&rft.aufirst=Kathy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrenner2012" class="citation book cs1">Brenner, Martin L. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uR8enYHZrdAC&pg=PA5"><i>The Song of the Sea: Ex 15:1 – 21</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Walter_de_Gruyter" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter de Gruyter">Walter de Gruyter</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-110-86722-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-110-86722-0"><bdi>978-3-110-86722-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Song+of+the+Sea%3A+Ex+15%3A1+%E2%80%93+21&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-3-110-86722-0&rft.aulast=Brenner&rft.aufirst=Martin+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuR8enYHZrdAC%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollins2005" class="citation book cs1">Collins, John J. (2005). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bibleafterbabelh0000coll"><i>The Bible After Babel: Historical Criticism in a Postmodern Age</i></a></span>. Eerdmans. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bibleafterbabelh0000coll/page/45">45</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-2892-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-2892-7"><bdi>978-0-8028-2892-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bible+After+Babel%3A+Historical+Criticism+in+a+Postmodern+Age&rft.pages=45&rft.pub=Eerdmans&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-2892-7&rft.aulast=Collins&rft.aufirst=John+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbibleafterbabelh0000coll&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoomber2012" class="citation book cs1">Coomber, Matthew J.M. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4ouHdse1m5IC&q=%22the+story+of+the+Hebrew+exodus+played+a+significant+role+in+African+American+history%22&pg=PA123">"Before Crossing the Jordan"</a>. In Brenner, Athalya; Yee, Gale A. (eds.). <i>Exodus and Deuteronomy</i>. Fortress Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4514-0819-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4514-0819-5"><bdi>978-1-4514-0819-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Before+Crossing+the+Jordan&rft.btitle=Exodus+and+Deuteronomy&rft.pub=Fortress+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-4514-0819-5&rft.aulast=Coomber&rft.aufirst=Matthew+J.M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4ouHdse1m5IC%26q%3D%2522the%2Bstory%2Bof%2Bthe%2BHebrew%2Bexodus%2Bplayed%2Ba%2Bsignificant%2Brole%2Bin%2BAfrican%2BAmerican%2Bhistory%2522%26pg%3DPA123&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies2004" class="citation book cs1">Davies, Graham (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yM_X2yzRLx4C&pg=PA23">"Was There an Exodus?"</a>. In Day, John (ed.). <i>In Search of Pre-exilic Israel: Proceedings of the Oxford Old Testament Seminar</i>. Continuum. pp. <span class="nowrap">23–</span>40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-567-08206-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-567-08206-0"><bdi>978-0-567-08206-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Was+There+an+Exodus%3F&rft.btitle=In+Search+of+Pre-exilic+Israel%3A+Proceedings+of+the+Oxford+Old+Testament+Seminar&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E23-%3C%2Fspan%3E40&rft.pub=Continuum&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-567-08206-0&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Graham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyM_X2yzRLx4C%26pg%3DPA23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies2015" class="citation book cs1">Davies, Philip R. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HJIzCgAAQBAJ&q=%22an+accurate+account+of+the+emergence+of+Israel%22&pg=PA51"><i>In Search of 'Ancient Israel': A Study in Biblical Origins</i></a>. Bloomsbury Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-567-66299-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-567-66299-6"><bdi>978-0-567-66299-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Search+of+%27Ancient+Israel%27%3A+A+Study+in+Biblical+Origins&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-567-66299-6&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Philip+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHJIzCgAAQBAJ%26q%3D%2522an%2Baccurate%2Baccount%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bemergence%2Bof%2BIsrael%2522%26pg%3DPA51&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDever2001" class="citation book cs1">Dever, William (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6-VxwC5rQtwC"><i>What Did the Biblical Writers Know, and When Did They Know It?</i></a>. Eerdmans. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-2126-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-2126-3"><bdi>978-0-8028-2126-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Did+the+Biblical+Writers+Know%2C+and+When+Did+They+Know+It%3F&rft.pub=Eerdmans&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-2126-3&rft.aulast=Dever&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6-VxwC5rQtwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDever2003" class="citation book cs1">Dever, William (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A_ByXkpofAgC"><i>Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come From?</i></a>. Eerdmans. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-4416-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-4416-3"><bdi>978-0-8028-4416-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Who+Were+the+Early+Israelites+and+Where+Did+They+Come+From%3F&rft.pub=Eerdmans&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-4416-3&rft.aulast=Dever&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DA_ByXkpofAgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDijkstra2006" class="citation book cs1">Dijkstra, Meindert (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wXqZoJrA0kAC&q=Exodus+interpretation+Dijkstra&pg=PA17">"Moses, the Man of God"</a>. In Roukema, Riemer; Peerbolte, Bert Jan Lietaert; <a href="/wiki/Cees_Houtman" title="Cees Houtman">Houtman, Cees</a> (eds.). <i>The interpretation of Exodus studies in honour of Cornelis Houtman</i>. Leuven: Peeters. pp. <span class="nowrap">17–</span>26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-429-1806-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-429-1806-1"><bdi>978-90-429-1806-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Moses%2C+the+Man+of+God&rft.btitle=The+interpretation+of+Exodus+studies+in+honour+of+Cornelis+Houtman&rft.place=Leuven&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E17-%3C%2Fspan%3E26&rft.pub=Peeters&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-90-429-1806-1&rft.aulast=Dijkstra&rft.aufirst=Meindert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwXqZoJrA0kAC%26q%3DExodus%2Binterpretation%2BDijkstra%26pg%3DPA17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDouglas1993" class="citation journal cs1">Douglas, Mary (1993). "The Glorious Book of Numbers". <i>Jewish Studies Quarterly</i>. <b>1</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">193–</span>216. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40753099">40753099</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Jewish+Studies+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+Glorious+Book+of+Numbers&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E193-%3C%2Fspan%3E216&rft.date=1993&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40753099%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Douglas&rft.aufirst=Mary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDroge1996" class="citation book cs1">Droge, Arthur J. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MpZwfMmH0n8C&pg=PR3">"Josephus Between Greeks and Barbarians"</a>. In Feldman, L.H.; Levison, J.R. (eds.). <i>Josephus' Contra Apion</i>. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-10325-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-10325-2"><bdi>978-90-04-10325-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Josephus+Between+Greeks+and+Barbarians&rft.btitle=Josephus%27+Contra+Apion&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-90-04-10325-2&rft.aulast=Droge&rft.aufirst=Arthur+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMpZwfMmH0n8C%26pg%3DPR3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDozemanShectman2016" class="citation book cs1">Dozeman, Thomas B.; Shectman, Sarah (2016). "Exodus". In Yee, Gale A.; Page, Hugh R. Jr.; Coomber, Matthew J. M. (eds.). <i>The Pentateuch: Fortress Commentary on the Bible Study Edition</i>. Fortress Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">137–</span>178. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctt1b3t6qt.11">10.2307/j.ctt1b3t6qt.11</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5064-1442-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5064-1442-3"><bdi>978-1-5064-1442-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1b3t6qt.11">j.ctt1b3t6qt.11</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Exodus&rft.btitle=The+Pentateuch%3A+Fortress+Commentary+on+the+Bible+Study+Edition&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E137-%3C%2Fspan%3E178&rft.pub=Fortress+Press&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctt1b3t6qt.11%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2Fj.ctt1b3t6qt.11&rft.isbn=978-1-5064-1442-3&rft.aulast=Dozeman&rft.aufirst=Thomas+B.&rft.au=Shectman%2C+Sarah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEskenazi2009" class="citation book cs1">Eskenazi, Tamara Cohn (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E-XeBAAAQBAJ&q=%22Frei%27s+influential+theory+has+been+essentially+and+effectively+deconstructed%22&pg=PA86">"From Exile and Restoration to Exile and Reconstruction"</a>. In Grabbe, Lester L.; Knoppers, Gary N. (eds.). <i>Exile and Restoration Revisited: Essays on the Babylonian and Persian Periods</i>. Bloomsbury. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-567-46567-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-567-46567-2"><bdi>978-0-567-46567-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=From+Exile+and+Restoration+to+Exile+and+Reconstruction&rft.btitle=Exile+and+Restoration+Revisited%3A+Essays+on+the+Babylonian+and+Persian+Periods&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-567-46567-2&rft.aulast=Eskenazi&rft.aufirst=Tamara+Cohn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DE-XeBAAAQBAJ%26q%3D%2522Frei%2527s%2Binfluential%2Btheory%2Bhas%2Bbeen%2Bessentially%2Band%2Beffectively%2Bdeconstructed%2522%26pg%3DPA86&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaust2015" class="citation book cs1">Faust, Avraham (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/11906343">"The Emergence of Iron Age Israel: On Origins and Habitus"</a>. In Thomas E. Levy; Thomas Schneider; William H.C. Propp (eds.). <i>Israel's Exodus in Transdisciplinary Perspective: Text, Archaeology, Culture, and Geoscience</i>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-04768-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-04768-3"><bdi>978-3-319-04768-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Emergence+of+Iron+Age+Israel%3A+On+Origins+and+Habitus&rft.btitle=Israel%27s+Exodus+in+Transdisciplinary+Perspective%3A+Text%2C+Archaeology%2C+Culture%2C+and+Geoscience&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-3-319-04768-3&rft.aulast=Faust&rft.aufirst=Avraham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F11906343&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeldman1998" class="citation book cs1">Feldman, Louis H. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=S349d-yRgCIC&pg=PA342"><i>Josephus's Interpretation of the Bible</i></a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20853-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20853-7"><bdi>978-0-520-20853-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Josephus%27s+Interpretation+of+the+Bible&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-520-20853-7&rft.aulast=Feldman&rft.aufirst=Louis+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DS349d-yRgCIC%26pg%3DPA342&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinkelstein2015" class="citation book cs1">Finkelstein, Israel (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/30803366">"The Wilderness Narrative and Itineraries and the Evolution of the Exodus Tradition"</a>. In Levy, Thomas E.; Schneider, Thomas; Propp, William H. C. (eds.). <i>Israel's Exodus in Transdisciplinary Perspective: Text, Archaeology, Culture, and Geoscience</i>. Springer. pp. <span class="nowrap">39–</span>54. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-04768-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-04768-3"><bdi>978-3-319-04768-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Wilderness+Narrative+and+Itineraries+and+the+Evolution+of+the+Exodus+Tradition&rft.btitle=Israel%27s+Exodus+in+Transdisciplinary+Perspective%3A+Text%2C+Archaeology%2C+Culture%2C+and+Geoscience&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E39-%3C%2Fspan%3E54&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-3-319-04768-3&rft.aulast=Finkelstein&rft.aufirst=Israel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F30803366&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGmirkin2006" class="citation book cs1">Gmirkin, Russell E. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=noKI6AsqnhMC"><i>Berossus and Genesis, Manetho and Exodus: Hellenistic Histories and The Date of the Pentateuch</i></a>. T & T Clark International. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-567-02592-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-567-02592-0"><bdi>978-0-567-02592-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Berossus+and+Genesis%2C+Manetho+and+Exodus%3A+Hellenistic+Histories+and+The+Date+of+the+Pentateuch&rft.pub=T+%26+T+Clark+International&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-567-02592-0&rft.aulast=Gmirkin&rft.aufirst=Russell+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnoKI6AsqnhMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrabbe2014" class="citation book cs1">Grabbe, Lester (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TmGeBQAAQBAJ&q=%22primarily+Amos+and+Hosea%22%22middle+of+the+eighth+century%22&pg=PA61">"Exodus and History"</a>. In Dozeman, Thomas; Evans, Craig A.; Lohr, Joel N. (eds.). <i>The Book of Exodus: Composition, Reception, and Interpretation</i>. BRILL. pp. <span class="nowrap">61–</span>87. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-28266-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-28266-7"><bdi>978-90-04-28266-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Exodus+and+History&rft.btitle=The+Book+of+Exodus%3A+Composition%2C+Reception%2C+and+Interpretation&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E61-%3C%2Fspan%3E87&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-90-04-28266-7&rft.aulast=Grabbe&rft.aufirst=Lester&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTmGeBQAAQBAJ%26q%3D%2522primarily%2BAmos%2Band%2BHosea%2522%2522middle%2Bof%2Bthe%2Beighth%2Bcentury%2522%26pg%3DPA61&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrabbe2017" class="citation book cs1">Grabbe, Lester (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4lzyDQAAQBAJ"><i>Ancient Israel: What Do We Know and How Do We Know It?</i></a>. Bloomsbury. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-567-67043-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-567-67043-4"><bdi>978-0-567-67043-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Israel%3A+What+Do+We+Know+and+How+Do+We+Know+It%3F&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-567-67043-4&rft.aulast=Grabbe&rft.aufirst=Lester&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4lzyDQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraves2019" class="citation book cs1">Graves, Michael (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jguXDwAAQBAJ&q=Exodus%20Christian">"Exodus"</a>. In Blouwers, Paul M.; Martens, Peter W. (eds.). <i>The Oxford Handbook of Early Christian Biblical Interpretation</i>. Oxford University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">547–</span>560. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-102820-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-102820-5"><bdi>978-0-19-102820-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Exodus&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Early+Christian+Biblical+Interpretation&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E547-%3C%2Fspan%3E560&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-19-102820-5&rft.aulast=Graves&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjguXDwAAQBAJ%26q%3DExodus%2520Christian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGruen2016" class="citation book cs1">Gruen, Erich S. (2016). "The Use and Abuse of the Exodus Story". <i>The Construct of Identity in Hellenistic Judaism: Essays on Early Jewish Literature and History</i>. de Gruyter. pp. <span class="nowrap">197–</span>228. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvbkjxph.14">j.ctvbkjxph.14</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Use+and+Abuse+of+the+Exodus+Story&rft.btitle=The+Construct+of+Identity+in+Hellenistic+Judaism%3A+Essays+on+Early+Jewish+Literature+and+History&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E197-%3C%2Fspan%3E228&rft.pub=de+Gruyter&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctvbkjxph.14%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Gruen&rft.aufirst=Erich+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlein1979" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Klein" title="Isaac Klein">Klein, Isaac</a> (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Dstt4jyJGqwC&pg=PA105"><i>A Guide to Jewish Religious Practice</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/KTAV_Publishing_House" class="mw-redirect" title="KTAV Publishing House">KTAV Publishing House</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-873-34004-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-873-34004-5"><bdi>978-0-873-34004-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Guide+to+Jewish+Religious+Practice&rft.pub=KTAV+Publishing+House&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-873-34004-5&rft.aulast=Klein&rft.aufirst=Isaac&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDstt4jyJGqwC%26pg%3DPA105&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLemche1985" class="citation book cs1">Lemche, Niels Peter (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=crA3AAAAIAAJ"><i>Early Israel: Anthropological and Historical studies</i></a>. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-07853-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-07853-6"><bdi>978-90-04-07853-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Israel%3A+Anthropological+and+Historical+studies&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-90-04-07853-6&rft.aulast=Lemche&rft.aufirst=Niels+Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcrA3AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeyers2005" class="citation book cs1">Meyers, Carol (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0QHHITXsyskC&pg=PA5"><i>Exodus</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-00291-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-00291-2"><bdi>978-0-521-00291-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Exodus&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-521-00291-2&rft.aulast=Meyers&rft.aufirst=Carol&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0QHHITXsyskC%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCross1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Frank_Moore_Cross" title="Frank Moore Cross">Cross, Frank Moore</a> (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-eOycxXAoHMC&pg=PA121"><i>Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-09176-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-09176-4"><bdi>978-0-674-09176-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Canaanite+Myth+and+Hebrew+Epic&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-674-09176-4&rft.aulast=Cross&rft.aufirst=Frank+Moore&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-eOycxXAoHMC%26pg%3DPA121&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMooreKelle2011" class="citation book cs1">Moore, Megan Bishop; Kelle, Brad E. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Qjkz_8EMoaUC&pg=PA81"><i>Biblical History and Israel's Past: The Changing Study of the Bible and History</i></a>. Eerdmans. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-6260-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-6260-0"><bdi>978-0-8028-6260-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biblical+History+and+Israel%27s+Past%3A+The+Changing+Study+of+the+Bible+and+History&rft.pub=Eerdmans&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-6260-0&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=Megan+Bishop&rft.au=Kelle%2C+Brad+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQjkz_8EMoaUC%26pg%3DPA81&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNelson2015" class="citation book cs1">Nelson, W. David (2015). "Discontinuity and Dissonance: Torah, Textuality, and Early Rabbinic Hermeneutics of Exodus". In Barmash, Pamela; Nelson, W. David (eds.). <i>Exodus in the Jewish Experience: Echoes and Reverberations</i>. Lexington Books. pp. <span class="nowrap">23–</span>51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4985-0293-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4985-0293-1"><bdi>978-1-4985-0293-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Discontinuity+and+Dissonance%3A+Torah%2C+Textuality%2C+and+Early+Rabbinic+Hermeneutics+of+Exodus&rft.btitle=Exodus+in+the+Jewish+Experience%3A+Echoes+and+Reverberations&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E23-%3C%2Fspan%3E51&rft.pub=Lexington+Books&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-4985-0293-1&rft.aulast=Nelson&rft.aufirst=W.+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNa'aman2011" class="citation journal cs1">Na'aman, Nadav (2011). "The Exodus Story: Between Historical Memory and Historiographical Composition". <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Journal_of_Ancient_Near_Eastern_Religions&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Journal of Ancient Near Eastern Religions (page does not exist)">Journal of Ancient Near Eastern Religions</a></i>. <b>11</b>: <span class="nowrap">39–</span>69. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F156921211X579579">10.1163/156921211X579579</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Ancient+Near+Eastern+Religions&rft.atitle=The+Exodus+Story%3A+Between+Historical+Memory+and+Historiographical+Composition&rft.volume=11&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E39-%3C%2Fspan%3E69&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F156921211X579579&rft.aulast=Na%27aman&rft.aufirst=Nadav&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeusner2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Neusner" title="Jacob Neusner">Neusner, Jacob</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_-VE6Ymf1mIC&pg=PA75"><i>The Talmud: Law, Theology, Narrative : a Sourcebook</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/University_Press_of_America" title="University Press of America">University Press of America</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-761-83115-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-761-83115-0"><bdi>978-0-761-83115-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Talmud%3A+Law%2C+Theology%2C+Narrative+%3A+a+Sourcebook&rft.pub=University+Press+of+America&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-761-83115-0&rft.aulast=Neusner&rft.aufirst=Jacob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_-VE6Ymf1mIC%26pg%3DPA75&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerkins2006" class="citation book cs1">Perkins, Larry (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8tneBAAAQBAJ&dq=Exodus+gospels&pg=PA115">"Kingdom, Messianic Authority, and the Re-Constituting of God's People: Tracing the Function of Exodus Material in Mark's Narrative"</a>. In Hatina, Thomas R. (ed.). <i>Biblical Interpretation in Early Christian Gospels, volume 1: The Gospel of Mark</i>. T & T Clark. pp. <span class="nowrap">100–</span>115. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-567-38142-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-567-38142-2"><bdi>978-0-567-38142-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Kingdom%2C+Messianic+Authority%2C+and+the+Re-Constituting+of+God%27s+People%3A+Tracing+the+Function+of+Exodus+Material+in+Mark%27s+Narrative&rft.btitle=Biblical+Interpretation+in+Early+Christian+Gospels%2C+volume+1%3A+The+Gospel+of+Mark&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E100-%3C%2Fspan%3E115&rft.pub=T+%26+T+Clark&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-567-38142-2&rft.aulast=Perkins&rft.aufirst=Larry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8tneBAAAQBAJ%26dq%3DExodus%2Bgospels%26pg%3DPA115&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPietersmaWright2014" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Albert_Pietersma" title="Albert Pietersma">Pietersma, Albert</a>; Wright, Benjamin, eds. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/nets/edition/">"New English Translation of the Septuagint: Electronic Version"</a>. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=New+English+Translation+of+the+Septuagint%3A+Electronic+Version&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fccat.sas.upenn.edu%2Fnets%2Fedition%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRedford1992" class="citation book cs1">Redford, Donald B. (1992). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/egyptcanaanisrae1992redf"><i>Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times</i></a></span>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-03606-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-03606-9"><bdi>978-0-691-03606-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Egypt%2C+Canaan%2C+and+Israel+in+Ancient+Times&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-691-03606-9&rft.aulast=Redford&rft.aufirst=Donald+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fegyptcanaanisrae1992redf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRedmount2001" class="citation book cs1">Redmount, Carol A. (2001) [1998]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4DVHJRFW3mYC&q=%22The+exodus+saga+in+the+bible%22&pg=PA59">"Bitter Lives: Israel In And Out of Egypt"</a>. In Coogan, Michael D. (ed.). <i>The Oxford History of the Biblical World</i>. Oxford University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">58–</span>89. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-988148-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-988148-2"><bdi>978-0-19-988148-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Bitter+Lives%3A+Israel+In+And+Out+of+Egypt&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+History+of+the+Biblical+World&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E58-%3C%2Fspan%3E89&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-988148-2&rft.aulast=Redmount&rft.aufirst=Carol+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4DVHJRFW3mYC%26q%3D%2522The%2Bexodus%2Bsaga%2Bin%2Bthe%2Bbible%2522%26pg%3DPA59&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRomer2008" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Romer, Thomas (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201021035437/http://www.jhsonline.org/Articles/article_92.pdf">"Moses Outside the Torah and the Construction of a Diaspora Identity"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Hebrew_Scriptures" title="Journal of Hebrew Scriptures">Journal of Hebrew Scriptures</a></i>. 8, article 15: <span class="nowrap">2–</span>12. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jhsonline.org/Articles/article_92.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2020-10-21<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-08-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Hebrew+Scriptures&rft.atitle=Moses+Outside+the+Torah+and+the+Construction+of+a+Diaspora+Identity&rft.volume=8%2C+article+15&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2-%3C%2Fspan%3E12&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Romer&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jhsonline.org%2FArticles%2Farticle_92.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell2007" class="citation book cs1">Russell, Brian D. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dZjKrzgO3TAC&pg=PA97"><i>The Song of the Sea: The Date of Composition and Influence of Exodus 15:1-21</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Peter_Lang_(publisher)" title="Peter Lang (publisher)">Peter Lang</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-820-48809-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-820-48809-7"><bdi>978-0-820-48809-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Song+of+the+Sea%3A+The+Date+of+Composition+and+Influence+of+Exodus+15%3A1-21&rft.pub=Peter+Lang&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-820-48809-7&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Brian+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdZjKrzgO3TAC%26pg%3DPA97&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell2009" class="citation book cs1">Russell, Stephen C. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OMISLh2ZC08C"><i>Images of Egypt in Early Biblical Literature</i></a>. Walter de Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-022171-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-022171-8"><bdi>978-3-11-022171-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Images+of+Egypt+in+Early+Biblical+Literature&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-3-11-022171-8&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Stephen+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOMISLh2ZC08C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSarason2015" class="citation book cs1">Sarason, Richard S. (2015). "The Past as Paradigm:Enactments of the Exodus Motif in Jewish Liturgy". In Barmash, Pamela; Nelson, W. David (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jKYlCgAAQBAJ&q=%22Enactments+of+the+Exodus+Motif+in+Jewish+Liturgy%22"><i>Exodus in the Jewish Experience: Echoes and Reverberations</i></a>. Lexington. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4985-0293-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4985-0293-1"><bdi>978-1-4985-0293-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Past+as+Paradigm%3AEnactments+of+the+Exodus+Motif+in+Jewish+Liturgy&rft.btitle=Exodus+in+the+Jewish+Experience%3A+Echoes+and+Reverberations&rft.pub=Lexington&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-4985-0293-1&rft.aulast=Sarason&rft.aufirst=Richard+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjKYlCgAAQBAJ%26q%3D%2522Enactments%2Bof%2Bthe%2BExodus%2BMotif%2Bin%2BJewish%2BLiturgy%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShaw2002" class="citation book cs1">Shaw, Ian (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zmvNogJO2ZgC&pg=PA313">"Israel, Israelites"</a>. In Shaw, Ian; Jameson, Robert (eds.). <i>A Dictionary of Archaeology</i>. Wiley Blackwell. p. 313. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-23583-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-23583-5"><bdi>978-0-631-23583-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Israel%2C+Israelites&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Archaeology&rft.pages=313&rft.pub=Wiley+Blackwell&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-631-23583-5&rft.aulast=Shaw&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzmvNogJO2ZgC%26pg%3DPA313&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSka2006" class="citation book cs1">Ska, Jean Louis (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7cdy67ZvzdkC"><i>Introduction to Reading the Pentateuch</i></a>. Eisenbrauns. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-122-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-122-1"><bdi>978-1-57506-122-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Reading+the+Pentateuch&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-57506-122-1&rft.aulast=Ska&rft.aufirst=Jean+Louis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7cdy67ZvzdkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSparks2010" class="citation book cs1">Sparks, Kenton L. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CiqF7sVqDQcC&pg=PA73">"Genre Criticism"</a>. In Dozeman, Thomas B. (ed.). <i>Methods for Exodus</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-48738-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-48738-2"><bdi>978-1-139-48738-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Genre+Criticism&rft.btitle=Methods+for+Exodus&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-139-48738-2&rft.aulast=Sparks&rft.aufirst=Kenton+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCiqF7sVqDQcC%26pg%3DPA73&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTigay2004" class="citation book cs1">Tigay, Jeffrey H. (2004). "Exodus". In Berlin, Adele; Brettler, Marc Zvi (eds.). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195297515"><i>The Jewish Study Bible</i></a></span>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-529751-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-529751-5"><bdi>978-0-19-529751-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Exodus&rft.btitle=The+Jewish+Study+Bible&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-19-529751-5&rft.aulast=Tigay&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780195297515&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFViviano2019" class="citation book cs1">Viviano, Pauline (2019). "Do the Books of Hosea and Jeremiah Know of a Sinai/Horeb Golden Calf Story". In Mason, Eric F.; Lupieri, Edmondo F. (eds.). <i>Golden Calf Traditions in Early Judaism, Christianity, and Islam</i>. Brill. pp. <span class="nowrap">36–</span>48.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Do+the+Books+of+Hosea+and+Jeremiah+Know+of+a+Sinai%2FHoreb+Golden+Calf+Story&rft.btitle=Golden+Calf+Traditions+in+Early+Judaism%2C+Christianity%2C+and+Islam&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E36-%3C%2Fspan%3E48&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Viviano&rft.aufirst=Pauline&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Exodus" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output 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li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <b>The Exodus</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects">sister projects</span></a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Exodus" class="extiw" title="wikt:Exodus">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Departure_of_the_Israelites" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Departure of the Israelites">Media</a> from Commons</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Exodus,_The" class="extiw" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Exodus, The">Texts</a> from Wikisource</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/27px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/41px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/54px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/The_Exodus_of_Moses" class="extiw" title="voy:The Exodus of Moses">Travel information</a> from Wikivoyage</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/27px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/41px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/54px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1290338" class="extiw" title="d:Q1290338">Data</a> from Wikidata</span></li></ul></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1250146164"><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <b>Exodus</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects">sister projects</span></a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Exodus" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/Exodus">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:Search/Exodus" class="extiw" title="c:Special:Search/Exodus">Media</a> from Commons</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/27px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/41px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/54px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Special:Search/Exodus" class="extiw" title="n:Special:Search/Exodus">News</a> from Wikinews</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Exodus" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Exodus">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" 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class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/Exodus" class="extiw" title="b:Special:Search/Exodus">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/41px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/54px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:Search/Exodus" class="extiw" title="v:Special:Search/Exodus">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</span></li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" 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.navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Book_of_Exodus222" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-weight:normal;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Book_of_Exodus_navbox" title="Template:Book of Exodus navbox"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Book_of_Exodus_navbox" title="Template talk:Book of Exodus navbox"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Book_of_Exodus_navbox" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Book of Exodus navbox"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Book_of_Exodus222" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Exodus" title="Book of Exodus">Book of Exodus</a></b></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chapters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shemot_(parashah)" title="Shemot (parashah)">1–6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Va%27eira" title="Va'eira">6–9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bo_(parashah)" title="Bo (parashah)">10–13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beshalach" title="Beshalach">13–17</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yitro" title="Yitro">18–20</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishpatim" title="Mishpatim">21–24</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terumah_(parashah)" title="Terumah (parashah)">25–27</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetzaveh" title="Tetzaveh">27–30</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ki_Tissa" title="Ki Tissa">30–34</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vayakhel" title="Vayakhel">35–38</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pekudei" title="Pekudei">38–40</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron" title="Aaron">Aaron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bezalel" title="Bezalel">Bezalel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliezer#The_son_of_Moses" title="Eliezer">Eliezer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elim_(place)" title="Elim (place)">Elim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gershom" title="Gershom">Gershom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jethro_(biblical_figure)" title="Jethro (biblical figure)">Jethro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Priest_of_Israel" title="High Priest of Israel">High Priest of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ithamar" title="Ithamar">Ithamar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marah_(Bible)" title="Marah (Bible)">Marah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miriam" title="Miriam">Miriam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadab_and_Abihu" title="Nadab and Abihu">Nadab and Abihu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oholiab" title="Oholiab">Oholiab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharaohs_in_the_Bible" title="Pharaohs in the Bible">Pharaoh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharaoh%27s_daughter_(Exodus)" title="Pharaoh's daughter (Exodus)">Pharaoh's daughter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiphrah_and_Puah" title="Shiphrah and Puah">Shiphrah and Puah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zipporah" title="Zipporah">Zipporah</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Objects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aaron%27s_rod" title="Aaron's rod">Aaron's rod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ark_of_bulrushes" title="Ark of bulrushes">Ark of bulrushes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ark_of_the_Covenant" title="Ark of the Covenant">Ark of the Covenant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asherah_pole" title="Asherah pole">Asherah pole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_laver" title="Bronze laver">Bronze laver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burning_bush" title="Burning bush">Burning bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_calf" title="Golden calf">Golden calf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incense_offering" title="Incense offering">Incense offering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manna" title="Manna">Manna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercy_seat" title="Mercy seat">Mercy seat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pillars_of_fire_and_cloud" title="Pillars of fire and cloud">Pillars of fire and cloud</a></li> <li>Priestly clothing <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Priestly_breastplate" title="Priestly breastplate">breastplate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priestly_golden_head_plate" title="Priestly golden head plate">golden head plate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priestly_robe_(Judaism)" title="Priestly robe (Judaism)">robe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priestly_sash" title="Priestly sash">sash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priestly_tunic" title="Priestly tunic">tunic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priestly_turban" title="Priestly turban">turban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priestly_undergarments" title="Priestly undergarments">undergarments</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Showbread" title="Showbread">Showbread</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staff_of_Moses" title="Staff of Moses">Staff of Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabernacle" title="Tabernacle">Tabernacle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tefillin" title="Tefillin">Tefillin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_menorah" title="Temple menorah">Temple menorah</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Egypt" title="Biblical Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massah_and_Meribah" title="Massah and Meribah">Massah and Meribah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Horeb" title="Mount Horeb">Mount Horeb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Sinai_(Bible)" title="Mount Sinai (Bible)">Mount Sinai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stations_of_the_Exodus" title="Stations of the Exodus">Stations of the Exodus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pi-HaHiroth" title="Pi-HaHiroth">Pi-HaHiroth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pi-Ramesses" title="Pi-Ramesses">Pi-Ramesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Refidim" title="Battle of Refidim">Battle of Refidim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shur_(Bible)" title="Shur (Bible)">Shur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilderness_of_Sin" title="Wilderness of Sin">Wilderness of Sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yam_Suph" title="Yam Suph">Yam Suph (Reed Sea)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Weekly_Torah_portion" title="Weekly Torah portion">Torah readings</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shemot_(parashah)" title="Shemot (parashah)">Shemot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Va%27eira" title="Va'eira">Va'eira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bo_(parashah)" title="Bo (parashah)">Bo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beshalach" title="Beshalach">Beshalach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yitro" title="Yitro">Yitro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishpatim" title="Mishpatim">Mishpatim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terumah_(parashah)" title="Terumah (parashah)">Terumah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetzaveh" title="Tetzaveh">Tetzaveh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ki_Tissa" title="Ki Tissa">Ki Tissa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vayakhel" title="Vayakhel">Vayakhel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pekudei" title="Pekudei">Pekudei</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Priestly_source" title="Priestly source">Priestly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jahwist" title="Jahwist">Jahwist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elohist" title="Elohist">Elohist</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Textual analysis</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sources_and_parallels_of_the_Exodus" title="Sources and parallels of the Exodus">Sources and parallels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textual_variants_in_the_Book_of_Exodus" title="Textual variants in the Book of Exodus">Textual variations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Covenant_Code" title="Covenant Code">Covenant Code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodus_Rabbah" title="Exodus Rabbah">Exodus Rabbah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mekhilta_of_Rabbi_Ishmael" title="Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael">Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mekhilta_of_Rabbi_Shimon_ben_Yochai" title="Mekhilta of Rabbi Shimon ben Yochai">Mekhilta of Rabbi Shimon ben Yochai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song_of_the_Sea" title="Song of the Sea">Song of the Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodus_narrative_in_Antebellum_America" title="Exodus narrative in Antebellum America">In Antebellum America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Manuscripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nash_Papyrus" title="Nash Papyrus">Nash Papyrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_18" title="Papyrus 18">Papyrus 18</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Phrases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/I_Am_that_I_Am" title="I Am that I Am">I Am that I Am</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baal-zephon" title="Baal-zephon">Baal-zephon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Shaddai" title="El Shaddai">El Shaddai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eye_for_an_eye" title="Eye for an eye">Eye for an eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remember_the_sabbath_day,_to_keep_it_holy" title="Remember the sabbath day, to keep it holy">Remember the sabbath day, to keep it holy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/With_a_strong_hand_and_an_outstretched_arm" title="With a strong hand and an outstretched arm">With a strong hand and an outstretched arm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">The Exodus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plagues_of_Egypt" title="Plagues of Egypt">Plagues of Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Commandments" title="Ten Commandments">Ten Commandments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zipporah_at_the_inn" title="Zipporah at the inn">Zipporah at the inn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Passover75" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Passover_footer" title="Template:Passover footer"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Passover_footer" title="Template talk:Passover footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Passover_footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Passover footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Passover75" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Passover" title="Passover">Passover</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Passover_Seder" title="Passover Seder">Seder</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afikoman" title="Afikoman">Afikoman</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">The Exodus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ha_Lachma_Anya" title="Ha Lachma Anya">Ha Lachma Anya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_Nishtana" title="Ma Nishtana">Ma Nishtana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/With_a_strong_hand_and_an_outstretched_arm" title="With a strong hand and an outstretched arm">"Outstretched Arm"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plagues_of_Egypt" title="Plagues of Egypt">Ten Plagues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_House_Passover_Seder" title="White House Passover Seder">White House Passover Seder</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Plate30" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Passover_Seder_plate" title="Passover Seder plate">Plate</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Passover_Seder_plate#Beitzah" title="Passover Seder plate">Beitzah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passover_Seder_plate#Charoset" title="Passover Seder plate">Charoset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passover_Seder_plate#Karpas" title="Passover Seder plate">Karpas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passover_Seder_plate#Maror_and_Chazeret" title="Passover Seder plate">Maror and Chazeret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passover_Seder_plate#Zeroah" title="Passover Seder plate">Zeroah</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Haggadah" title="Haggadah">Haggadah</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Passover_songs" title="Passover songs">Songs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adir_Hu" title="Adir Hu">Adir Hu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chad_Gadya" title="Chad Gadya">Chad Gadya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayenu" title="Dayenu">Dayenu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Echad_Mi_Yodea" title="Echad Mi Yodea">Echad Mi Yodea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%27Shana_Haba%27ah" title="L'Shana Haba'ah">L'Shana Haba'ah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vehi_Sheamda" title="Vehi Sheamda">Vehi Sheamda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Illustrations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amsterdam_Haggadah" title="Amsterdam Haggadah">Amsterdam Haggadah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birds%27_Head_Haggadah" title="Birds' Head Haggadah">Birds' Head Haggadah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxwell_House_Haggadah" title="Maxwell House Haggadah">Maxwell House Haggadah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarajevo_Haggadah" title="Sarajevo Haggadah">Sarajevo Haggadah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Szyk_Haggadah" title="Szyk Haggadah">Szyk Haggadah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_Haggadah" title="Washington Haggadah">Washington Haggadah</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Passover" title="Passover">Foods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Matzah" title="Matzah">Matzah</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em">Dishes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chremslach" title="Chremslach">Chremslach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matzah_ball" title="Matzah ball">Matzah ball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matzah_brei" title="Matzah brei">Matzah brei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matzo_lasagna" title="Matzo lasagna">Matzo lasagna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matzah_meal" class="mw-redirect" title="Matzah meal">Matzah meal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matzah_pizza" title="Matzah pizza">Matzah pizza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matzoquiles" title="Matzoquiles">Matzoquiles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em">Companies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Streit%27s" title="Streit's">Streit's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manischewitz" title="Manischewitz">Manischewitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etablissements_Ren%C3%A9_Neymann" title="Etablissements René Neymann">René Neymann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yehuda_Matzos" title="Yehuda Matzos">Yehuda Matzos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rakusen%27s" title="Rakusen's">Rakusen's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osem_(company)" title="Osem (company)">Osem</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Main courses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brisket_(Jewish_dish)" title="Brisket (Jewish dish)">Brisket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamb_and_mutton" title="Lamb and mutton">Lamb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potato_kugel" title="Potato kugel">Potato kugel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Desserts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kichel" title="Kichel">Egg kichel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flourless_chocolate_cake" title="Flourless chocolate cake">Flourless chocolate cake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadji_bada" title="Hadji bada">Hadji bada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macaroon" title="Macaroon">Macaroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marunchinos" title="Marunchinos">Marunchinos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meringue" title="Meringue">Meringue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religious</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Observances</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bedikat_Chametz" title="Bedikat Chametz">Bedikat Chametz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fast_of_the_Firstborn" title="Fast of the Firstborn">Fast of the Firstborn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eve_of_Passover_on_Shabbat" title="Eve of Passover on Shabbat">Eve of Passover on Shabbat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passover_sacrifice" title="Passover sacrifice">Passover sacrifice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chol_HaMoed" title="Chol HaMoed">Chol HaMoed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimouna" title="Mimouna">Mimouna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isru_Chag" class="mw-redirect" title="Isru Chag">Isru Chag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pesach_Sheni" title="Pesach Sheni">Pesach Sheni</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Laws/customs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chametz" title="Chametz">Chametz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dough_offering#The_Mitzvah_in_modern_practice" title="Dough offering">Challah from Shmurah Matzah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitniyot" title="Kitniyot">Kitniyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gebrochts" title="Gebrochts">Gebrochts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Prayers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Song_of_Songs" title="Song of Songs">Song of Songs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yom_Tov_Torah_readings#Passover" title="Yom Tov Torah readings">Torah readings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_for_dew" class="mw-redirect" title="Prayer for dew">Prayer for dew</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ten_Commandments121" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ten_Commandments" title="Template:Ten Commandments"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ten_Commandments" title="Template talk:Ten Commandments"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ten_Commandments" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ten Commandments"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ten_Commandments121" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ten_Commandments" title="Ten Commandments">Ten Commandments</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Tablets_of_Stone" title="Tablets of Stone">Tablets of Stone</a> · <a href="/wiki/Finger_of_God" title="Finger of God">Finger of God</a> · <a href="/wiki/Ritual_Decalogue" title="Ritual Decalogue">Ritual Decalogue</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Commandments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/I_am_the_Lord_thy_God" title="I am the Lord thy God">I am the Lord thy God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thou_shalt_have_no_other_gods_before_me" title="Thou shalt have no other gods before me">Thou shalt have no other gods before me</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thou_shalt_not_make_unto_thee_any_graven_image" title="Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image">Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thou_shalt_not_take_the_name_of_the_Lord_thy_God_in_vain" title="Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain">Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remember_the_sabbath_day,_to_keep_it_holy" title="Remember the sabbath day, to keep it holy">Remember the sabbath day, to keep it holy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour_thy_father_and_thy_mother" title="Honour thy father and thy mother">Honour thy father and thy mother</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thou_shalt_not_kill" title="Thou shalt not kill">Thou shalt not kill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thou_shalt_not_commit_adultery" title="Thou shalt not commit adultery">Thou shalt not commit adultery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thou_shalt_not_steal" title="Thou shalt not steal">Thou shalt not steal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thou_shalt_not_bear_false_witness_against_thy_neighbour" title="Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbour">Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thou_shalt_not_covet" title="Thou shalt not covet">Thou shalt not covet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Sinai_(Bible)" title="Mount Sinai (Bible)">Biblical Mount Sinai</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Sinai" title="Mount Sinai">Mount Sinai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Horeb" title="Mount Horeb">Mount Horeb</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ark_of_the_Covenant" title="Ark of the Covenant">Ark of the Covenant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mercy_seat" title="Mercy seat">lid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Exodus" title="Book of Exodus">Book of Exodus</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">The Exodus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In art</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Descent_from_Mount_Sinai_(Sistine_Chapel)" title="Descent from Mount Sinai (Sistine Chapel)"><i>Descent from Mount Sinai</i> (Sistine Chapel, 1481-1482 painting)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_(Michelangelo)" title="Moses (Michelangelo)"><i>Moses</i> (c. 1513–1515 sculpture)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_and_his_Ethiopian_wife_Zipporah" title="Moses and his Ethiopian wife Zipporah"><i>Moses and his Ethiopian wife Zipporah</i> (c. 1645-1650 painting)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_Breaking_the_Tablets_of_the_Law" title="Moses Breaking the Tablets of the Law"><i>Moses Breaking the Tablets of the Law</i> (1659 painting)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Total_Abstinence_Union_Fountain" title="Catholic Total Abstinence Union Fountain">Catholic Total Abstinence Union Fountain</a></i> (1876)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Moses_(University_of_Notre_Dame)" title="Statue of Moses (University of Notre Dame)"><i>Moses</i> (1962 sculpture)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_(1968)" title="Moses (1968)"><i>Moses</i> (1968 sculptures</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moses_(3/3)" title="Moses (3/3)">3/3</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Media</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Ten_Commandments_(1923_film)" title="The Ten Commandments (1923 film)"><i>The Ten Commandments</i> (1923 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Ten_Commandments_(1956_film)" title="The Ten Commandments (1956 film)"><i>The Ten Commandments</i> (1956 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Les_Dix_Commandements_(musical)" title="Les Dix Commandements (musical)"><i>Les Dix Commandements</i> (2000 musical)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Ten_Commandments:_The_Musical" title="The Ten Commandments: The Musical"><i>The Ten Commandments</i> (2004 musical)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Ten_Commandments_(miniseries)" title="The Ten Commandments (miniseries)"><i>The Ten Commandments</i> (2006 miniseries)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Ten_(film)" title="The Ten (film)"><i>The Ten</i> (2007 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Ten_Commandments_(2007_film)" title="The Ten Commandments (2007 film)"><i>The Ten Commandments</i> (2007 film) </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I_Am_(2010_American_drama_film)" title="I Am (2010 American drama film)"><i>I Am</i> (2010 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Ten_Commandments:_The_Movie" title="The Ten Commandments: The Movie"><i>The Ten Commandments</i> (2016 film)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joshua" title="Joshua">Joshua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Commandments_in_Catholic_theology" title="Ten Commandments in Catholic theology">In Catholic theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabot" title="Tabot">Tabot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternatives_to_the_Ten_Commandments" title="Alternatives to the Ten Commandments">Alternatives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/613_commandments" title="613 commandments">613 commandments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Laws_of_Noah" title="Seven Laws of Noah">Seven Laws of Noah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commandment" title="Great Commandment">Great Commandment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Rule" title="Golden Rule">Golden Rule</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_the_Bible" title="Ethics in the Bible">Ethics in the Bible</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox681" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" 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