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class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Origins subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Origins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Urnfield-Hallstatt_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Urnfield-Hallstatt_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Urnfield-Hallstatt theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Urnfield-Hallstatt_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-'Celtic_from_the_West'_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#'Celtic_from_the_West'_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>'Celtic from the West' theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-'Celtic_from_the_West'_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-'Celtic_from_the_Centre'_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#'Celtic_from_the_Centre'_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>'Celtic from the Centre' theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-'Celtic_from_the_Centre'_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Linguistic_evidence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Linguistic_evidence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Linguistic evidence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Linguistic_evidence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetic_evidence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetic_evidence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Genetic evidence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetic_evidence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Archaeological_evidence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Archaeological_evidence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Archaeological evidence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Archaeological_evidence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical_evidence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_evidence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Historical evidence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_evidence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Distribution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distribution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Distribution</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Distribution-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Distribution subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Distribution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Continental" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Continental"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Continental</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Continental-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gaul" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gaul"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Gaul</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gaul-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iberia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iberia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Iberia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iberia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Germany,_Alps_and_Italy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Germany,_Alps_and_Italy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3</span> <span>Germany, Alps and Italy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Germany,_Alps_and_Italy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Expansion_east_and_south" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Expansion_east_and_south"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.4</span> <span>Expansion east and south</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Expansion_east_and_south-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Insular" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Insular"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Insular</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Insular-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Romanisation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Romanisation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Romanisation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Romanisation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Society</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Society-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Society subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Clothing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clothing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Clothing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clothing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trade_and_coinage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade_and_coinage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Trade and coinage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade_and_coinage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gender_and_sexual_norms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gender_and_sexual_norms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Gender and sexual norms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gender_and_sexual_norms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Celtic_art" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Celtic_art"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Celtic art</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Celtic_art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallic_calendar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallic_calendar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Gallic calendar</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallic_calendar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Warfare_and_weapons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Warfare_and_weapons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Warfare and weapons</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Warfare_and_weapons-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Warfare and weapons subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Warfare_and_weapons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Head_hunting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Head_hunting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Head hunting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Head_hunting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion_and_mythology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion_and_mythology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Religion and mythology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Religion_and_mythology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Religion and mythology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Religion_and_mythology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ancient_Celtic_religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_Celtic_religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Ancient Celtic religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_Celtic_religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Insular_Celtic_mythology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Insular_Celtic_mythology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Insular Celtic mythology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Insular_Celtic_mythology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roman_influence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman_influence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Roman influence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman_influence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Celtic_Christianity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Celtic_Christianity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Celtic Christianity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Celtic_Christianity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Genetics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Celts: Difference between revisions</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 107 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-107" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">107 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelte" title="Kelte – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Kelte" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelten" title="Kelten – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Kelten" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D9%84%D8%B7" title="قلط – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="قلط" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtas" title="Celtas – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Celtas" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celta" title="Celta – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Celta" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keltl%C9%99r" title="Keltlər – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Keltlər" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE" title="সেল্টিক সভ্যতা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সেল্টিক সভ্যতা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelt_l%C3%A2ng" title="Kelt lâng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kelt lâng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%8B" title="Кельты – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Кельты" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%8B" title="Кельты – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Кельты" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%82%D0%B8" title="Келти – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Келти" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6itn" title="Köitn – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Köitn" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelti" title="Kelti – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Kelti" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelted" title="Kelted – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Kelted" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtes" title="Celtes – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Celtes" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Кельтсем – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Кельтсем" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keltov%C3%A9" title="Keltové – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Keltové" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y_Celtiaid" title="Y Celtiaid – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Y Celtiaid" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keltere" title="Keltere – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Keltere" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelten" title="Kelten – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kelten" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keldid" title="Keldid – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Keldid" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%B5%CE%BB%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82_%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%B9%CF%84%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Κελτικός πολιτισμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κελτικός πολιτισμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%AEldg%27" title="Zîldg' – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Zîldg'" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Emiliàn e rumagnòl</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celta" title="Celta – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Celta" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keltoj" title="Keltoj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Keltoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zelta" title="Zelta – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Zelta" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7" title="سلت‌ها – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سلت‌ها" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keltar" title="Keltar – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Keltar" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtes" title="Celtes – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Celtes" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelten" title="Kelten – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Kelten" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Na_Ceiltigh" title="Na Ceiltigh – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Na Ceiltigh" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ny_Celtiee" title="Ny Celtiee – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Ny Celtiee" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceilteach" title="Ceilteach – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Ceilteach" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtas" title="Celtas – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Celtas" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%BC%88%ED%8A%B8%EC%A1%B1" title="켈트족 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="켈트족" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%A5%D5%AC%D5%BF%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Կելտեր – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կելտեր" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelti" title="Kelti – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kelti" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelti" title="Kelti – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Kelti" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelt" title="Kelt – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kelt" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keltar" title="Keltar – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Keltar" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celti" title="Celti – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Celti" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%98%D7%99%D7%9D" title="קלטים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קלטים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="კელტები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="კელტები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Кельттер – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Кельттер" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelt" title="Kelt – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Kelt" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wakelti" title="Wakelti – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Wakelti" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelt" title="Kelt – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Kelt" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Кельттер – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Кельттер" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtae" title="Celtae – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Celtae" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B6elti" title="Ķelti – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ķelti" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelten" title="Kelten – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Kelten" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Кельтар – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Кельтар" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Лезги</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keltai" title="Keltai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Keltai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelte" title="Kelte – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Kelte" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popla_celta" title="Popla celta – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Popla celta" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pupulazion_celtich" title="Pupulazion celtich – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Pupulazion celtich" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelt%C3%A1k" title="Kelták – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Kelták" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%82%D0%B8" title="Келти – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Келти" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selta_(vahoaka)" title="Selta (vahoaka) – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Selta (vahoaka)" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98" title="კელტეფი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="კელტეფი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D9%8A%D9%84%D8%AA" title="كيلت – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="كيلت" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%AA" title="سلت – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="سلت" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celt" title="Celt – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Celt" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%80%E1%80%B2%E1%80%B7%E1%80%9C%E1%80%B0%E1%80%99%E1%80%BB%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%B8" title="ကဲ့လူမျိုး – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ကဲ့လူမျိုး" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelten" title="Kelten – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Kelten" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelten" title="Kelten – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Kelten" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B1%E3%83%AB%E3%83%88%E4%BA%BA" title="ケルト人 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ケルト人" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keltere" title="Keltere – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Keltere" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keltarar" title="Keltarar – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Keltarar" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A8ltas" title="Cèltas – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Cèltas" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keltlar" title="Keltlar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Keltlar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%84%D9%B9" title="سیلٹ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="سیلٹ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheltes" title="Cheltes – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Cheltes" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Picard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtowie" title="Celtowie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Celtowie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtas" title="Celtas – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Celtas" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ksh mw-list-item"><a href="https://ksh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelte" title="Kelte – Colognian" lang="ksh" hreflang="ksh" data-title="Kelte" data-language-autonym="Ripoarisch" data-language-local-name="Colognian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ripoarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cel%C8%9Bi" title="Celți – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Celți" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celts" title="Celts – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Celts" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Rumantsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%82%D1%8B" title="Келты – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Келты" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%8B" title="Кельты – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Кельты" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelt_a_tademaw" title="Kelt a tademaw – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="Kelt a tademaw" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sakizaya</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tzeltos" title="Tzeltos – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Tzeltos" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelt%C3%ABt" title="Keltët – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Keltët" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celti" title="Celti – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Celti" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celts" title="Celts – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Celts" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelti" title="Kelti – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Kelti" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelti" title="Kelti – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kelti" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%8E%D9%84%D8%AA%DB%95%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86" title="کێلتەکان – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="کێلتەکان" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%82%D0%B8" title="Келти – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Келти" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelti" title="Kelti – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kelti" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keltit" title="Keltit – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Keltit" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelter" title="Kelter – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kelter" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mga_Selta" title="Mga Selta – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Mga Selta" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D" title="கெல்ட்டியர் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கெல்ட்டியர்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-tara mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-tara.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A8lte" title="Cèlte – Tarantino" lang="nap-x-tara" hreflang="nap-x-tara" data-title="Cèlte" data-language-autonym="Tarandíne" data-language-local-name="Tarantino" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tarandíne</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A7%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%8C" title="ชาวเคลต์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ชาวเคลต์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ti mw-list-item"><a href="https://ti.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%B0%E1%88%8D%E1%89%B2%E1%8A%AD" title="ሰልቲክ – Tigrinya" lang="ti" hreflang="ti" data-title="ሰልቲክ" data-language-autonym="ትግርኛ" data-language-local-name="Tigrinya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ትግርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keltler" title="Keltler – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Keltler" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D0%B8" title="Кельти – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Кельти" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%84%D9%B9" title="کلٹ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="کلٹ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celti" title="Celti – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Celti" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Di_Celt" title="Người Celt – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Người Celt" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keltn" title="Keltn – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Keltn" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>West-Vlams</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celta" title="Celta – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Celta" data-language-autonym="Winaray" 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colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 1:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 1:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>{{Short description|Indo-European ethnolinguistic group}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>{{Short description|Indo-European ethnolinguistic group}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-deleted"></td> <td class="diff-marker"><a class="mw-diff-movedpara-right" title="Paragraph was moved. Click to jump to old location." href="#movedpara_4_0_lhs">⚫</a></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div><a name="movedpara_1_0_rhs"></a>{{Pp|small=yes}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>{{About|the ancient and medieval peoples of Europe|Celts of the present day|Celts (modern)|other uses|Celt (disambiguation)}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>{{About|the ancient and medieval peoples of Europe|Celts of the present day|Celts (modern)|other uses|Celt (disambiguation)}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-deleted"></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"><a class="mw-diff-movedpara-left" title="Paragraph was moved. Click to jump to new location." href="#movedpara_1_0_rhs">⚫</a></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div><a name="movedpara_4_0_lhs"></a>{{Pp|small=yes}}</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div><del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}</del>{{Use British English|date=April 2022}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>{{Use British English|date=April 2022}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>[[File:Celts in Europe.png|upright=1.5|thumb|right|Distribution of Celtic peoples over time, in the traditional view:</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>[[File:Celts in Europe.png|upright=1.5|thumb|right|Distribution of Celtic peoples over time, in the traditional view:</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>{{legend-col|thumb size=narrow</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>{{legend-col|thumb size=narrow</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 12:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 13:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>}}]]</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>}}]]</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>{{Indo-European topics}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>{{Indo-European topics}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>[[File:Dying gaul.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|''[[The Dying Gaul]]'', an [[Roman sculpture|ancient Roman statue]]]]</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>[[File:Dying gaul.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|''[[The Dying Gaul]]'', an [[Roman sculpture|ancient Roman statue]]<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> at the [[Capitoline Museums]] of [[Rome]], Italy</ins>]]</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-deleted"></td> <td class="diff-marker"><a class="mw-diff-movedpara-right" title="Paragraph was moved. Click to jump to old location." href="#movedpara_10_0_lhs">⚫</a></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div><a name="movedpara_8_0_rhs"></a>The '''Celts''' ({{IPAc-en|k|ɛ|l|t|s}} {{respell|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">KELTS</ins>}}, see [[Names of the Celts#Pronunciation|pronunciation]] for different usages) or '''Celtic peoples''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ɛ|l|t|ɪ|k}} {{respell|KEL|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">tik</ins>}}) were a collection of [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European peoples]]<ref name="Indo-European">{{harvnb|Mac Cana|Dillon}}. "The Celts, an ancient Indo-European people, reached the apogee of their influence and territorial expansion during the 4th century BC, extending across the length of Europe from Britain to Asia Minor."; {{harvnb|Puhvel|Fee|Leeming|2003|p=67}}. "[T]he Celts, were Indo-Europeans, a fact that explains a certain compatibility between Celtic, Roman, and Germanic mythology."; {{harvnb|Riché|2005|p=150}}. "The Celts and Germans were two Indo-European groups whose civilizations had some common characteristics."; {{harvnb|Todd|1975|p=42}}. "Celts and Germans were of course derived from the same Indo-European stock."; {{harvnb|Encyclopedia Britannica. Celt}}. "Celt, also spelled Kelt, Latin Celta, plural Celtae, a member of an early Indo-European people who from the 2nd millennium bce to the 1st century bce spread over much of Europe."</ref> in [[Europe]] and [[Anatolia]], identified by their use of [[Celtic languages]] and other cultural similarities.<ref name="Drinkwater_Definition">{{harvnb|Drinkwater|2012|p=295}}. "Celts, a name applied by ancient writers to a population group occupying lands mainly north of the Mediterranean region from Galicia in the west to Galatia in the east. (Its application to the Welsh, the Scots, and the Irish is modern.) Their unity is recognizable by common speech and common artistic traditions.</ref><ref name="WM_Definition">{{harvnb|Waldman|Mason|2006|p=144}}. "Celts, in its modern usage, is an encompassing term referring to all Celtic-speaking peoples."</ref><ref name="EB_Definition">{{harvnb|Encyclopedia Britannica. Celt}}. "Celt, also spelled Kelt, Latin Celta, plural Celtae, a member of an early Indo-European people who from the 2nd millennium bce to the 1st century bce spread over much of Europe. Their tribes and groups eventually ranged from the British Isles and northern Spain to as far east as Transylvania, the Black Sea coasts, and Galatia in Anatolia and were in part absorbed into the Roman Empire as Britons, Gauls, Boii, Galatians, and Celtiberians. Linguistically they survive in the modern Celtic speakers of Ireland, Highland Scotland, the Isle of Man, Wales, and Brittany.</ref><ref name="Koch encyclopedia">{{cite book |last=Koch |first=John <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">T.</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|</ins>author-link=John T. Koch |title=Celtic Culture: <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">A</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Historical</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Encyclopedia</ins> |publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>ABC-CLIO<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]]</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|date</ins>=2005 |location=Santa Barbara<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">, California </ins>|page=xix–xxi |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=f899xH_quaMC&q=peoples%20and%20countries |isbn=978-1-85109-440-0 |access-date=9 June 2010 |quote=This Encyclopedia is designed for the use of everyone interested in Celtic studies and also for those interested in many related and subsidiary fields, including the individual CELTIC COUNTRIES and their languages, literatures, archaeology, folklore, and mythology. In its chronological scope, the Encyclopedia covers subjects from the HALLSTATT and LA TENE periods of the later pre-Roman Iron Age to the beginning of the 21st century.}}</ref> Major Celtic groups included the [[Gauls]]; the [[Celtiberians]] and [[Gallaeci]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Luján |first1=E. R. |title=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Pueblo</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Celtas</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">y</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">no</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Celtas</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">de</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">la</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Galicia</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">antigua:</ins>: <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Fuentes</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">literarias</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">frente</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">a</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">fuentes</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">epigráficas</ins> |journal=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">XXII</ins> seminario de lenguas y epigrafía antigua |date=2006 |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>http://www.racv.es/files/07_Lujan.pdf |archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20091225113903/http://www.racv.es/files/07_Lujan.pdf |archive-date=25<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> December 2009</ins> |url-status=live |access-date=16 July 2021}}</ref><ref>"If, as is the first criterion of this Encyclopedia, one bases the concept of 'Celticity' on language, one can apply the term 'Celtic' to ancient Galicia", {{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|editor-last=Koch<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|editor-first=John T. |title=Celtic culture: a historical encyclopedia<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://archive.org/details/celticculturehis00koch_128<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url-access=limited<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2006<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>ABC-CLIO<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]] </ins>|isbn=1-85109-440-7<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|pages=[https://archive.org/details/celticculturehis00koch_128/page/n833 790]}}</ref> of Iberia; the [[Celtic Britons|Britons]], [[Picts]], and [[Gaels]] of Britain and Ireland; the [[Boii]]; and the [[Galatians (people)|Galatians]]. The <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">interrelationships</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">of</ins> ethnicity, language and culture in the Celtic world <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">are</ins> unclear and debated;<ref name="SJames">{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last1=James |first1=Simon |title=The Atlantic Celts – Ancient People or Modern Invention<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=1999<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>University of Wisconsin Press<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]]</ins>}}</ref> for example over the ways in which the [[Iron Age Europe|Iron Age]] people of Britain and Ireland should be called Celts.<ref name="Koch encyclopedia"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/><ref name="SJames"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/><ref name="JCollis">{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last1=Collis |first1=John |title=The Celts: Origins, Myths and Inventions<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2003<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">location</ins>=Stroud <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|publisher=[[</ins>Tempus Publishing<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]]</ins> |isbn=978-0-7524-2913-7}}</ref><ref name="FPryor">{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last1=Pryor |first1=Francis |title=Britain BC<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2004<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>Harper Perennial<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]]</ins> |isbn=978-0-00-712693-4}}</ref> In current scholarship, 'Celt' primarily refers to 'speakers of Celtic languages' rather than to a single ethnic group.<ref name="Sims-Williams"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"><a class="mw-diff-movedpara-left" title="Paragraph was moved. Click to jump to new location." href="#movedpara_8_0_rhs">⚫</a></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div><a name="movedpara_10_0_lhs"></a>The '''Celts''' ({{IPAc-en|k|ɛ|l|t|s}} {{respell|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">kelts</del>}}, see [[Names of the Celts#Pronunciation|pronunciation]] for different usages) or '''Celtic peoples''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ɛ|l|t|ɪ|k}} {{respell|KEL|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">tick</del>}}) were a collection of [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European peoples]]<ref name="Indo-European">{{harvnb|Mac Cana|Dillon}}. "The Celts, an ancient Indo-European people, reached the apogee of their influence and territorial expansion during the 4th century BC, extending across the length of Europe from Britain to Asia Minor."; {{harvnb|Puhvel|Fee|Leeming|2003|p=67}}. "[T]he Celts, were Indo-Europeans, a fact that explains a certain compatibility between Celtic, Roman, and Germanic mythology."; {{harvnb|Riché|2005|p=150}}. "The Celts and Germans were two Indo-European groups whose civilizations had some common characteristics."; {{harvnb|Todd|1975|p=42}}. "Celts and Germans were of course derived from the same Indo-European stock."; {{harvnb|Encyclopedia Britannica. Celt}}. "Celt, also spelled Kelt, Latin Celta, plural Celtae, a member of an early Indo-European people who from the 2nd millennium bce to the 1st century bce spread over much of Europe."<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">;</del></ref> in [[Europe]] and [[Anatolia]], identified by their use of [[Celtic languages]] and other cultural similarities.<ref name="Drinkwater_Definition">{{harvnb|Drinkwater|2012|p=295}}. "Celts, a name applied by ancient writers to a population group occupying lands mainly north of the Mediterranean region from Galicia in the west to Galatia in the east. (Its application to the Welsh, the Scots, and the Irish is modern.) Their unity is recognizable by common speech and common artistic traditions.</ref><ref name="WM_Definition">{{harvnb|Waldman|Mason|2006|p=144}}. "Celts, in its modern usage, is an encompassing term referring to all Celtic-speaking peoples."</ref><ref name="EB_Definition">{{harvnb|Encyclopedia Britannica. Celt}}. "Celt, also spelled Kelt, Latin Celta, plural Celtae, a member of an early Indo-European people who from the 2nd millennium bce to the 1st century bce spread over much of Europe. Their tribes and groups eventually ranged from the British Isles and northern Spain to as far east as Transylvania, the Black Sea coasts, and Galatia in Anatolia and were in part absorbed into the Roman Empire as Britons, Gauls, Boii, Galatians, and Celtiberians. Linguistically they survive in the modern Celtic speakers of Ireland, Highland Scotland, the Isle of Man, Wales, and Brittany.</ref><ref name="Koch encyclopedia">{{cite book |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>last<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>Koch |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>first<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>John <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|</del> author-link<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>=John T. Koch |title<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>Celtic Culture: <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">a</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">historical</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">encyclopedia</del> |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>publisher<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>ABC-CLIO<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">| year</del> =<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>2005 |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>location<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>=Santa Barbara|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>page<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>xix–xxi |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>url<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>= https://books.google.com/books?id=f899xH_quaMC&q=peoples%20and%20countries |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>isbn<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>978-1-85109-440-0 |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>access-date<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>9 June 2010 |quote=This Encyclopedia is designed for the use of everyone interested in Celtic studies and also for those interested in many related and subsidiary fields, including the individual CELTIC COUNTRIES and their languages, literatures, archaeology, folklore, and mythology. In its chronological scope, the Encyclopedia covers subjects from the HALLSTATT and LA TENE periods of the later pre-Roman Iron Age to the beginning of the 21st century.}}</ref> Major Celtic groups included the [[Gauls]]; the [[Celtiberians]] and [[Gallaeci]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Luján |first1=E. R. |title=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">PUEBLOS</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">CELTAS</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Y</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">NO</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">CELTAS</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">DE</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">LA</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">GALICIA</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">ANTIGUA</del>: <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">FUENTES</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">LITERARIAS</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">FRENTE</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">A</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">FUENTES</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">EPIGRÁFICAS</del> |journal=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Xxii</del> seminario de lenguas y epigrafía antigua |date=2006 |url=http://www.racv.es/files/07_Lujan.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091225113903/http://www.racv.es/files/07_Lujan.pdf |archive-date=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2009-12-</del>25 |url-status=live |access-date=16 July 2021}}</ref><ref>"If, as is the first criterion of this Encyclopedia, one bases the concept of 'Celticity' on language, one can apply the term 'Celtic' to ancient Galicia", {{cite book|editor-last=Koch|editor-first=John T. |title=Celtic culture: a historical encyclopedia|url=https://archive.org/details/celticculturehis00koch_128|url-access=limited|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=2006|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=1-85109-440-7|pages=[https://archive.org/details/celticculturehis00koch_128/page/n833 790]}}</ref> of Iberia; the [[Celtic Britons|Britons]], [[Picts]], and [[Gaels]] of Britain and Ireland; the [[Boii]]; and the [[Galatians (people)|Galatians]]. The <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">relation</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">between</del> ethnicity, language and culture in the Celtic world <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">is</del> unclear and debated;<ref name="SJames">{{cite book|last1=James |first1=Simon |title=The Atlantic Celts – Ancient People or Modern Invention|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=1999|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press}}</ref> for example over the ways in which the [[Iron Age Europe|Iron Age]] people of Britain and Ireland should be called Celts.<ref name="Koch encyclopedia"/><ref name="SJames"/><ref name="JCollis">{{cite book|last1=Collis |first1=John |title=The Celts: Origins, Myths and Inventions|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=2003|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">publisher</del>=Stroud<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">:</del> Tempus Publishing |isbn<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>978-0-7524-2913-7}}</ref><ref name="FPryor">{{cite book|last1=Pryor |first1=Francis |title=Britain BC|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=2004|publisher=Harper Perennial |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>isbn<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>978-0-00-712693-4<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>}}</ref> In current scholarship, 'Celt' primarily refers to 'speakers of Celtic languages' rather than to a single ethnic group.<ref name="Sims-Williams"/></div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>[[File:Parade helmet.jpg|thumb|La Tène–style ceremonial [[Agris Helmet]], 350 BC, [[Musée d'Angoulême|Angoulême city Museum]] in France]]</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>[[File:Parade helmet.jpg|thumb|La Tène–style ceremonial [[Agris Helmet]], 350 BC, [[Musée d'Angoulême|Angoulême city Museum]] in France]]</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-deleted"></td> <td class="diff-marker"><a class="mw-diff-movedpara-right" title="Paragraph was moved. Click to jump to old location." href="#movedpara_15_0_lhs">⚫</a></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div><a name="movedpara_12_0_rhs"></a>The history of [[pre-Celtic]] Europe and Celtic origins is debated. The traditional "Celtic from the East" theory, says the [[proto-Celtic language]] arose in the late [[Bronze Age Europe|Bronze Age]] [[Urnfield culture]] of central Europe, named after grave sites in southern Germany,<ref>{{cite thesis |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">last</ins>=Louwen <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|first=</ins>A.<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>J. |date=2021 |type=PhD |publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>Leiden University<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]]</ins> |title=Breaking and making the ancestors. Piecing together the urnfield mortuary process in the Lower-Rhine-Basin, ca. 1300 – 400 BC |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://www.academia.edu/85067342 |access-date=13 January 2023 |archive-date=11 April 2023 |archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20230411091655/https://www.academia.edu/85067342 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Probst|1996|pp=258}} which flourished from around 1200 BC.<ref name=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">"</ins>ChadCorc<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">"</ins>>{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last1=Chadwick |last2=Corcoran<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first1=Nora |first2=J. X. W. P.<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=The Celts<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=1970<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>Penguin Books<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]] </ins>|pages=28–33}}</ref> This theory links the Celts with the Iron Age [[Hallstatt culture]] which followed it ({{circa|1200}}–500 BC), named for the rich grave finds in [[Hallstatt]], Austria,<ref name=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">"</ins>ChadCorc<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">" </ins>/><ref>{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|author-link=Barry Cunliffe<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">last</ins>=Cunliffe <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|first=</ins>Barry<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=The Ancient Celts<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|pages=39–67<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>Penguin Books<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]] </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=1997}}</ref> and with the following [[La Tène culture]] ({{circa|450 BC}} onward), named after the [[La Tène (archaeological site)|La Tène site]] in Switzerland. It proposes that Celtic culture spread westward and southward from these areas by [[<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Trans</ins>-cultural diffusion|diffusion]] or [[<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Human</ins> migration|migration]].<ref name=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">"</ins>koch2010_core<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">"</ins>>{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last=Koch<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first=John T<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">. </ins>|title=Celtic from the West Chapter 9: Paradigm Shift? Interpreting Tartessian as Celtic – see map 9.3 The Ancient Celtic Languages c. 440/430 BC – see third map in PDF at URL provided which is essentially the same map<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2010<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>http://www.wales.ac.uk/Resources/Documents/Research/ODonnell.pdf<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>Oxbow Books<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]]</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|location=</ins>Oxford |isbn=978-1-84217-410-4<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|page=193<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url-status=live<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20120709032557/http://www.wales.ac.uk/Resources/Documents/Research/ODonnell.pdf<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-date=9 July 2012}}</ref> A newer theory, "<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>Celtic from the West<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]]</ins>", suggests proto-Celtic arose earlier, was a ''[[lingua franca]]'' in the [[Atlantic Bronze Age]] coastal zone, and spread eastward.<ref name=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">"</ins>koch2010_expansion<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">"</ins>>{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last=Koch<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first=John T<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">. </ins>|title=Celtic from the West Chapter 9: Paradigm Shift? Interpreting Tartessian as Celtic – see map 9.2 Celtic expansion from Hallstatt/La Tene central Europe – see second map in PDF at URL provided which is essentially the same map<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2010 |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>http://www.wales.ac.uk/Resources/Documents/Research/ODonnell.pdf |publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>Oxbow Books<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]]</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|location=</ins>Oxford |isbn=978-1-84217-410-4 |page=190 |url-status=live<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20120709032557/http://www.wales.ac.uk/Resources/Documents/Research/ODonnell.pdf<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-date=9 July 2012}}</ref> Another newer theory, "Celtic from the Centre", suggests proto-Celtic arose between these two zones, in Bronze Age Gaul, then spread in various directions.<ref name="Sims-Williams">{{cite journal<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last=Sims-Williams |title=An Alternative to 'Celtic from the East' and 'Celtic from the West'<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|journal=Cambridge Archaeological Journal<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|volume=30<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|issue=3<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|pages=511–529 |doi=10.1017/S0959774320000098 |date=August 2020 |doi-access=free<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|hdl=2160/317fdc72-f7ad-4a66-8335-db8f5d911437<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|hdl-access=free}}</ref> After the [[Celtic settlement of Southeast Europe]] in the 3rd century BC, Celtic culture reached as far east as [[Central Anatolia Region|central Anatolia]], [[Turkey]].</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-deleted"></td> <td class="diff-marker"><a class="mw-diff-movedpara-right" title="Paragraph was moved. Click to jump to old location." href="#movedpara_16_1_lhs">⚫</a></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div><a name="movedpara_14_0_rhs"></a>[[File:Hochdorf Chieftain's Grave reconstruction.jpg|250px|thumb|Reconstruction of the [[Hochdorf Chieftain's Grave]], [[Stuttgart]], [[Germany]]<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">, c. 530 BC</ins>]]</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"><a class="mw-diff-movedpara-left" title="Paragraph was moved. Click to jump to new location." href="#movedpara_12_0_rhs">⚫</a></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div><a name="movedpara_15_0_lhs"></a>The history of [[pre-Celtic]] Europe and Celtic origins is debated. The traditional "Celtic from the East" theory, says the [[proto-Celtic language]] arose in the late [[Bronze Age Europe|Bronze Age]] [[Urnfield culture]] of central Europe, named after grave sites in southern Germany,<ref>{{cite thesis |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">author</del>=Louwen<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">,</del> A.J. |date=2021 |type=PhD |publisher=Leiden University |title=Breaking and making the ancestors. Piecing together the urnfield mortuary process in the Lower-Rhine-Basin, ca. 1300 – 400 BC |url=https://www.academia.edu/85067342 |access-date=13 January 2023 |archive-date=11 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411091655/https://www.academia.edu/85067342 |url-status=live<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>}}</ref>{{sfn|Probst|1996|pp=258}} which flourished from around 1200 BC.<ref name=ChadCorc>{{cite book|last1=Chadwick |last2=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>Corcoran|first1=Nora |first2=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>J. X. W. P.|title=The Celts|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=1970|publisher=Penguin Books|pages=28–33}}</ref> This theory links the Celts with the Iron Age [[Hallstatt culture]] which followed it ({{circa|1200}}–500 BC), named for the rich grave finds in [[Hallstatt]], Austria,<ref name=ChadCorc/><ref>{{cite book|author-link=Barry Cunliffe|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">author</del>=Cunliffe<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">,</del> Barry|title=The Ancient Celts|pages=39–67|publisher=Penguin Books|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=1997}}</ref> and with the following [[La Tène culture]] ({{circa|450 BC}} onward), named after the [[La Tène (archaeological site)|La Tène site]] in Switzerland. It proposes that Celtic culture spread westward and southward from these areas by [[<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">trans</del>-cultural diffusion|diffusion]] or [[<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">human</del> migration|migration]].<ref name=koch2010_core>{{cite book|last=Koch|first=John T|title=Celtic from the West Chapter 9: Paradigm Shift? Interpreting Tartessian as Celtic – see map 9.3 The Ancient Celtic Languages c. 440/430 BC – see third map in PDF at URL provided which is essentially the same map|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=2010|url=http://www.wales.ac.uk/Resources/Documents/Research/ODonnell.pdf|publisher=Oxbow Books<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">,</del> Oxford<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">,</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">UK</del>|isbn=978-1-84217-410-4|page=193|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120709032557/http://www.wales.ac.uk/Resources/Documents/Research/ODonnell.pdf|archive-date=9 July 2012}}</ref> A newer theory, "Celtic from the West", suggests proto-Celtic arose earlier, was a ''[[lingua franca]]'' in the [[Atlantic Bronze Age]] coastal zone, and spread eastward.<ref name=koch2010_expansion>{{cite book|last=Koch|first=John T|title=Celtic from the West Chapter 9: Paradigm Shift? Interpreting Tartessian as Celtic – see map 9.2 Celtic expansion from Hallstatt/La Tene central Europe – see second map in PDF at URL provided which is essentially the same map|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=2010 |url=http://www.wales.ac.uk/Resources/Documents/Research/ODonnell.pdf |publisher=Oxbow Books<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">,</del> Oxford<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">, UK</del> |isbn=978-1-84217-410-4 |page=190 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120709032557/http://www.wales.ac.uk/Resources/Documents/Research/ODonnell.pdf|archive-date=9 July 2012}}</ref> Another newer theory, "Celtic from the Centre", suggests proto-Celtic arose between these two zones, in Bronze Age Gaul, then spread in various directions.<ref name="Sims-Williams">{{cite journal|last=Sims-Williams |title=An Alternative to 'Celtic from the East' and 'Celtic from the West'|journal=Cambridge Archaeological Journal|volume=30|issue=3|pages=511–529 |doi=10.1017/S0959774320000098 |date=August 2020 |doi-access=free|hdl=2160/317fdc72-f7ad-4a66-8335-db8f5d911437|hdl-access=free}}</ref> After the [[Celtic settlement of Southeast Europe]] in the 3rd century BC, Celtic culture reached as far east as [[Central Anatolia Region|central Anatolia]], [[Turkey]].</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"><a class="mw-diff-movedpara-left" title="Paragraph was moved. Click to jump to new location." href="#movedpara_14_0_rhs">⚫</a></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div><a name="movedpara_16_1_lhs"></a>[[File:Hochdorf Chieftain's Grave reconstruction.jpg|250px|thumb|Reconstruction of the [[Hochdorf Chieftain's Grave]], [[Stuttgart]], [[Germany]]]]</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>The earliest undisputed examples of Celtic language are the [[Lepontic language|Lepontic]] inscriptions from the 6th century BC.<ref name=Stifter>{{cite book |last=Stifter |first=David |title=Old Celtic Languages |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=2008 |pages=24–37|url=http://www.univie.ac.at/indogermanistik/download/Stifter/oldcelt2008_2_lepontic.pdf |url-status=live|archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20110630102715/http://www.univie.ac.at/indogermanistik/download/Stifter/oldcelt2008_2_lepontic.pdf|archive-date=30 June 2011}}</ref> [[Continental Celtic languages]] are attested almost exclusively through inscriptions and place-names. [[Insular Celtic languages]] are attested from the 4th century AD in [[Ogham inscription]]s, though they were<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> clearly</del> being spoken much earlier. Celtic literary tradition begins with [[Old Irish]] texts around the 8th century AD. Elements of [[Celtic mythology]] are recorded in [[Early Irish literature|early Irish]] and [[Medieval Welsh literature|early Welsh]] literature. Most written evidence of the early Celts comes from [[Greco-Roman world|Greco-Roman]] writers, who often grouped the Celts as [[barbarian]] tribes. They followed an [[ancient Celtic religion]] overseen by [[druid]]s.</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>The earliest undisputed examples of Celtic language are the [[Lepontic language|Lepontic]] inscriptions from the 6th century BC.<ref name=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">"</ins>Stifter<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">"</ins>>{{cite book |last=Stifter |first=David |title=Old Celtic Languages |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2008 |pages=24–37<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>http://www.univie.ac.at/indogermanistik/download/Stifter/oldcelt2008_2_lepontic.pdf |url-status=live<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20110630102715/http://www.univie.ac.at/indogermanistik/download/Stifter/oldcelt2008_2_lepontic.pdf<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-date=30 June 2011}}</ref> [[Continental Celtic languages]] are attested almost exclusively through inscriptions and place-names. [[Insular Celtic languages]] are attested from the 4th century AD in [[Ogham inscription]]s, though they were being spoken much earlier. Celtic literary tradition begins with [[Old Irish]] texts around the 8th century AD. Elements of [[Celtic mythology]] are recorded in [[Early Irish literature|early Irish]] and [[Medieval Welsh literature|early Welsh]] literature. Most written evidence of the early Celts comes from [[Greco-Roman world|Greco-Roman]] writers, who often grouped the Celts as [[barbarian]] tribes. They followed an [[ancient Celtic religion]] overseen by [[druid]]s.</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>The Celts were often in conflict with the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], such as in the [[Roman–Gallic wars]], the [[Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula|Celtiberian Wars]], the [[Gallic Wars|conquest of Gaul]] and [[Roman conquest of Britain|conquest of Britain]]. By the 1st century AD, most Celtic territories had become part of the [[Roman Empire]]. By c. 500, due to [[Romanization (cultural)|Romanisation]] and [[Migration Period|the migration]] of [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] tribes, Celtic culture had mostly become restricted to Ireland, western and northern Britain, and [[Brittany]]. Between the 5th and 8th centuries, the Celtic-speaking communities in these Atlantic regions emerged as a reasonably cohesive cultural entity. They had a common linguistic, religious and artistic heritage that distinguished them from surrounding cultures.<ref>{{cite book|last=Cunliffe|first=Barry|author-link=Barry Cunliffe|title=The Celts – a very short introduction |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-280418-1|page=109}}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>The Celts were often in conflict with the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], such as in the [[Roman–Gallic wars]], the [[Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula|Celtiberian Wars]], the [[Gallic Wars|conquest of Gaul]] and [[Roman conquest of Britain|conquest of Britain]]. By the 1st century AD, most Celtic territories had become part of the [[Roman Empire]]. By c. 500, due to [[Romanization (cultural)|Romanisation]] and [[Migration Period|the migration]] of [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] tribes, Celtic culture had mostly become restricted to Ireland, western and northern Britain, and [[Brittany]]. Between the 5th and 8th centuries, the Celtic-speaking communities in these Atlantic regions emerged as a reasonably cohesive cultural entity. They had a common linguistic, religious and artistic heritage that distinguished them from surrounding cultures.<ref>{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last=Cunliffe<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first=Barry<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|author-link=Barry Cunliffe<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=The Celts – a very short introduction |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2003 |publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>Oxford University Press<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]] </ins>|isbn=978-0-19-280418-1<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|page=109}}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>Insular Celtic culture diversified into that of the [[Gaels]] ([[Irish people|Irish]], [[Scottish people|Scots]] and [[Manx people|Manx]]) and the [[Celtic Britons]] ([[Welsh people|Welsh]], [[Cornish people|Cornish]], and [[Bretons]]) of the medieval and modern periods.<ref name="Drinkwater_Definition"/><ref>{{cite book |last=Minahan |first=James |title=One Europe, Many Nations: A Historical Dictionary of European National Groups |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NwvoM-ZFoAgC |date=2000 |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |page=179 |isbn=978-0-313-30984-7 |quote=The [[Cornish people|Cornish]] are related to the other Celtic peoples of Europe, the [[Bretons]],<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">*</del> [[Irish people|Irish]],<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">*</del> [[Scottish people|Scots]],<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">*</del> [[Manx people|Manx]],<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">*</del> [[Welsh people|Welsh]],<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">*</del> and the [[Galicians]]<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">*</del> of northwestern Spain |access-date=11 July 2018 |archive-date=16 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116024421/https://books.google.com/books?id=NwvoM-ZFoAgC |url-status=live<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Minahan |first=James |title=One Europe, Many Nations: A Historical Dictionary of European National Groups |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NwvoM-ZFoAgC |date=2000 |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |page=766 |isbn=978-0-313-30984-7 |quote=Celts, 257, 278, 523, 533, 555, 643; [[Bretons]], 129–33; [[Cornish people|Cornish]], 178–81; [[Galicians]], 277–80; [[Irish people|Irish]], 330–37; [[Manx people|Manx]], 452–55; [[Scottish people|Scots]], 607–12; [[Welsh people|Welsh]] |access-date=11 July 2018 |archive-date=16 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116024421/https://books.google.com/books?id=NwvoM-ZFoAgC |url-status=live<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>}}</ref> A modern [[Celtic identity]]<ref name="WM_Scope">{{harvnb|Waldman|Mason|2006|p=144}}. "CELTS location: Greater Europe time period: Second millennium B.C.E. to present ancestry: Celtic</ref> was constructed as part of the Romanticist [[Celtic Revival]] in Britain, Ireland, and other European territories such as [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=McKevitt|first=Kerry Ann|title=Mythologizing Identity and History: a look at the Celtic past of Galicia|journal=E-Keltoi|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=2006|volume=6|pages=651–73|url=http://www4.uwm.edu/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_13/mckevitt_6_13.pdf|access-date=8 April 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110624075328/http://www4.uwm.edu/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_13/mckevitt_6_13.pdf|archive-date=24 June 2011}}</ref> Today, [[Irish language|Irish]], [[Scottish Gaelic]], [[Welsh language|Welsh]], and [[Breton language|Breton]] are still spoken in parts of their former territories, while [[Cornish language|Cornish]] and [[Manx language|Manx]] are undergoing a revival.</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>Insular Celtic culture diversified into that of the [[Gaels]] ([[Irish people|Irish]], [[Scottish people|Scots]] and [[Manx people|Manx]]) and the [[Celtic Britons]] ([[Welsh people|Welsh]], [[Cornish people|Cornish]], and [[Bretons]]) of the medieval and modern periods.<ref name="Drinkwater_Definition"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/><ref>{{cite book |last=Minahan |first=James |title=One Europe, Many Nations: A Historical Dictionary of European National Groups |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://books.google.com/books?id=NwvoM-ZFoAgC |date=2000 |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |page=179 |isbn=978-0-313-30984-7 |quote=The [[Cornish people|Cornish]] are related to the other Celtic peoples of Europe, the [[Bretons]], [[Irish people|Irish]], [[Scottish people|Scots]], [[Manx people|Manx]], [[Welsh people|Welsh]], and the [[Galicians]] of northwestern Spain |access-date=11 July 2018 |archive-date=16 January 2023 |archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20230116024421/https://books.google.com/books?id=NwvoM-ZFoAgC |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Minahan |first=James |title=One Europe, Many Nations: A Historical Dictionary of European National Groups |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://books.google.com/books?id=NwvoM-ZFoAgC |date=2000 |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |page=766 |isbn=978-0-313-30984-7 |quote=Celts, 257, 278, 523, 533, 555, 643; [[Bretons]], 129–33; [[Cornish people|Cornish]], 178–81; [[Galicians]], 277–80; [[Irish people|Irish]], 330–37; [[Manx people|Manx]], 452–55; [[Scottish people|Scots]], 607–12; [[Welsh people|Welsh]] |access-date=11 July 2018 |archive-date=16 January 2023 |archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20230116024421/https://books.google.com/books?id=NwvoM-ZFoAgC |url-status=live}}</ref> A modern [[<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Celts (modern)|</ins>Celtic identity]]<ref name="WM_Scope">{{harvnb|Waldman|Mason|2006|p=144}}. "CELTS location: Greater Europe time period: Second millennium B.C.E. to present ancestry: Celtic</ref> was constructed as part of the Romanticist [[Celtic Revival]] in Britain, Ireland, and other European territories such as [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]].<ref>{{cite journal<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last=McKevitt<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first=Kerry Ann<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=Mythologizing Identity and History: a look at the Celtic past of Galicia<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|journal=E-Keltoi<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2006<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|volume=6<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|pages=651–73<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>http://www4.uwm.edu/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_13/mckevitt_6_13.pdf<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|access-date=8 April 2011<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url-status=dead<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20110624075328/http://www4.uwm.edu/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_13/mckevitt_6_13.pdf<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-date=24 June 2011}}</ref> Today, [[Irish language|Irish]], [[Scottish Gaelic]], [[Welsh language|Welsh]], and [[Breton language|Breton]] are still spoken in parts of their former territories, while [[Cornish language|Cornish]] and [[Manx language|Manx]] are undergoing a revival.</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>==Names and terminology==</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>==Names and terminology==</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 33:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 32:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>===Ancient===</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>===Ancient===</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>The first recorded use of the name 'Celts' – as {{lang|grc|'''Κελτοί'''}} ({{transliteration|grc|'''Keltoi'''}}) in [[Ancient Greek]] – was by Greek geographer [[Hecataeus of Miletus]] in 517 BC,<ref>Sarunas Milisauskas, {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=31LFIITb3LUC&pg=PA363 |title=European prehistory: a survey|page<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>=363 |publisher=Springer |access-date=2010<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">-06-07</del> |isbn=978-0-306-47257-2 |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=2002<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>}}</ref> when writing about a people living near [[Massilia]] (modern [[Marseille]]), southern [[Gaul]].<ref><del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">H. D. Rankin, </del>{{cite book |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">url</del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">https://books.google.com/books?id</del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">fdqk4vXqntgC&q=%22celts%22</del> |title=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">''</del>Celts and the <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">classical</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">world''</del>|pages=1–2 |publisher=Routledge |access-date=2010<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">-06-07</del> |isbn=978-0-415-15090-3 |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">1998</del> }}</ref> In the fifth century BC, [[Herodotus]] referred to {{transliteration|grc|Keltoi}} living around the [[source of the Danube]] and in the far west of Europe.<ref>Herodotus, ''The Histories'', 2.33; 4.49.</ref> The etymology of {{transliteration|grc|Keltoi}} is unclear. Possible roots include [[Proto-Indo-European language|Indo-European]] *''kʲel'' 'to hide' (seen also in Old Irish {{lang|sga|ceilid}}, and Modern Welsh {{lang|cy|celu}}), *''kʲel'' 'to heat' or *''kel'' 'to impel'.<ref>John T. Koch (ed.), ''Celtic Culture: a historical encyclopedia''. 5 vols. 2006. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, p. 371.</ref> It may come from the [[Proto-Celtic language|Celtic language]]. Linguist Kim McCone supports this view and notes that ''Celt-'' is found in the names of several ancient Gauls such as Celtillus, father of [[Vercingetorix]]. He suggests it meant the people or descendants of "the hidden one", noting the Gauls claimed descent from an underworld god (according to ''[[Commentarii de Bello Gallico]]''), and linking it with the Germanic ''[[Hel (location)|Hel]]''.<ref name="McCone2013">McCone, Kim (2013). "The Celts: questions of nomenclature and identity", in ''Ireland and its Contacts''. [[University of Lausanne]]. pp.21–27</ref> Others view it as a name coined by Greeks; among them linguist [[Patrizia de Bernardo Stempel]], who suggests it meant "the tall ones".<ref>P. De Bernardo Stempel 2008. "Linguistically Celtic ethnonyms: towards a classification", in ''Celtic and Other Languages in Ancient Europe'', J. L. García Alonso (ed.), 101–18. Ediciones Universidad Salamanca.</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>The first recorded use of the name 'Celts' – as {{lang|grc|'''Κελτοί'''}} ({{transliteration|grc|'''Keltoi'''}}) in [[Ancient Greek]] – was by Greek geographer [[Hecataeus of Miletus]] in 517 BC,<ref>Sarunas Milisauskas, {{cite book |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://books.google.com/books?id=31LFIITb3LUC&pg=PA363 |title=European prehistory: a survey<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|page=363 |publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>Springer<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> Science+Business Media|Springer]]</ins> |access-date=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">7 June </ins>2010 |isbn=978-0-306-47257-2 |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2002}}</ref> when writing about a people living near [[Massilia]] (modern [[Marseille]]), southern [[Gaul]].<ref>{{cite book |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">last</ins>=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Rankin |first</ins>=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">H. David</ins> |title=Celts and the <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Classical World |date=1998</ins> |pages=1–2 |publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>Routledge<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]]</ins> |access-date=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">7 June </ins>2010 |isbn=978-0-415-15090-3 |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">url</ins>= <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">https://books.google.com/books?id=fdqk4vXqntgC&q=%22celts%22</ins>}}</ref> In the fifth century BC, [[Herodotus]] referred to {{transliteration|grc|Keltoi}} living around the [[source of the Danube]] and in the far west of Europe.<ref>Herodotus, ''The Histories'', 2.33; 4.49.</ref> The etymology of {{transliteration|grc|Keltoi}} is unclear. Possible roots include [[Proto-Indo-European language|Indo-European]] *''kʲel'' 'to hide' (seen also in Old Irish {{lang|sga|ceilid}}, and Modern Welsh {{lang|cy|celu}}), *''kʲel'' 'to heat' or *''kel'' 'to impel'.<ref>John T. Koch (ed.), ''Celtic Culture: a historical encyclopedia''. 5 vols. 2006. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, p. 371.</ref> It may come from the [[Proto-Celtic language|Celtic language]]. Linguist Kim McCone supports this view and notes that ''Celt-'' is found in the names of several ancient Gauls such as Celtillus, father of [[Vercingetorix]]. He suggests it meant the people or descendants of "the hidden one", noting the Gauls claimed descent from an underworld god (according to ''[[Commentarii de Bello Gallico]]''), and linking it with the Germanic ''[[Hel (location)|Hel]]''.<ref name="McCone2013">McCone, Kim (2013). "The Celts: questions of nomenclature and identity", in ''Ireland and its Contacts''. [[University of Lausanne]]. pp.21–27</ref> Others view it as a name coined by Greeks; among them linguist [[Patrizia de Bernardo Stempel]], who suggests it meant "the tall ones".<ref>P. De Bernardo Stempel 2008. "Linguistically Celtic ethnonyms: towards a classification", in ''Celtic and Other Languages in Ancient Europe'', J. L. García Alonso (ed.), 101–18. Ediciones Universidad Salamanca.</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>In the first century BC, Roman leader [[Julius Caesar]] reported that the [[Gauls]] called themselves 'Celts', {{<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">lang-</del>la|'''Celtae'''}}, in [[Gaulish language|their own tongue]].<ref>[[Julius Caesar]], ''[[Commentarii de Bello Gallico]]'' [[s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 1#1|1.1]]: "All Gaul is divided into three parts, one of which the Belgae live, another in which the Aquitani live, and the third are those who in their own tongue are called {{lang|la|Celtae}}, in our language {{lang|la|Galli}}."</ref> Thus whether it was given to them by others or not, it was used by the Celts themselves. Greek geographer [[Strabo]], writing about Gaul towards the end of the first century BC, refers to the "race which is now called both ''Gallic'' and ''Galatic''", though he also uses ''Celtica'' as another name for Gaul. He reports Celtic peoples in [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]] too, calling them ''[[Celtiberians|Celtiberi]]'' and ''[[Celtici]]''.<ref>Strabo, ''Geography'', 3.1.3; 3.1.6; 3.2.2; 3.2.15; 4.4.2.</ref> [[Pliny the Elder]] noted the use of ''Celtici'' in [[Lusitania]] as a tribal surname,<ref>[[Pliny the Elder]], ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|The Natural History]]'' [[s:Lusitania/Book 4#35|21]]: "the Mirobrigenses, surnamed Celtici" ("Mirobrigenses qui Celtici cognominantur").</ref> which [[Epigraphy|epigraphic]] findings have confirmed.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://revistas.ucm.es/est/11326875/articulos/HIEP0101110006A.PDF |title=España |access-date=2013<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">-06-09</del> |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100402141724/http://revistas.ucm.es/est/11326875/articulos/HIEP0101110006A.PDF |archive-date=2 April 2010}}</ref><ref>Fernando De Almeida, ''Breve noticia sobre o santuário campestre romano de Miróbriga dos Celticos (Portugal)'': D(IS) M(ANIBUS) S(ACRUM) / C(AIUS) PORCIUS SEVE/RUS MIROBRIGEN(SIS) / CELT(ICUS) ANN(ORUM) LX / H(IC) S(ITUS) E(ST) S(IT) T(IBI) T(ERRA) L(EVIS).</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>In the first century BC, Roman leader [[Julius Caesar]] reported that the [[Gauls]] called themselves 'Celts', {{<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">langx|</ins>la|'''Celtae'''}}, in [[Gaulish language|their own tongue]].<ref>[[Julius Caesar]], ''[[Commentarii de Bello Gallico]]'' [[s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 1#1|1.1]]: "All Gaul is divided into three parts, one of which the Belgae live, another in which the Aquitani live, and the third are those who in their own tongue are called {{lang|la|Celtae}}, in our language {{lang|la|Galli}}."</ref> Thus whether it was given to them by others or not, it was used by the Celts themselves. Greek geographer [[Strabo]], writing about Gaul towards the end of the first century BC, refers to the "race which is now called both ''Gallic'' and ''Galatic''", though he also uses ''Celtica'' as another name for Gaul. He reports Celtic peoples in [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]] too, calling them ''[[Celtiberians|Celtiberi]]'' and ''[[Celtici]]''.<ref>Strabo, ''Geography'', 3.1.3; 3.1.6; 3.2.2; 3.2.15; 4.4.2.</ref> [[Pliny the Elder]] noted the use of ''Celtici'' in [[Lusitania]] as a tribal surname,<ref>[[Pliny the Elder]], ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|The Natural History]]'' [[s:Lusitania/Book 4#35|21]]: "the Mirobrigenses, surnamed Celtici" ("Mirobrigenses qui Celtici cognominantur").</ref> which [[Epigraphy|epigraphic]] findings have confirmed.<ref>{{cite web |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>http://revistas.ucm.es/est/11326875/articulos/HIEP0101110006A.PDF |title=España |access-date=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">9 June </ins>2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20100402141724/http://revistas.ucm.es/est/11326875/articulos/HIEP0101110006A.PDF |archive-date=2 April 2010}}</ref><ref>Fernando De Almeida, ''Breve noticia sobre o santuário campestre romano de Miróbriga dos Celticos (Portugal)'': D(IS) M(ANIBUS) S(ACRUM) / C(AIUS) PORCIUS SEVE/RUS MIROBRIGEN(SIS) / CELT(ICUS) ANN(ORUM) LX / H(IC) S(ITUS) E(ST) S(IT) T(IBI) T(ERRA) L(EVIS).</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>A Latin name for the Gauls, {{lang|la|'''Galli'''}} ({{abbr|pl.|plural}}), may come from a Celtic ethnic name, perhaps borrowed into Latin during the [[Cisalpine Gaul|Celtic expansion into Italy]] from the early fifth century BC. Its root may be [[Proto-Celtic language|Proto-Celtic]] ''*galno'', meaning "power, strength" (whence [[Old Irish]] ''gal'' "boldness, ferocity", Welsh ''gallu'' "to be able, power"). The Greek name '''[[Galatians (people)|Γαλάται]]''' ({{transliteration|grc|'''Galatai'''}}, Latinized ''Galatae'') most likely has the same origin, referring to the Gauls who [[Celtic settlement of Southeast Europe|invaded southeast Europe]] and settled in [[Galatia]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Koch|first=John <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Thomas</del>|title=Celtic <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">culture</del>: <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">a</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">historical</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">encyclopedia</del>|url=https://archive.org/details/celticculturehis00koch_128|url-access=limited|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=2006|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-440-0|pages=[https://archive.org/details/celticculturehis00koch_128/page/n837 794]–95}}</ref> The suffix ''-atai'' might be a Greek inflection.<ref>{{cite book|last=Spencer and Zwicky|first=Andrew and Arnold M|title=The handbook of morphology|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=1998|publisher=Blackwell Publishers|isbn=978-0-631-18544-4|page=148}}</ref> Linguist Kim McCone suggests it comes from Proto-Celtic ''*galatis'' ("ferocious, furious"), and was not originally an ethnic name but a name for [[Kóryos|young warrior bands]]. He says "If the Gauls' initial impact on the Mediterranean world was primarily a military one typically involving fierce young ''*galatīs'', it would have been natural for the Greeks to apply this name for the type of ''Keltoi'' that they usually encountered".<ref name="McCone2013"/></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>A Latin name for the Gauls, {{lang|la|'''Galli'''}} ({{abbr|pl.|plural}}), may come from a Celtic ethnic name, perhaps borrowed into Latin during the [[Cisalpine Gaul|Celtic expansion into Italy]] from the early fifth century BC. Its root may be [[Proto-Celtic language|Proto-Celtic]] ''*galno'', meaning "power, strength" (whence [[Old Irish]] ''gal'' "boldness, ferocity", Welsh ''gallu'' "to be able, power"). The Greek name '''[[Galatians (people)|Γαλάται]]''' ({{transliteration|grc|'''Galatai'''}}, Latinized ''Galatae'') most likely has the same origin, referring to the Gauls who [[Celtic settlement of Southeast Europe|invaded southeast Europe]] and settled in [[Galatia]].<ref>{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last=Koch<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first=John <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">T. </ins>|title=Celtic <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Culture</ins>: <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">A Historical</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Encyclopedia</ins> |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://archive.org/details/celticculturehis00koch_128<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url-access=limited<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2006<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>ABC-CLIO<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]] </ins>|isbn=978-1-85109-440-0<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|pages=[https://archive.org/details/celticculturehis00koch_128/page/n837 794]–95}}</ref> The suffix ''-atai'' might be a Greek inflection.<ref>{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last=Spencer and Zwicky<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first=Andrew and Arnold M<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=The handbook of morphology<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=1998<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>Blackwell Publishers<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]] </ins>|isbn=978-0-631-18544-4<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|page=148}}</ref> Linguist Kim McCone suggests it comes from Proto-Celtic ''*galatis'' ("ferocious, furious"), and was not originally an ethnic name but a name for [[Kóryos|young warrior bands]]. He says "If the Gauls' initial impact on the Mediterranean world was primarily a military one typically involving fierce young ''*galatīs'', it would have been natural for the Greeks to apply this name for the type of ''Keltoi'' that they usually encountered".<ref name="McCone2013"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>Because Classical writers did not call the inhabitants of Britain and Ireland {{lang|grc|Κελτοί}} ({{transliteration|grc|Keltoi}}) or {{lang|la|Celtae}},<ref name="Koch encyclopedia"/><ref name="SJames"/><ref name="JCollis"/> some scholars prefer not to use the term for the Iron Age inhabitants of those islands.<ref name="Koch encyclopedia"/><ref name="SJames"/><ref name="JCollis"/><ref name="FPryor"/> However, they spoke Celtic languages, shared other cultural traits, and Roman historian [[Tacitus]] says the Britons resembled the Gauls in customs and religion.<ref name="Sims-Williams"/></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>Because Classical writers did not call the inhabitants of Britain and Ireland {{lang|grc|Κελτοί}} ({{transliteration|grc|Keltoi}}) or {{lang|la|Celtae}},<ref name="Koch encyclopedia"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/><ref name="SJames"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/><ref name="JCollis"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/> some scholars prefer not to use the term for the Iron Age inhabitants of those islands.<ref name="Koch encyclopedia"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/><ref name="SJames"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/><ref name="JCollis"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/><ref name="FPryor"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/> However, they spoke Celtic languages, shared other cultural traits, and Roman historian [[Tacitus]] says the Britons resembled the Gauls in customs and religion.<ref name="Sims-Williams"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>===Modern===</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>===Modern===</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>For at least 1,000 years the name '''Celt''' was not used at all, and nobody called themselves Celts or Celtic, until from about 1700, after the word 'Celtic' was rediscovered in classical texts, it was applied for the first time to the distinctive culture, history, traditions, language of the modern Celtic nations – Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Cornwall, Brittany, and the Isle of Man.<ref>[https://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/uk/who-were-the-celts-it-s-complicated-1.2410501 Who were the Celts? It's complicated] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230417195847/https://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/uk/who-were-the-celts-it-s-complicated-1.2410501 |date=17 April 2023 }}, ''Irish Times'', Denis Staunton, October<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> 20,</del> 2015, accessed April<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> 17,</del> 2023.</ref> 'Celt' is a modern English word, first attested in 1707 in the writing of [[Edward Lhuyd]], whose work, along with that of other late 17th-century scholars, brought academic attention to the languages and history of the early Celtic inhabitants of Great Britain.<ref>Lhuyd, E. ''Archaeologia Britannica; An account of the languages, histories, and customs of the original inhabitants of Great Britain.'' (reprint ed.) Irish University Press, 1971, p. 290. {{ISBN|0-7165-0031-0}}.</ref> The English words '''Gaul''', '''Gauls''' ({{abbr|pl.|plural}}) and '''Gaulish''' (first recorded in the 16–17th centuries) come from French {{lang|fr|Gaule}} and {{lang|fr|Gaulois}}, a borrowing from [[Frankish language|Frankish]] {{lang|frk|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">*</del>Walholant}}, <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">"</del>Roman<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>land<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">"</del> (see [[Gaul#Name|Gaul: Name]]), the root of which is [[Proto-Germanic language|Proto-Germanic]] <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">''*</del>[[walhaz|walha-]]<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">''</del>, <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">"</del>foreigner, Roman, Celt<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">"</del>, whence the English word 'Welsh' ([[Old English]] <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">''</del>wælisċ<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">''</del>). Proto-Germanic <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">''*</del>walha<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">''</del> comes from the name of the [[Volcae]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Koch|first=John <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Thomas</del>|title=Celtic <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">culture</del>: <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">a</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">historical</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">encyclopedia</del>|url=https://archive.org/details/celticculturehis00koch_128|url-access=limited|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=2006|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-440-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/celticculturehis00koch_128/page/n567 532]}}</ref> a Celtic tribe who lived first in southern Germany and central Europe, then migrated to Gaul.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mountain|first=Harry|title=The Celtic Encyclopedia<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">, Volume</del> 1|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=1998|publisher=[[uPublish.com]]|isbn=978-1-58112-889-5|page=252}}</ref> This means that English Gaul, despite its superficial similarity, is not actually derived from Latin {{lang|la|Gallia}} (which should have produced {{lang|fr|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">**</del>Jaille}} in French), though it does refer to the same ancient region.<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}</del></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>For at least 1,000 years the name '''Celt''' was not used at all, and nobody called themselves Celts or Celtic, until from about 1700, after the word 'Celtic' was rediscovered in classical texts, it was applied for the first time to the distinctive culture, history, traditions, language of the modern Celtic nations – Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Cornwall, Brittany, and the Isle of Man.<ref>[https://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/uk/who-were-the-celts-it-s-complicated-1.2410501 Who were the Celts? It's complicated] {{Webarchive|url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20230417195847/https://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/uk/who-were-the-celts-it-s-complicated-1.2410501 |date=17 April 2023 }}, ''Irish Times'', Denis Staunton,<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> 20</ins> October 2015, accessed<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> 17</ins> April 2023.</ref> 'Celt' is a modern English word, first attested in 1707 in the writing of [[Edward Lhuyd]], whose work, along with that of other late 17th-century scholars, brought academic attention to the languages and history of the early Celtic inhabitants of Great Britain.<ref>Lhuyd, E. ''Archaeologia Britannica; An account of the languages, histories, and customs of the original inhabitants of Great Britain.'' (reprint ed.) Irish University Press, 1971, p. 290. {{ISBN|0-7165-0031-0}}.</ref> The English words '''Gaul''', '''Gauls''' ({{abbr|pl.|plural}}) and '''Gaulish''' (first recorded in the 16–17th centuries) come from French {{lang|fr|Gaule}} and {{lang|fr|Gaulois}}, a borrowing from [[Frankish language|Frankish]] <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">*</ins>{{lang|frk|Walholant}}, <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">'</ins>Roman<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">-</ins>land<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">'</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">{{crossref|</ins>(see [[Gaul#Name|Gaul: Name]])<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">}}</ins>, the root of which is [[Proto-Germanic language|Proto-Germanic]] <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">{{lang|gem-x-proto|</ins>[[walhaz|walha-]]<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">}}</ins>, <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">'</ins>foreigner, Roman, Celt<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">'</ins>, whence the English word <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">'</ins>'Welsh<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">'</ins>' ([[Old English]] <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">{{lang|ang|</ins>wælisċ<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">}}</ins>). Proto-Germanic <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">{{lang|gem-x-proto|</ins>walha<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">}}</ins> comes from the name of the [[Volcae]],<ref>{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last=Koch<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first=John <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">T. </ins>|title=Celtic <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Culture</ins>: <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">A</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Historical Encyclopedia</ins> |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://archive.org/details/celticculturehis00koch_128<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url-access=limited<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2006<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>ABC-CLIO<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]] </ins>|isbn=978-1-85109-440-0<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|page=[https://archive.org/details/celticculturehis00koch_128/page/n567 532]}}</ref> a Celtic tribe who lived first in southern Germany and central Europe, then migrated to Gaul.<ref>{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last=Mountain<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first=Harry<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=The Celtic Encyclopedia <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|volume=</ins>1<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=1998<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|publisher=[[uPublish.com<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|uPublish</ins>]]<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|isbn=978-1-58112-889-5<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|page=252}}</ref> This means that English <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">''</ins>Gaul<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">''</ins>, despite its superficial similarity, is not actually derived from Latin {{lang|la|Gallia}} (which should have produced <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">*</ins>{{lang|fr|Jaille}} in French),<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">{{citation needed|date=April 2022}}</ins> though it does refer to the same ancient region.</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>'''Celtic''' refers to a [[language family]] and, more generally, means <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">"</del>of the Celts<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">"</del> or <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">"</del>in the style of the Celts<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">"</del>. Several archaeological cultures are considered Celtic, based on unique sets of artefacts. The link between language and artefact is aided by the presence of inscriptions.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kruta|first=Venceslas|title=The Celts|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=1991|publisher=Thames <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">and</del> Hudson|pages=95–102|display-authors=etal}}</ref> The modern idea of a Celtic [[culture|cultural]] identity or "Celticity" focuses on similarities among languages, works of art, and classical texts,<ref>Paul Graves-Brown, Siân Jones, Clive Gamble, {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9BsG0pXp61sC&pg=PA242 |title=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">''</del>Cultural <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">identity</del> and <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">archaeology</del>: <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">the</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">construction</del> of European <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">communities'', pp.</del> 242–244 |publisher=Routledge<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> |access-date=2010-06-07</del> |isbn=978-0-415-10676-4 |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=1996<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>}}</ref> and sometimes also among material artefacts, [[social organisation]], [[homeland]] and [[Celtic mythology|mythology]].<ref>Carl McColman, {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=71oefF7-73MC&q=%22Celticity%22&pg=PA32 |title=The Complete Idiot's Guide to Celtic Wisdom|pages=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>31–34 |publisher=Alpha Books |access-date=2010<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">-06-07</del> |isbn=978-0-02-864417-2 |date=2003<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>}}</ref> Earlier theories held that these similarities suggest a common "racial" (<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">"</del>race<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">"</del> is <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">contemporarily</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">an</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">invalid epistemolical and genetic</del> concept) origin for the various Celtic peoples, but more recent theories hold that they reflect a common cultural and linguistic heritage more than a genetic one. Celtic cultures seem to have been diverse, with the use of a Celtic language being the main thing they had in common.<ref name="Koch encyclopedia"/></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">''</ins>'''Celtic<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">''</ins>''' refers to a [[language family]] and, more generally, means <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">'</ins>of the Celts<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">'</ins> or <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">'</ins>in the style of the Celts<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">'</ins>. Several archaeological cultures are considered Celtic, based on unique sets of artefacts. The link between language and artefact is aided by the presence of inscriptions.<ref>{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last=Kruta<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first=Venceslas<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=The Celts<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=1991<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>Thames <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">&</ins> Hudson<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]] </ins>|pages=95–102<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|display-authors=etal}}</ref> The modern idea of a Celtic [[culture|cultural]] identity or "Celticity" focuses on similarities among languages, works of art, and classical texts,<ref>Paul Graves-Brown, Siân Jones, Clive Gamble, {{cite book |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://books.google.com/books?id=9BsG0pXp61sC&pg=PA242 |title=Cultural <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Identity</ins> and <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Archaeology</ins>: <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">The</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Construction</ins> of European <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Communities</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|pages=</ins>242–244 |publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>Routledge<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]]</ins> |isbn=978-0-415-10676-4 |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=1996}}</ref> and sometimes also among material artefacts, [[social organisation]], [[homeland]] and [[Celtic mythology|mythology]].<ref>Carl McColman, {{cite book |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://books.google.com/books?id=71oefF7-73MC&q=%22Celticity%22&pg=PA32 |title=The Complete Idiot's Guide to Celtic Wisdom<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|pages=31–34 |publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>Alpha Books<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]]</ins> |access-date=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">7 June </ins>2010 |isbn=978-0-02-864417-2 |date=2003}}</ref> Earlier theories held that these similarities suggest a common "racial" (<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[Race (human categorization)|</ins>race<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]]</ins> is <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">now</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">a</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">contested</ins> concept) origin for the various Celtic peoples, but more recent theories hold that they reflect a common cultural and linguistic heritage more than a genetic one. Celtic cultures seem to have been diverse, with the use of a Celtic language being the main thing they had in common.<ref name="Koch encyclopedia"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>Today, the term 'Celtic' generally refers to the languages and cultures of Ireland, Scotland, Wales, [[Cornwall]], the [[Isle of Man]], and [[Brittany]]; also called the [[Celtic nations]]. These are the regions where Celtic languages are still spoken to some extent. The four are [[Irish language|Irish]], [[Scottish Gaelic]], [[Welsh language|Welsh]], and [[Breton language|Breton]]; plus two recent revivals, [[Cornish language|Cornish]] (a [[Brittonic languages|Brittonic language]]) and [[Manx language|Manx]] (a [[Goidelic languages|Goidelic language]]). There are also attempts to reconstruct [[Cumbric]], a Brittonic language of northern Britain. Celtic regions of mainland Europe are those whose residents claim a Celtic heritage, but where no Celtic language survives; these include western Iberia, i.e. [[Portugal]] and north-central [[Spain]] ([[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]], [[Asturias]], [[Cantabria]], [[Castile and León]], [[Extremadura]]).<ref>{{cite book|last=Monaghan|first=Patricia|title=The Encyclopedia of Celtic Mythology and Folklore|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=2008|publisher=Facts on File Inc.|isbn=978-0-8160-7556-0}}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>Today, the term 'Celtic' generally refers to the languages and cultures of Ireland, Scotland, Wales, [[Cornwall]], the [[Isle of Man]], and [[Brittany]]; also called the [[Celtic nations]]. These are the regions where Celtic languages are still spoken to some extent. The four are [[Irish language|Irish]], [[Scottish Gaelic]], [[Welsh language|Welsh]], and [[Breton language|Breton]]; plus two recent revivals, [[Cornish language|Cornish]] (a [[Brittonic languages|Brittonic language]]) and [[Manx language|Manx]] (a [[Goidelic languages|Goidelic language]]). There are also attempts to reconstruct [[Cumbric]], a Brittonic language of northern Britain. Celtic regions of mainland Europe are those whose residents claim a Celtic heritage, but where no Celtic language survives; these include western Iberia, i.e. [[Portugal]] and north-central [[Spain]] ([[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]], [[Asturias]], [[Cantabria]], [[Castile and León]], [[Extremadura]]).<ref>{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last=Monaghan<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first=Patricia<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=The Encyclopedia of Celtic Mythology and Folklore<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2008<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>Facts on File Inc.<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]] </ins>|isbn=978-0-8160-7556-0}}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>'''Continental Celts''' are the Celtic-speaking people of mainland Europe and '''Insular Celts''' are the Celtic-speaking people of the British and Irish islands, and their descendants. The Celts of Brittany derive their language from migrating Insular Celts from Britain and so are grouped accordingly.<ref>{{cite book|last=Chadwick|first=Nora|title=The Celts with an introductory chapter by J.X.W.P. Corcoran|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=1970|publisher=Penguin Books|page=81}}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>'''Continental Celts''' are the Celtic-speaking people of mainland Europe and '''Insular Celts''' are the Celtic-speaking people of the British and Irish islands, and their descendants. The Celts of Brittany derive their language from migrating Insular Celts from Britain and so are grouped accordingly.<ref>{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last=Chadwick<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first=Nora<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=The Celts with an introductory chapter by J.X.W.P. Corcoran<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=1970<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>Penguin Books<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]] </ins>|page=81}}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>==Origins==</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>==Origins==</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>{{main|Pre-Celtic|Celticization}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>{{main|Pre-Celtic|Celticization}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>The [[Celtic languages]] are a branch of the [[Indo-European languages]]. By the time Celts are first mentioned in written records around 400 BC, they were already split into several language groups, and spread over much of western mainland Europe, the [[Iberian Peninsula]], Ireland and Britain. The languages developed into [[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]], [[Goidelic languages|Goidelic]] and [[Brittonic languages|Brittonic]] branches, among others.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Celtic language Branch - Origins & Classification - MustGo |url=https://www.mustgo.com/worldlanguages/celtic-branch/ |access-date=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2022-08-</del>25 |website=MustGo.com |language=en-US |archive-date=24 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221024221253/https://www.mustgo.com/worldlanguages/celtic-branch/ |url-status=live<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/62381207 |title=Celtic culture : a historical encyclopedia |date=2006 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">author</del>=John T. Koch |isbn=978-1-85109-440-0 |location=Santa Barbara, <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Calif.</del> |pages=34, 365–366, 529, 973, 1053 |oclc=62381207 |access-date=25 August 2022 |archive-date=7 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221007170317/https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/62381207 |url-status=live<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>}}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>The [[Celtic languages]] are a branch of the [[Indo-European languages]]. By the time Celts are first mentioned in written records around 400 BC, they were already split into several language groups, and spread over much of western mainland Europe, the [[Iberian Peninsula]], Ireland and Britain. The languages developed into [[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]], [[Goidelic languages|Goidelic]] and [[Brittonic languages|Brittonic]] branches, among others.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Celtic language Branch - Origins & Classification - MustGo |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://www.mustgo.com/worldlanguages/celtic-branch/ |access-date=25<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> August 2022</ins> |website=MustGo.com |language=en-US |archive-date=24 October 2022 |archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20221024221253/https://www.mustgo.com/worldlanguages/celtic-branch/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/62381207 |title=Celtic culture : a historical encyclopedia |date=2006 |publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>ABC-CLIO<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]]</ins> |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">first</ins>=John T. <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|last=</ins>Koch |isbn=978-1-85109-440-0 |location=Santa Barbara, <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">California</ins> |pages=34, 365–366, 529, 973, 1053 |oclc=62381207 |access-date=25 August 2022 |archive-date=7 October 2022 |archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20221007170317/https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/62381207 |url-status=live}}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>===Urnfield-Hallstatt theory===</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>===Urnfield-Hallstatt theory===</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 63:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 62:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>The territories of some major [[List of Celtic tribes|Celtic tribes]] of the late La Tène period are labelled.</small>]]</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>The territories of some major [[List of Celtic tribes|Celtic tribes]] of the late La Tène period are labelled.</small>]]</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>The mainstream view during most of the twentieth century is that the Celts and the [[proto-Celtic language]] arose out of the [[Urnfield culture]] of [[central Europe]] around 1000 BC, spreading westward and southward over the following few hundred years.<ref name=ChadCorc/><ref>{{cite book|last=Chadwick|first=Nora|title=The Celts|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=1970|page=30}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Kruta|first=Venceslas|title=The Celts|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=1991|publisher=Thames <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">and</del> Hudson|pages=89–102}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Stifter|first=David|title=Old Celtic Languages - Addenda|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=2008|page=25}}</ref> The Urnfield culture was preeminent in central Europe during the late [[Bronze Age]], [[wikt:circa|circa]] 1200 BC to 700 BC. The [[Iron Age|spread of iron-working]] led to the [[Hallstatt culture]] (c. 800 to 500 BC) developing out of the Urnfield culture in a wide region north of the Alps. The Hallstatt culture developed into the [[La Tène culture]] from about 450 BC, which came to be identified with [[Celtic art]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>The mainstream view during most of the twentieth century is that the Celts and the [[proto-Celtic language]] arose out of the [[Urnfield culture]] of [[central Europe]] around 1000 BC, spreading westward and southward over the following few hundred years.<ref name=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">"</ins>ChadCorc<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">" </ins>/><ref>{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last=Chadwick<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first=Nora<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=The Celts<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=1970<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|page=30}}</ref><ref>{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last=Kruta<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first=Venceslas<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=The Celts<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=1991<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>Thames <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">&</ins> Hudson<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]] </ins>|pages=89–102}}</ref><ref>{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last=Stifter<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first=David<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=Old Celtic Languages - Addenda<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2008<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|page=25}}</ref> The Urnfield culture was preeminent in central Europe during the late [[Bronze Age]], [[wikt:circa|circa]] 1200 BC to 700 BC. The [[Iron Age|spread of iron-working]] led to the [[Hallstatt culture]] (c. 800 to 500 BC) developing out of the Urnfield culture in a wide region north of the Alps. The Hallstatt culture developed into the [[La Tène culture]] from about 450 BC, which came to be identified with [[Celtic art]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>In 1846, [[Johann Georg Ramsauer]] unearthed an ancient [[grave field]] with distinctive grave goods at [[Hallstatt]], Austria. Because the burials "dated to roughly the time when Celts are mentioned near the [[Danube]] by [[Herodotus]], Ramsauer concluded that the graves were Celtic".<ref name="Koch 386">{{cite book |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">last1</del>=Koch |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">first1</del>=John |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">author1</del>-link=John T. Koch |title=Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia |date=2006 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |page=386}}</ref> Similar sites and artifacts were found over a wide area, which were named the 'Hallstatt culture'. In 1857, the archaeological site of [[La Tène (archaeological site)|La Tène]] was discovered in Switzerland.<ref name="Koch 386"/> The huge collection of artifacts had a distinctive style. Artifacts of this 'La Tène style' were found elsewhere in Europe, "particularly in places where people called Celts were known to have lived and early Celtic languages are attested. As a result, these items quickly became associated with the Celts, so much so that by the 1870s scholars began to regard finds of the La Tène as 'the archaeological expression of the Celts'".<ref name="Koch 386"/> This cultural network was overrun by the Roman Empire, though traces of La Tène style were still seen in [[Gallo-Roman culture|Gallo-Roman artifacts]]. In Britain and Ireland, the La Tène style survived precariously to re-emerge in [[Insular art]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>In 1846, [[Johann Georg Ramsauer]] unearthed an ancient [[grave field]] with distinctive grave goods at [[Hallstatt]], Austria. Because the burials "dated to roughly the time when Celts are mentioned near the [[Danube]] by [[Herodotus]], Ramsauer concluded that the graves were Celtic".<ref name="Koch 386">{{cite book |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">last</ins>=Koch |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">first</ins>=John |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">author</ins>-link=John T. Koch |title=Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia |date=2006 |publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>ABC-CLIO<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]]</ins> |page=386}}</ref> Similar sites and artifacts were found over a wide area, which were named the 'Hallstatt culture'. In 1857, the archaeological site of [[La Tène (archaeological site)|La Tène]] was discovered in Switzerland.<ref name="Koch 386"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/> The huge collection of artifacts had a distinctive style. Artifacts of this 'La Tène style' were found elsewhere in Europe, "particularly in places where people called Celts were known to have lived and early Celtic languages are attested. As a result, these items quickly became associated with the Celts, so much so that by the 1870s scholars began to regard finds of the La Tène as 'the archaeological expression of the Celts'".<ref name="Koch 386"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/> This cultural network was overrun by the Roman Empire, though traces of La Tène style were still seen in [[Gallo-Roman culture|Gallo-Roman artifacts]]. In Britain and Ireland, the La Tène style survived precariously to re-emerge in [[Insular art]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>The Urnfield-Hallstatt theory began to be challenged in the latter 20th century, when it was accepted that the oldest known Celtic-language inscriptions were those of [[Lepontic language|Lepontic]] from the 6th century BC and [[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]] from the 2nd century BC. These were found in northern Italy and Iberia, neither of which were part of the 'Hallstatt' nor 'La Tène' cultures at the time.<ref name="Sims-Williams"/> The Urnfield-Hallstatt theory was partly based on ancient [[Greco-Roman world|Greco-Roman]] writings, such as the ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]'' of Herodotus, which placed the Celts at the [[source of the Danube]]. However, [[Stephen Oppenheimer]] shows that Herodotus seemed to believe the Danube rose near the [[Pyrenees]], which would place the Ancient Celts in a region which is more in agreement with later classical writers and historians (i.e. in Gaul and Iberia).<ref>{{cite book|last=Oppenheimer|first=Stephen|title=The Origins of the British|pages=21–56|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=2007|publisher=Robinson}}</ref> The theory was also partly based on the abundance of inscriptions bearing Celtic personal names in the Eastern Hallstatt region ([[Noricum]]). However, Patrick Sims-Williams notes that these date to the later Roman era, and says they suggest "relatively late settlement by a Celtic-speaking elite".<ref name="Sims-Williams"/></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>The Urnfield-Hallstatt theory began to be challenged in the latter 20th century, when it was accepted that the oldest known Celtic-language inscriptions were those of [[Lepontic language|Lepontic]] from the 6th century BC and [[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]] from the 2nd century BC. These were found in northern Italy and Iberia, neither of which were part of the 'Hallstatt' nor 'La Tène' cultures at the time.<ref name="Sims-Williams"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/> The Urnfield-Hallstatt theory was partly based on ancient [[Greco-Roman world|Greco-Roman]] writings, such as the ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]'' of Herodotus, which placed the Celts at the [[source of the Danube]]. However, [[Stephen Oppenheimer]] shows that Herodotus seemed to believe the Danube rose near the [[Pyrenees]], which would place the Ancient Celts in a region which is more in agreement with later classical writers and historians (i.e. in Gaul and Iberia).<ref>{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last=Oppenheimer<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first=Stephen<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=The Origins of the British<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|pages=21–56<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2007<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>Robinson<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> (publisher)|Robinson]]</ins>}}</ref> The theory was also partly based on the abundance of inscriptions bearing Celtic personal names in the Eastern Hallstatt region ([[Noricum]]). However, Patrick Sims-Williams notes that these date to the later Roman era, and says they suggest "relatively late settlement by a Celtic-speaking elite".<ref name="Sims-Williams"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>==='Celtic from the West' theory===</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>==='Celtic from the West' theory===</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>[[File:Europe late bronze age.png|thumb|upright=1.5|A map of Europe in the Bronze Age, showing the Atlantic network in red]]</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>[[File:Europe late bronze age.png|thumb|upright=1.5|A map of Europe in the Bronze Age, showing the Atlantic network in red]]</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>In the late 20th century, the Urnfield-Hallstatt theory began to fall out of favour with some scholars, which was influenced by new archaeological finds. 'Celtic' began to refer primarily to 'speakers of Celtic languages' rather than to a single culture or ethnic group.<ref name="Sims-Williams"/> A new theory suggested that Celtic languages arose earlier, along the Atlantic coast (including Britain, Ireland, [[Armorica]] and [[Iberia]]), long before evidence of 'Celtic' culture is found in archaeology. [[Myles Dillon]] and [[Nora Kershaw Chadwick]] argued that "Celtic settlement of the British Isles" might date to the [[Bell Beaker culture]] of the [[Copper Age|Copper]] and Bronze Age (from c. 2750 BC).<ref>Myles Dillon and Nora Kershaw Chadwick, ''The Celtic Realms'', 1967, 18–19</ref><ref name=cunliffewest>{{cite book|last=Cunliffe|first=Barry|title=Celtic from the West Chapter 1: Celticization from the West – The Contribution of Archaeology|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=2010|publisher=Oxbow Books<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">,</del> Oxford<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">,</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">UK</del>|isbn=978-1-84217-410-4|page=14}}</ref> [[Martín Almagro Gorbea]] (2001) also proposed that Celtic arose in the [[3rd millennium BC]], suggesting that the spread of the Bell Beaker culture explained the wide dispersion of the Celts throughout western Europe, as well as the variability of the Celtic peoples.<ref>2001 p 95. La lengua de los Celtas y otros pueblos indoeuropeos de la península ibérica. In Almagro-Gorbea, M., Mariné, M. and Álvarez-Sanchís, J.R. (eds) Celtas y Vettones, pp. 115–21. Ávila: Diputación Provincial de Ávila.</ref> Using a multidisciplinary approach, [[Alberto J. Lorrio]] and [[Gonzalo Ruiz Zapatero]] reviewed and built on Almagro Gorbea's work to present a model for the origin of Celtic archaeological groups in Iberia and proposing a rethinking of the meaning of "Celtic".<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lorrio and Ruiz Zapatero|first=Alberto J. and Gonzalo|title=The Celts in Iberia: An Overview|journal=E-Keltoi|volume=6: The Celts in the Iberian Peninsula|pages=167–254|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=2005|url=http://www4.uwm.edu/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_4/lorrio_zapatero_6_4.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110624075310/http://www4.uwm.edu/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_4/lorrio_zapatero_6_4.html|archive-date=24 June 2011|access-date=12 August 2010}}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>In the late 20th century, the Urnfield-Hallstatt theory began to fall out of favour with some scholars, which was influenced by new archaeological finds. 'Celtic' began to refer primarily to 'speakers of Celtic languages' rather than to a single culture or ethnic group.<ref name="Sims-Williams"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/> A new theory suggested that Celtic languages arose earlier, along the Atlantic coast (including Britain, Ireland, [[Armorica]] and [[Iberia]]), long before evidence of 'Celtic' culture is found in archaeology. [[Myles Dillon]] and [[Nora Kershaw Chadwick]] argued that "Celtic settlement of the British Isles" might date to the [[Bell Beaker culture]] of the [[Copper Age|Copper]] and Bronze Age (from c. 2750 BC).<ref>Myles Dillon and Nora Kershaw Chadwick, ''The Celtic Realms'', 1967, 18–19</ref><ref name=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">"</ins>cunliffewest<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">"</ins>>{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last=Cunliffe<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first=Barry<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=Celtic from the West Chapter 1: Celticization from the West – The Contribution of Archaeology<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2010<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>Oxbow Books<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]]</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|location=</ins>Oxford |isbn=978-1-84217-410-4<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|page=14}}</ref> [[Martín Almagro Gorbea]] (2001) also proposed that Celtic arose in the [[3rd millennium BC]], suggesting that the spread of the Bell Beaker culture explained the wide dispersion of the Celts throughout western Europe, as well as the variability of the Celtic peoples.<ref>2001 p 95. La lengua de los Celtas y otros pueblos indoeuropeos de la península ibérica. In Almagro-Gorbea, M., Mariné, M. and Álvarez-Sanchís, J.R. (eds) Celtas y Vettones, pp. 115–21. Ávila: Diputación Provincial de Ávila.</ref> Using a multidisciplinary approach, [[Alberto J. Lorrio]] and [[Gonzalo Ruiz Zapatero]] reviewed and built on Almagro Gorbea's work to present a model for the origin of Celtic archaeological groups in Iberia and proposing a rethinking of the meaning of "Celtic".<ref>{{cite journal<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last=Lorrio and Ruiz Zapatero<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first=Alberto J. and Gonzalo<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=The Celts in Iberia: An Overview<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|journal=E-Keltoi<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|volume=6: The Celts in the Iberian Peninsula<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|pages=167–254<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2005<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>http://www4.uwm.edu/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_4/lorrio_zapatero_6_4.html<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url-status=dead<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20110624075310/http://www4.uwm.edu/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_4/lorrio_zapatero_6_4.html<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-date=24 June 2011<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|access-date=12 August 2010}}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>[[John T. Koch]]<ref name="Koch2009">{{cite journal |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>last<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>Koch |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>first<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>John |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>title<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>Tartessian: Celtic from the Southwest at the Dawn of History in Acta Palaeohispanica X Palaeohispanica 9<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del> |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>journal<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>Palaeohispánica: Revista <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Sobre</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Lenguas</del> y <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Culturas</del> de la Hispania <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Antigua</del> |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> publisher </del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> Palaeohispanica | year = </del>2009 |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>pages<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>339–51 |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>url<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>= http://ifc.dpz.es/recursos/publicaciones/29/54/26koch.pdf |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>issn<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>1578-5386 |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>access-date<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>= 2010<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">-05-17</del> |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>url-status<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>live |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>archive-url<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>= https://web.archive.org/web/20100623034727/http://ifc.dpz.es/recursos/publicaciones/29/54/26koch.pdf |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>archive-date<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>23 June 2010}}</ref> and [[Barry Cunliffe]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Cunliffe|first=Barry|title=A Race Apart: Insularity and Connectivity in Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 75|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=2008<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|</del> publisher=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">The </del>Prehistoric Society|pages=55–64 [61]}}</ref> have developed this 'Celtic from the West' theory. It proposes that the proto-Celtic language arose along the Atlantic coast and was the ''[[lingua franca]]'' of the [[Atlantic Bronze Age]] cultural network, later spreading inland and eastward.<ref name="Sims-Williams"/> More recently, Cunliffe proposes that proto-Celtic had arisen in the Atlantic zone even earlier, by 3000 BC, and spread eastwards with the Bell Beaker culture over the following millennium. His theory is partly based on [[glottochronology]], the spread of ancient Celtic-looking placenames, and thesis that the [[Tartessian language]] was Celtic.<ref name="Sims-Williams"/> However, the proposal that Tartessian was Celtic is widely rejected by linguists, many of whom regard it as unclassified.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sims-Williams|first=Patrick|date=2020<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">-04-02</del>|title=An Alternative to 'Celtic from the East' and 'Celtic from the West'|journal=Cambridge Archaeological Journal|volume=30|issue=3|pages=511–529|doi=10.1017/s0959774320000098|s2cid=216484936|issn=0959-7743|doi-access=free|hdl=2160/317fdc72-f7ad-4a66-8335-db8f5d911437|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Hoz|first=J. de|title=Method and methods|date=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2019-02-</del>28|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198790822.003.0001|work=Palaeohispanic Languages and Epigraphies|pages=1–24|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198790822.003.0001|isbn=978-0-19-879082-2|access-date=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2021-05-</del>29}}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>[[John T. Koch]]<ref name="Koch2009">{{cite journal |last=Koch |first=John<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> T.</ins> |title=Tartessian: Celtic from the Southwest at the Dawn of History in Acta Palaeohispanica X Palaeohispanica 9 |journal=Palaeohispánica: Revista <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">sobre</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">lenguas</ins> y <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">culturas</ins> de la Hispania <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">antigua</ins> |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2009 |pages=339–51 |url= http://ifc.dpz.es/recursos/publicaciones/29/54/26koch.pdf |issn=1578-5386 |access-date=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">17 May</ins> 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100623034727/http://ifc.dpz.es/recursos/publicaciones/29/54/26koch.pdf |archive-date=23 June 2010}}</ref> and [[Barry Cunliffe]]<ref>{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last=Cunliffe<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first=Barry<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=A Race Apart: Insularity and Connectivity in Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 75<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2008 <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|</ins>publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>Prehistoric Society<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]] </ins>|pages=55–64 [61]}}</ref> have developed this 'Celtic from the West' theory. It proposes that the proto-Celtic language arose along the Atlantic coast and was the ''[[lingua franca]]'' of the [[Atlantic Bronze Age]] cultural network, later spreading inland and eastward.<ref name="Sims-Williams"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/> More recently, Cunliffe proposes that proto-Celtic had arisen in the Atlantic zone even earlier, by 3000 BC, and spread eastwards with the Bell Beaker culture over the following millennium. His theory is partly based on [[glottochronology]], the spread of ancient Celtic-looking placenames, and thesis that the [[Tartessian language]] was Celtic.<ref name="Sims-Williams"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/> However, the proposal that Tartessian was Celtic is widely rejected by linguists, many of whom regard it as unclassified.<ref>{{Cite journal<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last=Sims-Williams<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first=Patrick<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|date=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2 April </ins>2020<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=An Alternative to 'Celtic from the East' and 'Celtic from the West'<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|journal=Cambridge Archaeological Journal<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|volume=30<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|issue=3<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|pages=511–529<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|doi=10.1017/s0959774320000098<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|s2cid=216484936<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|issn=0959-7743<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|doi-access=free<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|hdl=2160/317fdc72-f7ad-4a66-8335-db8f5d911437<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Citation<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last=Hoz<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first=J. de<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=Method and methods<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|date=28<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> February 2019 </ins>|url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198790822.003.0001<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|work=Palaeohispanic Languages and Epigraphies<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|pages=1–24<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>Oxford University Press<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]] </ins>|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198790822.003.0001<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|isbn=978-0-19-879082-2<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|access-date=29<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> May 2021</ins>}}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>==='Celtic from the Centre' theory===</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>==='Celtic from the Centre' theory===</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>Celticist Patrick Sims-Williams (2020) notes that in current scholarship, 'Celt' is primarily a linguistic label. In his 'Celtic from the Centre' theory, he argues that the proto-Celtic language did not originate in central Europe nor the Atlantic, but in-between these two regions. He suggests that it "emerged as a distinct Indo-European dialect around the [[second millennium BC]], probably somewhere in [[Gaul]] [centered in modern France]<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> [</del>...<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]</del> whence it spread in various directions and at various speeds in the [[first millennium BC]]". Sims-Williams says this avoids the problematic idea "that Celtic was spoken over a vast area for a very long time yet somehow avoided major dialectal splits", and "it keeps Celtic fairly close to Italy, which suits the view that [[Italo-Celtic|Italic and Celtic were in some way linked]]".<ref name="Sims-Williams"/></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>Celticist Patrick Sims-Williams (2020) notes that in current scholarship, 'Celt' is primarily a linguistic label. In his 'Celtic from the Centre' theory, he argues that the proto-Celtic language did not originate in central Europe nor the Atlantic, but in-between these two regions. He suggests that it "emerged as a distinct Indo-European dialect around the [[second millennium BC]], probably somewhere in [[Gaul]] [centered in modern France]<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">&nbsp;</ins>... whence it spread in various directions and at various speeds in the [[first millennium BC]]". Sims-Williams says this avoids the problematic idea "that Celtic was spoken over a vast area for a very long time yet somehow avoided major dialectal splits", and "it keeps Celtic fairly close to Italy, which suits the view that [[Italo-Celtic|Italic and Celtic were in some way linked]]".<ref name="Sims-Williams"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>===Linguistic evidence===</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>===Linguistic evidence===</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 82:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 81:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>{{Further|Celtic toponymy}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>{{Further|Celtic toponymy}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>The [[Proto-Celtic language]] is usually dated to the Late Bronze Age.<ref name=ChadCorc/> The earliest records of a Celtic language are the [[Lepontic]] inscriptions of [[Cisalpine Gaul]] (Northern Italy), the oldest of which pre-date the [[La Tène period]]. Other early inscriptions, appearing from the early La Tène period in the area of [[Marseilles|Massilia]], are in [[Gaulish language|Gaulish]], which was written in the [[Greek alphabet]] until the Roman conquest. [[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]] inscriptions, using their own Iberian script, appear later, after about 200 BC. Evidence of [[Insular Celtic]] is available only from about 400 AD, in the form of [[Primitive Irish]] [[Ogham inscriptions]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>The [[Proto-Celtic language]] is usually dated to the Late Bronze Age.<ref name=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">"</ins>ChadCorc<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">" </ins>/> The earliest records of a Celtic language are the [[Lepontic]] inscriptions of [[Cisalpine Gaul]] (Northern Italy), the oldest of which pre-date the [[La Tène period]]. Other early inscriptions, appearing from the early La Tène period in the area of [[Marseilles|Massilia]], are in [[Gaulish language|Gaulish]], which was written in the [[Greek alphabet]] until the Roman conquest. [[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]] inscriptions, using their own Iberian script, appear later, after about 200 BC. Evidence of [[Insular Celtic]] is available only from about 400 AD, in the form of [[Primitive Irish]] [[Ogham inscriptions]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>Besides epigraphic evidence, an important source of information on early Celtic is [[toponymy]] (place names).<ref>e.g. Patrick Sims-Williams, ''Ancient Celtic Placenames in Europe and Asia Minor'', Publications of the [[Philological Society]], No. 39 (2006);</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>Besides epigraphic evidence, an important source of information on early Celtic is [[toponymy]] (place names).<ref>e.g. Patrick Sims-Williams, ''Ancient Celtic Placenames in Europe and Asia Minor'', Publications of the [[Philological Society]], No. 39 (2006);</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>Bethany Fox, 'The P-Celtic Place-Names of North-East England and South-East Scotland', ''The Heroic Age'', 10 (2007), {{cite web |url=http://www.heroicage.org/issues/10/fox.html |title=Fox—The P-Celtic Place-Names of North-East England and South-East Scotland |access-date=2018<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">-01-09</del> |url-status=live |archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20180111041001/http://www.heroicage.org/issues/10/fox.html |archive-date=11 January 2018}} (also available at [http://www.alarichall.org.uk/placenames/fox.htm Fox: P-Celtic Place-Names]).{{Dead link|date=July 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>Bethany Fox, 'The P-Celtic Place-Names of North-East England and South-East Scotland', ''The Heroic Age'', 10 (2007), {{cite web |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>http://www.heroicage.org/issues/10/fox.html |title=Fox—The P-Celtic Place-Names of North-East England and South-East Scotland |access-date=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">9 January </ins>2018 |url-status=live |archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20180111041001/http://www.heroicage.org/issues/10/fox.html |archive-date=11 January 2018}} (also available at [http://www.alarichall.org.uk/placenames/fox.htm Fox: P-Celtic Place-Names]).{{Dead link|date=July 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>See also [[List of Celtic place names in Portugal]].</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>See also [[List of Celtic place names in Portugal]].<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"></ref></ins></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div></ref></div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>===Genetic evidence===</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>===Genetic evidence===</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 93:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 91:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>Arnaiz-Villena et al. (2017) demonstrated that Celtic-related populations of the European Atlantic (Orkney Islands, Scottish, Irish, British, Bretons, Basques, Galicians) shared a common [[HLA system]].{{clarify|date=January 2022}}<ref>International Journal of Modern Anthropology Int. J. Mod. Anthrop. (2017) 10: 50–72 HLA Genes in Atlantic Celtic populations: Are Celts Iberians? Available online at: www.ata.org.tn</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>Arnaiz-Villena et al. (2017) demonstrated that Celtic-related populations of the European Atlantic (Orkney Islands, Scottish, Irish, British, Bretons, Basques, Galicians) shared a common [[HLA system]].{{clarify|date=January 2022}}<ref>International Journal of Modern Anthropology Int. J. Mod. Anthrop. (2017) 10: 50–72 HLA Genes in Atlantic Celtic populations: Are Celts Iberians? Available online at: www.ata.org.tn</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>Other genetic research does not support the notion of a significant genetic link between these populations, beyond the fact that they are all West Europeans. [[Early European Farmers]] did settle Britain (and all of Northern Europe) in the [[Neolithic]]; however, recent genetics research has found that, between 2400 and 2000 BC, over 90% of British DNA was overturned by [[Western Steppe Herders|European Steppe Herders]] in a migration that brought large amounts of Steppe DNA (including the [[Haplogroup R-L21|R1b haplogroup]]) to western Europe.<ref name="Olalde et al.">{{cite bioRxiv |last1=Olalde |first1=I |display-authors=et. al |date=May 2017|title=The Beaker Phenomenon and the Genomic Transformation of Northwest Europe|biorxiv=10.1101/135962}}</ref> Modern autosomal genetic clustering is testament to this fact, as both modern and Iron Age British and Irish samples cluster genetically very closely with other North Europeans, and less so with Galicians, Basques or those from the south of France.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Novembre |first1=J |last2=Johnson |first2=T |last3=Bryc |first3=K |title=Genes mirror geography within Europe |journal=Nature |volume=456 |issue=7218 |pages=98–101 |date=November 2008 |pmid=18758442 |doi=10.1038/nature07331 |pmc=2735096|bibcode<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>2008Natur.456...98N |display-authors=1 |last4=Kutalik |last5=Boyko |first5=AR |last6=Auton |first6=A |last7=Indap |first7=A |last8=King |first8=KS |last9=Bergmann |first9=S |last10=Nelson |first10=MR |last11=Stephens |first11=M |last12=Bustamante|first12=CD}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |vauthors=Lao O, Lu TT, Nothnagel M |title=Correlation between genetic and geographic structure in Europe |journal=Curr. Biol. |volume=18 |issue=16 |pages=1241–48 |date=August 2008 |pmid=18691889 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2008.07.049 |s2cid=16945780 |display-authors=etal|doi-access=free |bibcode=2008CBio...18.1241L<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>}}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>Other genetic research does not support the notion of a significant genetic link between these populations, beyond the fact that they are all West Europeans. [[Early European Farmers]] did settle Britain (and all of Northern Europe) in the [[Neolithic]]; however, recent genetics research has found that, between 2400 and 2000 BC, over 90% of British DNA was overturned by [[Western Steppe Herders|European Steppe Herders]] in a migration that brought large amounts of Steppe DNA (including the [[Haplogroup R-L21|R1b haplogroup]]) to western Europe.<ref name="Olalde et al.">{{cite bioRxiv |last1=Olalde |first1=I |display-authors=et. al |date=May 2017<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=The Beaker Phenomenon and the Genomic Transformation of Northwest Europe<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|biorxiv=10.1101/135962}}</ref> Modern autosomal genetic clustering is testament to this fact, as both modern and Iron Age British and Irish samples cluster genetically very closely with other North Europeans, and less so with Galicians, Basques or those from the south of France.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Novembre |first1=J |last2=Johnson |first2=T |last3=Bryc |first3=K |title=Genes mirror geography within Europe |journal=Nature |volume=456 |issue=7218 |pages=98–101 |date=November 2008 |pmid=18758442 |doi=10.1038/nature07331 |pmc=2735096<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|bibcode=2008Natur.456...98N |display-authors=1 |last4=Kutalik |last5=Boyko |first5=AR |last6=Auton |first6=A |last7=Indap |first7=A |last8=King |first8=KS |last9=Bergmann |first9=S |last10=Nelson |first10=MR |last11=Stephens |first11=M |last12=Bustamante<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first12=CD}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |vauthors=Lao O, Lu TT, Nothnagel M |title=Correlation between genetic and geographic structure in Europe |journal=Curr. Biol. |volume=18 |issue=16 |pages=1241–48 |date=August 2008 |pmid=18691889 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2008.07.049 |s2cid=16945780 |display-authors=etal<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|doi-access=free |bibcode=2008CBio...18.1241L}}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>===Archaeological evidence===</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>===Archaeological evidence===</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 110:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 108:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>| footer = </div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>| footer = </div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>The concept that the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures could be seen not just as chronological periods but as "Culture Groups", entities composed of people of the same ethnicity and language, had started to grow by the end of the 19th century. At the beginning of the 20th century the belief that these "Culture Groups" could be thought of in racial or ethnic terms was held by [[Gordon Childe]], whose theory was influenced by the writings of [[Gustaf Kossinna]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EZ7Gj2ocIEsC&pg=PA346|title=Milestones in Archaeology: A Chronological Encyclopedia|page=346|date=2007|access-date=2010<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">-10-02</del>|isbn=978-1-57607-186-1|last1=Murray|first1=Tim|publisher=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Abc</del>-<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Clio</del> |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111222214917/http://books.google.com/books?id=EZ7Gj2ocIEsC&pg=PA346&dq=%22Gordon+Childe%22+la+tene|archive-date=22 December 2011}}</ref> As the 20th century progressed, the ethnic interpretation of La Tène culture became more strongly rooted, and any findings of La Tène culture and flat inhumation cemeteries were linked to the Celts and the Celtic language.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bQMxOC66jvsC&pg=PA48 |title=Prehistoric Europe: Theory and Practice|page=48 |access-date=2010<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">-10-02</del>|isbn=978-1-4051-2597-0|last1=Jones|first1=Andrew|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>}}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>The concept that the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures could be seen not just as chronological periods but as "Culture Groups", entities composed of people of the same ethnicity and language, had started to grow by the end of the 19th century. At the beginning of the 20th century the belief that these "Culture Groups" could be thought of in racial or ethnic terms was held by [[Gordon Childe]], whose theory was influenced by the writings of [[Gustaf Kossinna]].<ref>{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://books.google.com/books?id=EZ7Gj2ocIEsC&pg=PA346<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=Milestones in Archaeology: A Chronological Encyclopedia<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|page=346<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|date=2007<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|access-date=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2 October </ins>2010<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|isbn=978-1-57607-186-1<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last1=Murray<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first1=Tim<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[ABC</ins>-<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">CLIO]]</ins> |url-status=live<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20111222214917/http://books.google.com/books?id=EZ7Gj2ocIEsC&pg=PA346&dq=%22Gordon+Childe%22+la+tene<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-date=22 December 2011}}</ref> As the 20th century progressed, the ethnic interpretation of La Tène culture became more strongly rooted, and any findings of La Tène culture and flat inhumation cemeteries were linked to the Celts and the Celtic language.<ref>{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://books.google.com/books?id=bQMxOC66jvsC&pg=PA48 |title=Prehistoric Europe: Theory and Practice<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|page=48 |access-date=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2 October </ins>2010<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|isbn=978-1-4051-2597-0<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last1=Jones<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first1=Andrew<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2008<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>John Wiley & Sons<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]]</ins>}}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div></div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>In various{{Clarify|date=July 2010}} [[List of academic disciplines|academic disciplines]] the Celts were considered a Central European Iron Age phenomenon, through the cultures of Hallstatt and La Tène. However, archaeological finds from the Halstatt and La Tène culture were rare in Iberia, southwestern France, northern and western Britain, southern Ireland and Galatia<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jEJyWT1gwg0C&pg=PA5|title=pg5|access-date=2010<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">-10-02</del>|isbn=978-0-415-35177-5|last1=Harding|first1=Dennis William|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=2007|publisher=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Roultedge</del> |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111222210715/http://books.google.com/books?id=jEJyWT1gwg0C&pg=PA5&dq=no+la+tene+in+western+france|archive-date=22 December 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f899xH_quaMC&pg=PA386 |title=Celtic Culture: A-Celti|page=386 |access-date=2010<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">-10-02</del> |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111222191026/http://books.google.com/books?id=f899xH_quaMC&pg=PA386&dq=no+la+tene+in+south+ireland#v=onepage&q=no%20la%20tene%20in%20south%20ireland&f=false |archive-date=22 December 2011|isbn=978-1-85109-440-0 |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=2006 |publisher=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Abc</del>-<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Clio </del>}}</ref> and did not provide enough evidence for a culture like that of Central Europe. It is equally difficult to maintain that the origin of the Iberian Celts can be linked to the preceding Urnfield culture. This has resulted in a newer theory that introduces a 'proto-Celtic' substratum and a process of Celticisation, having its initial roots in the Bronze Age [[Bell Beaker culture]].<ref name=Lorrio>{{cite web |url=http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_4/lorrio_zapatero_6_4.html |title=Center for Celtic Studies &#124; UW-Milwaukee |access-date=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2006-04-</del>27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060819015554/http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_4/lorrio_zapatero_6_4.html |archive-date=19 August 2006}} The Celts in Iberia: An Overview – Alberto J. Lorrio (Universidad de Alicante) & Gonzalo Ruiz Zapatero ([[Complutense University of Madrid|Universidad Complutense de Madrid]]) – Journal of Interdisciplinary [[Celtic studies]], Volume 6: 167–254 The Celts in the Iberian Peninsula, 1 February 2005</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>In various{{Clarify|date=July 2010}} [[List of academic disciplines|academic disciplines]] the Celts were considered a Central European Iron Age phenomenon, through the cultures of Hallstatt and La Tène. However, archaeological finds from the Halstatt and La Tène culture were rare in Iberia, southwestern France, northern and western Britain, southern Ireland and Galatia<ref>{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://books.google.com/books?id=jEJyWT1gwg0C&pg=PA5<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=pg5<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|access-date=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2 October </ins>2010<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|isbn=978-0-415-35177-5<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last1=Harding<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first1=Dennis William<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2007<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[Routledge]]</ins> |url-status=live<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20111222210715/http://books.google.com/books?id=jEJyWT1gwg0C&pg=PA5&dq=no+la+tene+in+western+france<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-date=22 December 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://books.google.com/books?id=f899xH_quaMC&pg=PA386 |title=Celtic Culture: A-Celti<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|page=386 |access-date=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2 October </ins>2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20111222191026/http://books.google.com/books?id=f899xH_quaMC&pg=PA386&dq=no+la+tene+in+south+ireland#v=onepage&q=no%20la%20tene%20in%20south%20ireland&f=false |archive-date=22 December 2011<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|isbn=978-1-85109-440-0 |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2006 |publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[ABC</ins>-<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">CLIO]]</ins>}}</ref> and did not provide enough evidence for a culture like that of Central Europe. It is equally difficult to maintain that the origin of the Iberian Celts can be linked to the preceding Urnfield culture. This has resulted in a newer theory that introduces a 'proto-Celtic' substratum and a process of Celticisation, having its initial roots in the Bronze Age [[Bell Beaker culture]].<ref name=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">"</ins>Lorrio<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">"</ins>>{{cite web |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_4/lorrio_zapatero_6_4.html |title=Center for Celtic Studies &#124; UW-Milwaukee |access-date=27<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> April 2006</ins> |url-status=dead |archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20060819015554/http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_4/lorrio_zapatero_6_4.html |archive-date=19 August 2006}} The Celts in Iberia: An Overview – Alberto J. Lorrio (Universidad de Alicante) & Gonzalo Ruiz Zapatero ([[Complutense University of Madrid|Universidad Complutense de Madrid]]) – Journal of Interdisciplinary [[Celtic studies]], Volume 6: 167–254 The Celts in the Iberian Peninsula, 1 February 2005</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>The La Tène culture developed and flourished during the late Iron Age (from 450 BC to the Roman conquest in the 1st century BC) in eastern France, Switzerland, Austria, southwest Germany, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary. It developed out of the Hallstatt culture without any definite cultural break, under the impetus of considerable Mediterranean influence from [[Ancient Greece|Greek]], and later [[Etruscan civilisation]]s. A shift of settlement centres took place in the 4th century. The western La Tène culture corresponds to historical [[Gaul|Celtic Gaul]]. Whether this means that the whole of La Tène culture can be attributed to a unified Celtic people is difficult to assess; archaeologists have repeatedly concluded that language and material culture do not necessarily run parallel. Frey notes that in the 5th century, "burial customs in the Celtic world were not uniform; rather, localised groups had their own beliefs, which, in consequence, also gave rise to distinct artistic expressions".<ref>*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110517084539/http://www.ria.ie/publications/journals/journaldb/index.asp?select=fulltext&id=100427. Otto Hermann Frey, "A new approach to early Celtic art"]. Setting the Glauberg finds in context of shifting iconography, [[Royal Irish Academy]] (2004)</ref> Thus, while the La Tène culture is certainly associated with the [[Gauls]], the presence of La Tène artefacts may be due to cultural contact and does not imply the permanent presence of Celtic speakers.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>The La Tène culture developed and flourished during the late Iron Age (from 450 BC to the Roman conquest in the 1st century BC) in eastern France, Switzerland, Austria, southwest Germany, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary. It developed out of the Hallstatt culture without any definite cultural break, under the impetus of considerable Mediterranean influence from [[Ancient Greece|Greek]], and later [[Etruscan civilisation]]s. A shift of settlement centres took place in the 4th century. The western La Tène culture corresponds to historical [[Gaul|Celtic Gaul]]. Whether this means that the whole of La Tène culture can be attributed to a unified Celtic people is difficult to assess; archaeologists have repeatedly concluded that language and material culture do not necessarily run parallel. Frey notes that in the 5th century, "burial customs in the Celtic world were not uniform; rather, localised groups had their own beliefs, which, in consequence, also gave rise to distinct artistic expressions".<ref>*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110517084539/http://www.ria.ie/publications/journals/journaldb/index.asp?select=fulltext&id=100427. Otto Hermann Frey, "A new approach to early Celtic art"]. Setting the Glauberg finds in context of shifting iconography, [[Royal Irish Academy]] (2004)</ref> Thus, while the La Tène culture is certainly associated with the [[Gauls]], the presence of La Tène artefacts may be due to cultural contact and does not imply the permanent presence of Celtic speakers.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 119:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 117:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>===Historical evidence===</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>===Historical evidence===</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>[[File:Herodotus world map-en.svg|thumb|The world according to [[Herodotus]]]]</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>[[File:Herodotus world map-en.svg|thumb|The world according to [[Herodotus]]]]</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>The Greek historian [[Ephorus]] of Cyme in [[Asia Minor]], writing in the 4th century BC, believed the Celts came from the islands off the mouth of the [[Rhine]] and were "driven from their homes by the frequency of wars and the violent rising of the sea". [[Polybius]] published a [[history of Rome]] about 150 BC in which he describes the Gauls of Italy and their conflict with Rome. [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] in the 2nd century AD says that the Gauls "originally called Celts", "live on the remotest region of Europe on the coast of an enormous tidal sea". [[Posidonius]] described the southern Gauls about 100 BC. Though his original work is lost, later writers such as [[Strabo]] used it. The latter, writing in the early 1st century AD, deals with Britain and Gaul as well as Hispania, Italy and Galatia. [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]] wrote extensively about his [[Commentarii de Bello Gallico|Gallic Wars]] in 58–51 BC. [[Diodorus Siculus]] wrote about the Celts of Gaul and Britain in his 1st-century history.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>The Greek historian [[Ephorus]] of Cyme in [[Asia Minor]], writing in the 4th century BC, believed the Celts came from the islands off the mouth of the [[Rhine]] and were "driven from their homes by the frequency of wars and the violent rising of the sea". [[Polybius]] published a [[history of Rome]] about 150 BC in which he describes the Gauls of Italy and their conflict with Rome. [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] in the 2nd century AD says that the Gauls "originally called Celts", "live on the remotest region of Europe on the coast of an enormous tidal sea". [[Posidonius]] described the southern Gauls about 100 BC. Though his original work is lost, later writers such as [[Strabo]] used it. The latter, writing in the early 1st century AD, deals with Britain and Gaul as well as Hispania, Italy<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">,</ins> and Galatia. [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]] wrote extensively about his [[Commentarii de Bello Gallico|Gallic Wars]] in 58–51 BC. [[Diodorus Siculus]] wrote about the Celts of Gaul and Britain in his 1st-century history.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>[[Diodorus Siculus]] and [[Strabo]] both suggest that the heartland of the people they call Celts was in [[<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">southern</del> France|southern Gaul]]. The former says that the Gauls were to the north of the Celts, but that the Romans referred to both as Gauls (linguistically the Gauls were certainly Celts). Before the discoveries at Hallstatt and La Tène, it was generally considered that the Celtic heartland was southern Gaul, see [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] for 1813.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>[[Diodorus Siculus]] and [[Strabo]] both suggest that the heartland of the people they call Celts was in [[<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Southern</ins> France|southern Gaul]]. The former says that the Gauls were to the north of the Celts, but that the Romans referred to both as Gauls (linguistically the Gauls were certainly Celts). Before the discoveries at Hallstatt and La Tène, it was generally considered that the Celtic heartland was southern Gaul, see [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] for 1813.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>==Distribution==</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>==Distribution==</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 131:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 129:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>The Romans knew the Celts then living in present-day France as Gauls. The territory of these peoples probably included the [[Low Countries]], the Alps and present-day northern Italy. [[Julius Caesar]] in his ''[[Commentarii de Bello Gallico|Gallic Wars]]'' described the 1st-century BC descendants of those Gauls.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>The Romans knew the Celts then living in present-day France as Gauls. The territory of these peoples probably included the [[Low Countries]], the Alps and present-day northern Italy. [[Julius Caesar]] in his ''[[Commentarii de Bello Gallico|Gallic Wars]]'' described the 1st-century BC descendants of those Gauls.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>Eastern Gaul became the centre of the western La Tène culture. In later Iron Age Gaul, the social organisation resembled that of the Romans, with large towns. From the 3rd century BC the Gauls adopted coinage. Texts with Greek characters from southern Gaul have survived from the 2nd century BC.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Arrival of Celts - France - SpottingHistory.com |url=https://www.spottinghistory.com/historicalperiod/celts-arrival-france/ |access-date=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2022-10-</del>14 |website=www.spottinghistory.com |language=en |archive-date=14 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221014141240/https://www.spottinghistory.com/historicalperiod/celts-arrival-france/ |url-status=live<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>}}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>Eastern Gaul became the centre of the western La Tène culture. In later Iron Age Gaul, the social organisation resembled that of the Romans, with large towns. From the 3rd century BC the Gauls adopted coinage. Texts with Greek characters from southern Gaul have survived from the 2nd century BC.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Arrival of Celts - France - SpottingHistory.com |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://www.spottinghistory.com/historicalperiod/celts-arrival-france/ |access-date=14<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> October 2022</ins> |website=www.spottinghistory.com |language=en |archive-date=14 October 2022 |archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20221014141240/https://www.spottinghistory.com/historicalperiod/celts-arrival-france/ |url-status=live}}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>Greek traders founded [[Marseille|Massalia]] about 600 BC, with some objects (mostly drinking ceramic vessels) being traded up the [[Rhône]] valley. But trade became disrupted soon after 500 BC and re-oriented over the Alps to the Po valley in the Italian peninsula. The [[Roman Empire|Romans]] arrived in the Rhone valley in the 2nd century BC and encountered a mostly Celtic-speaking Gaul. Rome wanted land communications with its Iberian provinces and fought a major battle with the [[Saluvii]] at [[Entremont (oppidum)|Entremont]] in 124–123 BC. Gradually Roman control extended, and the [[Roman province]] of [[Gallia Narbonensis|Gallia Transalpina]] developed along the Mediterranean coast.<ref>{{cite book|last=Dietler|first=Michael|title=Archaeologies of Colonialism: Consumption, Entanglement, and Violence in Ancient Mediterranean France|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=2010|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-26551-6}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>Greek traders founded [[Marseille|Massalia]] about 600 BC, with some objects (mostly drinking ceramic vessels) being traded up the [[Rhône]] valley. But trade became disrupted soon after 500 BC and re-oriented over the Alps to the Po valley in the Italian peninsula. The [[Roman Empire|Romans]] arrived in the Rhone valley in the 2nd century BC and encountered a mostly Celtic-speaking Gaul. Rome wanted land communications with its Iberian provinces and fought a major battle with the [[Saluvii]] at [[Entremont (oppidum)|Entremont]] in 124–123 BC. Gradually Roman control extended, and the [[Roman province]] of [[Gallia Narbonensis|Gallia Transalpina]] developed along the Mediterranean coast.<ref>{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last=Dietler<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first=Michael<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=Archaeologies of Colonialism: Consumption, Entanglement, and Violence in Ancient Mediterranean France<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2010<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>University of California Press<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]] </ins>|isbn=978-0-520-26551-6}}<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"></ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Dietler |first=Michael |title=Consumption and Colonial Encounters in the Rhône Basin of France: A Study of Early Iron Age Political Economy |date=2005 |series=Monographies d'Archéologie Meditérranéenne |volume=21 |publisher=[[French National Centre for Scientific Research]] |isbn=978-2-912369-10-9}}</ref> The Romans knew the remainder of Gaul as {{lang|la|[[Gallia Comata]]}}, 'Long-haired Gaul'.<ref>{{cite web |title=Gallia Comata {{!}} Gaul, Celtic Tribes, Julius Caesar |url= https://www.britannica.com/place/Gallia-Comata |website=[[Britannica.com]]}}</ref></ins></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div></ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Dietler|first=Michael|title=Consumption and Colonial Encounters in the Rhône Basin of France: A Study of Early Iron Age Political Economy|year=2005|publisher=Monographies d'Archéologie Meditérranéenne, 21, CNRS, France|isbn=978-2-912369-10-9}}</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div></ref> The Romans knew the remainder of Gaul as [[Gallia Comata]] – "Long-haired Gaul."<ref>{{cite web |title=Gallia Comata {{!}} Gaul, Celtic Tribes, Julius Caesar {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Gallia-Comata |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref></div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>In 58 BC the [[Helvetii]] planned to migrate westward but Julius Caesar forced them back. He then became involved in fighting the various tribes in Gaul, and by 55 BC had overrun most of Gaul. In 52 BC [[Vercingetorix]] led a revolt against Roman occupation but was defeated at the [[Battle of Alesia]] and surrendered.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vercingetorix {{!}} Gallic chieftain {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Vercingetorix |access-date=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2022-10-</del>22 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en |archive-date=22 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221022001419/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Vercingetorix |url-status=live }}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>In 58 BC<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">,</ins> the [[Helvetii]] planned to migrate westward but Julius Caesar forced them back. He then became involved in fighting the various tribes in Gaul, and by 55 BC had overrun most of Gaul. In 52 BC<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">,</ins> [[Vercingetorix]] led a revolt against Roman occupation but was defeated at the [[Battle of Alesia]] and surrendered.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vercingetorix {{!}} Gallic chieftain {{!}} Britannica |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://www.britannica.com/biography/Vercingetorix |access-date=22<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> October 2022</ins> |website=www.britannica.com |language=en |archive-date=22 October 2022 |archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20221022001419/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Vercingetorix |url-status=live }}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>Following the Gallic Wars of 58–51 BC, Caesar's ''[[Gallia Celtica|Celtica]]'' formed the main part of Roman Gaul, becoming the province of [[Gallia Lugdunensis]]. This territory of the Celtic tribes was bounded on the south by the Garonne and on the north by the Seine and the Marne.<ref>{{cite book|last=Cunliffe|first=Barry|title=The Celts|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=2003|publisher=Oxford Press|isbn=978-0-19-280418-1|page=75}}</ref> The Romans attached large swathes of this region to neighbouring provinces [[Belgica]] and [[Aquitania]], particularly under [[Augustus]].{{<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Citation</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">needed</del>|date=April <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2022</del>}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>Following the Gallic Wars of 58–51 BC, Caesar's ''[[Gallia Celtica|Celtica]]'' formed the main part of Roman Gaul, becoming the province of [[Gallia Lugdunensis]]. This territory of the Celtic tribes was bounded on the south by the Garonne and on the north by the Seine and the Marne.<ref>{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last=Cunliffe<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first=Barry<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=The Celts<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2003<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>Oxford<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> University</ins> Press<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]] </ins>|isbn=978-0-19-280418-1<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|page=75}}</ref> The Romans attached large swathes of this region to neighbouring provinces [[Belgica]] and [[Aquitania]], particularly under [[Augustus]].<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"><ref></ins>{{<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Cite book |last=Drinkwater |first=John |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=AfpQAwAAQBAJ&q=Belgica+and+Aquitania+augustus |title=Roman Gaul (Routledge Revivals): The Three Provinces, 58 BC-AD 260</ins> |date=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">8 </ins>April <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2014 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-317-75074-1 |language=en</ins>}}<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"></ref></ins></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>Place- and personal-name analysis and inscriptions suggest that [[Gaulish]] was spoken over most of what is now France.<ref>{{cite book|last=Cunliffe|first=Barry|title=The Celts|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=2003|publisher=Oxford Press|isbn=978-0-19-280418-1|page=52}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Dietler|first=Michael|title=Archaeologies of Colonialism: Consumption, Entanglement, and Violence in Ancient Mediterranean France|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=2010|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-26551-6|pages=75–94}}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>Place- and personal-name analysis and inscriptions suggest that [[Gaulish]] was spoken over most of what is now France.<ref>{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last=Cunliffe<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first=Barry<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=The Celts<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2003<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>Oxford<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> University</ins> Press<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]] </ins>|isbn=978-0-19-280418-1<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|page=52}}</ref><ref>{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last=Dietler<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first=Michael<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=Archaeologies of Colonialism: Consumption, Entanglement, and Violence in Ancient Mediterranean France<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2010<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>University of California Press<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]] </ins>|isbn=978-0-520-26551-6<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|pages=75–94}}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>====Iberia====</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>====Iberia====</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 148:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 144:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>{{See also|Castro culture|Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula|Prehistoric Iberia|Hispania|Lusitania|Gallaecia|Celtici|Vettones}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>{{See also|Castro culture|Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula|Prehistoric Iberia|Hispania|Lusitania|Gallaecia|Celtici|Vettones}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>Until the end of the 19th century, traditional scholarship dealing with the Celts did acknowledge their presence in the Iberian Peninsula<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K_fmF-Rpt0QC&q=celts+portuguese&pg=PA50|title=Chambers's information for the people |page=50|access-date=2010<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">-10-02</del>|last1=Chambers|first1=William|last2=Chambers|first2=Robert|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=1842|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722091012/http://books.google.com/books?id=K_fmF-Rpt0QC&pg=PA50&dq=celts+portuguese|archive-date=22 July 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rTEEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA505|title=Brownson's Quarterly Review |page=505|access-date=2010<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">-10-02</del>|last1=Brownson|first1=Orestes Augustus|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=1859|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111222192128/http://books.google.com/books?id=rTEEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA505&dq=portuguese+celts|archive-date=22 December 2011}}</ref> as a [[Archaeological culture|material culture]] relatable to the [[Hallstatt culture|Hallstatt]] and [[La Tène culture|La Tène]] cultures. However, since according to the definition of the [[Iron Age]] in the 19th century Celtic populations were supposedly rare in Iberia and did not provide a cultural scenario that could easily be linked to that of Central Europe, the presence of Celtic culture in that region was generally not fully recognised. Modern scholarship, however, has<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> clearly</del> proven that Celtic presence and influences were most substantial in what is today Spain and [[Portugal]] (with perhaps the highest settlement saturation in Western Europe), particularly in the central, western and northern regions.<ref name=Quintela>{{cite journal|url=http://www4.uwm.edu/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_10/garcia_quintela_6_10.html|title=Celtic Elements in Northwestern Spain in Pre-Roman times|journal=E-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies|volume=6|issue=1|last=Quintela|first=Marco V. García|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=2005|publisher=Center for Celtic Studies, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee|access-date=12 May 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110106071447/http://www4.uwm.edu/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_10/garcia_quintela_6_10.html|archive-date=6 January 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www4.uwm.edu/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_12/olivares_6_12.html|title=Celtic Gods of the Iberian Peninsula|journal=E-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies|volume=6|issue=1|last=Pedreño|first=Juan Carlos Olivares|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=2005|access-date=12 May 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090924025843/http://www4.uwm.edu/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_12/olivares_6_12.html|archive-date=24 September 2009}}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>Until the end of the 19th century, traditional scholarship dealing with the Celts did acknowledge their presence in the Iberian Peninsula<ref>{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://books.google.com/books?id=K_fmF-Rpt0QC&q=celts+portuguese&pg=PA50<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=Chambers's information for the people |page=50<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|access-date=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2 October </ins>2010<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last1=Chambers<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first1=William<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last2=Chambers<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first2=Robert<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=1842<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url-status=live<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20110722091012/http://books.google.com/books?id=K_fmF-Rpt0QC&pg=PA50&dq=celts+portuguese<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-date=22 July 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://books.google.com/books?id=rTEEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA505<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=Brownson's Quarterly Review |page=505<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|access-date=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2 October </ins>2010<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last1=Brownson<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first1=Orestes Augustus<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=1859<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url-status=live<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20111222192128/http://books.google.com/books?id=rTEEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA505&dq=portuguese+celts<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-date=22 December 2011}}</ref> as a [[Archaeological culture|material culture]] relatable to the [[Hallstatt culture|Hallstatt]] and [[La Tène culture|La Tène]] cultures. However, since according to the definition of the [[Iron Age]] in the 19th century Celtic populations were supposedly rare in Iberia and did not provide a cultural scenario that could easily be linked to that of Central Europe, the presence of Celtic culture in that region was generally not fully recognised. Modern scholarship, however, has proven that Celtic presence and influences were most substantial in what is today Spain and [[Portugal]] (with perhaps the highest settlement saturation in Western Europe), particularly in the central, western and northern regions.<ref name=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">"</ins>Quintela<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">"</ins>>{{cite journal<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>http://www4.uwm.edu/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_10/garcia_quintela_6_10.html<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=Celtic Elements in Northwestern Spain in Pre-Roman times<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|journal=E-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|volume=6<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|issue=1<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last=Quintela<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first=Marco V. García<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2005<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|publisher=Center for Celtic Studies, <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]] </ins>|access-date=12 May 2010<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url-status=dead<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20110106071447/http://www4.uwm.edu/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_10/garcia_quintela_6_10.html<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-date=6 January 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>http://www4.uwm.edu/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_12/olivares_6_12.html<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=Celtic Gods of the Iberian Peninsula<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|journal=E-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|volume=6<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|issue=1<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last=Pedreño<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first=Juan Carlos Olivares<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2005<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|access-date=12 May 2010<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url-status=dead<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20090924025843/http://www4.uwm.edu/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_12/olivares_6_12.html<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-date=24 September 2009}}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>In addition to [[Gauls]] infiltrating from the north of the [[Pyrenees]], the Roman and Greek sources mention Celtic populations in three parts of the Iberian Peninsula: the eastern part of the ''Meseta'' (inhabited by the [[Celtiberians]]), the southwest ([[Celtici]], in modern-day [[Alentejo]]) and the northwest ([[Gallaecia]] and [[Asturias]]).<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8PsWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA32|title=Researches into the Physical History of Mankind|access-date=2010<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">-10-02</del>|last1=Prichard|first1=James Cowles|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=1841|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111222184305/http://books.google.com/books?id=8PsWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA32&dq=celtiberian+celtici|archive-date=22 December 2011}}</ref> A modern scholarly review<ref>{{cite journal|first=Gonzalo Ruiz Zapatero|last=Alberto J. Lorrio|url=http://www4.uwm.edu/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_4/lorrio_zapatero_6_4.html|title=The Celts in Iberia: An Overview|journal=E-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies|volume=6|pages=167–254|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=2005|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110624075310/http://www4.uwm.edu/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_4/lorrio_zapatero_6_4.html|archive-date=24 June 2011|access-date=12 August 2010}}</ref> found several archaeological groups of Celts in Spain:</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>In addition to [[Gauls]] infiltrating from the north of the [[Pyrenees]], the Roman and Greek sources mention Celtic populations in three parts of the Iberian Peninsula: the eastern part of the ''Meseta'' (inhabited by the [[Celtiberians]]), the southwest ([[Celtici]], in modern-day [[Alentejo]]) and the northwest ([[Gallaecia]] and [[Asturias]]).<ref>{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://books.google.com/books?id=8PsWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA32<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=Researches into the Physical History of Mankind<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|access-date=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2 October </ins>2010<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last1=Prichard<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first1=James Cowles<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=1841<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url-status=live<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20111222184305/http://books.google.com/books?id=8PsWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA32&dq=celtiberian+celtici<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-date=22 December 2011}}</ref> A modern scholarly review<ref>{{cite journal<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first=Gonzalo Ruiz Zapatero<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last=Alberto J. Lorrio<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>http://www4.uwm.edu/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_4/lorrio_zapatero_6_4.html<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=The Celts in Iberia: An Overview<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|journal=E-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|volume=6<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|pages=167–254<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2005<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url-status=dead<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20110624075310/http://www4.uwm.edu/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_4/lorrio_zapatero_6_4.html<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-date=24 June 2011<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|access-date=12 August 2010}}</ref> found several archaeological groups of Celts in Spain:</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>* The [[Celtiberians|Celtiberian]] group in the Upper-Douro Upper-Tagus Upper-Jalón area.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Francisco|last=Burillo Mozota|url=http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_8/burillo_6_8.html|title=Celtiberians: Problems and Debates|journal=E-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies|volume=6|pages=411–80|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=2005|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090214010846/http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_8/burillo_6_8.html|archive-date=14 February 2009|access-date=18 May 2009}}</ref> Archaeological data suggest a continuity at least from the 6th century BC. In this early period, the Celtiberians inhabited in hill-forts (''Castros''). Around the end of the 3rd century BC, Celtiberians adopted more urban ways of life. From the 2nd century BC, they minted coins and wrote inscriptions using the [[Celtiberian script]]. These inscriptions make the [[Celtiberian Language]] the only Hispano-Celtic language classified as Celtic with unanimous agreement.<ref name="auto">{{cite journal|first=Carlos|last=Jordán Cólera|url=http://www4.uwm.edu/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_17/jordan_6_17.pdf|title=Celtiberian|journal=E-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies|volume=6|pages=749–850|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=2005|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110624081159/http://www4.uwm.edu/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_17/jordan_6_17.pdf|archive-date=24 June 2011|access-date=29 March 2017}}</ref> In the late period, before the Roman Conquest, both archaeological evidence and Roman sources suggest that the [[Celtiberians]] were expanding into different areas in the Peninsula (e.g. Celtic Baeturia).</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>* The [[Celtiberians|Celtiberian]] group in the Upper-Douro Upper-Tagus Upper-Jalón area.<ref>{{cite journal<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first=Francisco<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last=Burillo Mozota<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_8/burillo_6_8.html<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=Celtiberians: Problems and Debates<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|journal=E-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|volume=6<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|pages=411–80<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2005<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url-status=dead<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20090214010846/http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_8/burillo_6_8.html<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-date=14 February 2009<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|access-date=18 May 2009}}</ref> Archaeological data suggest a continuity at least from the 6th century BC. In this early period, the Celtiberians inhabited in hill-forts (''Castros''). Around the end of the 3rd century BC, Celtiberians adopted more urban ways of life. From the 2nd century BC, they minted coins and wrote inscriptions using the [[Celtiberian script]]. These inscriptions make the [[Celtiberian Language]] the only Hispano-Celtic language classified as Celtic with unanimous agreement.<ref name="auto">{{cite journal<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first=Carlos<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last=Jordán Cólera<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>http://www4.uwm.edu/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_17/jordan_6_17.pdf<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=Celtiberian<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|journal=E-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|volume=6<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|pages=749–850<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2005<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url-status=dead<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20110624081159/http://www4.uwm.edu/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_17/jordan_6_17.pdf<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-date=24 June 2011<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|access-date=29 March 2017}}</ref> In the late period, before the Roman Conquest, both archaeological evidence and Roman sources suggest that the [[Celtiberians]] were expanding into different areas in the Peninsula (e.g. Celtic Baeturia).</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>* The [[Vettones|Vetton]] group in the western Meseta, between the Tormes, Douro and Tagus Rivers. They were characterised by the production of ''Verracos'', sculptures of bulls and pigs carved in granite.</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>* The [[Vettones|Vetton]] group in the western Meseta, between the Tormes, Douro and Tagus Rivers. They were characterised by the production of ''Verracos'', sculptures of bulls and pigs carved in granite.</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>* The [[Vaccei|Vaccean]] group in the central Douro valley. They were mentioned by Roman sources already in the 220 BC. Some of their funerary rituals suggest strong influences from their [[Celtiberians|Celtiberian]] neighbours.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>* The [[Vaccei|Vaccean]] group in the central Douro valley. They were mentioned by Roman sources already in the 220 BC. Some of their funerary rituals suggest strong influences from their [[Celtiberians|Celtiberian]] neighbours.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>[[File:Torque de Santa Tegra 1.JPG|thumb|upright=0.9|Triskelion and spirals on a Galician [[torc]] terminal, Museum of Castro de Santa Tegra, [[A Guarda]]]]</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>[[File:Torque de Santa Tegra 1.JPG|thumb|upright=0.9|Triskelion and spirals on a Galician [[torc]] terminal, Museum of Castro de Santa Tegra, [[A Guarda]]]]</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>* The ''Castro Culture'' in northwestern Iberia, modern day [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]] and Northern [[Portugal]].<ref>{{cite journal|first=Manuel|last=Alberro|url=http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_20/alberro_6_20.html|title=Celtic Legacy in Galicia|journal=E-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies|volume=6|pages=1005–35|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=2005|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090417174506/http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_20/alberro_6_20.html|archive-date=17 April 2009|access-date=18 May 2009}}</ref> Its high degree of continuity, from the Late Bronze Age, makes it difficult to support that the introduction of Celtic elements was due to the same process of Celticisation of the western Iberia, from the nucleus area of Celtiberia. Two typical elements are the sauna baths with monumental entrances, and the "Gallaecian Warriors", stone sculptures built in the 1st century AD. A large group of Latin inscriptions contain linguistic features<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> that are clearly Celtic</del>, while others are similar to those found in the non-Celtic [[Lusitanian language]].<ref name="auto"/></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>* The ''Castro Culture'' in northwestern Iberia, modern day [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]] and Northern [[Portugal]].<ref>{{cite journal<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first=Manuel<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last=Alberro<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_20/alberro_6_20.html<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=Celtic Legacy in Galicia<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|journal=E-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|volume=6<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|pages=1005–35<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2005<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url-status=dead<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20090417174506/http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_20/alberro_6_20.html<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-date=17 April 2009<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|access-date=18 May 2009}}</ref> Its high degree of continuity, from the Late Bronze Age, makes it difficult to support that the introduction of Celtic elements was due to the same process of Celticisation of the western Iberia, from the nucleus area of Celtiberia. Two typical elements are the sauna baths with monumental entrances, and the "Gallaecian Warriors", stone sculptures built in the 1st century AD. A large group of Latin inscriptions contain<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> Celtic</ins> linguistic features, while others are similar to those found in the non-Celtic [[Lusitanian language]].<ref name="auto"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>* The [[Astures]] and the [[Cantabri]]. This area was romanised late, as it was not conquered by Rome until the [[Cantabrian Wars]] of 29–19 BC.</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>* The [[Astures]] and the [[Cantabri]]. This area was romanised late, as it was not conquered by Rome until the [[Cantabrian Wars]] of 29–19 BC.</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>* Celts in the southwest, in the area [[Strabo]] called Celtica<ref>{{cite journal|first=Luis|last=Berrocal-Rangel|url=http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/index.html|title=The Celts of the Southwestern Iberian Peninsula|journal=E-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies|volume=6|pages=481–96|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=2005|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090416055457/http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/index.html|archive-date=16 April 2009}}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>* Celts in the southwest, in the area [[Strabo]] called Celtica<ref>{{cite journal<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first=Luis<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last=Berrocal-Rangel<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/index.html<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=The Celts of the Southwestern Iberian Peninsula<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|journal=E-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|volume=6<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|pages=481–96<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2005<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url-status=live<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20090416055457/http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/index.html<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-date=16 April 2009}}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>The origins of the Celtiberians might provide a key to understanding the Celticisation process in the rest of the Peninsula. The process of Celticisation of the southwestern area of the peninsula by the Keltoi and of the northwestern area is, however, not a simple Celtiberian question. Recent investigations about the [[Gallaeci|Callaici]]<ref>{{cite journal|first=Eugenio|last=R. Luján Martínez|url=http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_16/lujan_6_16.html|title=The Language(s) of the Callaeci|journal=E-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies|volume=6|pages=715–48|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=2005|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090417174908/http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_16/lujan_6_16.html|archive-date=17 April 2009|access-date=18 May 2009}}</ref> and [[Bracari]]<ref>Coutinhas, José Manuel (2006), ''Aproximação à identidade etno-cultural dos Callaici Bracari'', Porto.</ref> in northwestern [[Portugal]] are providing new approaches to understanding Celtic culture (language, art and religion) in western Iberia.<ref>[http://arkeotavira.com/Mapas/Iberia/Populi.htm Archeological site of Tavira] {{webarchive|url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20110223153840/http://arkeotavira.com/Mapas/Iberia/Populi.htm |date=23 February 2011 }}, official website</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>The origins of the Celtiberians might provide a key to understanding the Celticisation process in the rest of the Peninsula. The process of Celticisation of the southwestern area of the peninsula by the Keltoi and of the northwestern area is, however, not a simple Celtiberian question. Recent investigations about the [[Gallaeci|Callaici]]<ref>{{cite journal<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first=Eugenio<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last=R. Luján Martínez<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_16/lujan_6_16.html<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=The Language(s) of the Callaeci<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|journal=E-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|volume=6<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|pages=715–48<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2005<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url-status=dead<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20090417174908/http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_16/lujan_6_16.html<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-date=17 April 2009<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|access-date=18 May 2009}}</ref> and [[Bracari]]<ref>Coutinhas, José Manuel (2006), ''Aproximação à identidade etno-cultural dos Callaici Bracari'', Porto.</ref> in northwestern [[Portugal]] are providing new approaches to understanding Celtic culture (language, art and religion) in western Iberia.<ref>[http://arkeotavira.com/Mapas/Iberia/Populi.htm Archeological site of Tavira] {{webarchive|url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20110223153840/http://arkeotavira.com/Mapas/Iberia/Populi.htm |date=23 February 2011 }}, official website</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>John T. Koch of [[Aberystwyth University]] suggested that [[Tartessian language|Tartessian]] inscriptions of the 8th century BC might be classified as Celtic. This would mean that Tartessian is the earliest attested trace of Celtic by a margin of more than a century.<ref>John T. Koch, ''Tartessian: Celtic From the South-west at the Dawn of History'', Celtic Studies Publications, (2009)</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>John T. Koch of [[Aberystwyth University]] suggested that [[Tartessian language|Tartessian]] inscriptions of the 8th century BC might be classified as Celtic. This would mean that Tartessian is the earliest attested trace of Celtic by a margin of more than a century.<ref>John T. Koch, ''Tartessian: Celtic From the South-west at the Dawn of History'', Celtic Studies Publications, (2009)</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 166:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 162:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>====Germany, Alps and Italy====</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>====Germany, Alps and Italy====</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>{{Main|Golasecca culture|Lepontii|Cisalpine Gaul}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>{{Main|Golasecca culture|Lepontii|Cisalpine Gaul}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>[[File:Heuneburg 600 B.C..jpg|thumb|left|The Celtic city of [[Heuneburg]] by the Danube, Germany, c. 600 BC, the oldest city north of the Alps.<ref>{{cite web |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>url=https://www.heuneburg-pyrene.de/en/celtic-city#:~:text=This%20Celtic%20hilltop%20settlement%20is,was%20built%20of%20mud%20bricks |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>title=Celtic City: Staatliche Schlösser und Gärten Baden-Württemberg |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>access-date=8 March 2023 |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>archive-date=7 March 2023 |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307030355/https://www.heuneburg-pyrene.de/en/celtic-city#:~:text=This%20Celtic%20hilltop%20settlement%20is,was%20built%20of%20mud%20bricks |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>url-status=live<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>}}</ref>]]</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>[[File:Heuneburg 600 B.C..jpg|thumb|left|The Celtic city of [[Heuneburg]] by the Danube, Germany, c. 600 BC, the oldest city north of the Alps.<ref>{{cite web |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://www.heuneburg-pyrene.de/en/celtic-city#:~:text=This%20Celtic%20hilltop%20settlement%20is,was%20built%20of%20mud%20bricks |title=Celtic City: Staatliche Schlösser und Gärten Baden-Württemberg |access-date=8 March 2023 |archive-date=7 March 2023 |archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20230307030355/https://www.heuneburg-pyrene.de/en/celtic-city#:~:text=This%20Celtic%20hilltop%20settlement%20is,was%20built%20of%20mud%20bricks |url-status=live}}</ref>]]</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>[[Image:Germanic tribes (750BC-1AD).png|right|thumb|250px|</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>[[Image:Germanic tribes (750BC-1AD).png|right|thumb|250px|</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>Expansion of [[early Germanic culture|early Germanic tribes]] into [[Central Europe]],<ref>{{citation |last=Kinder |first=Hermann |publisher=Penguin |location=London |date=1988 |title=Penguin Atlas of World History |volume=I |page=108<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>}}.</ref> helping press its previous Celts further south and southeast]]</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>Expansion of [[early Germanic culture|early Germanic tribes]] into [[Central Europe]],<ref>{{citation |last=Kinder |first=Hermann |publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>Penguin<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> Books]]</ins> |location=London |date=1988 |title=Penguin Atlas of World History |volume=I |page=108}}.</ref> helping press its previous Celts further south and southeast]]</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>[[File:Gallia Cisalpina-en.svg|thumb|Peoples of Cisalpine Gaul during the 4th to 3rd centuries BC]]</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>[[File:Gallia Cisalpina-en.svg|thumb|Peoples of Cisalpine Gaul during the 4th to 3rd centuries BC]]</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>{{Further|History of the Alps}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>{{Further|History of the Alps}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>In Germany by the late [[Bronze Age Europe|Bronze Age]], the [[Urnfield culture]] ({{Circa|1300 BC|750 BC}}) had replaced the [[Bell Beaker culture|Bell Beaker]], [[Unetice culture|Unetice]] and [[Tumulus culture]]s in central Europe,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Iñigo Olalde |date=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">March </del>8<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">,</del> 2018 |title=The Beaker Phenomenon and the Genomic Transformation of Northwest Europe |journal=Nature |publisher=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">National Center for</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Biotechnology</del> |volume=555 |issue=7695 |pages=190–196 |bibcode=2018Natur.555..190O |doi=10.1038/nature25738 |pmc=5973796 |pmid=29466337}}</ref> whilst the [[Nordic Bronze Age]] had developed in Scandinavia and northern Germany. The [[Hallstatt culture]], which had developed from the Urnfield culture, was the predominant Western and Central European culture from the 12th to 8th centuries BC and during the early [[Iron Age Europe|Iron Age]] (8th to 6th centuries BC). It was followed by the [[La Tène culture]] (5th to 1st centuries BC).</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>In Germany by the late [[Bronze Age Europe|Bronze Age]], the [[Urnfield culture]] ({{Circa|1300 BC|750 BC}}) had replaced the [[Bell Beaker culture|Bell Beaker]], [[Unetice culture|Unetice]] and [[Tumulus culture]]s in central Europe,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Iñigo Olalde |date=8<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> March</ins> 2018 |title=The Beaker Phenomenon and the Genomic Transformation of Northwest Europe |journal=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>Nature<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> (journal)|Nature]]</ins> |publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[Nature</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Portfolio]]</ins> |volume=555 |issue=7695 |pages=190–196 |bibcode=2018Natur.555..190O |doi=10.1038/nature25738 |pmc=5973796 |pmid=29466337}}</ref> whilst the [[Nordic Bronze Age]] had developed in Scandinavia and northern Germany. The [[Hallstatt culture]], which had developed from the Urnfield culture, was the predominant Western and Central European culture from the 12th to 8th centuries BC and during the early [[Iron Age Europe|Iron Age]] (8th to 6th centuries BC). It was followed by the [[La Tène culture]] (5th to 1st centuries BC).</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>The people who had adopted these cultural characteristics in central and southern Germany are regarded as Celts. Celtic cultural centres developed in central Europe during the late Bronze Age ({{circa|1200 BC}} until 700 BC). Some, like the [[Heuneburg]], the oldest city north of the Alps,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Heuneburg – Celtic city of Pyrene |url=https://www.heuneburg-pyrene.de/en/celtic-city}}</ref> grew to become important cultural centres of the Iron Age in Central Europe, that maintained trade routes to the [[Mediterranean]]. In the 5th century BC the Greek historian [[Herodotus]] mentioned a Celtic city at the Danube – ''Pyrene'', that historians attribute to the Heuneburg. Beginning around 700 BC (or later), [[Germanic peoples]] (Germanic tribes) from [[Archaeology of Northern Europe|southern Scandinavia and northern Germany]] expanded south and gradually replaced the Celtic peoples in Central Europe.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Heuneburg (Herbertingen-Hundersingen) |url=http://www.landeskunde-online.de/rhein/geschichte/antike/kelten/heuneburg/genese.htm |access-date=April<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> 17,</del> 2020 |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">publisher</del>=Landeskunde Online}}</ref><ref name="Herodotus1857">{{Cite book |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">last</del>=Herodotus |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t9rfAAAAMAAJ<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> |title=Herodoti Musae |date=1857</del> |publisher=in <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">bibliopolio</del> Hahniano}}</ref><ref name="Herodotus1829">{{Cite book |last=Herodotus |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q45PxRGLB5sC&pg=PA110 |title=Herodoti historiarum libri IX |date=1829 |publisher=G. Fr. Meyer |pages=110–}}</ref><ref name="Gimbutas2011">{{Cite book |first=Marija |last=Gimbutas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BvtRdigDtFoC&pg=PA312 |title=Bronze Age cultures in Central and Eastern Europe |date=25 August 2011 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-1116-6814-7 |pages=100–}}</ref><ref name="Milisauskas2002">{{Cite book |first=Sarunas |last=Milisauskas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=31LFIITb3LUC&pg=PA363 |title=European Prehistory: A Survey |date=30 June 2002 |publisher=Springer Science<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> & </del>Business Media |isbn=978-0-3064-7257-2 |pages=363–}}</ref><ref name="<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">RankinRankin1996</del>">{{Cite book |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">first1</del>=David |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">last1</del>=Rankin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fdqk4vXqntgC |title=Celts and the Classical World<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> |last2=H. D. Rankin</del> |date=1996 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-4151-5090-3}}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>The people who had adopted these cultural characteristics in central and southern Germany are regarded as Celts. Celtic cultural centres developed in central Europe during the late Bronze Age ({{circa|1200 BC}} until 700 BC). Some, like the [[Heuneburg]], the oldest city north of the Alps,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Heuneburg – Celtic city of Pyrene |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://www.heuneburg-pyrene.de/en/celtic-city}}</ref> grew to become important cultural centres of the Iron Age in Central Europe, that maintained trade routes to the [[Mediterranean]]. In the 5th century BC the Greek historian [[Herodotus]] mentioned a Celtic city at the Danube – ''Pyrene'', that historians attribute to the Heuneburg. Beginning around 700 BC (or later), [[Germanic peoples]] (Germanic tribes) from [[Archaeology of Northern Europe|southern Scandinavia and northern Germany]] expanded south and gradually replaced the Celtic peoples in Central Europe.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Heuneburg (Herbertingen-Hundersingen) |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>http://www.landeskunde-online.de/rhein/geschichte/antike/kelten/heuneburg/genese.htm |access-date=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">17 </ins>April 2020 |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">work</ins>=Landeskunde Online}}</ref><ref name="Herodotus1857">{{Cite book |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">author</ins>=Herodotus<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> |editor1-first=Georg Friedrich |editor1-last=Creuzer |editor2-first=Johann Christian Felix |editor2-last=Bähr |title=Herodoti Musae |volume=2 |date=1857</ins> |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://books.google.com/books?id=t9rfAAAAMAAJ |publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Lipsiae </ins>in <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Bibliopolio</ins> Hahniano}}</ref><ref name="Herodotus1829">{{Cite book |last=Herodotus |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://books.google.com/books?id=q45PxRGLB5sC&pg=PA110 |title=Herodoti historiarum libri IX |date=1829 |publisher=G. Fr. Meyer |pages=110–}}</ref><ref name="Gimbutas2011">{{Cite book |first=Marija |last=Gimbutas |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://books.google.com/books?id=BvtRdigDtFoC&pg=PA312 |title=Bronze Age cultures in Central and Eastern Europe |date=25 August 2011 |publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>Walter de Gruyter<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]]</ins> |isbn=978-3-1116-6814-7 |pages=100–}}</ref><ref name="Milisauskas2002">{{Cite book |first=Sarunas |last=Milisauskas |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://books.google.com/books?id=31LFIITb3LUC&pg=PA363 |title=European Prehistory: A Survey |date=30 June 2002 |publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>Springer Science<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">+</ins>Business Media<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]]</ins> |isbn=978-0-3064-7257-2 |pages=363–}}</ref><ref name="<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Rankin1996</ins>">{{Cite book |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">first</ins>=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">H. </ins>David |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">last</ins>=Rankin |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://books.google.com/books?id=fdqk4vXqntgC |title=Celts and the Classical World |date=1996 |publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>Psychology Press<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]]</ins> |isbn=978-0-4151-5090-3}}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>The [[Canegrate culture]] represented the first migratory wave of the proto-Celtic<ref>Alfons Semler, ''Überlingen: Bilder aus der Geschichte einer kleinen Reichsstadt,''Oberbadische Verlag, Singen, 1949, pp. 11–17, specifically 15.</ref><ref><del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Venceslas </del>Kruta<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">:</del> ''La grande storia dei celti<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">.</del> La nascita, l'affermazione e la decadenza'', Newton & Compton, 2003, {{ISBN|88-8289-851-2|978-88-8289-851-9}}</ref> population from the northwest part of the Alps that, through the [[Alpine passes]], had already penetrated and settled in the western [[Po River|Po]] valley between [[Lake Maggiore]] and [[Lake Como]] ([[Scamozzina culture]]). It has also been proposed that a more ancient proto-Celtic presence can be traced back to the beginning of the Middle [[Bronze Age]], when North Westwern Italy appears closely linked regarding the production of bronze artefacts, including ornaments, to the western groups of the [[Tumulus culture]].<ref>"</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>The [[Canegrate culture]] represented the first migratory wave of the proto-Celtic<ref>Alfons Semler, ''Überlingen: Bilder aus der Geschichte einer kleinen Reichsstadt,''Oberbadische Verlag, Singen, 1949, pp. 11–17, specifically 15.</ref><ref>Kruta<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">, Venceslas;</ins> ''La grande storia dei celti<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">:</ins> La nascita, l'affermazione e la decadenza'', Newton & Compton, 2003, {{ISBN|88-8289-851-2|978-88-8289-851-9}}<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">.</ins></ref> population from the northwest part of the Alps that, through the [[Alpine passes]], had already penetrated and settled in the western [[Po River|Po]] valley between [[Lake Maggiore]] and [[Lake Como]] ([[Scamozzina culture]]). It has also been proposed that a more ancient proto-Celtic presence can be traced back to the beginning of the Middle [[Bronze Age]], when North Westwern Italy appears closely linked regarding the production of bronze artefacts, including ornaments, to the western groups of the [[Tumulus culture]].<ref>"</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>The Golasecca civilization is therefore the expression of the oldest Celts of Italy and included several groups that had the name of Insubres, Laevi, Lepontii, Oromobii (o Orumbovii)". (Raffaele C. De Marinis)</ref> La Tène cultural material appeared over a large area of mainland Italy,<ref>{{cite journal|title=Manufatti in ferro di tipo La Tène in area italiana: le potenzialità non-sfruttate|journal=Mélanges de l'École Française de Rome. Antiquité|volume=108|issue=2|pages=575–605|doi=10.3406/mefr.1996.1954|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=1996|last1=Vitali|first1=Daniele}}</ref> the southernmost example being the Celtic helmet from [[Canosa di Puglia]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Piggott|first1=Stuart|title=Early Celtic Art From Its Origins to its Aftermath|date=2008|url=http://www.transactionpub.com/title/Early-Celtic-Art-978-0-202-36186-4.html|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=978-0-202-36186-4|page=3|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170219021009/http://www.transactionpub.com/title/Early-Celtic-Art-978-0-202-36186-4.html|archive-date=19 February 2017|access-date=18 February 2017}}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>The Golasecca civilization is therefore the expression of the oldest Celts of Italy and included several groups that had the name of Insubres, Laevi, Lepontii, Oromobii (o Orumbovii)". (Raffaele C. De Marinis)</ref> La Tène cultural material appeared over a large area of mainland Italy,<ref>{{cite journal<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=Manufatti in ferro di tipo La Tène in area italiana: le potenzialità non-sfruttate<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|journal=Mélanges de l'École Française de Rome. Antiquité<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|volume=108<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|issue=2<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|pages=575–605<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|doi=10.3406/mefr.1996.1954<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=1996<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last1=Vitali<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first1=Daniele}}</ref> the southernmost example being the Celtic helmet from [[Canosa di Puglia]].<ref>{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last1=Piggott<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first1=Stuart<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=Early Celtic Art From Its Origins to its Aftermath<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|date=2008<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>http://www.transactionpub.com/title/Early-Celtic-Art-978-0-202-36186-4.html<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>Transaction Publishers<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]] </ins>|isbn=978-0-202-36186-4<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|page=3<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url-status=dead<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20170219021009/http://www.transactionpub.com/title/Early-Celtic-Art-978-0-202-36186-4.html<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-date=19 February 2017<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|access-date=18 February 2017}}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>Italy is home to [[Lepontic language|Lepontic]], the oldest attested Celtic language (from the 6th century BC).<ref name=Schumacher>{{cite book|last1=Schumacher|first1=Stefan|last2=Schulze-Thulin|first2=Britta|last3=aan de Wiel|first3=Caroline|title=Die keltischen Primärverben. Ein vergleichendes, etymologisches und morphologisches Lexikon|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=2004|publisher=Institut für Sprachen und Kulturen <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">der</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Universität</del> Innsbruck<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|location=Innsbruck</del>|isbn=978-3-85124-692-6|pages=84–87|language=de}}</ref> Anciently spoken in [[Switzerland]] and in Northern-Central [[Italy]], from the [[Alps]] to [[Umbria]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Percivaldi|first1=Elena|title=I Celti: una civiltà europea|date=2003|publisher=Giunti Editore|page=82}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Kruta|first=Venceslas|title=The Celts|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=1991|publisher=Thames <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">and</del> Hudson|pages=55}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Stifter|first=David|title=Old Celtic Languages|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=2008|page=12|url=http://www.univie.ac.at/indogermanistik/download/Stifter/oldcelt2008_1_general.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121002035607/http://www.univie.ac.at/indogermanistik/download/Stifter/oldcelt2008_1_general.pdf|archive-date=2 October 2012|access-date=25 April 2016}}</ref><ref>Morandi 2004, pp. 702–03, n. 277</ref> According to the ''Recueil des Inscriptions Gauloises'', more than 760 Gaulish inscriptions have been found throughout present-day [[France]] – with the notable exception of [[Aquitaine]] – and in [[Italy]],<ref>Peter Schrijver, "Gaulish", in ''Encyclopedia of the Languages of Europe'', ed. Glanville Price (Oxford: Blackwell, 1998), 192.</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Landolfi|first1=Maurizio|title=Adriatico tra 4. e 3. sec. a.C.|date=2000|publisher=L'Erma di Bretschneider|page=43}}</ref> which testifies the importance of Celtic heritage in the peninsula.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>Italy is home to [[Lepontic language|Lepontic]], the oldest attested Celtic language (from the 6th century BC).<ref name=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">"</ins>Schumacher<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">"</ins>>{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last1=Schumacher<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first1=Stefan<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last2=Schulze-Thulin<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first2=Britta<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last3=aan de Wiel<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first3=Caroline<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=Die keltischen Primärverben. Ein vergleichendes, etymologisches und morphologisches Lexikon<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2004<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|publisher=Institut für Sprachen und Kulturen<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">,</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[University</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">of</ins> Innsbruck<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]] </ins>|isbn=978-3-85124-692-6<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|pages=84–87<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|language=de}}</ref> Anciently spoken in [[Switzerland]] and in Northern-Central [[Italy]], from the [[Alps]] to [[Umbria]].<ref>{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last1=Percivaldi<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first1=Elena<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=I Celti: una civiltà europea<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|date=2003<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>Giunti Editore<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]] </ins>|page=82}}</ref><ref>{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last=Kruta<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first=Venceslas<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=The Celts<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=1991<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>Thames <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">&</ins> Hudson<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]] </ins>|pages=55}}</ref><ref>{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last=Stifter<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first=David<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=Old Celtic Languages<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2008<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|page=12<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>http://www.univie.ac.at/indogermanistik/download/Stifter/oldcelt2008_1_general.pdf<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url-status=dead<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20121002035607/http://www.univie.ac.at/indogermanistik/download/Stifter/oldcelt2008_1_general.pdf<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-date=2 October 2012<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|access-date=25 April 2016}}</ref><ref>Morandi 2004, pp. 702–03, n. 277</ref> According to the ''<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>Recueil des Inscriptions Gauloises<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]]</ins>'', more than 760 Gaulish inscriptions have been found throughout present-day [[France]] – with the notable exception of [[Aquitaine]] – and in [[Italy]],<ref>Peter Schrijver, "Gaulish", in ''Encyclopedia of the Languages of Europe'', ed. Glanville Price (Oxford: Blackwell, 1998), 192.</ref><ref>{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last1=Landolfi<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first1=Maurizio<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=Adriatico tra 4. e 3. sec. a.C.<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|date=2000<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|publisher=L'Erma di Bretschneider<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|page=43}}</ref> which testifies the importance of Celtic heritage in the peninsula.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>In 391 BC, Celts "who had their homes beyond the Alps streamed through the passes in great strength and seized the territory that lay between the [[Apennine Mountains]] and the Alps" according to [[Diodorus Siculus]]. The [[River Po|Po Valley]] and the rest of northern Italy (known to the Romans as [[Cisalpine Gaul]]) was inhabited by Celtic-speakers who founded cities such as [[Milan]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Cunliffe|first=Barry|title=The Celts – A Very Short Introduction|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=2003|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-280418-1|page=37}}</ref> Later the Roman army was routed at the [[Battle of the Allia|battle of Allia]] and Rome was sacked in 390 BC by the [[Senones]].<ref name="EB1911">{{EB1911|wstitle=Senones|volume=24|pages=647–648|inline=1}}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>In 391 BC, Celts "who had their homes beyond the Alps streamed through the passes in great strength and seized the territory that lay between the [[Apennine Mountains]] and the Alps" according to [[Diodorus Siculus]]. The [[River Po|Po Valley]] and the rest of northern Italy (known to the Romans as [[Cisalpine Gaul]]) was inhabited by Celtic-speakers who founded cities such as [[Milan]].<ref>{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last=Cunliffe<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first=Barry<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=The Celts – A Very Short Introduction<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2003<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>Oxford University Press<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]] </ins>|isbn=978-0-19-280418-1<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|page=37}}</ref> Later the Roman army was routed at the [[Battle of the Allia|battle of Allia]] and Rome was sacked in 390 BC by the [[Senones]].<ref name="EB1911">{{EB1911|wstitle=Senones|volume=24|pages=647–648|inline=1}}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>At the [[battle of Telamon]] in 225 BC, a large Celtic army was trapped between two Roman forces and crushed.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Battle of Telamon, 225 BC |url=http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/battles_telamon.html |access-date=2022<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">-12-01</del> |website=www.historyofwar.org |archive-date=1 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221201014912/http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/battles_telamon.html |url-status=live<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>}}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>At the [[battle of Telamon]] in 225 BC, a large Celtic army was trapped between two Roman forces and crushed.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Battle of Telamon, 225 BC |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/battles_telamon.html |access-date=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">1 December </ins>2022 |website=www.historyofwar.org |archive-date=1 December 2022 |archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20221201014912/http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/battles_telamon.html |url-status=live}}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>The defeat of the combined [[Samnium|Samnite]], Celtic and Etruscan alliance by the Romans in the [[Samnite Wars|Third Samnite War]] sounded the beginning of the end of the Celtic domination in mainland Europe, but it was not until 192 BC that the Roman armies conquered the last remaining independent Celtic kingdoms in Italy.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>The defeat of the combined [[Samnium|Samnite]], Celtic and Etruscan alliance by the Romans in the [[Samnite Wars|Third Samnite War]] sounded the beginning of the end of the Celtic domination in mainland Europe, but it was not until 192 BC that the Roman armies conquered the last remaining independent Celtic kingdoms in Italy.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 193:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 189:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>The Celts also expanded down the [[Danube]] river and its tributaries. One of the most influential tribes, the [[Scordisci]], established their capital at [[Singidunum]] (present-day [[Belgrade]], Serbia) in the 3rd century BC. The concentration of hill-forts and cemeteries shows a [[Population density|dense population]] in the [[Tisza]] valley of modern-day [[Vojvodina]], Serbia, Hungary and into [[Ukraine]]. Expansion into [[Romania]] was however blocked by the [[Dacians]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>The Celts also expanded down the [[Danube]] river and its tributaries. One of the most influential tribes, the [[Scordisci]], established their capital at [[Singidunum]] (present-day [[Belgrade]], Serbia) in the 3rd century BC. The concentration of hill-forts and cemeteries shows a [[Population density|dense population]] in the [[Tisza]] valley of modern-day [[Vojvodina]], Serbia, Hungary and into [[Ukraine]]. Expansion into [[Romania]] was however blocked by the [[Dacians]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>The [[Serdi]] were a Celtic tribe<ref>''The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume 3, Part 2: The Assyrian and Babylonian Empires and Other States of the Near East, from the Eighth to the Sixth Centuries BC'' by John Boardman, I. E. S. Edwards, E. Sollberger, and N. G. L. Hammond, {{ISBN|0-521-22717-8}}, 1992, p. 600: "In the place of the vanished Treres and Tilataei we find the Serdi for whom there is no evidence before the first century BC. It has for long being supposed on convincing linguistic and archeological grounds that this tribe was of Celtic origin"</ref> inhabiting [[Thrace]]. They were located around and founded [[Serdika]] ({{<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">lang-</del>bg|Сердика}}, {{<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Lang-</del>la|Ulpia Serdica}}, {{<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">lang-</del>el|Σαρδῶν πόλις}}), now [[Sofia]] in [[Bulgaria]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0064:entry=serdica-geo&highlight=serdi|title=Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (1854), SE´RDICA|website=perseus.tufts.edu|access-date=20 February 2021|archive-date=24 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224222301/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0064:entry=serdica-geo&highlight=serdi|url-status=live}}</ref> which reflects their ethnonym. They would have established themselves in this area during the Celtic migrations at the end of the 4th century BC, though there is no evidence for their existence before the 1st century BC. ''Serdi'' are among traditional tribal names reported into the Roman era.<ref>M. B. Shchukin, ''Rome and the Barbarians in Central and Eastern Europe: 1st Century B.C.–1st Century A.D.''</ref> They were gradually Thracianized over the centuries but retained their Celtic character in material culture up to a late date.{{when|date=July 2015}}{{citation needed|date=July 2015}} According to other sources they may have been simply of Thracian origin,<ref>Britannica</ref> according to others they may have become of mixed Thraco-Celtic origin. Further south, Celts settled in [[Thrace]] ([[Bulgaria]]), which they ruled for over a century, and [[Anatolia]], where they settled as the [[Galatia]]ns ''(see also: [[Gallic invasion of the Balkans|Gallic Invasion of Greece]])''. Despite their [[geographical isolation]] from the rest of the Celtic world, the Galatians maintained their Celtic language for at least 700 years. [[St Jerome]], who visited Ancyra (modern-day [[Ankara]]) in 373 AD, likened their language to that of the [[Treveri]] of northern Gaul.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>The [[Serdi]] were a Celtic tribe<ref>''The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume 3, Part 2: The Assyrian and Babylonian Empires and Other States of the Near East, from the Eighth to the Sixth Centuries BC'' by John Boardman, I. E. S. Edwards, E. Sollberger, and N. G. L. Hammond, {{ISBN|0-521-22717-8}}, 1992, p. 600: "In the place of the vanished Treres and Tilataei we find the Serdi for whom there is no evidence before the first century BC. It has for long being supposed on convincing linguistic and archeological grounds that this tribe was of Celtic origin"</ref> inhabiting [[Thrace]]. They were located around and founded [[Serdika]] ({{<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">langx|</ins>bg|Сердика}}, {{<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Langx|</ins>la|Ulpia Serdica}}, {{<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">langx|</ins>el|Σαρδῶν πόλις}}), now [[Sofia]] in [[Bulgaria]],<ref>{{Cite web<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0064:entry=serdica-geo&highlight=serdi<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (1854), SE´RDICA<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|website=perseus.tufts.edu<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|access-date=20 February 2021<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-date=24 February 2021<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20210224222301/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0064:entry=serdica-geo&highlight=serdi<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url-status=live}}</ref> which reflects their ethnonym. They would have established themselves in this area during the Celtic migrations at the end of the 4th century BC, though there is no evidence for their existence before the 1st century BC. ''Serdi'' are among traditional tribal names reported into the Roman era.<ref>M. B. Shchukin, ''Rome and the Barbarians in Central and Eastern Europe: 1st Century B.C.–1st Century A.D.''</ref> They were gradually Thracianized over the centuries but retained their Celtic character in material culture up to a late date.{{when|date=July 2015}}{{citation needed|date=July 2015}} According to other sources they may have been simply of Thracian origin,<ref>Britannica</ref> according to others they may have become of mixed Thraco-Celtic origin. Further south, Celts settled in [[Thrace]] ([[Bulgaria]]), which they ruled for over a century, and [[Anatolia]], where they settled as the [[Galatia]]ns ''(see also: [[Gallic invasion of the Balkans|Gallic Invasion of Greece]])''. Despite their [[geographical isolation]] from the rest of the Celtic world, the Galatians maintained their Celtic language for at least 700 years. [[St Jerome]], who visited Ancyra (modern-day [[Ankara]]) in 373 AD, likened their language to that of the [[Treveri]] of northern Gaul.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>For [[Venceslas Kruta]], Galatia in central Turkey was an area of dense Celtic settlement.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>For [[Venceslas Kruta]], Galatia in central Turkey was an area of dense Celtic settlement.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 199:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 195:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>The [[Boii]] tribe gave their name to [[Bohemia]], [[Bologna]] and possibly [[Bavaria]], and Celtic artefacts and cemeteries have been discovered further east in what is now Poland and [[Slovakia]]. A Celtic coin ([[Biatec]]) from [[Bratislava]]'s mint was displayed on the old Slovak 5-crown coin.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>The [[Boii]] tribe gave their name to [[Bohemia]], [[Bologna]] and possibly [[Bavaria]], and Celtic artefacts and cemeteries have been discovered further east in what is now Poland and [[Slovakia]]. A Celtic coin ([[Biatec]]) from [[Bratislava]]'s mint was displayed on the old Slovak 5-crown coin.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>As there is no archaeological evidence for large-scale invasions in some of the other areas, one current school of thought holds that Celtic language and culture spread to those areas by contact rather than invasion.<ref>{{cite book|last=Cunliffe|first=Barry|title=The Celts: A Very Short Introduction|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=2003|publisher=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-280418-1|page=71}}</ref> However, the Celtic invasions of Italy and the [[Gallic invasion of the Balkans|expedition in Greece and western Anatolia]], are well documented in Greek and Latin history.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pope |first=Rachel |date=2022<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">-03-01</del> |title=Re-approaching Celts: Origins, Society, and Social Change |journal=Journal of Archaeological Research |language=en |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=1–67 |doi=10.1007/s10814-021-09157-1 |issn=1573-7756|doi-access=free<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=King |first=Jeffrey |title=The Celtic Invasion of Greece |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1401/the-celtic-invasion-of-greece/ |access-date=2023<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">-12-01</del> |website=World History Encyclopedia |language=en}}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>As there is no archaeological evidence for large-scale invasions in some of the other areas, one current school of thought holds that Celtic language and culture spread to those areas by contact rather than invasion.<ref>{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last=Cunliffe<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first=Barry<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=The Celts: A Very Short Introduction<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2003<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>Oxford<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> University Press]] </ins>|isbn=978-0-19-280418-1<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|page=71}}</ref> However, the Celtic invasions of Italy and the [[Gallic invasion of the Balkans|expedition in Greece and western Anatolia]], are well documented in Greek and Latin history.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pope |first=Rachel |date=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">1 March </ins>2022 |title=Re-approaching Celts: Origins, Society, and Social Change |journal=Journal of Archaeological Research |language=en |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=1–67 |doi=10.1007/s10814-021-09157-1 |issn=1573-7756<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=King |first=Jeffrey |title=The Celtic Invasion of Greece |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1401/the-celtic-invasion-of-greece/ |access-date=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">1 December </ins>2023 |website=World History Encyclopedia |language=en}}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>There are records of Celtic mercenaries in [[Egypt]] serving the [[Ptolemies]]. Thousands were employed in 283–246 BC and they were also in service around 186 BC. They attempted to overthrow [[Ptolemy II Philadelphus|Ptolemy II]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cartwright |first=Mark |date=1 April 2021 |title=Ancient Celts |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/celt/ |access-date=6 August 2022 |website=World History Encyclopedia |archive-date=14 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220814132538/https://www.worldhistory.org/celt/ |url-status=live<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>}}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>There are records of Celtic mercenaries in [[Egypt]] serving the [[Ptolemies]]. Thousands were employed in 283–246 BC and they were also in service around 186 BC. They attempted to overthrow [[Ptolemy II Philadelphus|Ptolemy II]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cartwright |first=Mark |date=1 April 2021 |title=Ancient Celts |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://www.worldhistory.org/celt/ |access-date=6 August 2022 |website=World History Encyclopedia |archive-date=14 August 2022 |archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20220814132538/https://www.worldhistory.org/celt/ |url-status=live}}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>===Insular===</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>===Insular===</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 210:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 206:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>{{main|Insular Celts}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>{{main|Insular Celts}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>All living Celtic languages today belong to the [[Insular Celtic languages]], derived from the Celtic languages spoken in [[Iron Age Britain]] and [[Prehistoric Ireland|Ireland]].<ref>Ball, Martin, Muller, Nicole (eds.) The Celtic Languages, Routledge, 2003, pp. 67ff.</ref> They separated into a [[Goidelic languages|Goidelic]] and a [[Brittonic languages|Brittonic]] branch early on. By the time of the [[Roman conquest of Britain]] in the 1st century AD, the Insular Celts were made up of the [[Celtic Britons]], the [[Gaels]] (or [[Scoti]]), and the [[Picts]] (or [[Caledonians]]).{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}} The renown of insular Celts has caused a popular belief that Celtic clans only lived in the British Isles.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Solly |first=Meilan |date=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">December </del>27<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">,</del> 2019 |title=Twelve Fascinating Finds Revealed in 2019 |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/twelve-fascinating-finds-revealed-2019-180973837/ |access-date=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">June </del>25<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">,</del> 2024 |work=[[Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian]]}}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>All living Celtic languages today belong to the [[Insular Celtic languages]], derived from the Celtic languages spoken in [[Iron Age Britain]] and [[Prehistoric Ireland|Ireland]].<ref>Ball, Martin, Muller, Nicole (eds.) The Celtic Languages, Routledge, 2003, pp. 67ff.</ref> They separated into a [[Goidelic languages|Goidelic]] and a [[Brittonic languages|Brittonic]] branch early on. By the time of the [[Roman conquest of Britain]] in the 1st century AD, the Insular Celts were made up of the [[Celtic Britons]], the [[Gaels]] (or [[Scoti]]), and the [[Picts]] (or [[Caledonians]]).{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}} The renown of insular Celts has caused a popular belief that Celtic clans only lived in the British Isles.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Solly |first=Meilan |date=27<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> December</ins> 2019 |title=Twelve Fascinating Finds Revealed in 2019 |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/twelve-fascinating-finds-revealed-2019-180973837/ |access-date=25<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> June</ins> 2024 |work=[[Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian]]}}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>Linguists have debated whether a Celtic language came to the British Isles and then split, or whether the two branches arrived separately. The older view was that Celtic influence in the Isles was the result of successive migrations or invasions from the European mainland by diverse Celtic-speaking peoples over several centuries, accounting for the [[P-Celtic]] vs. [[Q-Celtic]] [[isogloss]]. This view has been challenged by the hypothesis that the islands' Celtic languages form an [[Insular Celtic languages|Insular Celtic]] dialect group.<ref>Koch, J.T., (2006) Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia, ABC-CLIO, {{ISBN|1-85109-440-7}}, p. 973.</ref> In the 19th and 20th centuries, scholars often dated the "arrival" of Celtic culture in Britain (via an invasion model) to the 6th century BC, corresponding to archaeological evidence of [[Hallstatt culture|Hallstatt]] influence and the appearance of [[chariot burial]]s in what is now England. Cunliffe and Koch propose in their newer [['Celtic from the West' theory]] that Celtic languages reached the Isles earlier, with the Bell Beaker culture c.2500 BC, or even before this.<ref>Cunliffe, Barry<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">,</del> Koch, John T. (eds.), Celtic from the West, David Brown Co., 2012</ref><ref>Cunliffe, Barry, Facing the Ocean, Oxford University Press, 2004</ref> More recently, a major [[archaeogenetics]] study uncovered a migration into southern Britain in the Bronze Age from 1300 to 800 BC.<ref name="Patterson">{{cite journal|last1=Patterson|first1=N.|last2=Isakov|first2=M.|last3=Booth|first3=T.|title=Large-scale migration into Britain during the Middle to Late Bronze Age|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|date=2021|volume=601|issue=7894|pages=588–594|doi=10.1038/s41586-021-04287-4|pmid=34937049|pmc=8889665 |bibcode=2022Natur.601..588P |s2cid=245509501}}</ref> The newcomers were genetically most similar to ancient individuals from Gaul.<ref name="Patterson"/> From 1000 BC, their genetic marker swiftly spread through southern Britain,<ref name="YorkUni">{{cite news |title=Ancient DNA study reveals large scale migrations into Bronze Age Britain |url=https://www.york.ac.uk/news-and-events/news/2021/research/ancient-dna-study-migration-bronze-age/ |access-date=21 January 2022 |publisher=[[University of York]] |date=22 December 2021 |archive-date=18 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220118140218/https://www.york.ac.uk/news-and-events/news/2021/research/ancient-dna-study-migration-bronze-age/ |url-status=live<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>}}</ref> but not northern Britain.<ref name="Patterson"/> The authors see this as a "plausible vector for the spread of early Celtic languages into Britain".<ref name="Patterson"/> There was much less immigration during the Iron Age, so it is likely that Celtic reached Britain before then.<ref name="Patterson"/> Cunliffe suggests that a branch of Celtic was already spoken in Britain, and the Bronze Age migration introduced the Brittonic branch.<ref>{{cite news |title=Ancient mass migration transformed Britons' DNA |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-59741723 |access-date=21 January 2022 |work=[[BBC News]] |date=22 December 2021 |archive-date=21 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121165716/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-59741723 |url-status=live<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>}}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>Linguists have debated whether a Celtic language came to the British Isles and then split, or whether the two branches arrived separately. The older view was that Celtic influence in the Isles was the result of successive migrations or invasions from the European mainland by diverse Celtic-speaking peoples over several centuries, accounting for the [[P-Celtic]] vs. [[Q-Celtic]] [[isogloss]]. This view has been challenged by the hypothesis that the islands' Celtic languages form an [[Insular Celtic languages|Insular Celtic]] dialect group.<ref>Koch, J.T., (2006) Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia, ABC-CLIO, {{ISBN|1-85109-440-7}}, p. 973.</ref> In the 19th and 20th centuries, scholars often dated the "arrival" of Celtic culture in Britain (via an invasion model) to the 6th century BC, corresponding to archaeological evidence of [[Hallstatt culture|Hallstatt]] influence and the appearance of [[chariot burial]]s in what is now England. Cunliffe and Koch propose in their newer [['Celtic from the West' theory]] that Celtic languages reached the Isles earlier, with the Bell Beaker culture c.2500 BC, or even before this.<ref>Cunliffe, Barry<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">;</ins> Koch, John T. (eds.), <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">''</ins>Celtic from the West<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">''</ins>, David Brown Co., 2012</ref><ref>Cunliffe, Barry, Facing the Ocean, Oxford University Press, 2004</ref> More recently, a major [[archaeogenetics]] study uncovered a migration into southern Britain in the Bronze Age from 1300 to 800 BC.<ref name="Patterson">{{cite journal<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last1=Patterson<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first1=N.<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last2=Isakov<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first2=M.<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last3=Booth<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first3=T.<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=Large-scale migration into Britain during the Middle to Late Bronze Age<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|date=2021<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|volume=601<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|issue=7894<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|pages=588–594<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|doi=10.1038/s41586-021-04287-4<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|pmid=34937049<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|pmc=8889665 |bibcode=2022Natur.601..588P |s2cid=245509501}}</ref> The newcomers were genetically most similar to ancient individuals from Gaul.<ref name="Patterson"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/> From 1000 BC, their genetic marker swiftly spread through southern Britain,<ref name="YorkUni">{{cite news |title=Ancient DNA study reveals large scale migrations into Bronze Age Britain |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://www.york.ac.uk/news-and-events/news/2021/research/ancient-dna-study-migration-bronze-age/ |access-date=21 January 2022 |publisher=[[University of York]] |date=22 December 2021 |archive-date=18 January 2022 |archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20220118140218/https://www.york.ac.uk/news-and-events/news/2021/research/ancient-dna-study-migration-bronze-age/ |url-status=live}}</ref> but not northern Britain.<ref name="Patterson"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/> The authors see this as a "plausible vector for the spread of early Celtic languages into Britain".<ref name="Patterson"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/> There was much less immigration during the Iron Age, so it is likely that Celtic reached Britain before then.<ref name="Patterson"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/> Cunliffe suggests that a branch of Celtic was already spoken in Britain, and the Bronze Age migration introduced the Brittonic branch.<ref>{{cite news |title=Ancient mass migration transformed Britons' DNA |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-59741723 |access-date=21 January 2022 |work=[[BBC News]] |date=22 December 2021 |archive-date=21 January 2022 |archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20220121165716/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-59741723 |url-status=live}}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>Like many Celtic peoples on the mainland, the Insular Celts followed an [[Ancient Celtic religion]] overseen by [[druid]]s. Some of the southern British tribes had strong links with Gaul and [[Belgica]], and [[Celtic currency of Britain|minted their own coins]]. During the Roman occupation of Britain, a [[Romano-British culture]] emerged in the southeast. The Britons and Picts in the north, and the Gaels of Ireland, remained outside the empire. During the [[end of Roman rule in Britain]] in the 400s AD, there was significant [[Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain|Anglo-Saxon settlement]] of eastern and southern Britain, and some Gaelic settlement of its western coast. During this time, some Britons migrated to the [[Armorica]]n peninsula, where their culture became dominant. Meanwhile, much of northern Britain ([[Kingdom of Alba|Scotland]]) became Gaelic. By the 10th century AD, the Insular Celtic peoples had diversified into the Brittonic-speaking [[Welsh people|Welsh]] (in [[Wales]]), [[Cornish people|Cornish]] (in [[Cornwall]]), [[Breton people|Bretons]] (in [[Brittany]]) and Cumbrians (in the [[Hen Ogledd|Old North]]); and the Gaelic-speaking [[Irish people|Irish]] (in Ireland), [[Scottish people|Scots]] (in Scotland) and [[Manx people|Manx]] (on the [[Isle of Man]]).{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>Like many Celtic peoples on the mainland, the Insular Celts followed an [[Ancient Celtic religion]] overseen by [[druid]]s. Some of the southern British tribes had strong links with Gaul and [[Belgica]], and [[Celtic currency of Britain|minted their own coins]]. During the Roman occupation of Britain, a [[Romano-British culture]] emerged in the southeast. The Britons and Picts in the north, and the Gaels of Ireland, remained outside the empire. During the [[end of Roman rule in Britain]] in the 400s AD, there was significant [[Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain|Anglo-Saxon settlement]] of eastern and southern Britain, and some Gaelic settlement of its western coast. During this time, some Britons migrated to the [[Armorica]]n peninsula, where their culture became dominant. Meanwhile, much of northern Britain ([[Kingdom of Alba|Scotland]]) became Gaelic. By the 10th century AD, the Insular Celtic peoples had diversified into the Brittonic-speaking [[Welsh people|Welsh]] (in [[Wales]]), [[Cornish people|Cornish]] (in [[Cornwall]]), [[Breton people|Bretons]] (in [[Brittany]]) and Cumbrians (in the [[Hen Ogledd|Old North]]); and the Gaelic-speaking [[Irish people|Irish]] (in Ireland), [[Scottish people|Scots]] (in Scotland) and [[Manx people|Manx]] (on the [[Isle of Man]]).{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>Classical writers did not call the inhabitants of Britain and Ireland {{lang|la|Celtae}} or ''{{lang|grc|Κελτοί}}'' ({{transliteration|grc|Keltoi}}),<ref name="Koch encyclopedia"/><ref name="SJames"/><ref name="JCollis"/> leading some scholars to question the use of the term 'Celt' for the Iron Age inhabitants of those islands.<ref name="Koch encyclopedia"/><ref name="SJames"/><ref name="JCollis"/><ref name="FPryor"/> The first historical account of the islands was by the Greek geographer [[Pytheas]], who sailed around what he called the "Pretannikai nesoi" (the "Pretannic isles") around 310–306 BC.<ref name="JCollis2">{{cite book|last1=Collis |first1=John |title=The Celts: Origins, Myths and Inventions|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=2003|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">publisher</del>=Stroud<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">:</del> Tempus Publishing |isbn<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>978-0-7524-2913-7|page=125}}</ref> In general, classical writers referred to the Britons as ''Pretannoi'' (in Greek) or ''Britanni'' (in Latin).<ref name="JCollis4">{{cite book|last1=Collis |first1=John |title=The Celts: Origins, Myths and Inventions|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=2003|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">publisher</del>=Stroud<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">:</del> Tempus Publishing |isbn<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>978-0-7524-2913-7|page=180}}</ref> Strabo, writing in Roman times, distinguished between the Celts and Britons.<ref name="JCollis3">{{cite book|last1=Collis |first1=John |title=The Celts: Origins, Myths and Inventions|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=2003|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">publisher</del>=Stroud<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">:</del> Tempus Publishing |isbn<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>978-0-7524-2913-7|page=27}}</ref> However, Roman historian [[Tacitus]] says the Britons resembled the Celts of Gaul in customs and religion.<ref name="Sims-Williams"/></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>Classical writers did not call the inhabitants of Britain and Ireland {{lang|la|Celtae}} or ''{{lang|grc|Κελτοί}}'' ({{transliteration|grc|Keltoi}}),<ref name="Koch encyclopedia"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/><ref name="SJames"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/><ref name="JCollis"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/> leading some scholars to question the use of the term 'Celt' for the Iron Age inhabitants of those islands.<ref name="Koch encyclopedia"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/><ref name="SJames"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/><ref name="JCollis"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/><ref name="FPryor"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/> The first historical account of the islands was by the Greek geographer [[Pytheas]], who sailed around what he called the "Pretannikai nesoi" (the "Pretannic isles") around 310–306 BC.<ref name="JCollis2">{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last1=Collis |first1=John |title=The Celts: Origins, Myths and Inventions<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2003<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">location</ins>=Stroud <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|publisher=[[</ins>Tempus Publishing<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]]</ins> |isbn=978-0-7524-2913-7<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|page=125}}</ref> In general, classical writers referred to the Britons as ''Pretannoi'' (in Greek) or ''Britanni'' (in Latin).<ref name="JCollis4">{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last1=Collis |first1=John |title=The Celts: Origins, Myths and Inventions<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2003<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">location</ins>=Stroud <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|publisher=[[</ins>Tempus Publishing<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]]</ins> |isbn=978-0-7524-2913-7<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|page=180}}</ref> Strabo, writing in Roman times, distinguished between the Celts and Britons.<ref name="JCollis3">{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last1=Collis |first1=John |title=The Celts: Origins, Myths and Inventions<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2003<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">location</ins>=Stroud <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|publisher=[[</ins>Tempus Publishing<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]]</ins> |isbn=978-0-7524-2913-7<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|page=27}}</ref> However, Roman historian [[Tacitus]] says the Britons resembled the Celts of Gaul in customs and religion.<ref name="Sims-Williams"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>==Romanisation==</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>==Romanisation==</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 228:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 224:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>The Roman occupation of [[Roman Gaul|Gaul]], and to a lesser extent of [[Roman Britain|Britain]], led to Roman-Celtic [[syncretism]]. In the case of the continental Celts, this eventually resulted in a [[language shift]] to [[Vulgar Latin]], while the Insular Celts retained their language.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>The Roman occupation of [[Roman Gaul|Gaul]], and to a lesser extent of [[Roman Britain|Britain]], led to Roman-Celtic [[syncretism]]. In the case of the continental Celts, this eventually resulted in a [[language shift]] to [[Vulgar Latin]], while the Insular Celts retained their language.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>There was also considerable cultural influence exerted by Gaul on Rome, particularly in military matters and horsemanship, as the Gauls often served in the [[Roman cavalry]]. The Romans adopted the Celtic cavalry sword, the [[spatha]], and [[Epona]], the Celtic horse goddess.<ref name=Tristram>{{cite book|last=Tristram|first=Hildegard L. C.|title=The Celtic languages in contact|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=2007|publisher=Potsdam University Press|page=5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VgBtaDT-evYC&q=Celts%20were%20master%20horsemen&pg=PA5|isbn=978-3-940793-07-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Ní Dhoireann|first=Kym|title=The Horse Amongst the Celts|url=http://www.cyberpict.net/horses/clthrs.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100514101456/http://www.cyberpict.net/horses/clthrs.htm|archive-date=14 May 2010}}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>There was also considerable cultural influence exerted by Gaul on Rome, particularly in military matters and horsemanship, as the Gauls often served in the [[Roman cavalry]]. The Romans adopted the Celtic cavalry sword, the [[spatha]], and [[Epona]], the Celtic horse goddess.<ref name=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">"</ins>Tristram<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">"</ins>>{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last=Tristram<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first=Hildegard L. C.<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=The Celtic languages in contact<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2007<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>Potsdam University Press<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]] </ins>|page=5<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://books.google.com/books?id=VgBtaDT-evYC&q=Celts%20were%20master%20horsemen&pg=PA5<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|isbn=978-3-940793-07-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite web<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last=Ní Dhoireann<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first=Kym<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=The Horse Amongst the Celts<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>http://www.cyberpict.net/horses/clthrs.htm<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url-status=dead<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20100514101456/http://www.cyberpict.net/horses/clthrs.htm<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-date=14 May 2010}}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>==Society==</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>==Society==</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 236:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 232:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>In the main, the evidence is of tribes being led by kings, although some argue that there is also evidence of [[oligarchy|oligarchical]] republican [[form of government|forms of government]] eventually emerging in areas which had close contact with Rome. Most descriptions of Celtic societies portray them as being divided into three groups: a warrior aristocracy; an intellectual class including professions such as [[druid]], poet, and jurist; and everyone else. In historical times, the offices of high and low kings in Ireland and Scotland were filled by election under the system of [[tanistry]], which eventually came into conflict with the feudal principle of [[primogeniture]] in which succession goes to the first-born son.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>In the main, the evidence is of tribes being led by kings, although some argue that there is also evidence of [[oligarchy|oligarchical]] republican [[form of government|forms of government]] eventually emerging in areas which had close contact with Rome. Most descriptions of Celtic societies portray them as being divided into three groups: a warrior aristocracy; an intellectual class including professions such as [[druid]], poet, and jurist; and everyone else. In historical times, the offices of high and low kings in Ireland and Scotland were filled by election under the system of [[tanistry]], which eventually came into conflict with the feudal principle of [[primogeniture]] in which succession goes to the first-born son.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>[[File:Romano-Celtic mirror (Desborough).jpg|thumb|The reverse side of <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">a</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">British</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">bronze mirror</del>, with spiral and trumpet motifs typical of La Tène Celtic art in Britain]]</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>[[File:Romano-Celtic mirror (Desborough).jpg|thumb|The reverse side of <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">the</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[Desborough</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Mirror]]</ins>, with spiral and trumpet motifs typical of La Tène Celtic art in Britain]]</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>[[File:Ring MET tr409-1-2009s08.jpg|thumb|A 4th century BC Celtic gold ring from southern Germany, decorated with human and rams heads]]</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>[[File:Ring MET tr409-1-2009s08.jpg|thumb|A 4th century BC Celtic gold ring from southern Germany, decorated with human and rams heads]]</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>Little is known of family structure among the Celts. Patterns of settlement varied from decentralised to urban. The popular stereotype of non-urbanised societies settled in [[hillfort]]s and [[Dun (fortification)|duns]],<ref>"[http://www.smr.herefordshire.gov.uk/hist_periods/iron_age.htm The Iron Age]". Smr.herefordshire.gov.uk. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090207021902/http://www.smr.herefordshire.gov.uk/hist_periods/iron_age.htm |date=7 February 2009 }}</ref> drawn from Britain and Ireland (there are about 3,000 [[List of hill forts in England|hill forts]] known in Britain)<ref><del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">"</del>''[https://books.google.com/books?id=LspvFOZQTakC&pg=PA56 The Landscape of Britain]''<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">"</del>.<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> Michael</del> Reed (1997). [[CRC Press]]. p. 56. {{ISBN|0-203-44411-6}}</ref> contrasts with the urban settlements present in the core Hallstatt and La Tène areas, with the many significant ''[[oppida]]'' of Gaul late in the first millennium BC, and with the towns of [[Cisalpine Gaul|Gallia Cisalpina]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>Little is known of family structure among the Celts. Patterns of settlement varied from decentralised to urban. The popular stereotype of non-urbanised societies settled in [[hillfort]]s and [[Dun (fortification)|duns]],<ref>"[http://www.smr.herefordshire.gov.uk/hist_periods/iron_age.htm The Iron Age]". Smr.herefordshire.gov.uk. {{webarchive |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20090207021902/http://www.smr.herefordshire.gov.uk/hist_periods/iron_age.htm |date=7 February 2009 }}</ref> drawn from Britain and Ireland (there are about 3,000 [[List of hill forts in England|hill forts]] known in Britain)<ref>''[https://books.google.com/books?id=LspvFOZQTakC&pg=PA56 The Landscape of Britain]''. Reed<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">, Michael</ins> (1997). [[CRC Press]]. p. 56. {{ISBN|0-203-44411-6}}</ref> contrasts with the urban settlements present in the core Hallstatt and La Tène areas, with the many significant ''[[oppida]]'' of Gaul late in the first millennium BC, and with the towns of [[Cisalpine Gaul|Gallia Cisalpina]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>[[Slavery]], as practised by the Celts, was very likely similar to the better documented [[Slavery in antiquity|practice in ancient Greece and Rome]].<ref name="Simmons 1615">{{cite book|last=Simmons|first=Victoria|title=Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia|editor=John T. Koch|publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]]|volume=I|page=1615|isbn=978-1-85109-440-0|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=2006}}</ref> Slaves were acquired from war, raids, and penal and debt servitude.<ref name="Simmons 1615"/> Slavery was hereditary,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Holy Spirit - Gifts of the Holy Spirit|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/2468-483x_smuo_com_001832|access-date=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2021-10-</del>22|website=Sacramentum Mundi Online|doi=10.1163/2468-483x_smuo_com_001832}}</ref> though [[manumission]] was possible. The [[Old Irish]] and Welsh words for 'slave', ''cacht'' and ''caeth'' respectively, are cognate with Latin ''captus'' 'captive' suggesting that the [[History of slavery|slave trade]] was an early means of contact between Latin and Celtic societies.<ref name="Simmons 1615"/> In the Middle Ages, slavery was especially prevalent in the [[Celtic nations|Celtic countries]].<ref>Simmons, op. cit., citing <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">''</del>Wendy <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Davies</del>''<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">, </del>Wales in the Early <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</del>Middle Ages<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]],</del> 64.</ref> [[Manumission]]s were discouraged by law and the word for <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">"</del>female slave<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">"</del>, ''cumal'', was used as a general unit of value in Ireland.<ref>Simmons, op. cit., <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">at</del> 1616, citing <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">''</del>Kelly''<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">, </del>Guide to Early Irish Law<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">,</del> 96.</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>[[Slavery]], as practised by the Celts, was very likely similar to the better documented [[Slavery in antiquity|practice in ancient Greece and Rome]].<ref name="Simmons 1615">{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|last=Simmons<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first=Victoria<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|editor<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">-first</ins>=John T. <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|editor-last=</ins>Koch<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]]<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|volume=I<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|page=1615<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|isbn=978-1-85109-440-0<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2006}}</ref> Slaves were acquired from war, raids, and penal and debt servitude.<ref name="Simmons 1615"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/> Slavery was hereditary,<ref>{{Cite journal<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=Holy Spirit - Gifts of the Holy Spirit<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/2468-483x_smuo_com_001832<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|access-date=22<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> October 2021 </ins>|website=Sacramentum Mundi Online<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|doi=10.1163/2468-483x_smuo_com_001832}}</ref> though [[manumission]] was possible. The [[Old Irish]] and Welsh words for 'slave', ''cacht'' and ''caeth'' respectively, are cognate with Latin ''captus'' 'captive' suggesting that the [[History of slavery|slave trade]] was an early means of contact between Latin and Celtic societies.<ref name="Simmons 1615"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/> In the Middle Ages, slavery was especially prevalent in the [[Celtic nations|Celtic countries]].<ref>Simmons, <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">''</ins>op. cit.<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">''</ins>, citing<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">: Davies,</ins> Wendy<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">;</ins> ''Wales in the Early Middle Ages<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">''; p.</ins> 64.</ref> [[Manumission]]s were discouraged by law and the word for <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">'</ins>female slave<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">'</ins>, ''cumal'', was used as a general unit of value in Ireland.<ref>Simmons, <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">''</ins>op. cit.<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">''</ins>, <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">p.</ins> 1616, citing<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">:</ins> Kelly<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">; </ins>''Guide to Early Irish Law<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">''; p.</ins> 96.</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>There are only very limited records from pre-Christian times written in Celtic languages. These are mostly inscriptions in the Roman and sometimes Greek alphabets. The [[<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Ogham</del>]] script, an [[Early Medieval]] [[alphabet]], was mostly used in early Christian times in Ireland and Scotland (but also in Wales and England), and was only used for ceremonial purposes such as inscriptions on gravestones. The available evidence is of a strong oral tradition, such as that preserved by [[bard]]s in Ireland, and eventually recorded by [[monastery|monasteries]]. Celtic art also produced a great deal of intricate and beautiful metalwork, examples of which have been preserved by their distinctive burial rites.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cunliffe |first=Barry W.<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1034807416</del> |title=The <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">ancient</del> Celts |date=2018 |isbn=978-0-19-875293-6 |edition=2nd |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">location</del>=Oxford<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">,</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">United</del> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Kingdom</del> |pages=49, 192, 200 |oclc=1034807416}}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>There are only very limited records from pre-Christian times written in Celtic languages. These are mostly inscriptions in the Roman and sometimes Greek alphabets. The [[<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">ogham</ins>]] script, an [[Early Medieval]] [[alphabet]], was mostly used in early Christian times in Ireland and Scotland (but also in Wales and England), and was only used for ceremonial purposes such as inscriptions on gravestones. The available evidence is of a strong oral tradition, such as that preserved by [[bard]]s in Ireland, and eventually recorded by [[monastery|monasteries]]. Celtic art also produced a great deal of intricate and beautiful metalwork, examples of which have been preserved by their distinctive burial rites.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cunliffe |first=Barry W. |title=The <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Ancient</ins> Celts |date=2018 |isbn=978-0-19-875293-6 |edition=2nd |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">publisher</ins>=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>Oxford <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">University</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Press]]</ins> |pages=49, 192, 200 |oclc=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">1034807416 |url= https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/</ins>1034807416}}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>In some regards the Atlantic Celts were conservative: for example, they still used [[chariot]]s in combat long after they had been reduced to ceremonial roles by the Greeks and Romans. However, despite being outdated, Celtic [[chariot tactics]] were able to repel the [[Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain|invasions of Britain attempted by Julius Caesar]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Caesar |first=Julius<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/21116188</del> |title=The <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">conquest</del> of Gaul |date=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">1982</del> |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">others</del>=S. A. Handford<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">,</del> Jane F.<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> Gardner</del> |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">isbn=0-14-044433</del>-<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">5</del> |location=London |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">pages</del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Section</del> 3<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">:</del> 33 |oclc=21116188}}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>In some regards the Atlantic Celts were conservative: for example, they still used [[chariot]]s in combat long after they had been reduced to ceremonial roles by the Greeks and Romans. However, despite being outdated, Celtic [[chariot tactics]] were able to repel the [[Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain|invasions of Britain attempted by Julius Caesar]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Caesar |first=Julius |title=The <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Conquest</ins> of Gaul<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> |edition=revised</ins> |date=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">1983</ins> |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">translator-first</ins>=S. A. <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|translator-last=</ins>Handford <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|editor-first=</ins>Jane F. |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">editor</ins>-<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">last=Gardner</ins> |location=London |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">publisher</ins>=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[Penguin Books]] |at=Sect.</ins> 3<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">, p.</ins> 33 |oclc=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">21116188 |isbn=9780140444339 |url= https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/</ins>21116188}}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>According to Diodorus Siculus:</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>According to Diodorus Siculus:</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 266:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 262:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>During the later Iron Age the Gauls generally wore long-sleeved shirts or [[tunic]]s and long trousers (called ''[[braccae]]'' by the Romans).<ref>Diodorus Siculus, ''Bibliotheca Historica''</ref> Clothes were made of [[wool]] or [[linen]], with some silk being used by the rich. [[Cloak]]s were worn in the winter. [[Brooch]]es<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC - Wales - Education - Iron Age Celts - Factfile |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/celts/factfile/clothes.shtml |access-date=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2023-02-</del>22 |website=www.bbc.co.uk |archive-date=25 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230225211722/https://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/celts/factfile/clothes.shtml |url-status=live<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>}}</ref> and [[armlet]]s were used, but the most famous item of jewellery was the [[torc]], a neck collar of metal, sometimes gold. The horned [[Waterloo Helmet]] in the [[British Museum]], which long set the standard for modern images of Celtic warriors, is in fact a unique survival, and may have been a piece for ceremonial rather than military wear.<ref>{{Cite web |title=helmet {{!}} British Museum |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/H_1988-1004-1 |access-date=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2024-03-</del>17 |website=www.britishmuseum.org |language=en}}</ref>{{clear left}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>During the later Iron Age the Gauls generally wore long-sleeved shirts or [[tunic]]s and long trousers (called ''[[braccae]]'' by the Romans).<ref>Diodorus Siculus, ''Bibliotheca Historica''</ref> Clothes were made of [[wool]] or [[linen]], with some silk being used by the rich. [[Cloak]]s were worn in the winter. [[Brooch]]es<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC - Wales - Education - Iron Age Celts - Factfile |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/celts/factfile/clothes.shtml |access-date=22<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> February 2023</ins> |website=www.bbc.co.uk |archive-date=25 February 2023 |archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20230225211722/https://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/celts/factfile/clothes.shtml |url-status=live}}</ref> and [[armlet]]s were used, but the most famous item of jewellery was the [[torc]], a neck collar of metal, sometimes gold. The horned [[Waterloo Helmet]] in the [[British Museum]], which long set the standard for modern images of Celtic warriors, is in fact a unique survival, and may have been a piece for ceremonial rather than military wear.<ref>{{Cite web |title=helmet {{!}} British Museum |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/H_1988-1004-1 |access-date=17<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> March 2024</ins> |website=www.britishmuseum.org |language=en}}</ref>{{clear left}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>===Trade and coinage===</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>===Trade and coinage===</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>Archaeological evidence suggests that the pre-Roman Celtic societies were linked to the network of overland [[trade route]]s that spanned Eurasia. Archaeologists have discovered large prehistoric trackways crossing bogs in Ireland and Germany. Due to their substantial nature, these are believed to have been created for wheeled transport as part of an extensive roadway system that facilitated trade.<ref>{{cite journal |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>title=Neolithic wooden trackways and bog hydrology |journal=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>Journal of Paleolimnology |publisher<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>=Springer <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Netherlands</del> | <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">volume</del> =12 |issue=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>1 |date<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>January 1994|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>pages=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>49–64 |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>doi=10.1007/BF00677989 |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> author</del>=Casparie<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">,</del> Wil A. |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>last2=Moloney |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>first2=Aonghus|bibcode=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>1994JPall..12...49C |s2cid=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>129780014<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>}}</ref> The territory held by the Celts contained [[tin]], lead, iron, silver and gold.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/main/w-ar_r_wal.pdf|title=Regional Reviews: Wales|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604092735/http://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/main/w-ar_r_wal.pdf|archive-date=4 June 2011}}&nbsp;{{small|(369 KB)}} Beatrice Cauuet (Université Toulouse Le Mirail, UTAH, France)</ref> Celtic smiths and metalworkers created weapons and jewellery for [[international trade]], particularly with the Romans.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jeffers |first=Regina |date=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2014-06-</del>10 |title=The Scope and Influence of The Ancient Celts |url=https://reginajeffers.blog/2014/06/10/the-scope-and-influence-of-the-ancient-celts/ |access-date=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2024-06-</del>26 |website=Every Woman Dreams... |language=en}}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>Archaeological evidence suggests that the pre-Roman Celtic societies were linked to the network of overland [[trade route]]s that spanned Eurasia. Archaeologists have discovered large prehistoric trackways crossing bogs in Ireland and Germany. Due to their substantial nature, these are believed to have been created for wheeled transport as part of an extensive roadway system that facilitated trade.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Neolithic wooden trackways and bog hydrology |journal=Journal of Paleolimnology |publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>Springer <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Science+Business</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Media</ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Springer]]</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Netherlands</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|volume</ins>=12 |issue=1 |date=January 1994<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|pages=49–64 |doi=10.1007/BF00677989 |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">last1</ins>=Casparie <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|first1=</ins>Wil A. |last2=Moloney |first2=Aonghus<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|bibcode=1994JPall..12...49C |s2cid=129780014}}</ref> The territory held by the Celts contained [[tin]], lead, iron, silver and gold.<ref>{{cite web<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>http://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/main/w-ar_r_wal.pdf<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=Regional Reviews: Wales<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url-status=dead<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20110604092735/http://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/main/w-ar_r_wal.pdf<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-date=4 June 2011}}&nbsp;{{small|(369 KB)}} Beatrice Cauuet (Université Toulouse Le Mirail, UTAH, France)</ref> Celtic smiths and metalworkers created weapons and jewellery for [[international trade]], particularly with the Romans.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jeffers |first=Regina |date=10<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> June 2014</ins> |title=The Scope and Influence of The Ancient Celts |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://reginajeffers.blog/2014/06/10/the-scope-and-influence-of-the-ancient-celts/ |access-date=26<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> June 2024</ins> |website=Every Woman Dreams... |language=en}}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>The myth that the Celtic [[monetary system]] consisted of wholly [[barter]] is a common one, but is in part false. The monetary system was complex and is still not understood (much like the late Roman coinages), and due to the absence of large numbers of coin items, it is assumed that "proto-money" was used. This included bronze items made from the early La Tène period and onwards, which were often in the shape of [[axe]]heads, rings, or [[bell (instrument)|bells]]. Due to the large number of these present in some burials, it is thought they had a relatively high [[Value (economics)|monetary value]], and could be used for "day to day" purchases. Low-value coinages of [[potin]], a bronze alloy with high tin content, were minted in most Celtic areas of the continent and in South-East Britain prior to the Roman conquest of these lands. Higher-value coinages, suitable for use in trade, were minted in gold, silver, and high-quality bronze. [[Gold coin]]age was much more common than [[silver coin]]age, despite being worth substantially more, as while there were around 100 mines in Southern Britain and Central France, silver was more rarely mined. This was due partly to the relative sparsity of mines and the amount of effort needed for extraction compared to the profit gained. As the Roman civilisation grew in importance and expanded its trade with the Celtic world, silver and bronze coinage became more common. This coincided with a major increase in gold production in Celtic areas to meet the Roman demand, due to the high value Romans put on the metal. The large number of gold mines in France is thought to be a major reason why Caesar invaded.<ref>{{Cite web |date=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2021-01-</del>16 |title=The Gallic Wars: How Julius Caesar Conquered Gaul (Modern France) |url=https://www.thecollector.com/gallic-wars-how-julius-caesar-conquered-gaul/ |access-date=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2024-06-</del>26 |website=TheCollector |language=en}}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>The myth that the Celtic [[monetary system]] consisted of wholly [[barter]] is a common one, but is in part false. The monetary system was complex and is still not understood (much like the late Roman coinages), and due to the absence of large numbers of coin items, it is assumed that "proto-money" was used. This included bronze items made from the early La Tène period and onwards, which were often in the shape of [[axe]]heads, rings, or [[bell (instrument)|bells]]. Due to the large number of these present in some burials, it is thought they had a relatively high [[Value (economics)|monetary value]], and could be used for "day to day" purchases. Low-value coinages of [[potin]], a bronze alloy with high tin content, were minted in most Celtic areas of the continent and in South-East Britain prior to the Roman conquest of these lands. Higher-value coinages, suitable for use in trade, were minted in gold, silver, and high-quality bronze. [[Gold coin]]age was much more common than [[silver coin]]age, despite being worth substantially more, as while there were around 100 mines in Southern Britain and Central France, silver was more rarely mined. This was due partly to the relative sparsity of mines and the amount of effort needed for extraction compared to the profit gained. As the Roman civilisation grew in importance and expanded its trade with the Celtic world, silver and bronze coinage became more common. This coincided with a major increase in gold production in Celtic areas to meet the Roman demand, due to the high value Romans put on the metal. The large number of gold mines in France is thought to be a major reason why Caesar invaded.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> January 2021</ins> |title=The Gallic Wars: How Julius Caesar Conquered Gaul (Modern France) |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://www.thecollector.com/gallic-wars-how-julius-caesar-conquered-gaul/ |access-date=26<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> June 2024</ins> |website=TheCollector |language=en}}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>===Gender and sexual norms===</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>===Gender and sexual norms===</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 277:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 273:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>{{see also|Ancient Celtic women}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>{{see also|Ancient Celtic women}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>Very few reliable sources exist regarding Celtic views on [[gender role]]s, though some archaeological evidence suggests their views may have differed from those of the Greco-Roman world, which tended to be less [[egalitarian]].<ref>{{cite book|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">author</del>=J.A. MacCulloch|title=The Religion of the Ancient Celts|publisher=Morrison & Gibb|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>1911|pages=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>4–5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">author</del>=Evans<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">,</del> Thomas L.|title=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>Quantified Identities: A Statistical Summary and Analysis of Iron Age Cemeteries in North-Eastern France 600–130 BC, BAR International Series 1226|publisher=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>Archaeopress|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>2004|pages=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>34–40, 158–88}}</ref> Some Iron Age burials in northeastern Gaul suggest women may have had roles in warfare during the earlier ''La Tène'' period, but the evidence is far from conclusive.<ref>{{cite book</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>Very few reliable sources exist regarding Celtic views on [[gender role]]s, though some archaeological evidence suggests their views may have differed from those of the Greco-Roman world, which tended to be less [[egalitarian]].<ref>{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">first</ins>=J.<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>A. <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|last=</ins>MacCulloch<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=The Religion of the Ancient Celts<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|publisher=Morrison & Gibb<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=1911<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|pages=4–5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">last</ins>=Evans <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|first=</ins>Thomas L.<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=Quantified Identities: A Statistical Summary and Analysis of Iron Age Cemeteries in North-Eastern France 600–130 BC, BAR International Series 1226<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>Archaeopress<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]] </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2004<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|pages=34–40, 158–88}}</ref> Some Iron Age burials in northeastern Gaul suggest women may have had roles in warfare during the earlier ''La Tène'' period, but the evidence is far from conclusive.<ref>{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> |last=Evans |first=Thomas L. |title=Quantified Identities: A Statistical Summary and Analysis of Iron Age Cemeteries in North-Eastern France 600–130 BC, BAR International Series 1226 |publisher=[[Archaeopress]] |date=2004 |pages=34–37}}</ref> Celtic individuals buried with both female jewellery and weaponry have been found, such as the [[Vix Grave]] in northeastern Gaul, and there are questions about the gender of some individuals buried with weaponry. However, it has been suggested that the weapons indicate high social rank rather than masculinity.<ref>{{cite book |last=Nelson |first=Sarah M. |title=Gender in archaeology: analyzing power and prestige: Volume 9 of Gender and archaeology series |publisher=[[Rowman Altamira]] |date=2004 |page=119}}</ref></ins></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>|author=Evans, Thomas L.</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>|title= Quantified Identities: A Statistical Summary and Analysis of Iron Age Cemeteries in North-Eastern France 600–130 BC, BAR International Series 1226</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>|publisher= Archaeopress</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>|year= 2004</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>|pages= 34–37</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>}}</ref> Celtic individuals buried with both female jewellery and weaponry have been found, such as the [[Vix Grave]] in northeastern Gaul, and there are questions about the gender of some individuals buried with weaponry. However, it has been suggested that the weapons indicate high social rank rather than masculinity.<ref>{{cite book</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>|author=Nelson, Sarah M.</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>|title= Gender in archaeology: analyzing power and prestige: Volume 9 of Gender and archaeology series</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>|publisher= Rowman Altamira</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>|year= 2004</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>|page= 119</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>}}</ref></div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>Most written accounts of the Ancient Celts are from the Romans and Greeks, though it is not clear how accurate these are. Roman historians [[Ammianus Marcellinus]] and [[Tacitus]] mentioned Celtic women inciting, participating in, and leading battles.<ref>{{cite book</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>Most written accounts of the Ancient Celts are from the Romans and Greeks, though it is not clear how accurate these are. Roman historians [[Ammianus Marcellinus]] and [[Tacitus]] mentioned Celtic women inciting, participating in, and leading battles.<ref>{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> |last=Tierney |first=J. J. |title=The Celtic Ethnography of Posidonius |series=Proceedings of the [[Royal Irish Academy]] |volume=60 C |pages=1.89–275}}</ref> [[Plutarch]] reports that Celtic women acted as ambassadors to avoid a war among Celtic chiefdoms in the [[Po valley]] during the 4th century BC.<ref name="Ellis">{{cite book |last=Ellis |first=Peter Berresford |title=The Celts: A History |pages=49–50 |publisher=Caroll & Graf |date=1998 |isbn=978-0-7867-1211-3}}</ref> Posidonius' anthropological comments on the Celts had common themes, primarily [[primitivism]], extreme ferocity, cruel sacrificial practices, and the strength and courage of their women.<ref></ins></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-deleted"></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>{{cite book |title=Celts and the Classical World |last=Rankin |first=H. David |publisher=[[Routledge]] |date=1996 |page=80 |isbn=978-0-415-15090-3}}</ref> [[Cassius Dio]] suggests there was great [[sexual norm|sexual freedom]] among women in Celtic Britain:<ref name="Dio Cassius">[[List of Ancient Rome-related topics|Roman History]] Volume IX Books 71–80, Dio Cassiuss and Earnest Carry translator (1927), [[Loeb Classical Library]] {{ISBN|0-674-99196-6}}.</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>|author=Tierney, J. J.</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>|title=The Celtic Ethnography of Posidonius, PRIA 60 C</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>|year=1960</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>|publisher=Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>|pages=1.89–275</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>}}</ref> [[Plutarch]] reports that Celtic women acted as ambassadors to avoid a war among Celtic chiefdoms in the [[Po valley]] during the 4th century BC.<ref name=Ellis></div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>{{cite book</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>|author=Ellis, Peter Berresford</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>|title= ''The Celts: A History''</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>|pages= 49–50</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>|publisher=Caroll & Graf</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>|year= 1998</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>|isbn= 978-0-7867-1211-3}}</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div></ref> Posidonius' anthropological comments on the Celts had common themes, primarily [[primitivism]], extreme ferocity, cruel sacrificial practices, and the strength and courage of their women.<ref></div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>{{cite book</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>|title = Celts and the Classical World</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>|author = Rankin, David</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>|publisher= Routledge</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>|year=1996</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>|page=80</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>|isbn=978-0-415-15090-3</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>}}</ref> [[Cassius Dio]] suggests there was great [[sexual norm|sexual freedom]] among women in Celtic Britain:</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>{{blockquote|...&nbsp;a very witty remark is reported to have been made by the wife of Argentocoxus, a [[Caledonians|Caledonian]], to [[Livia|Julia Augusta]]. When the empress was jesting with her, after the treaty, about the free intercourse of her sex with men in Britain, she replied: "We fulfill the demands of nature in a much better way than do you Roman women; for we consort openly with the best men, whereas you let yourselves be debauched in secret by the vilest". Such was the retort of the British woman.<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"><ref name="Dio Cassius">[[List of Ancient Rome-related topics|Roman History]] Volume IX Books 71–80, Dio Cassiuss and Earnest Carry translator (1927), [[Loeb Classical Library]] {{ISBN|0-674-99196-6}}.</ref></del>}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>{{blockquote|...&nbsp;a very witty remark is reported to have been made by the wife of Argentocoxus, a [[Caledonians|Caledonian]], to [[Livia|Julia Augusta]]. When the empress was jesting with her, after the treaty, about the free intercourse of her sex with men in Britain, she replied: "We fulfill the demands of nature in a much better way than do you Roman women; for we consort openly with the best men, whereas you let yourselves be debauched in secret by the vilest". Such was the retort of the British woman.}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>Barry Cunliffe writes that such references are "likely to be ill-observed" and meant to portray the Celts as outlandish "barbarians".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cunliffe |first1=Barry |title=The Ancient Celts |date=2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=236}}</ref> Historian Lisa Bitel argues the descriptions of Celtic women warriors are not credible. She says some Roman and Greek writers wanted to show that the barbarian Celts lived in "an upside-down world<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> [</del>...<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]</del> and a standard ingredient in such a world was the manly warrior woman".<ref>{{cite book</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>Barry Cunliffe writes that such references are "likely to be ill-observed" and meant to portray the Celts as outlandish "barbarians".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cunliffe |first1=Barry |title=The Ancient Celts |date=2018 |publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>Oxford University Press<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]]</ins> |page=236}}</ref> Historian Lisa Bitel argues the descriptions of Celtic women warriors are not credible. She says some Roman and Greek writers wanted to show that the barbarian Celts lived in "an upside-down world<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">&nbsp;</ins>... and a standard ingredient in such a world was the manly warrior woman".<ref>{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> |last=Bitel |first=Lisa M. |title=Land of Women: Tales of Sex and Gender from Early Ireland |url= https://archive.org/details/landofwomentales00bite |url-access=limited |publisher=[[Cornell University Press]] |date=1996 |page=[https://archive.org/details/landofwomentales00bite/page/212 212] |isbn=978-0-8014-8544-2}}</ref></ins></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>|author=Bitel, Lisa M.</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>|title= Land of Women: Tales of Sex and Gender from Early Ireland</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>|url=https://archive.org/details/landofwomentales00bite</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>|url-access=limited</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>|publisher= Cornell University Press</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>|year= 1996| page= [https://archive.org/details/landofwomentales00bite/page/212 212]</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>|isbn=978-0-8014-8544-2}}</ref></div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>The Greek philosopher [[Aristotle]] wrote in his ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]'' that the [[Celtic settlement of Southeast Europe|Celts of southeastern Europe]] approved of male homosexuality. Greek historian [[Diodorus Siculus]] wrote in his ''[[Bibliotheca historica]]'' that although Gaulish women were beautiful, the men had "little to do with them" and it was a custom for men to sleep on animal skins with two younger males. He further claimed that "the young men will offer themselves to strangers and are insulted if the offer is refused". His claim was later repeated by Greco-Roman writers [[Athenaeus]] and [[Ammianus Marcellinus|Ammianus]].<ref>{{cite book|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">author</del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>Percy<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">,</del> William A.|title=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>Pederasty and Pedagogy in Archaic Greece|publisher=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>University of Illinois Press|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>1996|url= https://archive.org/details/pederastypedagog00perc/page/18|page=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>[https://archive.org/details/pederastypedagog00perc/page/18 18]|isbn=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>978-0-252-06740-2|access-date= 2009<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">-09-18</del>}}; Rankin, H<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">.D</del>. ''Celts and the Classical World''<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">,</del> p. 55</ref> David Rankin, in ''Celts and the Classical World'', suggests some of these claims refer to bonding rituals in warrior groups, which required abstinence from women at certain times,<ref>Rankin, p. 78</ref> and says it probably reflects "the warlike character of early contacts between the Celts and the Greeks".<ref>Rankin, p. 55</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>The Greek philosopher [[Aristotle]] wrote in his ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]'' that the [[Celtic settlement of Southeast Europe|Celts of southeastern Europe]] approved of male homosexuality. Greek historian [[Diodorus Siculus]] wrote in his ''[[Bibliotheca historica]]'' that although Gaulish women were beautiful, the men had "little to do with them" and it was a custom for men to sleep on animal skins with two younger males. He further claimed that "the young men will offer themselves to strangers and are insulted if the offer is refused". His claim was later repeated by Greco-Roman writers [[Athenaeus]] and [[Ammianus Marcellinus|Ammianus]].<ref>{{cite book<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">last</ins>=Percy <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|first=</ins>William A.<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=Pederasty and Pedagogy in Archaic Greece<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>University of Illinois Press<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]] </ins>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=1996<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url= https://archive.org/details/pederastypedagog00perc/page/18<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|page=[https://archive.org/details/pederastypedagog00perc/page/18 18]<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|isbn=978-0-252-06740-2<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|access-date=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">18 September</ins> 2009}}; Rankin, H.<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> David;</ins> ''Celts and the Classical World''<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">;</ins> p. 55<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">.</ins></ref><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> H.</ins> David Rankin, in ''Celts and the Classical World'', suggests some of these claims refer to bonding rituals in warrior groups, which required abstinence from women at certain times,<ref>Rankin, p. 78<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">.</ins></ref> and says it probably reflects "the warlike character of early contacts between the Celts and the Greeks".<ref>Rankin, p. 55<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">.</ins></ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>Under [[Early Irish law|Brehon Law]], which was written down in [[early Medieval Ireland]] after conversion to Christianity, a woman had the right to divorce her husband and gain his property if he was unable to perform his marital duties due to impotence, obesity, homosexual inclination or preference for other women.<ref>{{Cite web |title=History of the Law in Ireland {{!}} The Courts Service of Ireland |url=https://www.courts.ie/history-law-ireland#:~:text=In%20many%20respects%20Brehon%20law,punishment%20was%20prescribed%20for%20wrongdoing. |access-date=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2024-06-</del>26 |website=www.courts.ie}}</ref><ref name="Cáin Lánamna (Couples Law)">University College, Cork. '' Cáin Lánamna (Couples Law) ''. 2005.{{cite web |url=http://www.ucc.ie/celt/online/G102030.html |title=Cáin Lánamna |access-date=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2007-11-</del>20 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216104108/http://www.ucc.ie/celt/online/G102030.html |archive-date=16 December 2008}} Access date: 7 March 2006.</ref>{{failed verification|date=January 2022}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>Under [[Early Irish law|Brehon Law]], which was written down in [[early Medieval Ireland]] after conversion to Christianity, a woman had the right to divorce her husband and gain his property if he was unable to perform his marital duties due to impotence, obesity, homosexual inclination or preference for other women.<ref>{{Cite web |title=History of the Law in Ireland {{!}} The Courts Service of Ireland |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://www.courts.ie/history-law-ireland#:~:text=In%20many%20respects%20Brehon%20law,punishment%20was%20prescribed%20for%20wrongdoing. |access-date=26<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> June 2024</ins> |website=www.courts.ie}}</ref><ref name="Cáin Lánamna (Couples Law)">University College, Cork. '' Cáin Lánamna (Couples Law) ''. 2005.{{cite web |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>http://www.ucc.ie/celt/online/G102030.html |title=Cáin Lánamna |access-date=20<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> November 2007</ins> |url-status=live |archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20081216104108/http://www.ucc.ie/celt/online/G102030.html |archive-date=16 December 2008}} Access date: 7 March 2006.</ref>{{failed verification|date=January 2022}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>===Celtic art===</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>===Celtic art===</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 334:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 290:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>{{main|Celtic art}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>{{main|Celtic art}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>Celtic art is generally used by art historians to refer to art of the La Tène period across Europe, while the [[Early Medieval]] art of Britain and Ireland, that is what "Celtic art" evokes for much of the general public, is called [[Insular art]] in art history. Both styles absorbed considerable influences from non-Celtic sources, but retained a preference for geometrical decoration over figurative subjects, which are often extremely stylised when they do appear; narrative scenes only appear under outside influence. Energetic circular forms, [[triskele]]s and spirals are characteristic. Much of the surviving material is in precious metal, which no doubt gives a very unrepresentative picture, but apart from [[Pictish stones]] and the Insular [[high crosses]], large [[monumental sculpture]], even with decorative carving, is very rare; possibly it was originally common in wood. Celts were also able to create developed musical instruments such as the carnyces, these famous war trumpets used before the battle to frighten the enemy, as the best preserved found in [[Tintignac]] ([[Gaul]]) in 2004 and which were decorated with a boar head or a snake head.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://tintignac.wix.com/tintignac-naves#!english/c11e3 |title=Accueil |trans-title=Home |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">publisher</del>=Site archéologique de Tintignac-Naves |language=fr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150801011716/http://tintignac.wix.com/tintignac-naves |archive-date=1 August 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>Celtic art is generally used by art historians to refer to art of the La Tène period across Europe, while the [[Early Medieval]] art of Britain and Ireland, that is what "Celtic art" evokes for much of the general public, is called [[Insular art]] in art history. Both styles absorbed considerable influences from non-Celtic sources, but retained a preference for geometrical decoration over figurative subjects, which are often extremely stylised when they do appear; narrative scenes only appear under outside influence. Energetic circular forms, [[triskele]]s and spirals are characteristic. Much of the surviving material is in precious metal, which no doubt gives a very unrepresentative picture, but apart from [[Pictish stones]] and the Insular [[high crosses]], large [[monumental sculpture]], even with decorative carving, is very rare; possibly it was originally common in wood. Celts were also able to create developed musical instruments such as the carnyces, these famous war trumpets used before the battle to frighten the enemy, as the best preserved found in [[Tintignac]] ([[Gaul]]) in 2004 and which were decorated with a boar head or a snake head.<ref>{{cite web |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>http://tintignac.wix.com/tintignac-naves#!english/c11e3 |title=Accueil |trans-title=Home |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">work</ins>=Site archéologique de Tintignac-Naves |language=fr |archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20150801011716/http://tintignac.wix.com/tintignac-naves |archive-date=1 August 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>The [[interlace (art)|interlace]] patterns that are often regarded as typical of "Celtic art" were characteristic of the whole of the British Isles, a style referred to as [[Insular art]], or Hiberno-Saxon art. This artistic style incorporated elements of La Tène, Late Roman, and, most importantly, [[Germanic animal style|animal Style II]] of Germanic [[Migration Period art]]. The style was taken up with great skill and enthusiasm by Celtic artists in metalwork and [[illuminated manuscript]]s. Equally, the forms used for the finest Insular art were all adopted from the Roman world: [[Gospel book]]s like the [[Book of Kells]] and [[Book of Lindisfarne]], chalices like the [[Ardagh Chalice]] and [[Derrynaflan Chalice]], and [[Celtic brooch|penannular brooch]]es like the [[Tara Brooch]] and [[Roscrea Brooch]]. These works are from the period of peak achievement of Insular art, which lasted from the 7th to the 9th centuries, before the [[Viking]] attacks sharply set back cultural life.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>The [[interlace (art)|interlace]] patterns that are often regarded as typical of "Celtic art" were characteristic of the whole of the British Isles, a style referred to as [[Insular art]], or Hiberno-Saxon art. This artistic style incorporated elements of La Tène, Late Roman, and, most importantly, [[Germanic animal style|animal Style II]] of Germanic [[Migration Period art]]. The style was taken up with great skill and enthusiasm by Celtic artists in metalwork and [[illuminated manuscript]]s. Equally, the forms used for the finest Insular art were all adopted from the Roman world: [[Gospel book]]s like the [[Book of Kells]] and [[Book of Lindisfarne]], chalices like the [[Ardagh Chalice]] and [[Derrynaflan Chalice]], and [[Celtic brooch|penannular brooch]]es like the [[Tara Brooch]] and [[Roscrea Brooch]]. These works are from the period of peak achievement of Insular art, which lasted from the 7th to the 9th centuries, before the [[Viking]] attacks sharply set back cultural life.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 343:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 299:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>The [[Coligny calendar]], which was found in 1897 in [[Coligny, Ain|Coligny]], Ain, was engraved on a [[bronze]] tablet, preserved in 73 fragments, that originally was {{convert|1.48|m|abbr=off}} wide and {{convert|0.9|m|abbr=off}} high (Lambert p.&nbsp;111). Based on the style of lettering and the accompanying objects, it probably dates to the end of the 2nd century.<ref>Lambert, Pierre-Yves (2003). ''La langue gauloise''. Paris, Editions Errance. 2nd edition. {{ISBN|2-87772-224-4}}. Chapter 9 is titled "Un calandrier gaulois"</ref> It is written in Latin inscriptional capitals, and is in [[Gaulish]]. The restored tablet contains 16 vertical columns, with 62 months distributed over 5 years.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>The [[Coligny calendar]], which was found in 1897 in [[Coligny, Ain|Coligny]], Ain, was engraved on a [[bronze]] tablet, preserved in 73 fragments, that originally was {{convert|1.48|m|abbr=off}} wide and {{convert|0.9|m|abbr=off}} high (Lambert p.&nbsp;111). Based on the style of lettering and the accompanying objects, it probably dates to the end of the 2nd century.<ref>Lambert, Pierre-Yves (2003). ''La langue gauloise''. Paris, Editions Errance. 2nd edition. {{ISBN|2-87772-224-4}}. Chapter 9 is titled "Un calandrier gaulois"</ref> It is written in Latin inscriptional capitals, and is in [[Gaulish]]. The restored tablet contains 16 vertical columns, with 62 months distributed over 5 years.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>French archaeologist J. Monard speculated that it was recorded by [[druid]]s wishing to preserve their tradition of timekeeping in a time when the [[Julian calendar]] was imposed throughout the [[Roman Empire]]. However, the general form of the calendar suggests the public peg calendars (or ''[[Almanac#Hemerologies and parapegmata|parapegmata]]'') found throughout the Greek and Roman world.<ref>Lehoux, D. R. ''Parapegmata: or Astrology, Weather, and Calendars in the Ancient World'', pp&nbsp;63–65. [http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/ftp03/NQ53766.pdf PhD Dissertation, University of Toronto, 2000] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060923180849/http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/ftp03/NQ53766.pdf |date=23 September 2006 }}.</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>French archaeologist J. Monard speculated that it was recorded by [[druid]]s wishing to preserve their tradition of timekeeping in a time when the [[Julian calendar]] was imposed throughout the [[Roman Empire]]. However, the general form of the calendar suggests the public peg calendars (or ''[[Almanac#Hemerologies and parapegmata|parapegmata]]'') found throughout the Greek and Roman world.<ref>Lehoux, D. R. ''Parapegmata: or Astrology, Weather, and Calendars in the Ancient World'', pp&nbsp;63–65. [http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/ftp03/NQ53766.pdf PhD Dissertation, University of Toronto, 2000] {{webarchive|url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20060923180849/http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/ftp03/NQ53766.pdf |date=23 September 2006 }}.</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>==Warfare and weapons==</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>==Warfare and weapons==</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 350:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 306:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>[[Prehistoric warfare|Tribal warfare]] appears to have been a regular feature of Celtic societies. While epic literature depicts this as more of a sport focused on raids and hunting rather than organised territorial conquest, the historical record is more of tribes using warfare to exert political control and harass rivals, for [[Comparative advantage|economic advantage]], and in some instances to conquer territory.{{Citation needed|date=February 2009}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>[[Prehistoric warfare|Tribal warfare]] appears to have been a regular feature of Celtic societies. While epic literature depicts this as more of a sport focused on raids and hunting rather than organised territorial conquest, the historical record is more of tribes using warfare to exert political control and harass rivals, for [[Comparative advantage|economic advantage]], and in some instances to conquer territory.{{Citation needed|date=February 2009}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>The Celts were described by classical writers such as [[Strabo]], [[Livy]], [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], and [[Florus]] as fighting like "wild beasts", and as hordes. [[Dionysius of Halicarnassus|Dionysius]] said that their {{blockquote|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">"</del>manner of fighting, being in large measure that of wild beasts and frenzied, was an erratic procedure, quite lacking in [[military science]]. Thus, at one moment they would raise their swords aloft and smite after the manner of [[wild boar]]s, throwing the whole weight of their bodies into the blow like hewers of wood or men digging with mattocks, and again they would deliver crosswise blows aimed at no target, as if they intended to cut to pieces the entire bodies of their adversaries, protective armour and all<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">"</del>.<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"><ref>Dionysius of Halicarnassus, ''Roman Antiquities'' p. 259 Excerpts from Book XIV</ref></del>}}<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> Such descriptions have been challenged.<ref>{{cite book</del></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>The Celts were described by classical writers such as [[Strabo]], [[Livy]], [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], and [[Florus]] as fighting like "wild beasts", and as hordes. [[Dionysius of Halicarnassus|Dionysius]] said that their<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">:<ref>Dionysius</ins> <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">of Halicarnassus, ''Roman Antiquities'' p. 259 Excerpts from Book XIV</ref> <ref>{{cite book |last=Ellis |first=Peter Berresford |title=The Celts: A History |pages=60–63 |publisher=Caroll & Graf |date=1998 |isbn=978-0-7867-1211-3}}</ref></ins></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-deleted"></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>{{blockquote|manner of fighting, being in large measure that of wild beasts and frenzied, was an erratic procedure, quite lacking in [[military science]]. Thus, at one moment they would raise their swords aloft and smite after the manner of [[wild boar]]s, throwing the whole weight of their bodies into the blow like hewers of wood or men digging with mattocks, and again they would deliver crosswise blows aimed at no target, as if they intended to cut to pieces the entire bodies of their adversaries, protective armour and all.}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>|author=Ellis, Peter Berresford</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>|title= ''The Celts: A History''</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>|pages= 60–63</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>|publisher=Caroll & Graf</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>|year= 1998</div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>|isbn= 978-0-7867-1211-3}}</ref></div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-empty diff-side-added"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>[[Polybius]] (2.33) indicates that the principal Celtic weapon was a [[Iron Age sword|long bladed sword]] which was used for hacking edgewise rather than stabbing. Celtic warriors are described by Polybius and Plutarch as frequently having to cease fighting in order to straighten their sword blades. This claim has been questioned by some archaeologists, who note that [[Noric steel]], steel produced in Celtic [[Noricum]], was famous in the [[Roman Empire]] period and was used to equip the [[Roman military]].<ref>"Noricus ensis", [[Horace]], Odes, i. 16.9</ref><ref>Vagn Fabritius Buchwald, Iron and steel in [[Ancient history|ancient times]], 2005, p. 127</ref> However, Radomir Pleiner, in ''The Celtic Sword'' (1993) argues that "the metallographic evidence shows that Polybius was right up to a point", as around one third of surviving swords from the period might well have behaved as he describes.<ref>Radomir Pleiner, in ''The Celtic Sword'', Oxford: Clarendon Press (1993), p. 159.</ref> In addition to these long bladed slashing swords, spears and specialized [[javelin]]s were also used.<ref>{{cite book |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">author</del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>Kevin F. Kiley |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>2013|title=Uniforms of the Roman world}}{{full citation needed|date=July 2022}}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>[[Polybius]] (2.33) indicates that the principal Celtic weapon was a [[Iron Age sword|long bladed sword]] which was used for hacking edgewise rather than stabbing. Celtic warriors are described by Polybius and Plutarch as frequently having to cease fighting in order to straighten their sword blades. This claim has been questioned by some archaeologists, who note that [[Noric steel]], steel produced in Celtic [[Noricum]], was famous in the [[Roman Empire]] period and was used to equip the [[Roman military]].<ref>"Noricus ensis", [[Horace]], Odes, i. 16.9</ref><ref>Vagn Fabritius Buchwald, Iron and steel in [[Ancient history|ancient times]], 2005, p. 127</ref> However, Radomir Pleiner, in ''The Celtic Sword'' (1993) argues that "the metallographic evidence shows that Polybius was right up to a point", as around one third of surviving swords from the period might well have behaved as he describes.<ref>Radomir Pleiner, in ''The Celtic Sword'', Oxford: Clarendon Press (1993), p. 159.</ref> In addition to these long bladed slashing swords, spears and specialized [[javelin]]s were also used.<ref>{{cite book |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">first</ins>=Kevin F. <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|last=</ins>Kiley |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2013<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title=Uniforms of the Roman world}}{{full citation needed|date=July 2022}}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>Polybius also asserts that certain of the Celts fought naked<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">,</del> "The appearance of these naked warriors was a terrifying spectacle, for they were all men of splendid physique and in the prime of life."<ref>Polybius, ''Histories'' II.28</ref> According to Livy, this was also true of the Celts of Asia Minor.<ref>Livy, ''History'' XXII.46 and XXXVIII.21</ref>{{clear left}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>Polybius also asserts that certain of the Celts fought naked<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">:</ins> "The appearance of these naked warriors was a terrifying spectacle, for they were all men of splendid physique and in the prime of life."<ref>Polybius, ''Histories'' II.28</ref> According to Livy, this was also true of the Celts of Asia Minor.<ref>Livy, ''History'' XXII.46 and XXXVIII.21</ref>{{clear left}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>===Head hunting===</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>===Head hunting===</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>[[File:Stone sculpture of celtic hero.jpg|thumb|[[Mšecké Žehrovice Head|Stone head from Mšecké Žehrovice]], Czech Republic, wearing a [[torc]], late La Tène culture, 150-50 BC]]</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>[[File:Stone sculpture of celtic hero.jpg|thumb|[[Mšecké Žehrovice Head|Stone head from Mšecké Žehrovice]], Czech Republic, wearing a [[torc]], late La Tène culture, 150-50 BC]]</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>Celts had a reputation as [[Headhunting|head hunters]].<ref name="Koch head cult">{{cite book |last=Koch |first=John |author-link=John T. Koch |title=Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia |date=2006 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |pages=897–898}}</ref> [[Paul Jacobsthal]] says<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">,</del> "Amongst the Celts the [[human head]] was venerated above all else, since the head was to the Celt the soul, centre of the emotions as well as of life itself, a symbol of divinity and of the powers of the other-world."<ref><del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Paul </del>Jacobsthal ''Early Celtic Art''</ref> Writing in the first century BC, Greek historians [[Posidonius]] and [[Diodorus Siculus]] said Celtic warriors cut off the heads of enemies slain in battle, hung them from the necks of their horses, then nailed them up outside their homes.<ref name="Koch head cult"/> [[Strabo]] wrote in the same century that Celts [[Embalming|embalmed]] the heads of their most esteemed enemies in cedar oil and put them on display.<ref name="Koch head cult"/> Roman historian [[Livy]] wrote that the [[Boii]] beheaded a defeated Roman general after the [[Battle of Silva Litana]], covered his skull in gold, and used it as a ritual cup.<ref name="Koch head cult"/> Archaeologists have found evidence that heads were embalmed and displayed by the southern Gauls.<ref>Salma Ghezal, Elsa Ciesielski, Benjamin Girard, Aurélien Creuzieux, Peter Gosnell, Carole Mathe, Cathy Vieillescazes, Réjane Roure (2019), "[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305440318303194 Embalmed heads of the Celtic Iron Age in the south of France] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190226211008/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305440318303194 |date=26 February 2019 }}", ''[[Journal of Archaeological Science]]'', Volume 101, pp.181-188, {{doi|10.1016/j.jas.2018.09.011}}.</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=The Gauls really did embalm the severed heads of enemies, research shows |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/nov/07/the-gauls-really-did-embalm-the-severed-heads-of-enemies-research-shows |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=7 November 2018 |access-date=19 May 2022 |archive-date=19 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519154329/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/nov/07/the-gauls-really-did-embalm-the-severed-heads-of-enemies-research-shows |url-status=live<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>}}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>Celts had a reputation as [[Headhunting|head hunters]].<ref name="Koch head cult">{{cite book |last=Koch |first=John<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> T.</ins> |author-link=John T. Koch |title=Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia |date=2006 |publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>ABC-CLIO<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]]</ins> |pages=897–898}}</ref> [[Paul Jacobsthal]] says<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">:</ins> "Amongst the Celts the [[human head]] was venerated above all else, since the head was to the Celt the soul, centre of the emotions as well as of life itself, a symbol of divinity and of the powers of the other-world."<ref>Jacobsthal<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">, Paul;</ins> ''Early Celtic Art''<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">.</ins></ref> Writing in the first century BC, Greek historians [[Posidonius]] and [[Diodorus Siculus]] said Celtic warriors cut off the heads of enemies slain in battle, hung them from the necks of their horses, then nailed them up outside their homes.<ref name="Koch head cult"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/> [[Strabo]] wrote in the same century that Celts [[Embalming|embalmed]] the heads of their most esteemed enemies in cedar oil and put them on display.<ref name="Koch head cult"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/> Roman historian [[Livy]] wrote that the [[Boii]] beheaded a defeated Roman general after the [[Battle of Silva Litana]], covered his skull in gold, and used it as a ritual cup.<ref name="Koch head cult"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/> Archaeologists have found evidence that heads were embalmed and displayed by the southern Gauls.<ref>Salma Ghezal, Elsa Ciesielski, Benjamin Girard, Aurélien Creuzieux, Peter Gosnell, Carole Mathe, Cathy Vieillescazes, Réjane Roure (2019), "[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305440318303194 Embalmed heads of the Celtic Iron Age in the south of France] {{Webarchive|url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20190226211008/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305440318303194 |date=26 February 2019 }}", ''[[Journal of Archaeological Science]]'', Volume 101, pp.181-188, {{doi|10.1016/j.jas.2018.09.011}}.</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=The Gauls really did embalm the severed heads of enemies, research shows |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/nov/07/the-gauls-really-did-embalm-the-severed-heads-of-enemies-research-shows |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=7 November 2018 |access-date=19 May 2022 |archive-date=19 May 2022 |archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20220519154329/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/nov/07/the-gauls-really-did-embalm-the-severed-heads-of-enemies-research-shows |url-status=live}}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>In another example, at the southern Gaulish site of [[Entremont (oppidum)|Entremont]], there stood a pillar carved with skulls, within which were niches where human skulls were kept, nailed into position.<ref>{{cite book |author-link=Barry Cunliffe |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">author</del>=Cunliffe<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">,</del> Barry |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=1997 |title=The Ancient Celts |url=https://archive.org/details/ancientcelts00cunl_933 |url-access=limited |place=Oxford, UK; New York, NY |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=[https://archive.org/details/ancientcelts00cunl_933/page/n116 202]|isbn=978-0-19-815010-7<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>}}</ref> [[Roquepertuse]] nearby has similar carved heads and skull niches. Many lone carved heads have been found in Celtic regions, some with two or three faces.<ref name="Davidson heads">{{Cite book |last=Davidson |first=Hilda Ellis |author-link=Hilda Ellis Davidson |title=Myths and Symbols in Pagan Europe: Early Scandinavian and Celtic Religions |date=1988 |publisher=Syracuse University Press |pages=72–75}}</ref> Examples include the [[Mšecké Žehrovice Head]] and the [[Corleck Head]].</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>In another example, at the southern Gaulish site of [[Entremont (oppidum)|Entremont]], there stood a pillar carved with skulls, within which were niches where human skulls were kept, nailed into position.<ref>{{cite book |author-link=Barry Cunliffe |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">last</ins>=Cunliffe <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|first=</ins>Barry |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=1997 |title=The Ancient Celts |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://archive.org/details/ancientcelts00cunl_933 |url-access=limited |place=Oxford, UK; New York, NY |publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>Oxford University Press<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]]</ins> |page=[https://archive.org/details/ancientcelts00cunl_933/page/n116 202]<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|isbn=978-0-19-815010-7}}</ref> [[Roquepertuse]] nearby has similar carved heads and skull niches. Many lone carved heads have been found in Celtic regions, some with two or three faces.<ref name="Davidson heads">{{Cite book |last=Davidson |first=Hilda Ellis |author-link=Hilda Ellis Davidson |title=Myths and Symbols in Pagan Europe: Early Scandinavian and Celtic Religions |date=1988 |publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>Syracuse University Press<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]]</ins> |pages=72–75}}</ref> Examples include the [[Mšecké Žehrovice Head]] and the [[Corleck Head]].</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>Severed heads are a common motif in Insular Celtic myths, and there are many tales in which 'living heads' preside over feasts or speak prophecies.<ref name="Koch head cult"/><ref name="Davidson heads"/> The [[beheading game]] is a motif in Irish myth and Arthurian legend, most famously in the tale ''[[Sir Gawain and the Green Knight]]'', where the [[Green Knight]] picks up his own severed head after [[Gawain]] has struck it off. There are also many legends in Celtic regions of saints who [[Cephalophore|carry their own severed heads]]. In Irish myth, the severed heads of warriors are called the [[Mast (botany)|mast]] or nuts of the goddess [[Macha]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Egeler |first1=Matthias |title=Celtic Influences in Germanic Religion |date=2013 |publisher=Utz |page=112}}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>Severed heads are a common motif in Insular Celtic myths, and there are many tales in which 'living heads' preside over feasts or speak prophecies.<ref name="Koch head cult"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/><ref name="Davidson heads"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/> The [[beheading game]] is a motif in Irish myth and Arthurian legend, most famously in the tale ''[[Sir Gawain and the Green Knight]]'', where the [[Green Knight]] picks up his own severed head after [[Gawain]] has struck it off. There are also many legends in Celtic regions of saints who [[Cephalophore|carry their own severed heads]]. In Irish myth, the severed heads of warriors are called the [[Mast (botany)|mast]] or nuts of the goddess [[Macha]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Egeler |first1=Matthias |title=Celtic Influences in Germanic Religion |date=2013 |publisher=Utz |page=112}}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>==Religion and mythology==</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>==Religion and mythology==</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 375:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 326:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>{{Main|Ancient Celtic religion|Celtic mythology|Proto-Celtic religion}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>{{Main|Ancient Celtic religion|Celtic mythology|Proto-Celtic religion}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>[[File:Keltenfuerst Glauberg.jpg|thumb|The Celtic "Prince of [[Glauberg]]", Germany, with a [[leaf crown]], perhaps indicating a priest, {{Circa|500 BC}}.]]</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>[[File:Keltenfuerst Glauberg.jpg|thumb|The Celtic "Prince of [[Glauberg]]", Germany, with a [[leaf crown]], perhaps indicating a priest, {{Circa|500 BC}}.]]</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>Like other European Iron Age societies, the Celts practised a [[Ancient Celtic religion|polytheistic religion]] and believed in an [[afterlife]].<ref name="Cunliffe religion">{{cite book |last=Cunliffe |first=Barry |author-link=Barry Cunliffe |title=The Ancient Celts |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=2018 |orig-<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=1997 |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=275–277, 286, 291–296 |edition=2nd |chapter=Chapter 11: Religious systems}}</ref><ref>{{Cite <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">journal</del> |last=Bell |first=Kristin |title=Death and the Afterlife in Ancient Celtic Culture |url=https://www.academia.edu/4956394}}</ref> Celtic religion varied by region and over time, but had "broad structural similarities",<ref name="Cunliffe religion"/> and there was "a basic religious homogeneity" among the Celtic peoples.<ref>Ross, Anne (1986). ''The Pagan Celts''. London: B.T. Batsford. p. 103.</ref> Because the ancient Celts did not have writing, evidence about their religion is gleaned from archaeology, Greco-Roman accounts, and literature from the early Christian period.<ref name="Green, The Celtic World">[[Miranda Aldhouse-Green|Green, Miranda]] (2012). "Chapter 25: The Gods and the supernatural", ''The Celtic World''. Routledge. pp.465–485</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>Like other European Iron Age societies, the Celts practised a [[Ancient Celtic religion|polytheistic religion]] and believed in an [[afterlife]].<ref name="Cunliffe religion">{{cite book |last=Cunliffe |first=Barry |author-link=Barry Cunliffe |title=The Ancient Celts |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2018 |orig-<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=1997 |publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>Oxford University Press<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]]</ins> |pages=275–277, 286, 291–296 |edition=2nd |chapter=Chapter 11: Religious systems}}</ref><ref>{{Cite <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">thesis |type=undergraduate paper</ins> |last=Bell |first=Kristin |title=Death and the Afterlife in Ancient Celtic Culture<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> |publisher=[[University of Georgia]] |via=Academia.edu</ins> |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://www.academia.edu/4956394<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> |url-access=registration</ins>}}</ref><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">{{unreliable source|certain=y|date=October 2024|reason=Undergrad papers are categorically unreliable.}}</ins> Celtic religion varied by region and over time, but had "broad structural similarities",<ref name="Cunliffe religion"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/> and there was "a basic religious homogeneity" among the Celtic peoples.<ref>Ross, Anne (1986). ''The Pagan Celts''. London: B.T. Batsford. p. 103.</ref> Because the ancient Celts did not have writing, evidence about their religion is gleaned from archaeology, Greco-Roman accounts, and literature from the early Christian period.<ref name="Green, The Celtic World">[[Miranda Aldhouse-Green|Green, Miranda]] (2012). "Chapter 25: The Gods and the supernatural", ''The Celtic World''. Routledge. pp.465–485</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>The names of over two hundred [[Celtic deities]] have survived (see [[list of Celtic deities]]), although it is likely that many of these were alternative names, regional names or titles for the same deity.<ref name="Cunliffe religion"/> Some deities were venerated only in one region, but others were more widely known.<ref name="Cunliffe religion"/> According to [[Miranda Aldhouse-Green]], the Celts were also [[Celtic Animism|animists]], believing that every part of the natural world had a spirit.<ref name="Green, The Celtic World"/></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>The names of over two hundred [[Celtic deities]] have survived (see [[list of Celtic deities]]), although it is likely that many of these were alternative names, regional names or titles for the same deity.<ref name="Cunliffe religion"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/> Some deities were venerated only in one region, but others were more widely known.<ref name="Cunliffe religion"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/> According to [[Miranda Aldhouse-Green]], the Celts were also [[Celtic Animism|animists]], believing that every part of the natural world had a spirit.<ref name="Green, The Celtic World"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>The Celts seem to have had a father god, who was often a god of the tribe and of the dead ([[Toutatis]] probably being one name for him); and a mother goddess who was associated with the land, earth and fertility<ref name="Koch religion">{{cite book |last=Koch |first=John |author-link=John T. Koch |title=Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia |date=2006 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |pages=1488–1491}}</ref> ([[Dea Matrona]] probably being one name for her). The mother goddess could also take the form of a war goddess as [[Tutelary deity|protectress]] of her tribe and its land.<ref name="Koch religion"/> There also seems to have been a male celestial god—identified with [[Taranis]]—associated with thunder, the wheel, and the bull.<ref name="Koch religion"/> There were gods of skill and craft, such as the pan-regional god [[Lugus]], and the smith god [[Gobannos]].<ref name="Koch religion"/> Celtic healing deities were often associated with [[sacred spring]]s,<ref name="Koch religion"/> such as [[Sirona (goddess)|Sirona]] and [[Borvo]]. Other pan-regional deities include the horned god [[Cernunnos]], the horse and fertility goddess [[Epona]], the divine son [[Maponos]], as well as [[Belenos]], [[Ogmios]], and [[Sucellos]].<ref name="Cunliffe religion"/><ref name="Green, The Celtic World"/> Caesar says the Gauls believed they all descended from a god of the dead and underworld.<ref name="Cunliffe religion"/> [[Triplicity]] is a common theme in Celtic cosmology, and a number of [[Triple deity|deities were seen as threefold]],<ref name="Sjoestedt">[[Marie-Louise Sjoestedt|Sjoestedt, Marie-Louise]] (originally published in French, 1940, reissued 1982). ''Gods and Heroes of the Celts''. Translated by Myles Dillon, Turtle Island Foundation {{ISBN|0-913666-52-1}}, pp. 16, 24–46.</ref> for example [[Matres and Matronae|the Three Mothers]].<ref name="Inse Jones 1995">Inse Jones, Prudence, and Nigel Pennick. ''History of pagan Europe''. London: Routledge, 1995. Print.</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>The Celts seem to have had a father god, who was often a god of the tribe and of the dead ([[Toutatis]] probably being one name for him); and a mother goddess who was associated with the land, earth and fertility<ref name="Koch religion">{{cite book |last=Koch |first=John<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> T.</ins> |author-link=John T. Koch |title=Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia |date=2006 |publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>ABC-CLIO<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]]</ins> |pages=1488–1491}}</ref> ([[Dea Matrona]] probably being one name for her). The mother goddess could also take the form of a war goddess as [[Tutelary deity|protectress]] of her tribe and its land.<ref name="Koch religion"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/> There also seems to have been a male celestial god—identified with [[Taranis]]—associated with thunder, the wheel, and the bull.<ref name="Koch religion"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/> There were gods of skill and craft, such as the pan-regional god [[Lugus]], and the smith god [[Gobannos]].<ref name="Koch religion"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/> Celtic healing deities were often associated with [[sacred spring]]s,<ref name="Koch religion"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/> such as [[Sirona (goddess)|Sirona]] and [[Borvo]]. Other pan-regional deities include the horned god [[Cernunnos]], the horse and fertility goddess [[Epona]], the divine son [[Maponos]], as well as [[Belenos]], [[Ogmios]], and [[Sucellos]].<ref name="Cunliffe religion"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/><ref name="Green, The Celtic World"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/> Caesar says the Gauls believed they all descended from a god of the dead and underworld.<ref name="Cunliffe religion"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/> [[Triplicity]] is a common theme in Celtic cosmology, and a number of [[Triple deity|deities were seen as threefold]],<ref name="Sjoestedt">[[Marie-Louise Sjoestedt|Sjoestedt, Marie-Louise]] (originally published in French, 1940, reissued 1982). ''Gods and Heroes of the Celts''. Translated by Myles Dillon, Turtle Island Foundation {{ISBN|0-913666-52-1}}, pp. 16, 24–46.</ref> for example [[Matres and Matronae|the Three Mothers]].<ref name="Inse Jones 1995">Inse Jones, Prudence, and Nigel Pennick. ''History of pagan Europe''. London: Routledge, 1995. Print.</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>Celtic religious ceremonies were overseen by priests known as [[druid]]s, who also served as judges, teachers, and lore-keepers. Other classes of druids performed sacrifices for the perceived benefit of the community.<ref name="Sjoestedt5">Sjoestedt (1982) pp. xxvi–xix.</ref> There is evidence that ancient Celtic peoples [[Animal sacrifice|sacrificed animals]], almost always [[livestock]] or [[working animals]]. It appears some were offered wholly to the gods (by burying or burning), while some were shared between gods and humans (part eaten and part offered).<ref name="Green94-96">{{Cite book |last=Green |first=Miranda |author-link=Miranda Aldhouse-Green |title=Animals in Celtic Life and Myth |date=2002 |publisher=Routledge |pages=94–96}}</ref> There is also some evidence that ancient Celts [[Human sacrifice|sacrificed humans]], and some Greco-Roman sources claim the Gauls sacrificed criminals by [[Death by burning|burning them]] in a [[wicker man]].<ref name="koch687-690">{{Cite book |last=Koch |first=John |author-link=John T. Koch |title=The Celts: History, Life, and Culture |date=2012 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1598849646 |pages=687–690}}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>Celtic religious ceremonies were overseen by priests known as [[druid]]s, who also served as judges, teachers, and lore-keepers. Other classes of druids performed sacrifices for the perceived benefit of the community.<ref name="Sjoestedt5">Sjoestedt (1982) pp. xxvi–xix.</ref> There is evidence that ancient Celtic peoples [[Animal sacrifice|sacrificed animals]], almost always [[livestock]] or [[working animals]]. It appears some were offered wholly to the gods (by burying or burning), while some were shared between gods and humans (part eaten and part offered).<ref name="Green94-96">{{Cite book |last=Green |first=Miranda |author-link=Miranda Aldhouse-Green |title=Animals in Celtic Life and Myth |date=2002 |publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>Routledge<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]]</ins> |pages=94–96}}</ref> There is also some evidence that ancient Celts [[Human sacrifice|sacrificed humans]], and some Greco-Roman sources claim the Gauls sacrificed criminals by [[Death by burning|burning them]] in a [[wicker man]].<ref name="koch687-690">{{Cite book |last=Koch |first=John<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> T.</ins> |author-link=John T. Koch |title=The Celts: History, Life, and Culture |date=2012 |publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>ABC-CLIO<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]]</ins> |isbn=978-1598849646 |pages=687–690}}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>The Romans said the Celts held ceremonies in [[sacred grove]]s and other [[Sacred natural site|natural]] [[shrine]]s, called [[nemeton]]s.<ref name="Cunliffe religion"/> Some Celtic peoples built temples or ritual enclosures of varying shapes (such as the [[Romano-Celtic temple]] and [[viereckschanze]]), though they also maintained shrines at natural sites.<ref name="Cunliffe religion"/> Celtic peoples often made [[votive offerings]]: treasured items deposited in water and wetlands, or in ritual shafts and wells, often in the same place over generations.<ref name="Cunliffe religion"/> Modern [[clootie well]]s might be a continuation of this.<ref>{{cite web|title='It's upset a lot of people': outrage after tidy-up of Scottish sacred well|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2022/jan/30/upset-a-lot-of-people-outrage-tidy-up-of-scottish-sacred-well-clootie-offerings|date=30 January 2022|website=The Guardian|access-date=20 May 2022|archive-date=3 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220303160246/https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2022/jan/30/upset-a-lot-of-people-outrage-tidy-up-of-scottish-sacred-well-clootie-offerings|url-status=live}}</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>The Romans said the Celts held ceremonies in [[sacred grove]]s and other [[Sacred natural site|natural]] [[shrine]]s, called [[nemeton]]s.<ref name="Cunliffe religion"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/> Some Celtic peoples built temples or ritual enclosures of varying shapes (such as the [[Romano-Celtic temple]] and [[viereckschanze]]), though they also maintained shrines at natural sites.<ref name="Cunliffe religion"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/> Celtic peoples often made [[votive offerings]]: treasured items deposited in water and wetlands, or in ritual shafts and wells, often in the same place over generations.<ref name="Cunliffe religion"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/> Modern [[clootie well]]s might be a continuation of this.<ref>{{cite web<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|title='It's upset a lot of people': outrage after tidy-up of Scottish sacred well<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2022/jan/30/upset-a-lot-of-people-outrage-tidy-up-of-scottish-sacred-well-clootie-offerings<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|date=30 January 2022<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|website=The Guardian<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|access-date=20 May 2022<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-date=3 March 2022<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20220303160246/https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2022/jan/30/upset-a-lot-of-people-outrage-tidy-up-of-scottish-sacred-well-clootie-offerings<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|url-status=live}}</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>===Insular Celtic mythology===</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>===Insular Celtic mythology===</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>Most surviving [[Celtic mythology]] belongs to the Insular Celtic peoples: [[Irish mythology]] has the largest written body of myths, followed by [[Welsh mythology]]. These were written down in the early Middle Ages, mainly by Christian scribes.</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>Most surviving [[Celtic mythology]] belongs to the Insular Celtic peoples: [[Irish mythology]] has the largest written body of myths, followed by [[Welsh mythology]]. These were written down in the early Middle Ages, mainly by Christian scribes.</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>The supernatural race called the [[Tuatha Dé Danann]] are believed to represent the main Celtic gods of Ireland. Their traditional rivals are the [[Fomorians|Fomóire]], whom they defeat in the ''[[Cath Maige Tuired|Battle of Mag Tuired]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Koch |first=John |author-link=John T. Koch |title=Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia |date=2006 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |page=1326}}</ref> [[Barry Cunliffe]] says the underlying structure in Irish myth was a dualism between the male tribal god and the female goddess of the land.<ref name="Cunliffe religion"/> [[The Dagda]] seems to have been the chief god and [[the Morrígan]] his consort, each of whom had other names.<ref name="Cunliffe religion"/> One common motif is the [[sovereignty goddess]], who represents the land and bestows sovereignty on a king by marrying him. The goddess [[Brigid]] was linked with nature as well as poetry, healing and smithing.<ref name="Sjoestedt"/></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>The supernatural race called the [[Tuatha Dé Danann]] are believed to represent the main Celtic gods of Ireland. Their traditional rivals are the [[Fomorians|Fomóire]], whom they defeat in the ''[[Cath Maige Tuired|Battle of Mag Tuired]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Koch |first=John<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> T.</ins> |author-link=John T. Koch |title=Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia |date=2006 |publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>ABC-CLIO<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]]</ins> |page=1326}}</ref> [[Barry Cunliffe]] says the underlying structure in Irish myth was a dualism between the male tribal god and the female goddess of the land.<ref name="Cunliffe religion"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/> [[The Dagda]] seems to have been the chief god and [[the Morrígan]] his consort, each of whom had other names.<ref name="Cunliffe religion"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/> One common motif is the [[sovereignty goddess]], who represents the land and bestows sovereignty on a king by marrying him. The goddess [[Brigid]] was linked with nature as well as poetry, healing and smithing.<ref name="Sjoestedt"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>Some figures in medieval Insular Celtic myth have ancient continental parallels: Irish [[Lugh]] and Welsh [[Lleu]] are cognate with Lugus, [[Goibniu]] and [[Gofannon]] with Gobannos, [[Aengus|Macán]] and [[Mabon ap Modron|Mabon]] with Maponos, while [[Macha (Irish mythology)|Macha]] and [[Rhiannon]] may be counterparts of Epona.<ref name="Sjoestedt3">Sjoestedt (1940) pp. xiv–xvi.</ref></div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>Some figures in medieval Insular Celtic myth have ancient continental parallels: Irish [[Lugh]] and Welsh [[Lleu]] are cognate with Lugus, [[Goibniu]] and [[Gofannon]] with Gobannos, [[Aengus|Macán]] and [[Mabon ap Modron|Mabon]] with Maponos, while [[Macha (Irish mythology)|Macha]] and [[Rhiannon]] may be counterparts of Epona.<ref name="Sjoestedt3">Sjoestedt (1940) pp. xiv–xvi.</ref></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>In Insular Celtic myth, the [[Celtic Otherworld|Otherworld]] is a parallel realm where the gods dwell. Some mythical heroes visit it by entering ancient burial mounds or caves, by going under water or across the western sea, or after being offered a [[Silver Branch|silver apple branch]] by an Otherworld resident.<ref>{{cite book |last=Koch |first=John |author-link=John T. Koch |title=Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia |date=2006 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |page=1671}}</ref> Irish myth says that the spirits of the dead travel to the house of [[Donn]] (''Tech Duinn''), a legendary ancestor; this echoes Caesar's comment that the Gauls believed they all descended from a god of the dead and underworld.<ref name="Cunliffe religion"/></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>In Insular Celtic myth, the [[Celtic Otherworld|Otherworld]] is a parallel realm where the gods dwell. Some mythical heroes visit it by entering ancient burial mounds or caves, by going under water or across the western sea, or after being offered a [[Silver Branch|silver apple branch]] by an Otherworld resident.<ref>{{cite book |last=Koch |first=John<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> T.</ins> |author-link=John T. Koch |title=Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia |date=2006 |publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>ABC-CLIO<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]]</ins> |page=1671}}</ref> Irish myth says that the spirits of the dead travel to the house of [[Donn]] (''Tech Duinn''), a legendary ancestor; this echoes Caesar's comment that the Gauls believed they all descended from a god of the dead and underworld.<ref name="Cunliffe religion"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>Insular Celtic peoples celebrated four seasonal festivals, known to the Gaels as [[Beltaine]] (1 May), [[Lughnasa]] (1 August), [[Samhain]] (1 November) and [[Imbolc]] (1 February).<ref name="Cunliffe religion"/></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>Insular Celtic peoples celebrated four seasonal festivals, known to the Gaels as [[Beltaine]] (1 May), [[Lughnasa]] (1 August), [[Samhain]] (1 November) and [[Imbolc]] (1 February).<ref name="Cunliffe religion"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>===Roman influence===</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>===Roman influence===</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>{{Further|Gallo-Roman culture}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>{{Further|Gallo-Roman culture}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>The Roman invasion of Gaul brought a great deal of Celtic peoples into the Roman Empire. Roman culture had a profound effect on the Celtic tribes which came under the empire's control. Roman influence led to many changes in Celtic religion, the most noticeable of which was the weakening of the druid class, especially religiously; the druids were to eventually disappear altogether. Romano-Celtic deities also began to appear: these deities often had both Roman and Celtic attributes, combined the names of Roman and Celtic deities, or included couples with one Roman and one Celtic deity. Other changes included the adaptation of the [[Jupiter Column]], a sacred column set up in many Celtic regions of the empire, primarily in northern and eastern Gaul. Another major change in religious practice was the use of stone monuments to represent gods and goddesses. The Celts had probably only created wooden [[cult image]]s (including monuments carved into trees, which were known as sacred poles) before the Roman conquest.<ref name="Inse Jones 1995"/></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>The Roman invasion of Gaul brought a great deal of Celtic peoples into the Roman Empire. Roman culture had a profound effect on the Celtic tribes which came under the empire's control. Roman influence led to many changes in Celtic religion, the most noticeable of which was the weakening of the druid class, especially religiously; the druids were to eventually disappear altogether. Romano-Celtic deities also began to appear: these deities often had both Roman and Celtic attributes, combined the names of Roman and Celtic deities, or included couples with one Roman and one Celtic deity. Other changes included the adaptation of the [[Jupiter Column]], a sacred column set up in many Celtic regions of the empire, primarily in northern and eastern Gaul. Another major change in religious practice was the use of stone monuments to represent gods and goddesses. The Celts had probably only created wooden [[cult image]]s (including monuments carved into trees, which were known as sacred poles) before the Roman conquest.<ref name="Inse Jones 1995"<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>/></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>===Celtic Christianity===</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>===Celtic Christianity===</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 424:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 375:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>===Sources===</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>===Sources===</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>{{refbegin|30em}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>{{refbegin|30em}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>* Alberro, Manuel and Arnold, Bettina (eds.), ''[http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/celtic/ekeltoi/ e-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516052559/http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/celtic/ekeltoi/ |date=16 May 2008 }}, [http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/index.html Volume 6: The Celts in the Iberian Peninsula] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090416055457/http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/index.html |date=16 April 2009 }}'', [[University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee]], Center for Celtic Studies, 2005.</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>* Alberro, Manuel and Arnold, Bettina (eds.), ''[http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/celtic/ekeltoi/ e-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies] {{Webarchive|url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20080516052559/http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/celtic/ekeltoi/ |date=16 May 2008 }}, [http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/index.html Volume 6: The Celts in the Iberian Peninsula] {{Webarchive|url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20090416055457/http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/index.html |date=16 April 2009 }}'', [[University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee]], Center for Celtic Studies, 2005.</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>* {{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Celt-people |title=Celt |website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]] |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.</del>]] |access-date=12 June 2020 |ref={{harvid|Encyclopedia Britannica. Celt}} |archive-date=11 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180711204423/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Celt-people |url-status=live }}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>* {{cite web |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://www.britannica.com/topic/Celt-people |title=Celt |website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=12 June 2020 |ref={{harvid|Encyclopedia Britannica. Celt}} |archive-date=11 July 2018 |archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20180711204423/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Celt-people |url-status=live }}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>* {{cite journal |last1=Brunel |first1=Samantha |last2=Bennett |first2=E. Andrew |display-authors=1 |date=9 June 2020 |title=Ancient genomes from present-day France unveil 7,000 years of its demographic history |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]] |publisher=[[National Academy of Sciences</del>]] |volume=117 |issue=23 |pages=12791–12798 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1918034117 |pmc=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>7293694|pmid=32457149 |bibcode=2020PNAS..11712791B |ref={{harvid|Brunel et al.|2020}}|doi-access=free }}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>* {{cite journal |last1=Brunel |first1=Samantha |last2=Bennett |first2=E. Andrew |display-authors=1 |date=9 June 2020 |title=Ancient genomes from present-day France unveil 7,000 years of its demographic history |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]] |volume=117 |issue=23 |pages=12791–12798 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1918034117 |pmc=7293694<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|pmid=32457149 |bibcode=2020PNAS..11712791B |ref={{harvid|Brunel et al.|2020}}|doi-access=free }}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>* Collis, John. ''The Celts: Origins, Myths and Inventions.'' Stroud: Tempus Publishing, 2003. {{ISBN|0-7524-2913-2}}. Historiography of Celtic studies.</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>* Collis, John. ''The Celts: Origins, Myths and Inventions.'' Stroud: Tempus Publishing, 2003. {{ISBN|0-7524-2913-2}}. Historiography of Celtic studies.</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>* Cunliffe, Barry. ''The Ancient Celts.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997. {{ISBN|0-19-815010-5}}.</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>* Cunliffe, Barry. ''The Ancient Celts.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997. {{ISBN|0-19-815010-5}}.</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>* Cunliffe, Barry. ''Iron Age Britain''. London: Batsford, 2004. {{ISBN|0-7134-8839-5}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>* Cunliffe, Barry. ''Iron Age Britain''. London: Batsford, 2004. {{ISBN|0-7134-8839-5}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>* Cunliffe, Barry. ''The Celts: A Very Short Introduction.'' 2003</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>* Cunliffe, Barry. ''The Celts: A Very Short Introduction.'' 2003</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>* {{cite book |last1=Drinkwater |first1=John Frederick |author-link1=John Frederick Drinkwater |date=2012 |chapter=Celts |chapter-url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199545568.001.0001/acref-9780199545568-e-1459 |editor1-last=Hornblower |editor1-first=Simon |editor1-link=Simon Hornblower |editor2-last=Spawforth |editor2-first=Antony |editor3-last=Eidinow |editor3-first=Esther |editor3-link=Esther Eidinow |title=[[The Oxford Classical Dictionary]] |edition=4 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |page=295 |doi=10.1093/acref/9780199545568.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-173525-7 |access-date=12 June 2020 |archive-date=12 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200612222134/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199545568.001.0001/acref-9780199545568-e-1459 |url-status=live<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>* {{cite book |last1=Drinkwater |first1=John Frederick |author-link1=John Frederick Drinkwater |date=2012 |chapter=Celts |chapter-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199545568.001.0001/acref-9780199545568-e-1459 |editor1-last=Hornblower |editor1-first=Simon |editor1-link=Simon Hornblower |editor2-last=Spawforth |editor2-first=Antony |editor3-last=Eidinow |editor3-first=Esther |editor3-link=Esther Eidinow |title=[[The Oxford Classical Dictionary]] |edition=4 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |page=295 |doi=10.1093/acref/9780199545568.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-173525-7 |access-date=12 June 2020 |archive-date=12 June 2020 |archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20200612222134/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199545568.001.0001/acref-9780199545568-e-1459 |url-status=live}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>*{{cite journal |last1=Fischer |first1=Claire-Elise |last2=Lefort |first2=Anthony |display-authors=1 |date=6 December 2018 |title=The multiple maternal legacy of the Late Iron Age group of Urville-Nacqueville (France, Normandy) documents a long-standing genetic contact zone in northwestern France |journal=[[<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">PLOS</del> One]] |publisher=[[<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">PLOS</del>]] |volume=13 |issue=12 |pages=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>e0207459|bibcode=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>2018PLoSO..1307459F|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0207459 |pmc=6283558 |pmid=30521562 |ref={{harvid|Fischer et al.|2018}}|doi-access=free }}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>*{{cite journal |last1=Fischer |first1=Claire-Elise |last2=Lefort |first2=Anthony |display-authors=1 |date=6 December 2018 |title=The multiple maternal legacy of the Late Iron Age group of Urville-Nacqueville (France, Normandy) documents a long-standing genetic contact zone in northwestern France |journal=[[<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">PLoS</ins> One]] |publisher=[[<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Public Library of Science</ins>]] |volume=13 |issue=12 |pages=e0207459<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|bibcode=2018PLoSO..1307459F<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0207459 |pmc=6283558 |pmid=30521562 |ref={{harvid|Fischer et al.|2018}}|doi-access=free }}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>*{{cite journal |last1=Fischer |first1=Claire-Elise |last2=Pemonge |first2=Marie-Hélène |display-authors=1 |date=October 2019 |title=Multi-scale archaeogenetic study of two French Iron Age communities: From internal social- to broad-scale population dynamics |journal=[[Journal of Archaeological Science]] |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |volume=27 |issue=101942 |page=101942 |doi=10.1016/j.jasrep.2019.101942 |bibcode=2019JArSR..27j1942F |ref={{harvid|Fischer et al.|2019}} |doi-access=free }}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>*{{cite journal |last1=Fischer |first1=Claire-Elise |last2=Pemonge |first2=Marie-Hélène |display-authors=1 |date=October 2019 |title=Multi-scale archaeogenetic study of two French Iron Age communities: From internal social- to broad-scale population dynamics |journal=[[Journal of Archaeological Science]] |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |volume=27 |issue=101942 |page=101942 |doi=10.1016/j.jasrep.2019.101942 |bibcode=2019JArSR..27j1942F |ref={{harvid|Fischer et al.|2019}} |doi-access=free }}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>* {{cite journal |last1=Fischer |first1=Claire-Elise |last2=Pemonge|first2=Marie-Hélène |display-authors=1 |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=2022 |title=Origin and mobility of Iron Age Gaulish groups in present-day France revealed through archaeogenomics|journal=[[iScience]] |publisher=[[Cell Press]] |volume=25 |issue=4 |page=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>104094|doi=10.1016/j.isci.2022.104094 |pmid=35402880 |pmc=8983337 |bibcode=2022iSci...25j4094F |doi-access=free |ref={{harvid|Fischer et al.|2022}} }}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>* {{cite journal |last1=Fischer |first1=Claire-Elise |last2=Pemonge<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|first2=Marie-Hélène |display-authors=1 |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2022 |title=Origin and mobility of Iron Age Gaulish groups in present-day France revealed through archaeogenomics<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|journal=[[iScience]] |publisher=[[Cell Press]] |volume=25 |issue=4 |page=104094<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|doi=10.1016/j.isci.2022.104094 |pmid=35402880 |pmc=8983337 |bibcode=2022iSci...25j4094F |doi-access=free |ref={{harvid|Fischer et al.|2022}} }}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>* Freeman, [[Philip Mitchell]] ''The Earliest Classical Sources on the Celts: A Linguistic and Historical Study.'' Diss. [[Harvard University]], 1994. [http://search.proquest.com/docview/304090918 (link)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170203051229/http://search.proquest.com/docview/304090918 |date=3 February 2017 }}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>* Freeman, [[Philip Mitchell]] ''The Earliest Classical Sources on the Celts: A Linguistic and Historical Study.'' Diss. [[Harvard University]], 1994. [http://search.proquest.com/docview/304090918 (link)] {{Webarchive|url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20170203051229/http://search.proquest.com/docview/304090918 |date=3 February 2017 }}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>* Gamito, Teresa J. "[http://www4.uwm.edu/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_11/gamito_6_11.html The Celts in Portugal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110524130324/http://www4.uwm.edu/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_11/gamito_6_11.html |date=24 May 2011 }}", ''E-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies'', 6 (2005).</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>* Gamito, Teresa J. "[http://www4.uwm.edu/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_11/gamito_6_11.html The Celts in Portugal] {{Webarchive|url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20110524130324/http://www4.uwm.edu/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_11/gamito_6_11.html |date=24 May 2011 }}", ''E-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies'', 6 (2005).</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>* Haywood, John. ''Historical Atlas of the Celtic World.'' 2001.</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>* Haywood, John. ''Historical Atlas of the Celtic World.'' 2001.</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>* Herm, Gerhard. ''The Celts: The People who Came out of the Darkness.'' New York: St. Martin's Press, 1977.</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>* Herm, Gerhard. ''The Celts: The People who Came out of the Darkness.'' New York: St. Martin's Press, 1977.</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>* James, Simon. ''The World of the Celts''. New York: Thames & Hudson<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">, 1993</del>. 3rd <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">edn</del>. 2005.</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>* James, Simon. ''The World of the Celts''. New York: Thames & Hudson. 3rd <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">ed</ins>. 2005<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> [1993]</ins>.</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>* James, Simon. ''The Atlantic Celts – Ancient People Or Modern Invention?'' Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1999. {{ISBN|0-299-16674-0}}.</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>* James, Simon. ''The Atlantic Celts – Ancient People Or Modern Invention?'' Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1999. {{ISBN|0-299-16674-0}}.</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>* James, Simon & Rigby, Valerie. ''Britain and the Celtic Iron Age.'' London: [[British Museum]] Press, 1997. {{ISBN|0-7141-2306-4}}.</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>* James, Simon & Rigby, Valerie. ''Britain and the Celtic Iron Age.'' London: [[British Museum]] Press, 1997. {{ISBN|0-7141-2306-4}}.</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 447:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 398:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>* MacKillop, James. ''A Dictionary of Celtic Mythology.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998. {{ISBN|0-19-280120-1}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>* MacKillop, James. ''A Dictionary of Celtic Mythology.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998. {{ISBN|0-19-280120-1}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>* [[Bernhard Maier (religious studies professor)|Maier, Bernhard]]: ''Celts: A History from Earliest Times to the Present.'' University of Notre Dame Press, 2003. {{ISBN|978-0-268-02361-4}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>* [[Bernhard Maier (religious studies professor)|Maier, Bernhard]]: ''Celts: A History from Earliest Times to the Present.'' University of Notre Dame Press, 2003. {{ISBN|978-0-268-02361-4}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>*{{cite journal |last1=Martiniano |first1=Rui |last2=Caffell |first2=Anwel |display-authors=1 |date=19 January 2016 |title=Genomic signals of migration and continuity in Britain before the Anglo-Saxons |journal=[[Nature Communications]] |publisher=[[Nature <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Research</del>]] |volume=7 |issue=10326 |page=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>10326|bibcode=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>2016NatCo...710326M|doi=10.1038/ncomms10326 |pmc=4735653 |pmid=26783717 |ref={{harvid|Martiniano et al.|2018}}}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>*{{cite journal |last1=Martiniano |first1=Rui |last2=Caffell |first2=Anwel |display-authors=1 |date=19 January 2016 |title=Genomic signals of migration and continuity in Britain before the Anglo-Saxons |journal=[[Nature Communications]] |publisher=[[Nature <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Portfolio</ins>]] |volume=7 |issue=10326 |page=10326<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|bibcode=2016NatCo...710326M<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|doi=10.1038/ncomms10326 |pmc=4735653 |pmid=26783717 |ref={{harvid|Martiniano et al.|2018}}}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>* McEvedy, Colin. ''The Penguin Atlas of Ancient History''. New York: Penguin, 1985. {{ISBN|0-14-070832-4}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>* McEvedy, Colin. ''The Penguin Atlas of Ancient History''. New York: Penguin, 1985. {{ISBN|0-14-070832-4}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>* Mallory, J. P. ''In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth.'' London: Thames and Hudson, 1991. {{ISBN|0-500-27616-1}}.</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>* Mallory, J. P. ''In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth.'' London: Thames and Hudson, 1991. {{ISBN|0-500-27616-1}}.</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>* O'Rahilly, T. F. ''Early Irish History'' [[Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies]], 1946.</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>* O'Rahilly, T. F. ''Early Irish History'' [[Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies]], 1946.</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>* {{cite journal |last1=Olalde |first1=Iñigo |last2=Mallik |first2=Swapan |display-authors=1 |date=15 March 2019 |title=The genomic history of the Iberian Peninsula over the past 8000 years |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |publisher=[[American Association for the Advancement of Science]] |volume=363 |issue=6432 |pages=1230–1234 |bibcode=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>2019Sci...363.1230O|doi=10.1126/science.aav4040<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del> |pmc=6436108 |pmid=30872528 |ref={{harvid|Olalde et al.|2019}}}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>* {{cite journal |last1=Olalde |first1=Iñigo |last2=Mallik |first2=Swapan |display-authors=1 |date=15 March 2019 |title=The genomic history of the Iberian Peninsula over the past 8000 years |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |publisher=[[American Association for the Advancement of Science]] |volume=363 |issue=6432 |pages=1230–1234 |bibcode=2019Sci...363.1230O<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|doi=10.1126/science.aav4040 |pmc=6436108 |pmid=30872528 |ref={{harvid|Olalde et al.|2019}}}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>* [[T. G. E. Powell|Powell, T. G. E.]] ''The Celts<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">.</del>'' New York: Thames & Hudson<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">, 1980</del>. 3rd <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">edn</del>. 1997. {{ISBN|0-500-27275-1}}.</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>* [[T. G. E. Powell|Powell, T. G. E.]] ''The Celts''<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">.</ins> New York: Thames & Hudson. 3rd <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">ed</ins>. 1997<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> [1980]</ins>. {{ISBN|0-500-27275-1}}.</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>* {{cite book |last1=Probst |first1=Ernst |title=Deutschland in der Bronzezeit : Bauern, Bronzegiesser und Burgherren zwischen Nordsee und Alpen |date=1996 |publisher=C. Bertelsmann |location=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">München</del> |isbn=9783570022375}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>* {{cite book |last1=Probst |first1=Ernst |title=Deutschland in der Bronzezeit : Bauern, Bronzegiesser und Burgherren zwischen Nordsee und Alpen |date=1996 |publisher=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>C. Bertelsmann<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]]</ins> |location=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Munich</ins> |isbn=9783570022375}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>* {{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Celtic-religion |title=Celtic religion |last1=Mac Cana |first1=Proinsias |author-link1=Proinsias Mac Cana |last2=Dillon |first2=Myles |author-link2=Myles Dillon |website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]] |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.</del>]] |access-date=12 June 2020 |archive-date=5 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905105231/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Celtic-religion |url-status=live<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>* {{cite web |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://www.britannica.com/topic/Celtic-religion |title=Celtic religion |last1=Mac Cana |first1=Proinsias |author-link1=Proinsias Mac Cana |last2=Dillon |first2=Myles |author-link2=Myles Dillon |website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=12 June 2020 |archive-date=5 September 2015 |archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20150905105231/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Celtic-religion |url-status=live}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>* {{cite book |last1=Puhvel |first1=Jaan |author-link1=Jaan Puhvel |last2=Fee |first2=Christopher R. |author-link2=Christopher R. Fee |last3=Leeming |first3=David Adams |author-link3=David Adams Leeming |date=2003 |chapter=Celtic mythology |chapter-url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195156690.001.0001/acref-9780195156690-e-300 |editor1-last=Leeming |editor1-first=David Adams |title=The Oxford Companion to World Mythology |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |pages=65–67 |doi=10.1093/acref/9780195156690.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-991648-1 |access-date=9 March 2020 |archive-date=16 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200616084217/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195156690.001.0001/acref-9780195156690-e-300 |url-status=live<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>* {{cite book |last1=Puhvel |first1=Jaan |author-link1=Jaan Puhvel |last2=Fee |first2=Christopher R. |author-link2=Christopher R. Fee |last3=Leeming |first3=David Adams |author-link3=David Adams Leeming |date=2003 |chapter=Celtic mythology |chapter-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195156690.001.0001/acref-9780195156690-e-300 |editor1-last=Leeming |editor1-first=David Adams |title=The Oxford Companion to World Mythology |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |pages=65–67 |doi=10.1093/acref/9780195156690.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-991648-1 |access-date=9 March 2020 |archive-date=16 June 2020 |archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20200616084217/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195156690.001.0001/acref-9780195156690-e-300 |url-status=live}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>* Raftery, Barry. ''Pagan Celtic Ireland: The Enigma of the Irish Iron Age.'' London: Thames & Hudson, 1994. {{ISBN|0-500-27983-7}}.</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>* Raftery, Barry. ''Pagan Celtic Ireland: The Enigma of the Irish Iron Age.'' London: Thames & Hudson, 1994. {{ISBN|0-500-27983-7}}.</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>* {{cite book |last1=Riché |first1=Pierre |author-link1=Pierre Riché |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=2005 |chapter=Barbarians |chapter-url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780227679319.001.0001/acref-9780227679319-e-302 |editor1-last=Vauchez |editor1-first=André |editor1-link=André Vauchez |title=Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780227679319.001.0001/acref-9780227679319 |publisher=[[The Lutterworth Press|James Clarke & Co]] |page=150 |doi=10.1093/acref/9780227679319.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-518817-2 |access-date=12 June 2020 |archive-date=3 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200903152116/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780227679319.001.0001/acref-9780227679319 |url-status=live<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>* {{cite book |last1=Riché |first1=Pierre |author-link1=Pierre Riché |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2005 |chapter=Barbarians |chapter-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780227679319.001.0001/acref-9780227679319-e-302 |editor1-last=Vauchez |editor1-first=André |editor1-link=André Vauchez |title=Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780227679319.001.0001/acref-9780227679319 |publisher=[[The Lutterworth Press|James Clarke & Co<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">.</ins>]] |page=150 |doi=10.1093/acref/9780227679319.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-518817-2 |access-date=12 June 2020 |archive-date=3 September 2020 |archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20200903152116/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780227679319.001.0001/acref-9780227679319 |url-status=live}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>*{{cite journal |last1=Schiffels |first1=Stephan |last2=Haak |first2=Wolfgang |display-authors=1 |date=19 January 2016 |title=Iron Age and Anglo-Saxon genomes from East England reveal British migration history |journal=[[Nature Communications]] |publisher=[[Nature <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Research</del>]] |volume=7 |issue=10408 |page=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>10408|bibcode=<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>2016NatCo...710408S|doi=10.1038/ncomms10408 |pmc=4735688 |pmid=26783965 |ref={{harvid|Schiffels et al.|2016}}}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>*{{cite journal |last1=Schiffels |first1=Stephan |last2=Haak |first2=Wolfgang |display-authors=1 |date=19 January 2016 |title=Iron Age and Anglo-Saxon genomes from East England reveal British migration history |journal=[[Nature Communications]] |publisher=[[Nature <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Portfolio</ins>]] |volume=7 |issue=10408 |page=10408<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|bibcode=2016NatCo...710408S<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>|doi=10.1038/ncomms10408 |pmc=4735688 |pmid=26783965 |ref={{harvid|Schiffels et al.|2016}}}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>* {{cite book |last1=Todd |first1=Malcolm |author-link1=Malcolm Todd |date=1975 |title=The Northern Barbarians |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7yBpAAAAMAAJ |series=[[Hutchinson (publisher)|Hutchinson]] |volume=13 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-09-122220-8 |access-date=10 March 2020<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>* {{cite book |last1=Todd |first1=Malcolm |author-link1=Malcolm Todd |date=1975 |title=The Northern Barbarians |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://books.google.com/books?id=7yBpAAAAMAAJ |series=[[Hutchinson (publisher)|Hutchinson]] |volume=13 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-09-122220-8 |access-date=10 March 2020}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>* {{cite book |last1=Waldman |first1=Carl |last2=Mason |first2=Catherine |<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">year</del>=2006 |chapter=Celts |title=Encyclopedia of European Peoples |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kfv6HKXErqAC |publisher=[[Infobase Publishing]] |pages=144–169 |isbn=1-4381-2918-1 |access-date=11 July 2018 |archive-date=11 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311102543/https://books.google.com/books?id=kfv6HKXErqAC |url-status=live<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </del>}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>* {{cite book |last1=Waldman |first1=Carl |last2=Mason |first2=Catherine |<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">date</ins>=2006 |chapter=Celts |title=Encyclopedia of European Peoples |url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://books.google.com/books?id=kfv6HKXErqAC |publisher=[[Infobase Publishing]] |pages=144–169 |isbn=1-4381-2918-1 |access-date=11 July 2018 |archive-date=11 March 2023 |archive-url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20230311102543/https://books.google.com/books?id=kfv6HKXErqAC |url-status=live}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>{{refend}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>{{refend}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 468:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 419:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>{{EB1911 poster|Celt}}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>{{EB1911 poster|Celt}}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>* [http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_music Ancient Celtic music] – in the ''[[Citizendium]]''</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>* [http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_music Ancient Celtic music] – in the ''[[Citizendium]]''</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>* [http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/index.html Essays on Celtiberian topics] – in ''<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</del>e-Keltoi<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]]</del>'', [[University of Wisconsin, Madison]]</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>* [http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/index.html Essays on Celtiberian topics] – in ''e-Keltoi'', [[University of Wisconsin, Madison]]</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>* [http://skyelander.orgfree.com/menu10.html Ancient Celtic Warriors in History]</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>* [http://skyelander.orgfree.com/menu10.html Ancient Celtic Warriors in History]</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>* [https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/celts-descended-from-spanish-fishermen-study-finds-416727.html Celts descended from Spanish fishermen, study finds]</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>* [https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/celts-descended-from-spanish-fishermen-study-finds-416727.html Celts descended from Spanish fishermen, study finds]</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 476:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 427:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>* [http://resourcesforhistory.com/map.htm An interactive map showing the lands of the Celts between 800 BC and 305 AD.]</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>* [http://resourcesforhistory.com/map.htm An interactive map showing the lands of the Celts between 800 BC and 305 AD.]</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081006160601/http://www.arqueotavira.com/Mapas/Iberia/Populi.htm Detailed map of the Pre-Roman Peoples of Iberia (around 200 BC), showing the Celtic territories]</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081006160601/http://www.arqueotavira.com/Mapas/Iberia/Populi.htm Detailed map of the Pre-Roman Peoples of Iberia (around 200 BC), showing the Celtic territories]</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>* [http://www.resourcesforhistory.com/map.htm Map of Celtic lands] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225043915/http://www.resourcesforhistory.com/map.htm |date=25 February 2021 }}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>* [http://www.resourcesforhistory.com/map.htm Map of Celtic lands] {{Webarchive|url=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"> </ins>https://web.archive.org/web/20210225043915/http://www.resourcesforhistory.com/map.htm |date=25 February 2021 }}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>'''Organisations'''</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>'''Organisations'''</div></td> </tr> </table><hr class='diff-hr' id='mw-oldid' /> <h2 class='diff-currentversion-title'>Revision as of 15:48, 22 December 2024</h2> <div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Indo-European ethnolinguistic group</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the ancient and medieval peoples of Europe. For Celts of the present day, see <a href="/wiki/Celts_(modern)" title="Celts (modern)">Celts (modern)</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Celt_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Celt (disambiguation)">Celt (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Celts_in_Europe.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Celts_in_Europe.png/330px-Celts_in_Europe.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Celts_in_Europe.png 1.5x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="314" /></a><figcaption>Distribution of Celtic peoples over time, in the traditional view: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1256394559">.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key>ol{margin-left:1.3em;margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key>ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media(min-width:300px){.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key,.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key-wide{column-count:2}.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key-narrow{column-count:1}}@media(min-width:450px){.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key-wide{column-count:3}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist image-key image-key-narrow"><ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffff43; color:black;"> </span> Core <a href="/wiki/Hallstatt_culture" title="Hallstatt culture">Hallstatt</a> territory, by the sixth century BC</div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#97ffb6; color:black;"> </span> Greatest Celtic expansion by 275 BC</div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#d2ffd2; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Lusitanians" title="Lusitanians">Lusitanian</a> area of Iberia where Celtic presence is uncertain</div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#27c600; color:black;"> </span> Areas in which <a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic languages</a> were spoken throughout the Middle Ages</div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#1A8000; color:white;"> </span> Areas where Celtic languages remain widely spoken today</div></li></ul></div></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output 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.mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Indo-European" title="Category:Indo-European">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding-top:0.2em;background:rgb(220,245,220);"><a href="/wiki/Category:Indo-European" title="Category:Indo-European">Indo-European topics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Indo-European_migrations.gif" title="File:Indo-European migrations.gif"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Indo-European_migrations.gif/140px-Indo-European_migrations.gif" decoding="async" width="140" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Indo-European_migrations.gif/210px-Indo-European_migrations.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Indo-European_migrations.gif/280px-Indo-European_migrations.gif 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="598" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Languages</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indo-European_languages" title="List of Indo-European languages">List of Indo-European languages</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt><i>Extant</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanoid" title="Albanoid">Albanoid</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Albanian_language" title="Albanian language">Albanian</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balto-Slavic_languages" title="Balto-Slavic languages">Balto-Slavic</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Baltic_languages" title="Baltic languages">Baltic</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenic_languages" title="Hellenic languages">Hellenic</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranian_languages" title="Indo-Iranian languages">Indo-Iranian</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Nuristani_languages" title="Nuristani languages">Nuristani</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italic_languages" title="Italic languages">Italic</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance</a></span></li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt><i>Extinct</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_languages" title="Anatolian languages">Anatolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tocharian_languages" title="Tocharian languages">Tocharian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_languages" title="Paleo-Balkan languages">Paleo-Balkan</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Dacian_language" title="Dacian language">Dacian</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Illyrian_language" title="Illyrian language">Illyrian</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Liburnian_language" title="Liburnian language">Liburnian</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Messapic_language" title="Messapic language">Messapic</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Mysian_language" title="Mysian language">Mysian</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Paeonian_language" title="Paeonian language">Paeonian</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Phrygian_language" title="Phrygian language">Phrygian</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Thracian_language" title="Thracian language">Thracian</a></span></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt><i>Reconstructed</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European language</a><br /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_phonology" title="Proto-Indo-European phonology">Phonology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_sound_laws" title="Indo-European sound laws">Sound laws</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_accent" title="Proto-Indo-European accent">Accent</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut" title="Indo-European ablaut">Ablaut</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt><i>Hypothetical</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_languages" title="Paleo-Balkan languages">Balkanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daco-Thracian" class="mw-redirect" title="Daco-Thracian">Daco-Thracian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graeco-Albanian" title="Graeco-Albanian">Graeco-Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graeco-Armenian" title="Graeco-Armenian">Graeco-Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graeco-Aryan" title="Graeco-Aryan">Graeco-Aryan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graeco-Phrygian" title="Graeco-Phrygian">Graeco-Phrygian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Hittite" title="Indo-Hittite">Indo-Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italo-Celtic" title="Italo-Celtic">Italo-Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thraco-Illyrian" title="Thraco-Illyrian">Thraco-Illyrian</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt><i>Grammar</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_vocabulary" title="Indo-European vocabulary">Vocabulary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_root" title="Proto-Indo-European root">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_verbs" title="Proto-Indo-European verbs">Verbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_nominals" title="Proto-Indo-European nominals">Nouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_pronouns" title="Proto-Indo-European pronouns">Pronouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_numerals" title="Proto-Indo-European numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_particles" title="Proto-Indo-European particles">Particles</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt><i>Other</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Albanian_language" title="Proto-Albanian language">Proto-Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Anatolian_language" title="Proto-Anatolian language">Proto-Anatolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Armenian_language" title="Proto-Armenian language">Proto-Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Proto-Norse_language" title="Proto-Norse language">Proto-Norse</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Italo-Celtic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Italo-Celtic language">Proto-Italo-Celtic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Proto-Celtic_language" title="Proto-Celtic language">Proto-Celtic</a> · <a href="/wiki/Proto-Italic_language" title="Proto-Italic language">Proto-Italic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Greek_language" title="Proto-Greek language">Proto-Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Balto-Slavic_language" title="Proto-Balto-Slavic language">Proto-Balto-Slavic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Proto-Slavic_language" title="Proto-Slavic language">Proto-Slavic</a> · <a href="/wiki/Proto-Baltic_language" title="Proto-Baltic language">Proto-Baltic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_language" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian language">Proto-Indo-Iranian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Proto-Iranian_language" title="Proto-Iranian language">Proto-Iranian</a>)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Philology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_inscriptions" title="Hittite inscriptions">Hittite inscriptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hieroglyphic_Luwian" class="mw-redirect" title="Hieroglyphic Luwian">Hieroglyphic Luwian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_B" title="Linear B">Linear B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avesta" title="Avesta">Avesta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behistun_Inscription" title="Behistun Inscription">Behistun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_inscriptions" title="Greek inscriptions">Greek epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrygian_language#Inscriptions" title="Phrygian language">Phrygian epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messapic_language#Inscriptions" title="Messapic language">Messapic epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin#Corpus" title="Old Latin">Latin epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaulish#Corpus" title="Gaulish">Gaulish epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runic_inscriptions" title="Runic inscriptions">Runic epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogham" title="Ogham">Ogham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Bible" title="Gothic Bible">Gothic Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bible_translations_into_Armenian" title="Bible translations into Armenian">Bible translations into Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tocharian_script" title="Tocharian script">Tocharian script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Irish#Sources" title="Old Irish">Old Irish glosses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanun_(Albania)" title="Kanun (Albania)">Albanian Kanun</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Origins</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_homeland" title="Proto-Indo-European homeland">Homeland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Europeans" title="Proto-Indo-Europeans">Proto-Indo-Europeans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_society" title="Proto-Indo-European society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_mythology" title="Proto-Indo-European mythology">Religion</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt>Mainstream<br /></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurgan_hypothesis" title="Kurgan hypothesis">Kurgan hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_migrations" title="Indo-European migrations">Indo-European migrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurasian_nomads" title="Eurasian nomads">Eurasian nomads</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt>Alternative and fringe<br /></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_hypothesis" title="Anatolian hypothesis">Anatolian hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_hypothesis" title="Armenian hypothesis">Armenian hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beech_argument" title="Beech argument">Beech argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism" title="Indigenous Aryanism">Indigenous Aryanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_homeland#Baltic_homeland" title="Proto-Indo-European homeland">Baltic homeland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_continuity_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleolithic continuity theory">Paleolithic continuity theory</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Archaeology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Chalcolithic (Copper Age)</a><br /></dt></dl> <p><i>Pontic Steppe</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Domestication_of_the_horse" title="Domestication of the horse">Domestication of the horse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurgan" title="Kurgan">Kurgan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurgan_stelae" title="Kurgan stelae">Kurgan stelae</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurgan_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurgan culture">Kurgan culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Horse,_the_Wheel,_and_Language" title="The Horse, the Wheel, and Language">Steppe cultures</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Bug%E2%80%93Dniester_culture" title="Bug–Dniester culture">Bug–Dniester</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Sredny_Stog_culture" title="Sredny Stog culture">Sredny Stog</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Dnieper%E2%80%93Donets_culture" title="Dnieper–Donets culture">Dnieper–Donets</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Samara_culture" title="Samara culture">Samara</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Khvalynsk_culture" title="Khvalynsk culture">Khvalynsk</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Yamnaya_culture" title="Yamnaya culture">Yamnaya</a></span> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Mikhaylovka_culture" title="Mikhaylovka culture">Mikhaylovka culture</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Novotitarovskaya_culture" title="Novotitarovskaya culture">Novotitarovskaya culture</a></span></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <p><i>Caucasus</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maykop_culture" title="Maykop culture">Maykop</a></li></ul> <p><i>East Asia</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afanasievo_culture" title="Afanasievo culture">Afanasievo</a></li></ul> <p><i>Eastern Europe</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Usatovo_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Usatovo culture">Usatovo</a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cernavod%C4%83_culture" title="Cernavodă culture">Cernavodă</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cucuteni%E2%80%93Trypillia_culture" title="Cucuteni–Trypillia culture">Cucuteni</a></li></ul> <p><i>Northern Europe</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corded_Ware_culture" title="Corded Ware culture">Corded ware</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Baden_culture" title="Baden culture">Baden</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Dnieper_culture" title="Middle Dnieper culture">Middle Dnieper</a></span></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a><br /></dt></dl> <p><i>Pontic Steppe</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chariot" title="Chariot">Chariot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamnaya_culture" title="Yamnaya culture">Yamnaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catacomb_culture" title="Catacomb culture">Catacomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-cordoned_ware_culture" title="Multi-cordoned ware culture">Multi-cordoned ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poltavka_culture" title="Poltavka culture">Poltavka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srubnaya_culture" title="Srubnaya culture">Srubnaya</a></li></ul> <p><i>Northern/Eastern Steppe</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abashevo_culture" title="Abashevo culture">Abashevo culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andronovo_culture" title="Andronovo culture">Andronovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sintashta_culture" title="Sintashta culture">Sintashta</a></li></ul> <p><i>Europe</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Globular_Amphora_culture" title="Globular Amphora culture">Globular Amphora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corded_Ware_culture" title="Corded Ware culture">Corded ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bell_Beaker_culture" title="Bell Beaker culture">Bell Beaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%9An%C4%9Btice_culture" title="Únětice culture">Únětice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trzciniec_culture" title="Trzciniec culture">Trzciniec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Bronze_Age" title="Nordic Bronze Age">Nordic Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terramare_culture" title="Terramare culture">Terramare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumulus_culture" title="Tumulus culture">Tumulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urnfield_culture" title="Urnfield culture">Urnfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusatian_culture" title="Lusatian culture">Lusatian</a></li></ul> <p><i>South Asia</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">BMAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaz_culture" title="Yaz culture">Yaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandhara_grave_culture" title="Gandhara grave culture">Gandhara grave</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></dt></dl> <p><i>Steppe</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chernoles_culture" title="Chernoles culture">Chernoles</a></li></ul> <p><i>Europe</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thraco-Cimmerian" title="Thraco-Cimmerian">Thraco-Cimmerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallstatt_culture" title="Hallstatt culture">Hallstatt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jastorf_culture" title="Jastorf culture">Jastorf</a></li></ul> <p><i>Caucasus</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colchian_culture" title="Colchian culture">Colchian</a></li></ul> <p><i>India</i> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Painted_Grey_Ware_culture" title="Painted Grey Ware culture">Painted Grey Ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Black_Polished_Ware" title="Northern Black Polished Ware">Northern Black Polished Ware</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Peoples and societies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_peoples" title="Anatolian peoples">Anatolian peoples</a> (<span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a></span>) <br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean Greeks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranians" title="Indo-Iranians">Indo-Iranians</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></dt></dl> <p><i>Indo-Aryans</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_peoples" title="Indo-Aryan peoples">Indo-Aryans</a></li></ul> <p><i>Iranians</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranians</a></li></ul> <p><i>East Asia</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wusun" title="Wusun">Wusun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuezhi" title="Yuezhi">Yuezhi</a></li></ul> <p><i>Europe</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Celts</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gauls</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Celtiberians" title="Celtiberians">Celtiberians</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Insular_Celts" title="Insular Celts">Insular Celts</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cimmerians" title="Cimmerians">Cimmerians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Hellenic peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italic_peoples" title="Italic peoples">Italic peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_languages" title="Paleo-Balkan languages">Paleo-Balkan</a>/<a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Anatolia" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron Age Anatolia">Anatolia</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Thracians" title="Thracians">Thracians</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Dacians" title="Dacians">Dacians</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Illyrians" title="Illyrians">Illyrians</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Paeonians" title="Paeonians">Paeonians</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Phrygians" title="Phrygians">Phrygians</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythians</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></dt></dl> <p><i>East Asia</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tocharians" title="Tocharians">Tocharians</a></li></ul> <p><i>Europe</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_the_Albanians" title="Origin of the Albanians">Albanians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balts" title="Balts">Balts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Slavs" title="Early Slavs">Slavs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norsemen" title="Norsemen">Norsemen</a>/<a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_peoples" title="North Germanic peoples">Medieval Scandinavians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></li></ul> <p><i>Indo-Aryan</i> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_India" title="Medieval India">Medieval India</a></li></ul> <p><i>Iranian</i> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Iran" title="Greater Iran">Greater Iran</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Religion and mythology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <dl><dt><i>Reconstructed</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_mythology" title="Proto-Indo-European mythology">Proto-Indo-European mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_paganism" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian paganism">Proto-Indo-Iranian paganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Historical Vedic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Iranian_religion" title="Ancient Iranian religion">Ancient Iranian religion</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt><i>Historical</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_mythology_and_religion" title="Hittite mythology and religion">Hittite</a></li></ul> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indo-Aryan</a></i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a></span></li></ul> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Iranian_religions" title="Iranian religions">Iranian</a></i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_mythology" title="Persian mythology">Persian</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_mythology" title="Kurdish mythology">Kurdish</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Yazidis" title="Yazidis">Yazidism</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Yarsanism" title="Yarsanism">Yarsanism</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythian_religion" title="Scythian religion">Scythian</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Ossetian_mythology" title="Ossetian mythology">Ossetian</a></span></li></ul></li></ul> <p><i>Others</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_mythology" title="Armenian mythology">Armenian</a></li></ul> <p><i><a href="/wiki/European_paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="European paganism">European</a></i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_mythology" title="Paleo-Balkan mythology">Paleo-Balkan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Albanian_paganism" title="Albanian paganism">Albanian</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Illyrian_religion" title="Illyrian religion">Illyrian</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Thracian_religion" title="Thracian religion">Thracian</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Dacian_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Dacian religion">Dacian</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Irish_mythology" title="Irish mythology">Irish</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Scottish_mythology" title="Scottish mythology">Scottish</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Breton_mythology" title="Breton mythology">Breton</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Welsh_mythology" title="Welsh mythology">Welsh</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Cornish_mythology" title="Cornish mythology">Cornish</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_Germanic_mythology" title="Continental Germanic mythology">Continental</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Norse</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Latvian_mythology" title="Latvian mythology">Latvian</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_mythology" title="Lithuanian mythology">Lithuanian</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><i>Practices</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fire_worship#Indo-European_religions" title="Fire worship">Fire rituals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horse_sacrifice" title="Horse sacrifice">Horse sacrifice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sati_(practice)" title="Sati (practice)">Sati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_solstice" title="Winter solstice">Winter solstice</a>/<a href="/wiki/Yule" title="Yule">Yule</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_studies" title="Indo-European studies">Indo-European studies</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <dl><dt><i>Scholars</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marija_Gimbutas" title="Marija Gimbutas">Marija Gimbutas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._P._Mallory" title="J. P. Mallory">J. P. Mallory</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><i>Institutes</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Copenhagen_Studies_in_Indo-European" title="Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European">Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><i>Publications</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Indo-European_Culture" title="Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture">Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Horse,_the_Wheel,_and_Language" title="The Horse, the Wheel, and Language">The Horse, the Wheel, and Language</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Indo-European_Studies" title="Journal of Indo-European Studies">Journal of Indo-European Studies</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Indogermanisches_etymologisches_W%C3%B6rterbuch" title="Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch">Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_Etymological_Dictionary" title="Indo-European Etymological Dictionary">Indo-European Etymological Dictionary</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Indo-European_topics" title="Template:Indo-European topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Indo-European_topics" title="Template talk:Indo-European topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Indo-European_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Indo-European topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dying_gaul.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Dying_gaul.jpg/260px-Dying_gaul.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Dying_gaul.jpg/390px-Dying_gaul.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Dying_gaul.jpg/520px-Dying_gaul.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1458" data-file-height="1186" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/The_Dying_Gaul" class="mw-redirect" title="The Dying Gaul">The Dying Gaul</a></i>, an <a href="/wiki/Roman_sculpture" title="Roman sculpture">ancient Roman statue</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Capitoline_Museums" title="Capitoline Museums">Capitoline Museums</a> of <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>, Italy</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>Celts</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span></span>/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling"><span style="font-size:90%">KELTS</span></i></a>, see <a href="/wiki/Names_of_the_Celts#Pronunciation" title="Names of the Celts">pronunciation</a> for different usages) or <b>Celtic peoples</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span></span>/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling"><span style="font-size:90%">KEL</span>-tik</i></a>) were a collection of <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European peoples</a><sup id="cite_ref-Indo-European_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Indo-European-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>, identified by their use of <a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic languages</a> and other cultural similarities.<sup id="cite_ref-Drinkwater_Definition_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drinkwater_Definition-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-WM_Definition_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WM_Definition-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-EB_Definition_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB_Definition-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Koch_encyclopedia_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koch_encyclopedia-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Major Celtic groups included the <a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gauls</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Celtiberians" title="Celtiberians">Celtiberians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gallaeci" title="Gallaeci">Gallaeci</a><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of Iberia; the <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Britons" title="Celtic Britons">Britons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Picts" title="Picts">Picts</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gaels" title="Gaels">Gaels</a> of Britain and Ireland; the <a href="/wiki/Boii" title="Boii">Boii</a>; and the <a href="/wiki/Galatians_(people)" title="Galatians (people)">Galatians</a>. The interrelationships of ethnicity, language and culture in the Celtic world are unclear and debated;<sup id="cite_ref-SJames_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SJames-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for example over the ways in which the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Europe" title="Iron Age Europe">Iron Age</a> people of Britain and Ireland should be called Celts.<sup id="cite_ref-Koch_encyclopedia_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koch_encyclopedia-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SJames_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SJames-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-JCollis_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JCollis-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FPryor_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FPryor-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In current scholarship, 'Celt' primarily refers to 'speakers of Celtic languages' rather than to a single ethnic group.<sup id="cite_ref-Sims-Williams_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sims-Williams-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Parade_helmet.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Parade_helmet.jpg/220px-Parade_helmet.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Parade_helmet.jpg/330px-Parade_helmet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Parade_helmet.jpg/440px-Parade_helmet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2376" data-file-height="3033" /></a><figcaption>La Tène–style ceremonial <a href="/wiki/Agris_Helmet" title="Agris Helmet">Agris Helmet</a>, 350 BC, <a href="/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_d%27Angoul%C3%AAme" title="Musée d'Angoulême">Angoulême city Museum</a> in France</figcaption></figure> <p>The history of <a href="/wiki/Pre-Celtic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Celtic">pre-Celtic</a> Europe and Celtic origins is debated. The traditional "Celtic from the East" theory, says the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Celtic_language" title="Proto-Celtic language">proto-Celtic language</a> arose in the late <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">Bronze Age</a> <a href="/wiki/Urnfield_culture" title="Urnfield culture">Urnfield culture</a> of central Europe, named after grave sites in southern Germany,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEProbst1996258_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEProbst1996258-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which flourished from around 1200 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-ChadCorc_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ChadCorc-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This theory links the Celts with the Iron Age <a href="/wiki/Hallstatt_culture" title="Hallstatt culture">Hallstatt culture</a> which followed it (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1200</span>–500 BC), named for the rich grave finds in <a href="/wiki/Hallstatt" title="Hallstatt">Hallstatt</a>, Austria,<sup id="cite_ref-ChadCorc_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ChadCorc-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and with the following <a href="/wiki/La_T%C3%A8ne_culture" title="La Tène culture">La Tène culture</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 450 BC</span> onward), named after the <a href="/wiki/La_T%C3%A8ne_(archaeological_site)" title="La Tène (archaeological site)">La Tène site</a> in Switzerland. It proposes that Celtic culture spread westward and southward from these areas by <a href="/wiki/Trans-cultural_diffusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Trans-cultural diffusion">diffusion</a> or <a href="/wiki/Human_migration" title="Human migration">migration</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-koch2010_core_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-koch2010_core-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A newer theory, "<a href="/wiki/Celtic_from_the_West" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic from the West">Celtic from the West</a>", suggests proto-Celtic arose earlier, was a <i><a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a></i> in the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Bronze_Age" title="Atlantic Bronze Age">Atlantic Bronze Age</a> coastal zone, and spread eastward.<sup id="cite_ref-koch2010_expansion_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-koch2010_expansion-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another newer theory, "Celtic from the Centre", suggests proto-Celtic arose between these two zones, in Bronze Age Gaul, then spread in various directions.<sup id="cite_ref-Sims-Williams_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sims-Williams-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the <a href="/wiki/Celtic_settlement_of_Southeast_Europe" title="Celtic settlement of Southeast Europe">Celtic settlement of Southeast Europe</a> in the 3rd century BC, Celtic culture reached as far east as <a href="/wiki/Central_Anatolia_Region" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Anatolia Region">central Anatolia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hochdorf_Chieftain%27s_Grave_reconstruction.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Hochdorf_Chieftain%27s_Grave_reconstruction.jpg/250px-Hochdorf_Chieftain%27s_Grave_reconstruction.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Hochdorf_Chieftain%27s_Grave_reconstruction.jpg/375px-Hochdorf_Chieftain%27s_Grave_reconstruction.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Hochdorf_Chieftain%27s_Grave_reconstruction.jpg/500px-Hochdorf_Chieftain%27s_Grave_reconstruction.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4211" data-file-height="3116" /></a><figcaption>Reconstruction of the <a href="/wiki/Hochdorf_Chieftain%27s_Grave" title="Hochdorf Chieftain's Grave">Hochdorf Chieftain's Grave</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stuttgart" title="Stuttgart">Stuttgart</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, c. 530 BC</figcaption></figure> <p>The earliest undisputed examples of Celtic language are the <a href="/wiki/Lepontic_language" title="Lepontic language">Lepontic</a> inscriptions from the 6th century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Stifter_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stifter-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Continental_Celtic_languages" title="Continental Celtic languages">Continental Celtic languages</a> are attested almost exclusively through inscriptions and place-names. <a href="/wiki/Insular_Celtic_languages" title="Insular Celtic languages">Insular Celtic languages</a> are attested from the 4th century AD in <a href="/wiki/Ogham_inscription" title="Ogham inscription">Ogham inscriptions</a>, though they were being spoken much earlier. Celtic literary tradition begins with <a href="/wiki/Old_Irish" title="Old Irish">Old Irish</a> texts around the 8th century AD. Elements of <a href="/wiki/Celtic_mythology" title="Celtic mythology">Celtic mythology</a> are recorded in <a href="/wiki/Early_Irish_literature" title="Early Irish literature">early Irish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Welsh_literature" title="Medieval Welsh literature">early Welsh</a> literature. Most written evidence of the early Celts comes from <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman</a> writers, who often grouped the Celts as <a href="/wiki/Barbarian" title="Barbarian">barbarian</a> tribes. They followed an <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">ancient Celtic religion</a> overseen by <a href="/wiki/Druid" title="Druid">druids</a>. </p><p>The Celts were often in conflict with the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Romans</a>, such as in the <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Gallic_wars" title="Roman–Gallic wars">Roman–Gallic wars</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_the_Iberian_Peninsula" title="Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula">Celtiberian Wars</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Gallic_Wars" title="Gallic Wars">conquest of Gaul</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_Britain" title="Roman conquest of Britain">conquest of Britain</a>. By the 1st century AD, most Celtic territories had become part of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>. By c. 500, due to <a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanisation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">the migration</a> of <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic</a> tribes, Celtic culture had mostly become restricted to Ireland, western and northern Britain, and <a href="/wiki/Brittany" title="Brittany">Brittany</a>. Between the 5th and 8th centuries, the Celtic-speaking communities in these Atlantic regions emerged as a reasonably cohesive cultural entity. They had a common linguistic, religious and artistic heritage that distinguished them from surrounding cultures.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Insular Celtic culture diversified into that of the <a href="/wiki/Gaels" title="Gaels">Gaels</a> (<a href="/wiki/Irish_people" title="Irish people">Irish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scottish_people" title="Scottish people">Scots</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manx_people" title="Manx people">Manx</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Britons" title="Celtic Britons">Celtic Britons</a> (<a href="/wiki/Welsh_people" title="Welsh people">Welsh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cornish_people" title="Cornish people">Cornish</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bretons" title="Bretons">Bretons</a>) of the medieval and modern periods.<sup id="cite_ref-Drinkwater_Definition_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drinkwater_Definition-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A modern <a href="/wiki/Celts_(modern)" title="Celts (modern)">Celtic identity</a><sup id="cite_ref-WM_Scope_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WM_Scope-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was constructed as part of the Romanticist <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Revival" title="Celtic Revival">Celtic Revival</a> in Britain, Ireland, and other European territories such as <a href="/wiki/Galicia_(Spain)" title="Galicia (Spain)">Galicia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Today, <a href="/wiki/Irish_language" title="Irish language">Irish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic" title="Scottish Gaelic">Scottish Gaelic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Breton_language" title="Breton language">Breton</a> are still spoken in parts of their former territories, while <a href="/wiki/Cornish_language" title="Cornish language">Cornish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manx_language" title="Manx language">Manx</a> are undergoing a revival. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Names_and_terminology">Names and terminology</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Galician_Celtic_Stele_-_Estela_Galaica.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Galician_Celtic_Stele_-_Estela_Galaica.jpg" decoding="async" width="129" height="454" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="129" data-file-height="454" /></a><figcaption>Celto-Latin <a href="/wiki/Stele" title="Stele">stele</a> from <a href="/wiki/Galicia_(Spain)" title="Galicia (Spain)">Galicia</a>, 2nd century, referring to "<small><a href="/wiki/Celtici_Supertamarici" title="Celtici Supertamarici">CELTICA SUPERTAM(<i>arica</i>)</a></small>"</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Names_of_the_Celts" title="Names of the Celts">Names of the Celts</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient">Ancient</h3></div> <p>The first recorded use of the name 'Celts' – as <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc"><b>Κελτοί</b></span></span> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><b>Keltoi</b></i></span>) in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> – was by Greek geographer <a href="/wiki/Hecataeus_of_Miletus" title="Hecataeus of Miletus">Hecataeus of Miletus</a> in 517 BC,<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> when writing about a people living near <a href="/wiki/Massilia" class="mw-redirect" title="Massilia">Massilia</a> (modern <a href="/wiki/Marseille" title="Marseille">Marseille</a>), southern <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the fifth century BC, <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> referred to <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">Keltoi</i></span> living around the <a href="/wiki/Source_of_the_Danube" title="Source of the Danube">source of the Danube</a> and in the far west of Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The etymology of <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">Keltoi</i></span> is unclear. Possible roots include <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Indo-European</a> *<i>kʲel</i> 'to hide' (seen also in Old Irish <span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">ceilid</i></span>, and Modern Welsh <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">celu</i></span>), *<i>kʲel</i> 'to heat' or *<i>kel</i> 'to impel'.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It may come from the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Celtic_language" title="Proto-Celtic language">Celtic language</a>. Linguist Kim McCone supports this view and notes that <i>Celt-</i> is found in the names of several ancient Gauls such as Celtillus, father of <a href="/wiki/Vercingetorix" title="Vercingetorix">Vercingetorix</a>. He suggests it meant the people or descendants of "the hidden one", noting the Gauls claimed descent from an underworld god (according to <i><a href="/wiki/Commentarii_de_Bello_Gallico" title="Commentarii de Bello Gallico">Commentarii de Bello Gallico</a></i>), and linking it with the Germanic <i><a href="/wiki/Hel_(location)" title="Hel (location)">Hel</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-McCone2013_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McCone2013-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others view it as a name coined by Greeks; among them linguist <a href="/wiki/Patrizia_de_Bernardo_Stempel" title="Patrizia de Bernardo Stempel">Patrizia de Bernardo Stempel</a>, who suggests it meant "the tall ones".<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the first century BC, Roman leader <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> reported that the <a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gauls</a> called themselves 'Celts', <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la"><b>Celtae</b></i>, in <a href="/wiki/Gaulish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaulish language">their own tongue</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus whether it was given to them by others or not, it was used by the Celts themselves. Greek geographer <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a>, writing about Gaul towards the end of the first century BC, refers to the "race which is now called both <i>Gallic</i> and <i>Galatic</i>", though he also uses <i>Celtica</i> as another name for Gaul. He reports Celtic peoples in <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberia</a> too, calling them <i><a href="/wiki/Celtiberians" title="Celtiberians">Celtiberi</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Celtici" title="Celtici">Celtici</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> noted the use of <i>Celtici</i> in <a href="/wiki/Lusitania" title="Lusitania">Lusitania</a> as a tribal surname,<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which <a href="/wiki/Epigraphy" title="Epigraphy">epigraphic</a> findings have confirmed.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A Latin name for the Gauls, <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><b>Galli</b></i></span> (<abbr title="plural">pl.</abbr>), may come from a Celtic ethnic name, perhaps borrowed into Latin during the <a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaul" title="Cisalpine Gaul">Celtic expansion into Italy</a> from the early fifth century BC. Its root may be <a href="/wiki/Proto-Celtic_language" title="Proto-Celtic language">Proto-Celtic</a> <i>*galno</i>, meaning "power, strength" (whence <a href="/wiki/Old_Irish" title="Old Irish">Old Irish</a> <i>gal</i> "boldness, ferocity", Welsh <i>gallu</i> "to be able, power"). The Greek name <b><a href="/wiki/Galatians_(people)" title="Galatians (people)">Γαλάται</a></b> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><b>Galatai</b></i></span>, Latinized <i>Galatae</i>) most likely has the same origin, referring to the Gauls who <a href="/wiki/Celtic_settlement_of_Southeast_Europe" title="Celtic settlement of Southeast Europe">invaded southeast Europe</a> and settled in <a href="/wiki/Galatia" title="Galatia">Galatia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The suffix <i>-atai</i> might be a Greek inflection.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Linguist Kim McCone suggests it comes from Proto-Celtic <i>*galatis</i> ("ferocious, furious"), and was not originally an ethnic name but a name for <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B3ryos" class="mw-redirect" title="Kóryos">young warrior bands</a>. He says "If the Gauls' initial impact on the Mediterranean world was primarily a military one typically involving fierce young <i>*galatīs</i>, it would have been natural for the Greeks to apply this name for the type of <i>Keltoi</i> that they usually encountered".<sup id="cite_ref-McCone2013_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McCone2013-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because Classical writers did not call the inhabitants of Britain and Ireland <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">Κελτοί</span></span> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">Keltoi</i></span>) or <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Celtae</i></span>,<sup id="cite_ref-Koch_encyclopedia_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koch_encyclopedia-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SJames_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SJames-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-JCollis_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JCollis-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> some scholars prefer not to use the term for the Iron Age inhabitants of those islands.<sup id="cite_ref-Koch_encyclopedia_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koch_encyclopedia-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SJames_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SJames-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-JCollis_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JCollis-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FPryor_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FPryor-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, they spoke Celtic languages, shared other cultural traits, and Roman historian <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a> says the Britons resembled the Gauls in customs and religion.<sup id="cite_ref-Sims-Williams_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sims-Williams-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern">Modern</h3></div> <p>For at least 1,000 years the name <b>Celt</b> was not used at all, and nobody called themselves Celts or Celtic, until from about 1700, after the word 'Celtic' was rediscovered in classical texts, it was applied for the first time to the distinctive culture, history, traditions, language of the modern Celtic nations – Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Cornwall, Brittany, and the Isle of Man.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 'Celt' is a modern English word, first attested in 1707 in the writing of <a href="/wiki/Edward_Lhuyd" title="Edward Lhuyd">Edward Lhuyd</a>, whose work, along with that of other late 17th-century scholars, brought academic attention to the languages and history of the early Celtic inhabitants of Great Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The English words <b>Gaul</b>, <b>Gauls</b> (<abbr title="plural">pl.</abbr>) and <b>Gaulish</b> (first recorded in the 16–17th centuries) come from French <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Gaule</i></span> and <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Gaulois</i></span>, a borrowing from <a href="/wiki/Frankish_language" title="Frankish language">Frankish</a> *<span title="Old Frankish-language text"><i lang="frk">Walholant</i></span>, 'Roman-land' <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033199720">.mw-parser-output div.crossreference{padding-left:0}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><span role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable crossreference">(see <a href="/wiki/Gaul#Name" title="Gaul">Gaul: Name</a>)</span>, the root of which is <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a> <span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem"><a href="/wiki/Walhaz" class="mw-redirect" title="Walhaz">walha-</a></i></span>, 'foreigner, Roman, Celt', whence the English word <i>Welsh</i> (<a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">wælisċ</i></span>). Proto-Germanic <span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">walha</i></span> comes from the name of the <a href="/wiki/Volcae" title="Volcae">Volcae</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a Celtic tribe who lived first in southern Germany and central Europe, then migrated to Gaul.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This means that English <i>Gaul</i>, despite its superficial similarity, is not actually derived from Latin <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Gallia</i></span> (which should have produced *<span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Jaille</i></span> in French),<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> though it does refer to the same ancient region. </p><p><i><b>Celtic</b></i> refers to a <a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">language family</a> and, more generally, means 'of the Celts' or 'in the style of the Celts'. Several archaeological cultures are considered Celtic, based on unique sets of artefacts. The link between language and artefact is aided by the presence of inscriptions.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The modern idea of a Celtic <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">cultural</a> identity or "Celticity" focuses on similarities among languages, works of art, and classical texts,<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and sometimes also among material artefacts, <a href="/wiki/Social_organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Social organisation">social organisation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Homeland" title="Homeland">homeland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Celtic_mythology" title="Celtic mythology">mythology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Earlier theories held that these similarities suggest a common "racial" (<a href="/wiki/Race_(human_categorization)" title="Race (human categorization)">race</a> is now a contested concept) origin for the various Celtic peoples, but more recent theories hold that they reflect a common cultural and linguistic heritage more than a genetic one. Celtic cultures seem to have been diverse, with the use of a Celtic language being the main thing they had in common.<sup id="cite_ref-Koch_encyclopedia_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koch_encyclopedia-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Today, the term 'Celtic' generally refers to the languages and cultures of Ireland, Scotland, Wales, <a href="/wiki/Cornwall" title="Cornwall">Cornwall</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Man" title="Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Brittany" title="Brittany">Brittany</a>; also called the <a href="/wiki/Celtic_nations" title="Celtic nations">Celtic nations</a>. These are the regions where Celtic languages are still spoken to some extent. The four are <a href="/wiki/Irish_language" title="Irish language">Irish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic" title="Scottish Gaelic">Scottish Gaelic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Breton_language" title="Breton language">Breton</a>; plus two recent revivals, <a href="/wiki/Cornish_language" title="Cornish language">Cornish</a> (a <a href="/wiki/Brittonic_languages" title="Brittonic languages">Brittonic language</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Manx_language" title="Manx language">Manx</a> (a <a href="/wiki/Goidelic_languages" title="Goidelic languages">Goidelic language</a>). There are also attempts to reconstruct <a href="/wiki/Cumbric" title="Cumbric">Cumbric</a>, a Brittonic language of northern Britain. Celtic regions of mainland Europe are those whose residents claim a Celtic heritage, but where no Celtic language survives; these include western Iberia, i.e. <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a> and north-central <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> (<a href="/wiki/Galicia_(Spain)" title="Galicia (Spain)">Galicia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asturias" title="Asturias">Asturias</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cantabria" title="Cantabria">Cantabria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Castile_and_Le%C3%B3n" title="Castile and León">Castile and León</a>, <a href="/wiki/Extremadura" title="Extremadura">Extremadura</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Continental Celts</b> are the Celtic-speaking people of mainland Europe and <b>Insular Celts</b> are the Celtic-speaking people of the British and Irish islands, and their descendants. The Celts of Brittany derive their language from migrating Insular Celts from Britain and so are grouped accordingly.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins">Origins</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Pre-Celtic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Celtic">Pre-Celtic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Celticization" class="mw-redirect" title="Celticization">Celticization</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic languages</a> are a branch of the <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a>. By the time Celts are first mentioned in written records around 400 BC, they were already split into several language groups, and spread over much of western mainland Europe, the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a>, Ireland and Britain. The languages developed into <a href="/wiki/Celtiberian_language" title="Celtiberian language">Celtiberian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Goidelic_languages" title="Goidelic languages">Goidelic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brittonic_languages" title="Brittonic languages">Brittonic</a> branches, among others.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Urnfield-Hallstatt_theory">Urnfield-Hallstatt theory</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hallstatt_LaTene.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Hallstatt_LaTene.png/330px-Hallstatt_LaTene.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Hallstatt_LaTene.png/495px-Hallstatt_LaTene.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/Hallstatt_LaTene.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="438" /></a><figcaption>Overview of the <a href="/wiki/Hallstatt_culture" title="Hallstatt culture">Hallstatt</a> and <a href="/wiki/La_T%C3%A8ne_culture" title="La Tène culture">La Tène</a> cultures.<small> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#f6bc0a; color:black;"> </span> The core Hallstatt territory (HaC, 800 BC) is shown in solid yellow.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#d5c089; color:black;"> </span> The eventual area of Hallstatt influence (by 500 BC, HaD) in light yellow.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#80da34; color:black;"> </span> The core territory of the La Tène culture (450 BC) in solid green.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#9bce9b; color:black;"> </span> The eventual area of La Tène influence (by 250 BC) in light green. </div> The territories of some major <a href="/wiki/List_of_Celtic_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Celtic tribes">Celtic tribes</a> of the late La Tène period are labelled.</small></figcaption></figure> <p>The mainstream view during most of the twentieth century is that the Celts and the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Celtic_language" title="Proto-Celtic language">proto-Celtic language</a> arose out of the <a href="/wiki/Urnfield_culture" title="Urnfield culture">Urnfield culture</a> of <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">central Europe</a> around 1000 BC, spreading westward and southward over the following few hundred years.<sup id="cite_ref-ChadCorc_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ChadCorc-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Urnfield culture was preeminent in central Europe during the late <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/circa" class="extiw" title="wikt:circa">circa</a> 1200 BC to 700 BC. The <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">spread of iron-working</a> led to the <a href="/wiki/Hallstatt_culture" title="Hallstatt culture">Hallstatt culture</a> (c. 800 to 500 BC) developing out of the Urnfield culture in a wide region north of the Alps. The Hallstatt culture developed into the <a href="/wiki/La_T%C3%A8ne_culture" title="La Tène culture">La Tène culture</a> from about 450 BC, which came to be identified with <a href="/wiki/Celtic_art" title="Celtic art">Celtic art</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In 1846, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Georg_Ramsauer" title="Johann Georg Ramsauer">Johann Georg Ramsauer</a> unearthed an ancient <a href="/wiki/Grave_field" title="Grave field">grave field</a> with distinctive grave goods at <a href="/wiki/Hallstatt" title="Hallstatt">Hallstatt</a>, Austria. Because the burials "dated to roughly the time when Celts are mentioned near the <a href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a> by <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a>, Ramsauer concluded that the graves were Celtic".<sup id="cite_ref-Koch_386_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koch_386-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar sites and artifacts were found over a wide area, which were named the 'Hallstatt culture'. In 1857, the archaeological site of <a href="/wiki/La_T%C3%A8ne_(archaeological_site)" title="La Tène (archaeological site)">La Tène</a> was discovered in Switzerland.<sup id="cite_ref-Koch_386_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koch_386-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The huge collection of artifacts had a distinctive style. Artifacts of this 'La Tène style' were found elsewhere in Europe, "particularly in places where people called Celts were known to have lived and early Celtic languages are attested. As a result, these items quickly became associated with the Celts, so much so that by the 1870s scholars began to regard finds of the La Tène as 'the archaeological expression of the Celts'".<sup id="cite_ref-Koch_386_51-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koch_386-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This cultural network was overrun by the Roman Empire, though traces of La Tène style were still seen in <a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_culture" title="Gallo-Roman culture">Gallo-Roman artifacts</a>. In Britain and Ireland, the La Tène style survived precariously to re-emerge in <a href="/wiki/Insular_art" title="Insular art">Insular art</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Urnfield-Hallstatt theory began to be challenged in the latter 20th century, when it was accepted that the oldest known Celtic-language inscriptions were those of <a href="/wiki/Lepontic_language" title="Lepontic language">Lepontic</a> from the 6th century BC and <a href="/wiki/Celtiberian_language" title="Celtiberian language">Celtiberian</a> from the 2nd century BC. These were found in northern Italy and Iberia, neither of which were part of the 'Hallstatt' nor 'La Tène' cultures at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-Sims-Williams_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sims-Williams-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Urnfield-Hallstatt theory was partly based on ancient <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman</a> writings, such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Histories_(Herodotus)" title="Histories (Herodotus)">Histories</a></i> of Herodotus, which placed the Celts at the <a href="/wiki/Source_of_the_Danube" title="Source of the Danube">source of the Danube</a>. However, <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Oppenheimer" title="Stephen Oppenheimer">Stephen Oppenheimer</a> shows that Herodotus seemed to believe the Danube rose near the <a href="/wiki/Pyrenees" title="Pyrenees">Pyrenees</a>, which would place the Ancient Celts in a region which is more in agreement with later classical writers and historians (i.e. in Gaul and Iberia).<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The theory was also partly based on the abundance of inscriptions bearing Celtic personal names in the Eastern Hallstatt region (<a href="/wiki/Noricum" title="Noricum">Noricum</a>). However, Patrick Sims-Williams notes that these date to the later Roman era, and says they suggest "relatively late settlement by a Celtic-speaking elite".<sup id="cite_ref-Sims-Williams_11-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sims-Williams-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="'Celtic_from_the_West'_theory"><span id=".27Celtic_from_the_West.27_theory"></span>'Celtic from the West' theory</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Europe_late_bronze_age.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Europe_late_bronze_age.png/330px-Europe_late_bronze_age.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Europe_late_bronze_age.png/495px-Europe_late_bronze_age.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Europe_late_bronze_age.png/660px-Europe_late_bronze_age.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1227" /></a><figcaption>A map of Europe in the Bronze Age, showing the Atlantic network in red</figcaption></figure> <p>In the late 20th century, the Urnfield-Hallstatt theory began to fall out of favour with some scholars, which was influenced by new archaeological finds. 'Celtic' began to refer primarily to 'speakers of Celtic languages' rather than to a single culture or ethnic group.<sup id="cite_ref-Sims-Williams_11-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sims-Williams-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A new theory suggested that Celtic languages arose earlier, along the Atlantic coast (including Britain, Ireland, <a href="/wiki/Armorica" title="Armorica">Armorica</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iberia" class="mw-redirect" title="Iberia">Iberia</a>), long before evidence of 'Celtic' culture is found in archaeology. <a href="/wiki/Myles_Dillon" title="Myles Dillon">Myles Dillon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nora_Kershaw_Chadwick" class="mw-redirect" title="Nora Kershaw Chadwick">Nora Kershaw Chadwick</a> argued that "Celtic settlement of the British Isles" might date to the <a href="/wiki/Bell_Beaker_culture" title="Bell Beaker culture">Bell Beaker culture</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Copper_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Copper Age">Copper</a> and Bronze Age (from c. 2750 BC).<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cunliffewest_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cunliffewest-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_Almagro_Gorbea" title="Martín Almagro Gorbea">Martín Almagro Gorbea</a> (2001) also proposed that Celtic arose in the <a href="/wiki/3rd_millennium_BC" title="3rd millennium BC">3rd millennium BC</a>, suggesting that the spread of the Bell Beaker culture explained the wide dispersion of the Celts throughout western Europe, as well as the variability of the Celtic peoples.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using a multidisciplinary approach, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alberto_J._Lorrio&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alberto J. Lorrio (page does not exist)">Alberto J. Lorrio</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gonzalo_Ruiz_Zapatero&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gonzalo Ruiz Zapatero (page does not exist)">Gonzalo Ruiz Zapatero</a> reviewed and built on Almagro Gorbea's work to present a model for the origin of Celtic archaeological groups in Iberia and proposing a rethinking of the meaning of "Celtic".<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/John_T._Koch" title="John T. Koch">John T. Koch</a><sup id="cite_ref-Koch2009_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koch2009-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Barry_Cunliffe" title="Barry Cunliffe">Barry Cunliffe</a><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have developed this 'Celtic from the West' theory. It proposes that the proto-Celtic language arose along the Atlantic coast and was the <i><a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a></i> of the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Bronze_Age" title="Atlantic Bronze Age">Atlantic Bronze Age</a> cultural network, later spreading inland and eastward.<sup id="cite_ref-Sims-Williams_11-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sims-Williams-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More recently, Cunliffe proposes that proto-Celtic had arisen in the Atlantic zone even earlier, by 3000 BC, and spread eastwards with the Bell Beaker culture over the following millennium. His theory is partly based on <a href="/wiki/Glottochronology" title="Glottochronology">glottochronology</a>, the spread of ancient Celtic-looking placenames, and thesis that the <a href="/wiki/Tartessian_language" title="Tartessian language">Tartessian language</a> was Celtic.<sup id="cite_ref-Sims-Williams_11-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sims-Williams-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the proposal that Tartessian was Celtic is widely rejected by linguists, many of whom regard it as unclassified.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="'Celtic_from_the_Centre'_theory"><span id=".27Celtic_from_the_Centre.27_theory"></span>'Celtic from the Centre' theory</h3></div> <p>Celticist Patrick Sims-Williams (2020) notes that in current scholarship, 'Celt' is primarily a linguistic label. In his 'Celtic from the Centre' theory, he argues that the proto-Celtic language did not originate in central Europe nor the Atlantic, but in-between these two regions. He suggests that it "emerged as a distinct Indo-European dialect around the <a href="/wiki/Second_millennium_BC" class="mw-redirect" title="Second millennium BC">second millennium BC</a>, probably somewhere in <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a> [centered in modern France] ... whence it spread in various directions and at various speeds in the <a href="/wiki/First_millennium_BC" class="mw-redirect" title="First millennium BC">first millennium BC</a>". Sims-Williams says this avoids the problematic idea "that Celtic was spoken over a vast area for a very long time yet somehow avoided major dialectal splits", and "it keeps Celtic fairly close to Italy, which suits the view that <a href="/wiki/Italo-Celtic" title="Italo-Celtic">Italic and Celtic were in some way linked</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Sims-Williams_11-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sims-Williams-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Linguistic_evidence">Linguistic evidence</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Proto-Celtic_language" title="Proto-Celtic language">Proto-Celtic language</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Celtic_toponymy" title="Celtic toponymy">Celtic toponymy</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Proto-Celtic_language" title="Proto-Celtic language">Proto-Celtic language</a> is usually dated to the Late Bronze Age.<sup id="cite_ref-ChadCorc_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ChadCorc-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest records of a Celtic language are the <a href="/wiki/Lepontic" class="mw-redirect" title="Lepontic">Lepontic</a> inscriptions of <a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaul" title="Cisalpine Gaul">Cisalpine Gaul</a> (Northern Italy), the oldest of which pre-date the <a href="/wiki/La_T%C3%A8ne_period" class="mw-redirect" title="La Tène period">La Tène period</a>. Other early inscriptions, appearing from the early La Tène period in the area of <a href="/wiki/Marseilles" class="mw-redirect" title="Marseilles">Massilia</a>, are in <a href="/wiki/Gaulish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaulish language">Gaulish</a>, which was written in the <a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a> until the Roman conquest. <a href="/wiki/Celtiberian_language" title="Celtiberian language">Celtiberian</a> inscriptions, using their own Iberian script, appear later, after about 200 BC. Evidence of <a href="/wiki/Insular_Celtic" class="mw-redirect" title="Insular Celtic">Insular Celtic</a> is available only from about 400 AD, in the form of <a href="/wiki/Primitive_Irish" title="Primitive Irish">Primitive Irish</a> <a href="/wiki/Ogham_inscriptions" class="mw-redirect" title="Ogham inscriptions">Ogham inscriptions</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Besides epigraphic evidence, an important source of information on early Celtic is <a href="/wiki/Toponymy" title="Toponymy">toponymy</a> (place names).<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetic_evidence">Genetic evidence</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Corded_Ware_culture#Genetic_studies" title="Corded Ware culture">Corded Ware culture § Genetic studies</a></div> <p>Arnaiz-Villena et al. (2017) demonstrated that Celtic-related populations of the European Atlantic (Orkney Islands, Scottish, Irish, British, Bretons, Basques, Galicians) shared a common <a href="/wiki/HLA_system" class="mw-redirect" title="HLA system">HLA system</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (January 2022)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other genetic research does not support the notion of a significant genetic link between these populations, beyond the fact that they are all West Europeans. <a href="/wiki/Early_European_Farmers" title="Early European Farmers">Early European Farmers</a> did settle Britain (and all of Northern Europe) in the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a>; however, recent genetics research has found that, between 2400 and 2000 BC, over 90% of British DNA was overturned by <a href="/wiki/Western_Steppe_Herders" title="Western Steppe Herders">European Steppe Herders</a> in a migration that brought large amounts of Steppe DNA (including the <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_R-L21" title="Haplogroup R-L21">R1b haplogroup</a>) to western Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-Olalde_et_al._63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Olalde_et_al.-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern autosomal genetic clustering is testament to this fact, as both modern and Iron Age British and Irish samples cluster genetically very closely with other North Europeans, and less so with Galicians, Basques or those from the south of France.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Archaeological_evidence">Archaeological evidence</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Europe" title="Iron Age Europe">Iron Age Europe</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:368px;max-width:368px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bund-ro-altburg.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Bund-ro-altburg.jpg/180px-Bund-ro-altburg.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Bund-ro-altburg.jpg/270px-Bund-ro-altburg.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Bund-ro-altburg.jpg 2x" data-file-width="345" data-file-height="230" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Reconstruction of a late La Tène period settlement in Altburg near <a href="/wiki/Bundenbach" title="Bundenbach">Bundenbach</a>, Germany<br />(first century BC)</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Celtic_settlement-Open-Air_Archaeological_Museum_Liptovska_Mara_-_Havranok,_Slovakia_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Celtic_settlement-Open-Air_Archaeological_Museum_Liptovska_Mara_-_Havranok%2C_Slovakia_1.jpg/180px-Celtic_settlement-Open-Air_Archaeological_Museum_Liptovska_Mara_-_Havranok%2C_Slovakia_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Celtic_settlement-Open-Air_Archaeological_Museum_Liptovska_Mara_-_Havranok%2C_Slovakia_1.jpg/270px-Celtic_settlement-Open-Air_Archaeological_Museum_Liptovska_Mara_-_Havranok%2C_Slovakia_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Celtic_settlement-Open-Air_Archaeological_Museum_Liptovska_Mara_-_Havranok%2C_Slovakia_1.jpg/360px-Celtic_settlement-Open-Air_Archaeological_Museum_Liptovska_Mara_-_Havranok%2C_Slovakia_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4019" data-file-height="2700" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Reconstruction of a late La Tène period settlement in <a href="/wiki/Havranok" class="mw-redirect" title="Havranok">Havranok</a>, Slovakia<br />(second–first century BC)</div></div></div></div></div> <p>The concept that the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures could be seen not just as chronological periods but as "Culture Groups", entities composed of people of the same ethnicity and language, had started to grow by the end of the 19th century. At the beginning of the 20th century the belief that these "Culture Groups" could be thought of in racial or ethnic terms was held by <a href="/wiki/Gordon_Childe" class="mw-redirect" title="Gordon Childe">Gordon Childe</a>, whose theory was influenced by the writings of <a href="/wiki/Gustaf_Kossinna" title="Gustaf Kossinna">Gustaf Kossinna</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the 20th century progressed, the ethnic interpretation of La Tène culture became more strongly rooted, and any findings of La Tène culture and flat inhumation cemeteries were linked to the Celts and the Celtic language.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In various<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (July 2010)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <a href="/wiki/List_of_academic_disciplines" class="mw-redirect" title="List of academic disciplines">academic disciplines</a> the Celts were considered a Central European Iron Age phenomenon, through the cultures of Hallstatt and La Tène. However, archaeological finds from the Halstatt and La Tène culture were rare in Iberia, southwestern France, northern and western Britain, southern Ireland and Galatia<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and did not provide enough evidence for a culture like that of Central Europe. It is equally difficult to maintain that the origin of the Iberian Celts can be linked to the preceding Urnfield culture. This has resulted in a newer theory that introduces a 'proto-Celtic' substratum and a process of Celticisation, having its initial roots in the Bronze Age <a href="/wiki/Bell_Beaker_culture" title="Bell Beaker culture">Bell Beaker culture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lorrio_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lorrio-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The La Tène culture developed and flourished during the late Iron Age (from 450 BC to the Roman conquest in the 1st century BC) in eastern France, Switzerland, Austria, southwest Germany, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary. It developed out of the Hallstatt culture without any definite cultural break, under the impetus of considerable Mediterranean influence from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</a>, and later <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_civilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Etruscan civilisation">Etruscan civilisations</a>. A shift of settlement centres took place in the 4th century. The western La Tène culture corresponds to historical <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Celtic Gaul</a>. Whether this means that the whole of La Tène culture can be attributed to a unified Celtic people is difficult to assess; archaeologists have repeatedly concluded that language and material culture do not necessarily run parallel. Frey notes that in the 5th century, "burial customs in the Celtic world were not uniform; rather, localised groups had their own beliefs, which, in consequence, also gave rise to distinct artistic expressions".<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, while the La Tène culture is certainly associated with the <a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gauls</a>, the presence of La Tène artefacts may be due to cultural contact and does not imply the permanent presence of Celtic speakers.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_evidence">Historical evidence</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Herodotus_world_map-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Herodotus_world_map-en.svg/220px-Herodotus_world_map-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Herodotus_world_map-en.svg/330px-Herodotus_world_map-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Herodotus_world_map-en.svg/440px-Herodotus_world_map-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="788" data-file-height="476" /></a><figcaption>The world according to <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The Greek historian <a href="/wiki/Ephorus" title="Ephorus">Ephorus</a> of Cyme in <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a>, writing in the 4th century BC, believed the Celts came from the islands off the mouth of the <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a> and were "driven from their homes by the frequency of wars and the violent rising of the sea". <a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a> published a <a href="/wiki/History_of_Rome" title="History of Rome">history of Rome</a> about 150 BC in which he describes the Gauls of Italy and their conflict with Rome. <a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)" title="Pausanias (geographer)">Pausanias</a> in the 2nd century AD says that the Gauls "originally called Celts", "live on the remotest region of Europe on the coast of an enormous tidal sea". <a href="/wiki/Posidonius" title="Posidonius">Posidonius</a> described the southern Gauls about 100 BC. Though his original work is lost, later writers such as <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a> used it. The latter, writing in the early 1st century AD, deals with Britain and Gaul as well as Hispania, Italy, and Galatia. <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a> wrote extensively about his <a href="/wiki/Commentarii_de_Bello_Gallico" title="Commentarii de Bello Gallico">Gallic Wars</a> in 58–51 BC. <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a> wrote about the Celts of Gaul and Britain in his 1st-century history.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a> both suggest that the heartland of the people they call Celts was in <a href="/wiki/Southern_France" title="Southern France">southern Gaul</a>. The former says that the Gauls were to the north of the Celts, but that the Romans referred to both as Gauls (linguistically the Gauls were certainly Celts). Before the discoveries at Hallstatt and La Tène, it was generally considered that the Celtic heartland was southern Gaul, see <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a> for 1813.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Distribution">Distribution</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Continental">Continental</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gaul">Gaul</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Celtic_Gold-plated_Disc,_Auvers-sur-Oise,_Val-d%27Oise.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Celtic_Gold-plated_Disc%2C_Auvers-sur-Oise%2C_Val-d%27Oise.jpg/220px-Celtic_Gold-plated_Disc%2C_Auvers-sur-Oise%2C_Val-d%27Oise.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Celtic_Gold-plated_Disc%2C_Auvers-sur-Oise%2C_Val-d%27Oise.jpg/330px-Celtic_Gold-plated_Disc%2C_Auvers-sur-Oise%2C_Val-d%27Oise.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Celtic_Gold-plated_Disc%2C_Auvers-sur-Oise%2C_Val-d%27Oise.jpg/440px-Celtic_Gold-plated_Disc%2C_Auvers-sur-Oise%2C_Val-d%27Oise.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2680" data-file-height="2641" /></a><figcaption>A 4th century BC gold-plated disk from Gaul</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gauls</a></div> <p>The Romans knew the Celts then living in present-day France as Gauls. The territory of these peoples probably included the <a href="/wiki/Low_Countries" title="Low Countries">Low Countries</a>, the Alps and present-day northern Italy. <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> in his <i><a href="/wiki/Commentarii_de_Bello_Gallico" title="Commentarii de Bello Gallico">Gallic Wars</a></i> described the 1st-century BC descendants of those Gauls.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Eastern Gaul became the centre of the western La Tène culture. In later Iron Age Gaul, the social organisation resembled that of the Romans, with large towns. From the 3rd century BC the Gauls adopted coinage. Texts with Greek characters from southern Gaul have survived from the 2nd century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Greek traders founded <a href="/wiki/Marseille" title="Marseille">Massalia</a> about 600 BC, with some objects (mostly drinking ceramic vessels) being traded up the <a href="/wiki/Rh%C3%B4ne" title="Rhône">Rhône</a> valley. But trade became disrupted soon after 500 BC and re-oriented over the Alps to the Po valley in the Italian peninsula. The <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Romans</a> arrived in the Rhone valley in the 2nd century BC and encountered a mostly Celtic-speaking Gaul. Rome wanted land communications with its Iberian provinces and fought a major battle with the <a href="/wiki/Saluvii" class="mw-redirect" title="Saluvii">Saluvii</a> at <a href="/wiki/Entremont_(oppidum)" title="Entremont (oppidum)">Entremont</a> in 124–123 BC. Gradually Roman control extended, and the <a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Roman province</a> of <a href="/wiki/Gallia_Narbonensis" title="Gallia Narbonensis">Gallia Transalpina</a> developed along the Mediterranean coast.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Romans knew the remainder of Gaul as <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Gallia_Comata" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallia Comata">Gallia Comata</a></i></span>, 'Long-haired Gaul'.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 58 BC, the <a href="/wiki/Helvetii" title="Helvetii">Helvetii</a> planned to migrate westward but Julius Caesar forced them back. He then became involved in fighting the various tribes in Gaul, and by 55 BC had overrun most of Gaul. In 52 BC, <a href="/wiki/Vercingetorix" title="Vercingetorix">Vercingetorix</a> led a revolt against Roman occupation but was defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Alesia" title="Battle of Alesia">Battle of Alesia</a> and surrendered.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the Gallic Wars of 58–51 BC, Caesar's <i><a href="/wiki/Gallia_Celtica" title="Gallia Celtica">Celtica</a></i> formed the main part of Roman Gaul, becoming the province of <a href="/wiki/Gallia_Lugdunensis" title="Gallia Lugdunensis">Gallia Lugdunensis</a>. This territory of the Celtic tribes was bounded on the south by the Garonne and on the north by the Seine and the Marne.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Romans attached large swathes of this region to neighbouring provinces <a href="/wiki/Belgica" class="mw-redirect" title="Belgica">Belgica</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aquitania" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquitania">Aquitania</a>, particularly under <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Place- and personal-name analysis and inscriptions suggest that <a href="/wiki/Gaulish" title="Gaulish">Gaulish</a> was spoken over most of what is now France.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Iberia">Iberia</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Iberia_300BC-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Iberia_300BC-en.svg/330px-Iberia_300BC-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Iberia_300BC-en.svg/495px-Iberia_300BC-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Iberia_300BC-en.svg/660px-Iberia_300BC-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="924" data-file-height="762" /></a><figcaption>Main language areas in <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberia</a>, showing Celtic languages in beige, c. 300 BC</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Celtiberians" title="Celtiberians">Celtiberians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gallaeci" title="Gallaeci">Gallaeci</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Castro_culture" title="Castro culture">Castro culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pre-Roman_peoples_of_the_Iberian_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula">Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Iberia" title="Prehistoric Iberia">Prehistoric Iberia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hispania" title="Hispania">Hispania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lusitania" title="Lusitania">Lusitania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gallaecia" title="Gallaecia">Gallaecia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Celtici" title="Celtici">Celtici</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vettones" title="Vettones">Vettones</a></div> <p>Until the end of the 19th century, traditional scholarship dealing with the Celts did acknowledge their presence in the Iberian Peninsula<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as a <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_culture" title="Archaeological culture">material culture</a> relatable to the <a href="/wiki/Hallstatt_culture" title="Hallstatt culture">Hallstatt</a> and <a href="/wiki/La_T%C3%A8ne_culture" title="La Tène culture">La Tène</a> cultures. However, since according to the definition of the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> in the 19th century Celtic populations were supposedly rare in Iberia and did not provide a cultural scenario that could easily be linked to that of Central Europe, the presence of Celtic culture in that region was generally not fully recognised. Modern scholarship, however, has proven that Celtic presence and influences were most substantial in what is today Spain and <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a> (with perhaps the highest settlement saturation in Western Europe), particularly in the central, western and northern regions.<sup id="cite_ref-Quintela_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Quintela-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to <a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gauls</a> infiltrating from the north of the <a href="/wiki/Pyrenees" title="Pyrenees">Pyrenees</a>, the Roman and Greek sources mention Celtic populations in three parts of the Iberian Peninsula: the eastern part of the <i>Meseta</i> (inhabited by the <a href="/wiki/Celtiberians" title="Celtiberians">Celtiberians</a>), the southwest (<a href="/wiki/Celtici" title="Celtici">Celtici</a>, in modern-day <a href="/wiki/Alentejo" title="Alentejo">Alentejo</a>) and the northwest (<a href="/wiki/Gallaecia" title="Gallaecia">Gallaecia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asturias" title="Asturias">Asturias</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A modern scholarly review<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> found several archaeological groups of Celts in Spain: </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Celtiberians" title="Celtiberians">Celtiberian</a> group in the Upper-Douro Upper-Tagus Upper-Jalón area.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Archaeological data suggest a continuity at least from the 6th century BC. In this early period, the Celtiberians inhabited in hill-forts (<i>Castros</i>). Around the end of the 3rd century BC, Celtiberians adopted more urban ways of life. From the 2nd century BC, they minted coins and wrote inscriptions using the <a href="/wiki/Celtiberian_script" title="Celtiberian script">Celtiberian script</a>. These inscriptions make the <a href="/wiki/Celtiberian_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtiberian Language">Celtiberian Language</a> the only Hispano-Celtic language classified as Celtic with unanimous agreement.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the late period, before the Roman Conquest, both archaeological evidence and Roman sources suggest that the <a href="/wiki/Celtiberians" title="Celtiberians">Celtiberians</a> were expanding into different areas in the Peninsula (e.g. Celtic Baeturia).</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Vettones" title="Vettones">Vetton</a> group in the western Meseta, between the Tormes, Douro and Tagus Rivers. They were characterised by the production of <i>Verracos</i>, sculptures of bulls and pigs carved in granite.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Vaccei" class="mw-redirect" title="Vaccei">Vaccean</a> group in the central Douro valley. They were mentioned by Roman sources already in the 220 BC. Some of their funerary rituals suggest strong influences from their <a href="/wiki/Celtiberians" title="Celtiberians">Celtiberian</a> neighbours.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Torque_de_Santa_Tegra_1.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Torque_de_Santa_Tegra_1.JPG/200px-Torque_de_Santa_Tegra_1.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Torque_de_Santa_Tegra_1.JPG/300px-Torque_de_Santa_Tegra_1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Torque_de_Santa_Tegra_1.JPG/400px-Torque_de_Santa_Tegra_1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1168" data-file-height="1176" /></a><figcaption>Triskelion and spirals on a Galician <a href="/wiki/Torc" title="Torc">torc</a> terminal, Museum of Castro de Santa Tegra, <a href="/wiki/A_Guarda" title="A Guarda">A Guarda</a></figcaption></figure> <ul><li>The <i>Castro Culture</i> in northwestern Iberia, modern day <a href="/wiki/Galicia_(Spain)" title="Galicia (Spain)">Galicia</a> and Northern <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its high degree of continuity, from the Late Bronze Age, makes it difficult to support that the introduction of Celtic elements was due to the same process of Celticisation of the western Iberia, from the nucleus area of Celtiberia. Two typical elements are the sauna baths with monumental entrances, and the "Gallaecian Warriors", stone sculptures built in the 1st century AD. A large group of Latin inscriptions contain Celtic linguistic features, while others are similar to those found in the non-Celtic <a href="/wiki/Lusitanian_language" title="Lusitanian language">Lusitanian language</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_88-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Astures" title="Astures">Astures</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Cantabri" title="Cantabri">Cantabri</a>. This area was romanised late, as it was not conquered by Rome until the <a href="/wiki/Cantabrian_Wars" title="Cantabrian Wars">Cantabrian Wars</a> of 29–19 BC.</li> <li>Celts in the southwest, in the area <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a> called Celtica<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The origins of the Celtiberians might provide a key to understanding the Celticisation process in the rest of the Peninsula. The process of Celticisation of the southwestern area of the peninsula by the Keltoi and of the northwestern area is, however, not a simple Celtiberian question. Recent investigations about the <a href="/wiki/Gallaeci" title="Gallaeci">Callaici</a><sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Bracari" title="Bracari">Bracari</a><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in northwestern <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a> are providing new approaches to understanding Celtic culture (language, art and religion) in western Iberia.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>John T. Koch of <a href="/wiki/Aberystwyth_University" title="Aberystwyth University">Aberystwyth University</a> suggested that <a href="/wiki/Tartessian_language" title="Tartessian language">Tartessian</a> inscriptions of the 8th century BC might be classified as Celtic. This would mean that Tartessian is the earliest attested trace of Celtic by a margin of more than a century.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Germany,_Alps_and_Italy"><span id="Germany.2C_Alps_and_Italy"></span>Germany, Alps and Italy</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Golasecca_culture" title="Golasecca culture">Golasecca culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lepontii" title="Lepontii">Lepontii</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaul" title="Cisalpine Gaul">Cisalpine Gaul</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Heuneburg_600_B.C..jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Heuneburg_600_B.C..jpg/220px-Heuneburg_600_B.C..jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Heuneburg_600_B.C..jpg/330px-Heuneburg_600_B.C..jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Heuneburg_600_B.C..jpg/440px-Heuneburg_600_B.C..jpg 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="329" /></a><figcaption>The Celtic city of <a href="/wiki/Heuneburg" title="Heuneburg">Heuneburg</a> by the Danube, Germany, c. 600 BC, the oldest city north of the Alps.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Germanic_tribes_(750BC-1AD).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Germanic_tribes_%28750BC-1AD%29.png/250px-Germanic_tribes_%28750BC-1AD%29.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Germanic_tribes_%28750BC-1AD%29.png/375px-Germanic_tribes_%28750BC-1AD%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Germanic_tribes_%28750BC-1AD%29.png/500px-Germanic_tribes_%28750BC-1AD%29.png 2x" data-file-width="537" data-file-height="376" /></a><figcaption> Expansion of <a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_culture" title="Early Germanic culture">early Germanic tribes</a> into <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central Europe</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> helping press its previous Celts further south and southeast</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gallia_Cisalpina-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Gallia_Cisalpina-en.svg/220px-Gallia_Cisalpina-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Gallia_Cisalpina-en.svg/330px-Gallia_Cisalpina-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Gallia_Cisalpina-en.svg/440px-Gallia_Cisalpina-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="949" data-file-height="717" /></a><figcaption>Peoples of Cisalpine Gaul during the 4th to 3rd centuries BC</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Alps" title="History of the Alps">History of the Alps</a></div> <p>In Germany by the late <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">Bronze Age</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Urnfield_culture" title="Urnfield culture">Urnfield culture</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1300 BC</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 750 BC</span>) had replaced the <a href="/wiki/Bell_Beaker_culture" title="Bell Beaker culture">Bell Beaker</a>, <a href="/wiki/Unetice_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Unetice culture">Unetice</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tumulus_culture" title="Tumulus culture">Tumulus cultures</a> in central Europe,<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whilst the <a href="/wiki/Nordic_Bronze_Age" title="Nordic Bronze Age">Nordic Bronze Age</a> had developed in Scandinavia and northern Germany. The <a href="/wiki/Hallstatt_culture" title="Hallstatt culture">Hallstatt culture</a>, which had developed from the Urnfield culture, was the predominant Western and Central European culture from the 12th to 8th centuries BC and during the early <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Europe" title="Iron Age Europe">Iron Age</a> (8th to 6th centuries BC). It was followed by the <a href="/wiki/La_T%C3%A8ne_culture" title="La Tène culture">La Tène culture</a> (5th to 1st centuries BC). </p><p>The people who had adopted these cultural characteristics in central and southern Germany are regarded as Celts. Celtic cultural centres developed in central Europe during the late Bronze Age (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1200 BC</span> until 700 BC). Some, like the <a href="/wiki/Heuneburg" title="Heuneburg">Heuneburg</a>, the oldest city north of the Alps,<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> grew to become important cultural centres of the Iron Age in Central Europe, that maintained trade routes to the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a>. In the 5th century BC the Greek historian <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> mentioned a Celtic city at the Danube – <i>Pyrene</i>, that historians attribute to the Heuneburg. Beginning around 700 BC (or later), <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a> (Germanic tribes) from <a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_Northern_Europe" title="Archaeology of Northern Europe">southern Scandinavia and northern Germany</a> expanded south and gradually replaced the Celtic peoples in Central Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Herodotus1857_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herodotus1857-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Herodotus1829_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herodotus1829-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gimbutas2011_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gimbutas2011-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Milisauskas2002_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Milisauskas2002-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rankin1996_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rankin1996-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Canegrate_culture" title="Canegrate culture">Canegrate culture</a> represented the first migratory wave of the proto-Celtic<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> population from the northwest part of the Alps that, through the <a href="/wiki/Alpine_passes" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpine passes">Alpine passes</a>, had already penetrated and settled in the western <a href="/wiki/Po_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Po River">Po</a> valley between <a href="/wiki/Lake_Maggiore" title="Lake Maggiore">Lake Maggiore</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lake_Como" title="Lake Como">Lake Como</a> (<a href="/wiki/Scamozzina_culture" title="Scamozzina culture">Scamozzina culture</a>). It has also been proposed that a more ancient proto-Celtic presence can be traced back to the beginning of the Middle <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a>, when North Westwern Italy appears closely linked regarding the production of bronze artefacts, including ornaments, to the western groups of the <a href="/wiki/Tumulus_culture" title="Tumulus culture">Tumulus culture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> La Tène cultural material appeared over a large area of mainland Italy,<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the southernmost example being the Celtic helmet from <a href="/wiki/Canosa_di_Puglia" title="Canosa di Puglia">Canosa di Puglia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Italy is home to <a href="/wiki/Lepontic_language" title="Lepontic language">Lepontic</a>, the oldest attested Celtic language (from the 6th century BC).<sup id="cite_ref-Schumacher_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schumacher-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anciently spoken in <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a> and in Northern-Central <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>, from the <a href="/wiki/Alps" title="Alps">Alps</a> to <a href="/wiki/Umbria" title="Umbria">Umbria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the <i><a href="/wiki/Recueil_des_Inscriptions_Gauloises" class="mw-redirect" title="Recueil des Inscriptions Gauloises">Recueil des Inscriptions Gauloises</a></i>, more than 760 Gaulish inscriptions have been found throughout present-day <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> – with the notable exception of <a href="/wiki/Aquitaine" title="Aquitaine">Aquitaine</a> – and in <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which testifies the importance of Celtic heritage in the peninsula.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In 391 BC, Celts "who had their homes beyond the Alps streamed through the passes in great strength and seized the territory that lay between the <a href="/wiki/Apennine_Mountains" title="Apennine Mountains">Apennine Mountains</a> and the Alps" according to <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a>. The <a href="/wiki/River_Po" class="mw-redirect" title="River Po">Po Valley</a> and the rest of northern Italy (known to the Romans as <a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaul" title="Cisalpine Gaul">Cisalpine Gaul</a>) was inhabited by Celtic-speakers who founded cities such as <a href="/wiki/Milan" title="Milan">Milan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later the Roman army was routed at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Allia" title="Battle of the Allia">battle of Allia</a> and Rome was sacked in 390 BC by the <a href="/wiki/Senones" title="Senones">Senones</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Telamon" title="Battle of Telamon">battle of Telamon</a> in 225 BC, a large Celtic army was trapped between two Roman forces and crushed.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The defeat of the combined <a href="/wiki/Samnium" title="Samnium">Samnite</a>, Celtic and Etruscan alliance by the Romans in the <a href="/wiki/Samnite_Wars" title="Samnite Wars">Third Samnite War</a> sounded the beginning of the end of the Celtic domination in mainland Europe, but it was not until 192 BC that the Roman armies conquered the last remaining independent Celtic kingdoms in Italy.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Expansion_east_and_south">Expansion east and south</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:3-bc_map_elznik.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/3-bc_map_elznik.jpg/220px-3-bc_map_elznik.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/3-bc_map_elznik.jpg/330px-3-bc_map_elznik.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/3-bc_map_elznik.jpg/440px-3-bc_map_elznik.jpg 2x" data-file-width="695" data-file-height="545" /></a><figcaption>A map of Celtic invasions and migrations in the Balkans in the 3rd century BC</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gallic_invasion_of_the_Balkans" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallic invasion of the Balkans">Gallic invasion of the Balkans</a></div> <p>The Celts also expanded down the <a href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a> river and its tributaries. One of the most influential tribes, the <a href="/wiki/Scordisci" title="Scordisci">Scordisci</a>, established their capital at <a href="/wiki/Singidunum" title="Singidunum">Singidunum</a> (present-day <a href="/wiki/Belgrade" title="Belgrade">Belgrade</a>, Serbia) in the 3rd century BC. The concentration of hill-forts and cemeteries shows a <a href="/wiki/Population_density" title="Population density">dense population</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Tisza" title="Tisza">Tisza</a> valley of modern-day <a href="/wiki/Vojvodina" title="Vojvodina">Vojvodina</a>, Serbia, Hungary and into <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>. Expansion into <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a> was however blocked by the <a href="/wiki/Dacians" title="Dacians">Dacians</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Serdi" title="Serdi">Serdi</a> were a Celtic tribe<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> inhabiting <a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</a>. They were located around and founded <a href="/wiki/Serdika" title="Serdika">Serdika</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_language" title="Bulgarian language">Bulgarian</a>: <span lang="bg">Сердика</span>, <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">Ulpia Serdica</i>, <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>: <span lang="el">Σαρδῶν πόλις</span>), now <a href="/wiki/Sofia" title="Sofia">Sofia</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which reflects their ethnonym. They would have established themselves in this area during the Celtic migrations at the end of the 4th century BC, though there is no evidence for their existence before the 1st century BC. <i>Serdi</i> are among traditional tribal names reported into the Roman era.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were gradually Thracianized over the centuries but retained their Celtic character in material culture up to a late date.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (July 2015)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> According to other sources they may have been simply of Thracian origin,<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> according to others they may have become of mixed Thraco-Celtic origin. Further south, Celts settled in <a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a>), which they ruled for over a century, and <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>, where they settled as the <a href="/wiki/Galatia" title="Galatia">Galatians</a> <i>(see also: <a href="/wiki/Gallic_invasion_of_the_Balkans" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallic invasion of the Balkans">Gallic Invasion of Greece</a>)</i>. Despite their <a href="/wiki/Geographical_isolation" class="mw-redirect" title="Geographical isolation">geographical isolation</a> from the rest of the Celtic world, the Galatians maintained their Celtic language for at least 700 years. <a href="/wiki/St_Jerome" class="mw-redirect" title="St Jerome">St Jerome</a>, who visited Ancyra (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Ankara" title="Ankara">Ankara</a>) in 373 AD, likened their language to that of the <a href="/wiki/Treveri" title="Treveri">Treveri</a> of northern Gaul.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>For <a href="/wiki/Venceslas_Kruta" title="Venceslas Kruta">Venceslas Kruta</a>, Galatia in central Turkey was an area of dense Celtic settlement.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Boii" title="Boii">Boii</a> tribe gave their name to <a href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia">Bohemia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bologna</a> and possibly <a href="/wiki/Bavaria" title="Bavaria">Bavaria</a>, and Celtic artefacts and cemeteries have been discovered further east in what is now Poland and <a href="/wiki/Slovakia" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</a>. A Celtic coin (<a href="/wiki/Biatec" title="Biatec">Biatec</a>) from <a href="/wiki/Bratislava" title="Bratislava">Bratislava</a>'s mint was displayed on the old Slovak 5-crown coin.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>As there is no archaeological evidence for large-scale invasions in some of the other areas, one current school of thought holds that Celtic language and culture spread to those areas by contact rather than invasion.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the Celtic invasions of Italy and the <a href="/wiki/Gallic_invasion_of_the_Balkans" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallic invasion of the Balkans">expedition in Greece and western Anatolia</a>, are well documented in Greek and Latin history.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are records of Celtic mercenaries in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> serving the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemies" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemies">Ptolemies</a>. Thousands were employed in 283–246 BC and they were also in service around 186 BC. They attempted to overthrow <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_II_Philadelphus" title="Ptolemy II Philadelphus">Ptolemy II</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Insular">Insular</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_Gaels_Brythons_Picts.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Map_Gaels_Brythons_Picts.png/220px-Map_Gaels_Brythons_Picts.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="284" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Map_Gaels_Brythons_Picts.png/330px-Map_Gaels_Brythons_Picts.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Map_Gaels_Brythons_Picts.png/440px-Map_Gaels_Brythons_Picts.png 2x" data-file-width="643" data-file-height="829" /></a><figcaption>Britain & Ireland in the early–mid 1st millennium AD, before the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain" title="Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain">founding of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="border: 1px solid #676767;background-color:#DE3333; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Britons" title="Celtic Britons">Celtic Britons</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="border: 1px solid #676767;background-color:#2272C4; color:white;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Picts" title="Picts">Picts</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="border: 1px solid #676767;background-color:#548556; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Gaels" title="Gaels">Gaels</a></div></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Insular_Celts" title="Insular Celts">Insular Celts</a></div> <p>All living Celtic languages today belong to the <a href="/wiki/Insular_Celtic_languages" title="Insular Celtic languages">Insular Celtic languages</a>, derived from the Celtic languages spoken in <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron Age Britain">Iron Age Britain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Ireland" title="Prehistoric Ireland">Ireland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They separated into a <a href="/wiki/Goidelic_languages" title="Goidelic languages">Goidelic</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Brittonic_languages" title="Brittonic languages">Brittonic</a> branch early on. By the time of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_Britain" title="Roman conquest of Britain">Roman conquest of Britain</a> in the 1st century AD, the Insular Celts were made up of the <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Britons" title="Celtic Britons">Celtic Britons</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Gaels" title="Gaels">Gaels</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Scoti" title="Scoti">Scoti</a>), and the <a href="/wiki/Picts" title="Picts">Picts</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Caledonians" title="Caledonians">Caledonians</a>).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The renown of insular Celts has caused a popular belief that Celtic clans only lived in the British Isles.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Linguists have debated whether a Celtic language came to the British Isles and then split, or whether the two branches arrived separately. The older view was that Celtic influence in the Isles was the result of successive migrations or invasions from the European mainland by diverse Celtic-speaking peoples over several centuries, accounting for the <a href="/wiki/P-Celtic" class="mw-redirect" title="P-Celtic">P-Celtic</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Q-Celtic" class="mw-redirect" title="Q-Celtic">Q-Celtic</a> <a href="/wiki/Isogloss" title="Isogloss">isogloss</a>. This view has been challenged by the hypothesis that the islands' Celtic languages form an <a href="/wiki/Insular_Celtic_languages" title="Insular Celtic languages">Insular Celtic</a> dialect group.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 19th and 20th centuries, scholars often dated the "arrival" of Celtic culture in Britain (via an invasion model) to the 6th century BC, corresponding to archaeological evidence of <a href="/wiki/Hallstatt_culture" title="Hallstatt culture">Hallstatt</a> influence and the appearance of <a href="/wiki/Chariot_burial" title="Chariot burial">chariot burials</a> in what is now England. Cunliffe and Koch propose in their newer <a href="/w/index.php?title=%27Celtic_from_the_West%27_theory&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="'Celtic from the West' theory (page does not exist)">'Celtic from the West' theory</a> that Celtic languages reached the Isles earlier, with the Bell Beaker culture c.2500 BC, or even before this.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More recently, a major <a href="/wiki/Archaeogenetics" title="Archaeogenetics">archaeogenetics</a> study uncovered a migration into southern Britain in the Bronze Age from 1300 to 800 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Patterson_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Patterson-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The newcomers were genetically most similar to ancient individuals from Gaul.<sup id="cite_ref-Patterson_133-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Patterson-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 1000 BC, their genetic marker swiftly spread through southern Britain,<sup id="cite_ref-YorkUni_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-YorkUni-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but not northern Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-Patterson_133-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Patterson-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The authors see this as a "plausible vector for the spread of early Celtic languages into Britain".<sup id="cite_ref-Patterson_133-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Patterson-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There was much less immigration during the Iron Age, so it is likely that Celtic reached Britain before then.<sup id="cite_ref-Patterson_133-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Patterson-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cunliffe suggests that a branch of Celtic was already spoken in Britain, and the Bronze Age migration introduced the Brittonic branch.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Like many Celtic peoples on the mainland, the Insular Celts followed an <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Ancient Celtic religion</a> overseen by <a href="/wiki/Druid" title="Druid">druids</a>. Some of the southern British tribes had strong links with Gaul and <a href="/wiki/Belgica" class="mw-redirect" title="Belgica">Belgica</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Celtic_currency_of_Britain" title="Celtic currency of Britain">minted their own coins</a>. During the Roman occupation of Britain, a <a href="/wiki/Romano-British_culture" title="Romano-British culture">Romano-British culture</a> emerged in the southeast. The Britons and Picts in the north, and the Gaels of Ireland, remained outside the empire. During the <a href="/wiki/End_of_Roman_rule_in_Britain" title="End of Roman rule in Britain">end of Roman rule in Britain</a> in the 400s AD, there was significant <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain" title="Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain">Anglo-Saxon settlement</a> of eastern and southern Britain, and some Gaelic settlement of its western coast. During this time, some Britons migrated to the <a href="/wiki/Armorica" title="Armorica">Armorican</a> peninsula, where their culture became dominant. Meanwhile, much of northern Britain (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Alba" title="Kingdom of Alba">Scotland</a>) became Gaelic. By the 10th century AD, the Insular Celtic peoples had diversified into the Brittonic-speaking <a href="/wiki/Welsh_people" title="Welsh people">Welsh</a> (in <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a>), <a href="/wiki/Cornish_people" title="Cornish people">Cornish</a> (in <a href="/wiki/Cornwall" title="Cornwall">Cornwall</a>), <a href="/wiki/Breton_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Breton people">Bretons</a> (in <a href="/wiki/Brittany" title="Brittany">Brittany</a>) and Cumbrians (in the <a href="/wiki/Hen_Ogledd" title="Hen Ogledd">Old North</a>); and the Gaelic-speaking <a href="/wiki/Irish_people" title="Irish people">Irish</a> (in Ireland), <a href="/wiki/Scottish_people" title="Scottish people">Scots</a> (in Scotland) and <a href="/wiki/Manx_people" title="Manx people">Manx</a> (on the <a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Man" title="Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a>).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Classical writers did not call the inhabitants of Britain and Ireland <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Celtae</i></span> or <i><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">Κελτοί</span></span></i> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">Keltoi</i></span>),<sup id="cite_ref-Koch_encyclopedia_5-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koch_encyclopedia-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SJames_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SJames-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-JCollis_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JCollis-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> leading some scholars to question the use of the term 'Celt' for the Iron Age inhabitants of those islands.<sup id="cite_ref-Koch_encyclopedia_5-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koch_encyclopedia-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SJames_8-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SJames-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-JCollis_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JCollis-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FPryor_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FPryor-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first historical account of the islands was by the Greek geographer <a href="/wiki/Pytheas" title="Pytheas">Pytheas</a>, who sailed around what he called the "Pretannikai nesoi" (the "Pretannic isles") around 310–306 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-JCollis2_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JCollis2-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In general, classical writers referred to the Britons as <i>Pretannoi</i> (in Greek) or <i>Britanni</i> (in Latin).<sup id="cite_ref-JCollis4_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JCollis4-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Strabo, writing in Roman times, distinguished between the Celts and Britons.<sup id="cite_ref-JCollis3_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JCollis3-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Roman historian <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a> says the Britons resembled the Celts of Gaul in customs and religion.<sup id="cite_ref-Sims-Williams_11-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sims-Williams-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Romanisation">Romanisation</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cernunos_phot_Trompette_08637.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Cernunos_phot_Trompette_08637.jpg/220px-Cernunos_phot_Trompette_08637.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Cernunos_phot_Trompette_08637.jpg/330px-Cernunos_phot_Trompette_08637.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Cernunos_phot_Trompette_08637.jpg/440px-Cernunos_phot_Trompette_08637.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1386" data-file-height="1397" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_culture" title="Gallo-Roman culture">Gallo-Roman</a> sculpture of the Celtic god <a href="/wiki/Cernunnos" title="Cernunnos">Cernunnos</a> (middle), flanked by the Roman gods <a href="/wiki/Apollo" title="Apollo">Apollo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(mythology)" title="Mercury (mythology)">Mercury</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_culture" title="Gallo-Roman culture">Gallo-Roman culture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Romano-British_culture" title="Romano-British culture">Romano-British culture</a></div> <p>Under <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a> the Romans conquered Celtic <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a>, and from <a href="/wiki/Claudius" title="Claudius">Claudius</a> onward the Roman empire absorbed parts of Britain. Roman local government of these regions closely mirrored pre-Roman tribal boundaries, and archaeological finds suggest native involvement in local government.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The native peoples under Roman rule became Romanised and keen to adopt Roman ways. Celtic art had already incorporated classical influences, and surviving Gallo-Roman pieces interpret classical subjects or keep faith with old traditions despite a Roman overlay.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Roman occupation of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Gaul" title="Roman Gaul">Gaul</a>, and to a lesser extent of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Britain</a>, led to Roman-Celtic <a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">syncretism</a>. In the case of the continental Celts, this eventually resulted in a <a href="/wiki/Language_shift" title="Language shift">language shift</a> to <a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar Latin</a>, while the Insular Celts retained their language.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>There was also considerable cultural influence exerted by Gaul on Rome, particularly in military matters and horsemanship, as the Gauls often served in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_cavalry" title="Roman cavalry">Roman cavalry</a>. The Romans adopted the Celtic cavalry sword, the <a href="/wiki/Spatha" title="Spatha">spatha</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Epona" title="Epona">Epona</a>, the Celtic horse goddess.<sup id="cite_ref-Tristram_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tristram-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society">Society</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:10_2023_-_Palazzo_Altemps,_Roma,_Lazio,_00186,_Italia_-_Galata_suicida_(Ludovisi_Gaul)_-_Arte_Ellenistica_Greca_-_Copia_Romana_-_Photo_Paolo_Villa_FO232046_ombre_gimp_bis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/10_2023_-_Palazzo_Altemps%2C_Roma%2C_Lazio%2C_00186%2C_Italia_-_Galata_suicida_%28Ludovisi_Gaul%29_-_Arte_Ellenistica_Greca_-_Copia_Romana_-_Photo_Paolo_Villa_FO232046_ombre_gimp_bis.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="337" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/10_2023_-_Palazzo_Altemps%2C_Roma%2C_Lazio%2C_00186%2C_Italia_-_Galata_suicida_%28Ludovisi_Gaul%29_-_Arte_Ellenistica_Greca_-_Copia_Romana_-_Photo_Paolo_Villa_FO232046_ombre_gimp_bis.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/10_2023_-_Palazzo_Altemps%2C_Roma%2C_Lazio%2C_00186%2C_Italia_-_Galata_suicida_%28Ludovisi_Gaul%29_-_Arte_Ellenistica_Greca_-_Copia_Romana_-_Photo_Paolo_Villa_FO232046_ombre_gimp_bis.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7000" data-file-height="10710" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Ludovisi_Gaul" title="Ludovisi Gaul">Ludovisi Gaul</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_sculpture" title="Roman sculpture">Roman</a> copy of a <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_art" title="Hellenistic art">Hellenistic</a> sculpture of a dying Celtic couple, <a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Massimo_alle_Terme" class="mw-redirect" title="Palazzo Massimo alle Terme">Palazzo Massimo alle Terme</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>To the extent that sources are available, they depict a pre-Christian <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> Celtic <a href="/wiki/Social_structure" title="Social structure">social structure</a> based formally on class and kingship, although this may only have been a particular late phase of organisation in Celtic societies. Patron-client relationships similar to those of Roman society are also described by Caesar and others in the Gaul of the 1st century BC.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In the main, the evidence is of tribes being led by kings, although some argue that there is also evidence of <a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">oligarchical</a> republican <a href="/wiki/Form_of_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Form of government">forms of government</a> eventually emerging in areas which had close contact with Rome. Most descriptions of Celtic societies portray them as being divided into three groups: a warrior aristocracy; an intellectual class including professions such as <a href="/wiki/Druid" title="Druid">druid</a>, poet, and jurist; and everyone else. In historical times, the offices of high and low kings in Ireland and Scotland were filled by election under the system of <a href="/wiki/Tanistry" title="Tanistry">tanistry</a>, which eventually came into conflict with the feudal principle of <a href="/wiki/Primogeniture" title="Primogeniture">primogeniture</a> in which succession goes to the first-born son.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Romano-Celtic_mirror_(Desborough).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Romano-Celtic_mirror_%28Desborough%29.jpg/220px-Romano-Celtic_mirror_%28Desborough%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Romano-Celtic_mirror_%28Desborough%29.jpg/330px-Romano-Celtic_mirror_%28Desborough%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Romano-Celtic_mirror_%28Desborough%29.jpg/440px-Romano-Celtic_mirror_%28Desborough%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="752" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>The reverse side of the <a href="/wiki/Desborough_Mirror" title="Desborough Mirror">Desborough Mirror</a>, with spiral and trumpet motifs typical of La Tène Celtic art in Britain</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ring_MET_tr409-1-2009s08.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Ring_MET_tr409-1-2009s08.jpg/220px-Ring_MET_tr409-1-2009s08.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Ring_MET_tr409-1-2009s08.jpg/330px-Ring_MET_tr409-1-2009s08.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Ring_MET_tr409-1-2009s08.jpg/440px-Ring_MET_tr409-1-2009s08.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1639" data-file-height="1530" /></a><figcaption>A 4th century BC Celtic gold ring from southern Germany, decorated with human and rams heads</figcaption></figure> <p>Little is known of family structure among the Celts. Patterns of settlement varied from decentralised to urban. The popular stereotype of non-urbanised societies settled in <a href="/wiki/Hillfort" title="Hillfort">hillforts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dun_(fortification)" title="Dun (fortification)">duns</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> drawn from Britain and Ireland (there are about 3,000 <a href="/wiki/List_of_hill_forts_in_England" class="mw-redirect" title="List of hill forts in England">hill forts</a> known in Britain)<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> contrasts with the urban settlements present in the core Hallstatt and La Tène areas, with the many significant <i><a href="/wiki/Oppida" class="mw-redirect" title="Oppida">oppida</a></i> of Gaul late in the first millennium BC, and with the towns of <a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaul" title="Cisalpine Gaul">Gallia Cisalpina</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">Slavery</a>, as practised by the Celts, was very likely similar to the better documented <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_antiquity" title="Slavery in antiquity">practice in ancient Greece and Rome</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Simmons_1615_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Simmons_1615-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Slaves were acquired from war, raids, and penal and debt servitude.<sup id="cite_ref-Simmons_1615_143-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Simmons_1615-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Slavery was hereditary,<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though <a href="/wiki/Manumission" title="Manumission">manumission</a> was possible. The <a href="/wiki/Old_Irish" title="Old Irish">Old Irish</a> and Welsh words for 'slave', <i>cacht</i> and <i>caeth</i> respectively, are cognate with Latin <i>captus</i> 'captive' suggesting that the <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery" title="History of slavery">slave trade</a> was an early means of contact between Latin and Celtic societies.<sup id="cite_ref-Simmons_1615_143-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Simmons_1615-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the Middle Ages, slavery was especially prevalent in the <a href="/wiki/Celtic_nations" title="Celtic nations">Celtic countries</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Manumission" title="Manumission">Manumissions</a> were discouraged by law and the word for 'female slave', <i>cumal</i>, was used as a general unit of value in Ireland.<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are only very limited records from pre-Christian times written in Celtic languages. These are mostly inscriptions in the Roman and sometimes Greek alphabets. The <a href="/wiki/Ogham" title="Ogham">ogham</a> script, an <a href="/wiki/Early_Medieval" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Medieval">Early Medieval</a> <a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">alphabet</a>, was mostly used in early Christian times in Ireland and Scotland (but also in Wales and England), and was only used for ceremonial purposes such as inscriptions on gravestones. The available evidence is of a strong oral tradition, such as that preserved by <a href="/wiki/Bard" title="Bard">bards</a> in Ireland, and eventually recorded by <a href="/wiki/Monastery" title="Monastery">monasteries</a>. Celtic art also produced a great deal of intricate and beautiful metalwork, examples of which have been preserved by their distinctive burial rites.<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In some regards the Atlantic Celts were conservative: for example, they still used <a href="/wiki/Chariot" title="Chariot">chariots</a> in combat long after they had been reduced to ceremonial roles by the Greeks and Romans. However, despite being outdated, Celtic <a href="/wiki/Chariot_tactics" title="Chariot tactics">chariot tactics</a> were able to repel the <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar%27s_invasions_of_Britain" title="Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain">invasions of Britain attempted by Julius Caesar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Diodorus Siculus: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The Gauls are tall of body with rippling muscles and white of skin and their hair is blond, and not only naturally so for they also make it their practice by artificial means to increase the distinguishing colour which nature has given it. For they are always washing their hair in <a href="/wiki/Limewater" class="mw-redirect" title="Limewater">limewater</a> and they pull it back from the forehead to the nape of the neck, with the result that their appearance is like that of <a href="/wiki/Satyr" title="Satyr">Satyrs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Faun" title="Faun">Pans</a> since the treatment of their hair makes it so heavy and coarse that it differs in no respect from the mane of horses. Some of them shave the beard but others let it grow a little; and the nobles shave their cheeks but they let the moustache grow until it covers the mouth.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clothing">Clothing</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:348px;max-width:348px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:172px;max-width:172px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:0877_Keltische_Frau_im_3._Jh._v._Chr.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/0877_Keltische_Frau_im_3._Jh._v._Chr.JPG/170px-0877_Keltische_Frau_im_3._Jh._v._Chr.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/0877_Keltische_Frau_im_3._Jh._v._Chr.JPG/255px-0877_Keltische_Frau_im_3._Jh._v._Chr.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/0877_Keltische_Frau_im_3._Jh._v._Chr.JPG/340px-0877_Keltische_Frau_im_3._Jh._v._Chr.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="4928" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:172px;max-width:172px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:0910_Tracht_der_Kelten_in_S%C3%BCdpolen_im_3._Jh._v._Chr.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/0910_Tracht_der_Kelten_in_S%C3%BCdpolen_im_3._Jh._v._Chr.JPG/170px-0910_Tracht_der_Kelten_in_S%C3%BCdpolen_im_3._Jh._v._Chr.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/0910_Tracht_der_Kelten_in_S%C3%BCdpolen_im_3._Jh._v._Chr.JPG/255px-0910_Tracht_der_Kelten_in_S%C3%BCdpolen_im_3._Jh._v._Chr.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/0910_Tracht_der_Kelten_in_S%C3%BCdpolen_im_3._Jh._v._Chr.JPG/340px-0910_Tracht_der_Kelten_in_S%C3%BCdpolen_im_3._Jh._v._Chr.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="4928" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Celtic costumes in <a href="/wiki/Przeworsk_culture" title="Przeworsk culture">Przeworsk culture</a>, third century BC, <a href="/wiki/La_T%C3%A8ne_culture" title="La Tène culture">La Tène period</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_Museum_of_Krak%C3%B3w" title="Archaeological Museum of Kraków">Archaeological Museum of Kraków</a></div></div></div></div><p> During the later Iron Age the Gauls generally wore long-sleeved shirts or <a href="/wiki/Tunic" title="Tunic">tunics</a> and long trousers (called <i><a href="/wiki/Braccae" title="Braccae">braccae</a></i> by the Romans).<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Clothes were made of <a href="/wiki/Wool" title="Wool">wool</a> or <a href="/wiki/Linen" title="Linen">linen</a>, with some silk being used by the rich. <a href="/wiki/Cloak" title="Cloak">Cloaks</a> were worn in the winter. <a href="/wiki/Brooch" title="Brooch">Brooches</a><sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Armlet" class="mw-redirect" title="Armlet">armlets</a> were used, but the most famous item of jewellery was the <a href="/wiki/Torc" title="Torc">torc</a>, a neck collar of metal, sometimes gold. The horned <a href="/wiki/Waterloo_Helmet" title="Waterloo Helmet">Waterloo Helmet</a> in the <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a>, which long set the standard for modern images of Celtic warriors, is in fact a unique survival, and may have been a piece for ceremonial rather than military wear.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div style="clear:left;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trade_and_coinage">Trade and coinage</h3></div> <p>Archaeological evidence suggests that the pre-Roman Celtic societies were linked to the network of overland <a href="/wiki/Trade_route" title="Trade route">trade routes</a> that spanned Eurasia. Archaeologists have discovered large prehistoric trackways crossing bogs in Ireland and Germany. Due to their substantial nature, these are believed to have been created for wheeled transport as part of an extensive roadway system that facilitated trade.<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The territory held by the Celts contained <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a>, lead, iron, silver and gold.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Celtic smiths and metalworkers created weapons and jewellery for <a href="/wiki/International_trade" title="International trade">international trade</a>, particularly with the Romans.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The myth that the Celtic <a href="/wiki/Monetary_system" title="Monetary system">monetary system</a> consisted of wholly <a href="/wiki/Barter" title="Barter">barter</a> is a common one, but is in part false. The monetary system was complex and is still not understood (much like the late Roman coinages), and due to the absence of large numbers of coin items, it is assumed that "proto-money" was used. This included bronze items made from the early La Tène period and onwards, which were often in the shape of <a href="/wiki/Axe" title="Axe">axeheads</a>, rings, or <a href="/wiki/Bell_(instrument)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bell (instrument)">bells</a>. Due to the large number of these present in some burials, it is thought they had a relatively high <a href="/wiki/Value_(economics)" title="Value (economics)">monetary value</a>, and could be used for "day to day" purchases. Low-value coinages of <a href="/wiki/Potin" title="Potin">potin</a>, a bronze alloy with high tin content, were minted in most Celtic areas of the continent and in South-East Britain prior to the Roman conquest of these lands. Higher-value coinages, suitable for use in trade, were minted in gold, silver, and high-quality bronze. <a href="/wiki/Gold_coin" title="Gold coin">Gold coinage</a> was much more common than <a href="/wiki/Silver_coin" title="Silver coin">silver coinage</a>, despite being worth substantially more, as while there were around 100 mines in Southern Britain and Central France, silver was more rarely mined. This was due partly to the relative sparsity of mines and the amount of effort needed for extraction compared to the profit gained. As the Roman civilisation grew in importance and expanded its trade with the Celtic world, silver and bronze coinage became more common. This coincided with a major increase in gold production in Celtic areas to meet the Roman demand, due to the high value Romans put on the metal. The large number of gold mines in France is thought to be a major reason why Caesar invaded.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gender_and_sexual_norms">Gender and sexual norms</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Celtic.warriors.garments-replica.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Celtic.warriors.garments-replica.jpg/170px-Celtic.warriors.garments-replica.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="394" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Celtic.warriors.garments-replica.jpg/255px-Celtic.warriors.garments-replica.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Celtic.warriors.garments-replica.jpg/340px-Celtic.warriors.garments-replica.jpg 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="1187" /></a><figcaption>Reconstruction of the dress and equipment of an Iron Age Celtic warrior from <a href="/wiki/Biebertal" title="Biebertal">Biebertal</a>, Germany</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_women" title="Ancient Celtic women">Ancient Celtic women</a></div> <p>Very few reliable sources exist regarding Celtic views on <a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">gender roles</a>, though some archaeological evidence suggests their views may have differed from those of the Greco-Roman world, which tended to be less <a href="/wiki/Egalitarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Egalitarian">egalitarian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some Iron Age burials in northeastern Gaul suggest women may have had roles in warfare during the earlier <i>La Tène</i> period, but the evidence is far from conclusive.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Celtic individuals buried with both female jewellery and weaponry have been found, such as the <a href="/wiki/Vix_Grave" title="Vix Grave">Vix Grave</a> in northeastern Gaul, and there are questions about the gender of some individuals buried with weaponry. However, it has been suggested that the weapons indicate high social rank rather than masculinity.<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most written accounts of the Ancient Celts are from the Romans and Greeks, though it is not clear how accurate these are. Roman historians <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a> mentioned Celtic women inciting, participating in, and leading battles.<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a> reports that Celtic women acted as ambassadors to avoid a war among Celtic chiefdoms in the <a href="/wiki/Po_valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Po valley">Po valley</a> during the 4th century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Ellis_161-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ellis-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Posidonius' anthropological comments on the Celts had common themes, primarily <a href="/wiki/Primitivism" title="Primitivism">primitivism</a>, extreme ferocity, cruel sacrificial practices, and the strength and courage of their women.<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a> suggests there was great <a href="/wiki/Sexual_norm" title="Sexual norm">sexual freedom</a> among women in Celtic Britain:<sup id="cite_ref-Dio_Cassius_163-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dio_Cassius-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>... a very witty remark is reported to have been made by the wife of Argentocoxus, a <a href="/wiki/Caledonians" title="Caledonians">Caledonian</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Livia" title="Livia">Julia Augusta</a>. When the empress was jesting with her, after the treaty, about the free intercourse of her sex with men in Britain, she replied: "We fulfill the demands of nature in a much better way than do you Roman women; for we consort openly with the best men, whereas you let yourselves be debauched in secret by the vilest". Such was the retort of the British woman.</p></blockquote> <p>Barry Cunliffe writes that such references are "likely to be ill-observed" and meant to portray the Celts as outlandish "barbarians".<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian Lisa Bitel argues the descriptions of Celtic women warriors are not credible. She says some Roman and Greek writers wanted to show that the barbarian Celts lived in "an upside-down world ... and a standard ingredient in such a world was the manly warrior woman".<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Greek philosopher <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> wrote in his <i><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a></i> that the <a href="/wiki/Celtic_settlement_of_Southeast_Europe" title="Celtic settlement of Southeast Europe">Celts of southeastern Europe</a> approved of male homosexuality. Greek historian <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a> wrote in his <i><a href="/wiki/Bibliotheca_historica" title="Bibliotheca historica">Bibliotheca historica</a></i> that although Gaulish women were beautiful, the men had "little to do with them" and it was a custom for men to sleep on animal skins with two younger males. He further claimed that "the young men will offer themselves to strangers and are insulted if the offer is refused". His claim was later repeated by Greco-Roman writers <a href="/wiki/Athenaeus" title="Athenaeus">Athenaeus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> H. David Rankin, in <i>Celts and the Classical World</i>, suggests some of these claims refer to bonding rituals in warrior groups, which required abstinence from women at certain times,<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and says it probably reflects "the warlike character of early contacts between the Celts and the Greeks".<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under <a href="/wiki/Early_Irish_law" title="Early Irish law">Brehon Law</a>, which was written down in <a href="/wiki/Early_Medieval_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Medieval Ireland">early Medieval Ireland</a> after conversion to Christianity, a woman had the right to divorce her husband and gain his property if he was unable to perform his marital duties due to impotence, obesity, homosexual inclination or preference for other women.<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cáin_Lánamna_(Couples_Law)_170-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cáin_Lánamna_(Couples_Law)-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag failed verification of its source citation(s). (January 2022)">failed verification</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Celtic_art">Celtic art</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Scuto_Battersea_BritMu252a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Scuto_Battersea_BritMu252a.jpg/220px-Scuto_Battersea_BritMu252a.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="426" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Scuto_Battersea_BritMu252a.jpg/330px-Scuto_Battersea_BritMu252a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Scuto_Battersea_BritMu252a.jpg/440px-Scuto_Battersea_BritMu252a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1254" data-file-height="2431" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Battersea_Shield" title="Battersea Shield">Battersea Shield</a>, a ceremonial bronze shield dated 3rd–1st century BC, is an example of La Tène <a href="/wiki/Celtic_art" title="Celtic art">Celtic art</a> from Britain</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Celtic_art" title="Celtic art">Celtic art</a></div> <p>Celtic art is generally used by art historians to refer to art of the La Tène period across Europe, while the <a href="/wiki/Early_Medieval" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Medieval">Early Medieval</a> art of Britain and Ireland, that is what "Celtic art" evokes for much of the general public, is called <a href="/wiki/Insular_art" title="Insular art">Insular art</a> in art history. Both styles absorbed considerable influences from non-Celtic sources, but retained a preference for geometrical decoration over figurative subjects, which are often extremely stylised when they do appear; narrative scenes only appear under outside influence. Energetic circular forms, <a href="/wiki/Triskele" class="mw-redirect" title="Triskele">triskeles</a> and spirals are characteristic. Much of the surviving material is in precious metal, which no doubt gives a very unrepresentative picture, but apart from <a href="/wiki/Pictish_stones" class="mw-redirect" title="Pictish stones">Pictish stones</a> and the Insular <a href="/wiki/High_crosses" class="mw-redirect" title="High crosses">high crosses</a>, large <a href="/wiki/Monumental_sculpture" title="Monumental sculpture">monumental sculpture</a>, even with decorative carving, is very rare; possibly it was originally common in wood. Celts were also able to create developed musical instruments such as the carnyces, these famous war trumpets used before the battle to frighten the enemy, as the best preserved found in <a href="/wiki/Tintignac" title="Tintignac">Tintignac</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a>) in 2004 and which were decorated with a boar head or a snake head.<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Interlace_(art)" title="Interlace (art)">interlace</a> patterns that are often regarded as typical of "Celtic art" were characteristic of the whole of the British Isles, a style referred to as <a href="/wiki/Insular_art" title="Insular art">Insular art</a>, or Hiberno-Saxon art. This artistic style incorporated elements of La Tène, Late Roman, and, most importantly, <a href="/wiki/Germanic_animal_style" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic animal style">animal Style II</a> of Germanic <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period_art" title="Migration Period art">Migration Period art</a>. The style was taken up with great skill and enthusiasm by Celtic artists in metalwork and <a href="/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript" title="Illuminated manuscript">illuminated manuscripts</a>. Equally, the forms used for the finest Insular art were all adopted from the Roman world: <a href="/wiki/Gospel_book" class="mw-redirect" title="Gospel book">Gospel books</a> like the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Kells" title="Book of Kells">Book of Kells</a> and <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Lindisfarne" class="mw-redirect" title="Book of Lindisfarne">Book of Lindisfarne</a>, chalices like the <a href="/wiki/Ardagh_Chalice" class="mw-redirect" title="Ardagh Chalice">Ardagh Chalice</a> and <a href="/wiki/Derrynaflan_Chalice" title="Derrynaflan Chalice">Derrynaflan Chalice</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Celtic_brooch" title="Celtic brooch">penannular brooches</a> like the <a href="/wiki/Tara_Brooch" title="Tara Brooch">Tara Brooch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roscrea_Brooch" title="Roscrea Brooch">Roscrea Brooch</a>. These works are from the period of peak achievement of Insular art, which lasted from the 7th to the 9th centuries, before the <a href="/wiki/Viking" class="mw-redirect" title="Viking">Viking</a> attacks sharply set back cultural life.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In contrast the less well known but often spectacular art of the richest earlier Continental Celts, before they were conquered by the Romans, often adopted elements of Roman, Greek and other "foreign" styles (and possibly used imported craftsmen) to decorate objects that were distinctively Celtic. After the Roman conquests, some Celtic elements remained in popular art, especially <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_pottery" title="Ancient Roman pottery">Ancient Roman pottery</a>, of which Gaul was actually the largest producer, mostly in Italian styles, but also producing work in local taste, including <a href="/wiki/Figurine" title="Figurine">figurines</a> of deities and wares painted with animals and other subjects in highly formalised styles. <a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Roman Britain</a> also took more interest in <a href="/wiki/Vitreous_enamel" title="Vitreous enamel">enamel</a> than most of the Empire, and its development of <a href="/wiki/Champlev%C3%A9" title="Champlevé">champlevé</a> technique was probably important to the later <a href="/wiki/Medieval_art" title="Medieval art">Medieval art</a> of the whole of Europe, of which the energy and freedom of Insular decoration was an important element. Rising nationalism brought <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Revival" title="Celtic Revival">Celtic revivals</a> from the 19th century.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gallic_calendar">Gallic calendar</h3></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Coligny_calendar" title="Coligny calendar">Coligny calendar</a>, which was found in 1897 in <a href="/wiki/Coligny,_Ain" title="Coligny, Ain">Coligny</a>, Ain, was engraved on a <a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a> tablet, preserved in 73 fragments, that originally was 1.48 metres (4 feet 10 inches) wide and 0.9 metres (2 feet 11 inches) high (Lambert p. 111). Based on the style of lettering and the accompanying objects, it probably dates to the end of the 2nd century.<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is written in Latin inscriptional capitals, and is in <a href="/wiki/Gaulish" title="Gaulish">Gaulish</a>. The restored tablet contains 16 vertical columns, with 62 months distributed over 5 years.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>French archaeologist J. Monard speculated that it was recorded by <a href="/wiki/Druid" title="Druid">druids</a> wishing to preserve their tradition of timekeeping in a time when the <a href="/wiki/Julian_calendar" title="Julian calendar">Julian calendar</a> was imposed throughout the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>. However, the general form of the calendar suggests the public peg calendars (or <i><a href="/wiki/Almanac#Hemerologies_and_parapegmata" title="Almanac">parapegmata</a></i>) found throughout the Greek and Roman world.<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Warfare_and_weapons">Warfare and weapons</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Celtic_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic warfare">Celtic warfare</a> and <a href="/wiki/Celtic_sword" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic sword">Celtic sword</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Celtic_Warrior_Naked_in_The_Braganza_Brooch.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Celtic_Warrior_Naked_in_The_Braganza_Brooch.jpg/220px-Celtic_Warrior_Naked_in_The_Braganza_Brooch.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="341" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Celtic_Warrior_Naked_in_The_Braganza_Brooch.jpg/330px-Celtic_Warrior_Naked_in_The_Braganza_Brooch.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Celtic_Warrior_Naked_in_The_Braganza_Brooch.jpg/440px-Celtic_Warrior_Naked_in_The_Braganza_Brooch.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="1164" /></a><figcaption>Celtic Warrior Represented in the <a href="/wiki/Braganza_Brooch" title="Braganza Brooch">Braganza Brooch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_art" title="Hellenistic art">Hellenistic art</a>, 250–200 BC</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_warfare" title="Prehistoric warfare">Tribal warfare</a> appears to have been a regular feature of Celtic societies. While epic literature depicts this as more of a sport focused on raids and hunting rather than organised territorial conquest, the historical record is more of tribes using warfare to exert political control and harass rivals, for <a href="/wiki/Comparative_advantage" title="Comparative advantage">economic advantage</a>, and in some instances to conquer territory.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Celts were described by classical writers such as <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)" title="Pausanias (geographer)">Pausanias</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Florus" title="Florus">Florus</a> as fighting like "wild beasts", and as hordes. <a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius</a> said that their:<sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>manner of fighting, being in large measure that of wild beasts and frenzied, was an erratic procedure, quite lacking in <a href="/wiki/Military_science" title="Military science">military science</a>. Thus, at one moment they would raise their swords aloft and smite after the manner of <a href="/wiki/Wild_boar" title="Wild boar">wild boars</a>, throwing the whole weight of their bodies into the blow like hewers of wood or men digging with mattocks, and again they would deliver crosswise blows aimed at no target, as if they intended to cut to pieces the entire bodies of their adversaries, protective armour and all.</p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a> (2.33) indicates that the principal Celtic weapon was a <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_sword" title="Iron Age sword">long bladed sword</a> which was used for hacking edgewise rather than stabbing. Celtic warriors are described by Polybius and Plutarch as frequently having to cease fighting in order to straighten their sword blades. This claim has been questioned by some archaeologists, who note that <a href="/wiki/Noric_steel" title="Noric steel">Noric steel</a>, steel produced in Celtic <a href="/wiki/Noricum" title="Noricum">Noricum</a>, was famous in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> period and was used to equip the <a href="/wiki/Roman_military" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman military">Roman military</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Radomir Pleiner, in <i>The Celtic Sword</i> (1993) argues that "the metallographic evidence shows that Polybius was right up to a point", as around one third of surviving swords from the period might well have behaved as he describes.<sup id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to these long bladed slashing swords, spears and specialized <a href="/wiki/Javelin" title="Javelin">javelins</a> were also used.<sup id="cite_ref-179" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Polybius also asserts that certain of the Celts fought naked: "The appearance of these naked warriors was a terrifying spectacle, for they were all men of splendid physique and in the prime of life."<sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Livy, this was also true of the Celts of Asia Minor.<sup id="cite_ref-181" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div style="clear:left;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Head_hunting">Head hunting</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stone_sculpture_of_celtic_hero.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Stone_sculpture_of_celtic_hero.jpg/220px-Stone_sculpture_of_celtic_hero.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="274" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Stone_sculpture_of_celtic_hero.jpg/330px-Stone_sculpture_of_celtic_hero.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Stone_sculpture_of_celtic_hero.jpg/440px-Stone_sculpture_of_celtic_hero.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3744" data-file-height="4663" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/M%C5%A1eck%C3%A9_%C5%BDehrovice_Head" title="Mšecké Žehrovice Head">Stone head from Mšecké Žehrovice</a>, Czech Republic, wearing a <a href="/wiki/Torc" title="Torc">torc</a>, late La Tène culture, 150-50 BC</figcaption></figure> <p>Celts had a reputation as <a href="/wiki/Headhunting" title="Headhunting">head hunters</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Koch_head_cult_182-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koch_head_cult-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Paul_Jacobsthal" title="Paul Jacobsthal">Paul Jacobsthal</a> says: "Amongst the Celts the <a href="/wiki/Human_head" title="Human head">human head</a> was venerated above all else, since the head was to the Celt the soul, centre of the emotions as well as of life itself, a symbol of divinity and of the powers of the other-world."<sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Writing in the first century BC, Greek historians <a href="/wiki/Posidonius" title="Posidonius">Posidonius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a> said Celtic warriors cut off the heads of enemies slain in battle, hung them from the necks of their horses, then nailed them up outside their homes.<sup id="cite_ref-Koch_head_cult_182-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koch_head_cult-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a> wrote in the same century that Celts <a href="/wiki/Embalming" title="Embalming">embalmed</a> the heads of their most esteemed enemies in cedar oil and put them on display.<sup id="cite_ref-Koch_head_cult_182-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koch_head_cult-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roman historian <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a> wrote that the <a href="/wiki/Boii" title="Boii">Boii</a> beheaded a defeated Roman general after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Silva_Litana" title="Battle of Silva Litana">Battle of Silva Litana</a>, covered his skull in gold, and used it as a ritual cup.<sup id="cite_ref-Koch_head_cult_182-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koch_head_cult-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Archaeologists have found evidence that heads were embalmed and displayed by the southern Gauls.<sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-185" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In another example, at the southern Gaulish site of <a href="/wiki/Entremont_(oppidum)" title="Entremont (oppidum)">Entremont</a>, there stood a pillar carved with skulls, within which were niches where human skulls were kept, nailed into position.<sup id="cite_ref-186" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Roquepertuse" title="Roquepertuse">Roquepertuse</a> nearby has similar carved heads and skull niches. Many lone carved heads have been found in Celtic regions, some with two or three faces.<sup id="cite_ref-Davidson_heads_187-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davidson_heads-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examples include the <a href="/wiki/M%C5%A1eck%C3%A9_%C5%BDehrovice_Head" title="Mšecké Žehrovice Head">Mšecké Žehrovice Head</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Corleck_Head" title="Corleck Head">Corleck Head</a>. </p><p>Severed heads are a common motif in Insular Celtic myths, and there are many tales in which 'living heads' preside over feasts or speak prophecies.<sup id="cite_ref-Koch_head_cult_182-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koch_head_cult-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Davidson_heads_187-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davidson_heads-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Beheading_game" title="Beheading game">beheading game</a> is a motif in Irish myth and Arthurian legend, most famously in the tale <i><a href="/wiki/Sir_Gawain_and_the_Green_Knight" title="Sir Gawain and the Green Knight">Sir Gawain and the Green Knight</a></i>, where the <a href="/wiki/Green_Knight" title="Green Knight">Green Knight</a> picks up his own severed head after <a href="/wiki/Gawain" title="Gawain">Gawain</a> has struck it off. There are also many legends in Celtic regions of saints who <a href="/wiki/Cephalophore" title="Cephalophore">carry their own severed heads</a>. In Irish myth, the severed heads of warriors are called the <a href="/wiki/Mast_(botany)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mast (botany)">mast</a> or nuts of the goddess <a href="/wiki/Macha" title="Macha">Macha</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-188" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religion_and_mythology">Religion and mythology</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gundestrupkedlen-_00054_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Gundestrupkedlen-_00054_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Gundestrupkedlen-_00054_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Gundestrupkedlen-_00054_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Gundestrupkedlen-_00054_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Gundestrupkedlen-_00054_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Gundestrupkedlen-_00054_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2768" data-file-height="1884" /></a><figcaption>The Celtic god <a href="/wiki/Cernunnos" title="Cernunnos">Cernunnos</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Gundestrup_cauldron" title="Gundestrup cauldron">Gundestrup cauldron</a>.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_Celtic_religion">Ancient Celtic religion</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Ancient Celtic religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Celtic_mythology" title="Celtic mythology">Celtic mythology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Proto-Celtic_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Celtic religion">Proto-Celtic religion</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Keltenfuerst_Glauberg.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Keltenfuerst_Glauberg.jpg/220px-Keltenfuerst_Glauberg.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Keltenfuerst_Glauberg.jpg/330px-Keltenfuerst_Glauberg.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Keltenfuerst_Glauberg.jpg/440px-Keltenfuerst_Glauberg.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>The Celtic "Prince of <a href="/wiki/Glauberg" title="Glauberg">Glauberg</a>", Germany, with a <a href="/wiki/Leaf_crown" class="mw-redirect" title="Leaf crown">leaf crown</a>, perhaps indicating a priest, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 500 BC</span>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Like other European Iron Age societies, the Celts practised a <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">polytheistic religion</a> and believed in an <a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">afterlife</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cunliffe_religion_189-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cunliffe_religion-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-190" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources"><span title="The material near this tag relies on an unreliable source. Undergrad papers are categorically unreliable. (October 2024)">unreliable source</span></a></i>]</sup> Celtic religion varied by region and over time, but had "broad structural similarities",<sup id="cite_ref-Cunliffe_religion_189-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cunliffe_religion-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and there was "a basic religious homogeneity" among the Celtic peoples.<sup id="cite_ref-191" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because the ancient Celts did not have writing, evidence about their religion is gleaned from archaeology, Greco-Roman accounts, and literature from the early Christian period.<sup id="cite_ref-Green,_The_Celtic_World_192-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Green,_The_Celtic_World-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The names of over two hundred <a href="/wiki/Celtic_deities" title="Celtic deities">Celtic deities</a> have survived (see <a href="/wiki/List_of_Celtic_deities" title="List of Celtic deities">list of Celtic deities</a>), although it is likely that many of these were alternative names, regional names or titles for the same deity.<sup id="cite_ref-Cunliffe_religion_189-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cunliffe_religion-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some deities were venerated only in one region, but others were more widely known.<sup id="cite_ref-Cunliffe_religion_189-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cunliffe_religion-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Miranda_Aldhouse-Green" title="Miranda Aldhouse-Green">Miranda Aldhouse-Green</a>, the Celts were also <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Animism" title="Celtic Animism">animists</a>, believing that every part of the natural world had a spirit.<sup id="cite_ref-Green,_The_Celtic_World_192-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Green,_The_Celtic_World-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Celts seem to have had a father god, who was often a god of the tribe and of the dead (<a href="/wiki/Toutatis" title="Toutatis">Toutatis</a> probably being one name for him); and a mother goddess who was associated with the land, earth and fertility<sup id="cite_ref-Koch_religion_193-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koch_religion-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<a href="/wiki/Dea_Matrona" title="Dea Matrona">Dea Matrona</a> probably being one name for her). The mother goddess could also take the form of a war goddess as <a href="/wiki/Tutelary_deity" title="Tutelary deity">protectress</a> of her tribe and its land.<sup id="cite_ref-Koch_religion_193-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koch_religion-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There also seems to have been a male celestial god—identified with <a href="/wiki/Taranis" title="Taranis">Taranis</a>—associated with thunder, the wheel, and the bull.<sup id="cite_ref-Koch_religion_193-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koch_religion-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were gods of skill and craft, such as the pan-regional god <a href="/wiki/Lugus" title="Lugus">Lugus</a>, and the smith god <a href="/wiki/Gobannos" class="mw-redirect" title="Gobannos">Gobannos</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Koch_religion_193-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koch_religion-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Celtic healing deities were often associated with <a href="/wiki/Sacred_spring" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacred spring">sacred springs</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Koch_religion_193-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koch_religion-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as <a href="/wiki/Sirona_(goddess)" title="Sirona (goddess)">Sirona</a> and <a href="/wiki/Borvo" title="Borvo">Borvo</a>. Other pan-regional deities include the horned god <a href="/wiki/Cernunnos" title="Cernunnos">Cernunnos</a>, the horse and fertility goddess <a href="/wiki/Epona" title="Epona">Epona</a>, the divine son <a href="/wiki/Maponos" title="Maponos">Maponos</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Belenos" class="mw-redirect" title="Belenos">Belenos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ogmios" title="Ogmios">Ogmios</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sucellos" class="mw-redirect" title="Sucellos">Sucellos</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cunliffe_religion_189-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cunliffe_religion-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Green,_The_Celtic_World_192-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Green,_The_Celtic_World-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Caesar says the Gauls believed they all descended from a god of the dead and underworld.<sup id="cite_ref-Cunliffe_religion_189-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cunliffe_religion-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Triplicity" title="Triplicity">Triplicity</a> is a common theme in Celtic cosmology, and a number of <a href="/wiki/Triple_deity" title="Triple deity">deities were seen as threefold</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Sjoestedt_194-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sjoestedt-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for example <a href="/wiki/Matres_and_Matronae" title="Matres and Matronae">the Three Mothers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Inse_Jones_1995_195-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Inse_Jones_1995-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Celtic religious ceremonies were overseen by priests known as <a href="/wiki/Druid" title="Druid">druids</a>, who also served as judges, teachers, and lore-keepers. Other classes of druids performed sacrifices for the perceived benefit of the community.<sup id="cite_ref-Sjoestedt5_196-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sjoestedt5-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is evidence that ancient Celtic peoples <a href="/wiki/Animal_sacrifice" title="Animal sacrifice">sacrificed animals</a>, almost always <a href="/wiki/Livestock" title="Livestock">livestock</a> or <a href="/wiki/Working_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Working animals">working animals</a>. It appears some were offered wholly to the gods (by burying or burning), while some were shared between gods and humans (part eaten and part offered).<sup id="cite_ref-Green94-96_197-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Green94-96-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is also some evidence that ancient Celts <a href="/wiki/Human_sacrifice" title="Human sacrifice">sacrificed humans</a>, and some Greco-Roman sources claim the Gauls sacrificed criminals by <a href="/wiki/Death_by_burning" title="Death by burning">burning them</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Wicker_man" title="Wicker man">wicker man</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-koch687-690_198-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-koch687-690-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Romans said the Celts held ceremonies in <a href="/wiki/Sacred_grove" title="Sacred grove">sacred groves</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Sacred_natural_site" title="Sacred natural site">natural</a> <a href="/wiki/Shrine" title="Shrine">shrines</a>, called <a href="/wiki/Nemeton" title="Nemeton">nemetons</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cunliffe_religion_189-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cunliffe_religion-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some Celtic peoples built temples or ritual enclosures of varying shapes (such as the <a href="/wiki/Romano-Celtic_temple" title="Romano-Celtic temple">Romano-Celtic temple</a> and <a href="/wiki/Viereckschanze" title="Viereckschanze">viereckschanze</a>), though they also maintained shrines at natural sites.<sup id="cite_ref-Cunliffe_religion_189-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cunliffe_religion-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Celtic peoples often made <a href="/wiki/Votive_offerings" class="mw-redirect" title="Votive offerings">votive offerings</a>: treasured items deposited in water and wetlands, or in ritual shafts and wells, often in the same place over generations.<sup id="cite_ref-Cunliffe_religion_189-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cunliffe_religion-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern <a href="/wiki/Clootie_well" title="Clootie well">clootie wells</a> might be a continuation of this.<sup id="cite_ref-199" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Insular_Celtic_mythology">Insular Celtic mythology</h3></div> <p>Most surviving <a href="/wiki/Celtic_mythology" title="Celtic mythology">Celtic mythology</a> belongs to the Insular Celtic peoples: <a href="/wiki/Irish_mythology" title="Irish mythology">Irish mythology</a> has the largest written body of myths, followed by <a href="/wiki/Welsh_mythology" title="Welsh mythology">Welsh mythology</a>. These were written down in the early Middle Ages, mainly by Christian scribes. </p><p>The supernatural race called the <a href="/wiki/Tuatha_D%C3%A9_Danann" title="Tuatha Dé Danann">Tuatha Dé Danann</a> are believed to represent the main Celtic gods of Ireland. Their traditional rivals are the <a href="/wiki/Fomorians" title="Fomorians">Fomóire</a>, whom they defeat in the <i><a href="/wiki/Cath_Maige_Tuired" title="Cath Maige Tuired">Battle of Mag Tuired</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-200" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Barry_Cunliffe" title="Barry Cunliffe">Barry Cunliffe</a> says the underlying structure in Irish myth was a dualism between the male tribal god and the female goddess of the land.<sup id="cite_ref-Cunliffe_religion_189-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cunliffe_religion-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/The_Dagda" title="The Dagda">The Dagda</a> seems to have been the chief god and <a href="/wiki/The_Morr%C3%ADgan" title="The Morrígan">the Morrígan</a> his consort, each of whom had other names.<sup id="cite_ref-Cunliffe_religion_189-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cunliffe_religion-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One common motif is the <a href="/wiki/Sovereignty_goddess" title="Sovereignty goddess">sovereignty goddess</a>, who represents the land and bestows sovereignty on a king by marrying him. The goddess <a href="/wiki/Brigid" title="Brigid">Brigid</a> was linked with nature as well as poetry, healing and smithing.<sup id="cite_ref-Sjoestedt_194-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sjoestedt-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some figures in medieval Insular Celtic myth have ancient continental parallels: Irish <a href="/wiki/Lugh" title="Lugh">Lugh</a> and Welsh <a href="/wiki/Lleu" class="mw-redirect" title="Lleu">Lleu</a> are cognate with Lugus, <a href="/wiki/Goibniu" title="Goibniu">Goibniu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gofannon" title="Gofannon">Gofannon</a> with Gobannos, <a href="/wiki/Aengus" title="Aengus">Macán</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mabon_ap_Modron" title="Mabon ap Modron">Mabon</a> with Maponos, while <a href="/wiki/Macha_(Irish_mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Macha (Irish mythology)">Macha</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rhiannon" title="Rhiannon">Rhiannon</a> may be counterparts of Epona.<sup id="cite_ref-Sjoestedt3_201-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sjoestedt3-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Insular Celtic myth, the <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Otherworld" title="Celtic Otherworld">Otherworld</a> is a parallel realm where the gods dwell. Some mythical heroes visit it by entering ancient burial mounds or caves, by going under water or across the western sea, or after being offered a <a href="/wiki/Silver_Branch" title="Silver Branch">silver apple branch</a> by an Otherworld resident.<sup id="cite_ref-202" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Irish myth says that the spirits of the dead travel to the house of <a href="/wiki/Donn" title="Donn">Donn</a> (<i>Tech Duinn</i>), a legendary ancestor; this echoes Caesar's comment that the Gauls believed they all descended from a god of the dead and underworld.<sup id="cite_ref-Cunliffe_religion_189-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cunliffe_religion-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Insular Celtic peoples celebrated four seasonal festivals, known to the Gaels as <a href="/wiki/Beltaine" class="mw-redirect" title="Beltaine">Beltaine</a> (1 May), <a href="/wiki/Lughnasa" class="mw-redirect" title="Lughnasa">Lughnasa</a> (1 August), <a href="/wiki/Samhain" title="Samhain">Samhain</a> (1 November) and <a href="/wiki/Imbolc" title="Imbolc">Imbolc</a> (1 February).<sup id="cite_ref-Cunliffe_religion_189-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cunliffe_religion-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roman_influence">Roman influence</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_culture" title="Gallo-Roman culture">Gallo-Roman culture</a></div> <p>The Roman invasion of Gaul brought a great deal of Celtic peoples into the Roman Empire. Roman culture had a profound effect on the Celtic tribes which came under the empire's control. Roman influence led to many changes in Celtic religion, the most noticeable of which was the weakening of the druid class, especially religiously; the druids were to eventually disappear altogether. Romano-Celtic deities also began to appear: these deities often had both Roman and Celtic attributes, combined the names of Roman and Celtic deities, or included couples with one Roman and one Celtic deity. Other changes included the adaptation of the <a href="/wiki/Jupiter_Column" title="Jupiter Column">Jupiter Column</a>, a sacred column set up in many Celtic regions of the empire, primarily in northern and eastern Gaul. Another major change in religious practice was the use of stone monuments to represent gods and goddesses. The Celts had probably only created wooden <a href="/wiki/Cult_image" title="Cult image">cult images</a> (including monuments carved into trees, which were known as sacred poles) before the Roman conquest.<sup id="cite_ref-Inse_Jones_1995_195-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Inse_Jones_1995-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Celtic_Christianity">Celtic Christianity</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Christianity" title="Celtic Christianity">Celtic Christianity</a></div> <p>While the regions under Roman rule adopted Christianity along with the rest of the Roman empire, unconquered areas of Ireland and Scotland began to move from <a href="/wiki/Celtic_polytheism" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic polytheism">Celtic polytheism</a> to Christianity in the 5th century. Ireland was converted by missionaries from Britain, such as <a href="/wiki/Saint_Patrick" title="Saint Patrick">Saint Patrick</a>. Later missionaries from Ireland were a major source of <a href="/wiki/Missionary" title="Missionary">missionary work</a> in Scotland, Anglo-Saxon parts of Britain, and central Europe (see <a href="/wiki/Hiberno-Scottish_mission" title="Hiberno-Scottish mission">Hiberno-Scottish mission</a>). <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Christianity" title="Celtic Christianity">Celtic Christianity</a>, the forms of Christianity that took hold in Britain and Ireland at this time, had for some centuries only limited and intermittent contact with Rome and continental Christianity, as well as some contacts with <a href="/wiki/Coptic_Orthodox_Church" title="Coptic Orthodox Church">Coptic Christianity</a>. Some elements of Celtic Christianity developed, or retained, features that made them distinct from the rest of Western Christianity, most famously their conservative method of calculating the <a href="/wiki/Easter_controversy" title="Easter controversy">date of Easter</a>. In 664, the <a href="/wiki/Synod_of_Whitby" title="Synod of Whitby">Synod of Whitby</a> began to resolve these differences, mostly by adopting the current Roman practices, which the <a href="/wiki/Gregorian_Mission" class="mw-redirect" title="Gregorian Mission">Gregorian Mission</a> from Rome had introduced to <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Genetics">Genetics</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bell_Beaker_culture#Genetics" title="Bell Beaker culture">Bell Beaker culture § Genetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hallstatt_culture#Genetics" title="Hallstatt culture">Hallstatt culture § Genetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/La_T%C3%A8ne_culture#Genetics" title="La Tène culture">La Tène culture § Genetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gauls#Genetics" title="Gauls">Gauls § Genetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Britons#Genetics" title="Celtic Britons">Celtic Britons § Genetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Celtiberians#Genetics" title="Celtiberians">Celtiberians § Genetics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Italic_peoples#Genetics" title="Italic peoples">Italic peoples § Genetics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Geographical_distribution_of_haplogroup_frequency_of_hgR1b1b2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Geographical_distribution_of_haplogroup_frequency_of_hgR1b1b2.png/240px-Geographical_distribution_of_haplogroup_frequency_of_hgR1b1b2.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Geographical_distribution_of_haplogroup_frequency_of_hgR1b1b2.png/360px-Geographical_distribution_of_haplogroup_frequency_of_hgR1b1b2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Geographical_distribution_of_haplogroup_frequency_of_hgR1b1b2.png/480px-Geographical_distribution_of_haplogroup_frequency_of_hgR1b1b2.png 2x" data-file-width="4384" data-file-height="3505" /></a><figcaption>Distribution of Y-chromosomal <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_R-M269" title="Haplogroup R-M269">Haplogroup R-M269</a> in Europe. The majority of ancient Celtic males have been found to be carriers of this sub-lineage.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer_et_al.20194–6_203-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer_et_al.20194–6-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchiffels_et_al.20163Table_1_204-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchiffels_et_al.20163Table_1-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartiniano_et_al.20183Table_1_205-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartiniano_et_al.20183Table_1-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Genetic studies on the limited amount of material available suggest continuity between Iron Age people from areas considered Celtic and the earlier <a href="/wiki/Bell_Beaker_culture" title="Bell Beaker culture">Bell Beaker culture</a> of Bronze Age Western Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer_et_al.20181,_14–15_206-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer_et_al.20181,_14–15-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>206<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrunel_et_al.20205–6_207-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrunel_et_al.20205–6-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer_et_al.2022_208-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer_et_al.2022-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like the Bell Beakers, ancient Celts carried a substantial amount of <a href="/wiki/Western_Steppe_Herders" title="Western Steppe Herders">Western Steppe Herders</a> ancestry, which is derived from <a href="/wiki/Yamnaya_culture" title="Yamnaya culture">Yamnaya</a> pastoralists who expanded westwards from the <a href="/wiki/Pontic%E2%80%93Caspian_steppe" title="Pontic–Caspian steppe">Pontic–Caspian steppe</a> during the late <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> and the early Bronze Age and associated with the initial spread of <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer_et_al.20191,_4–6,_14–15_209-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer_et_al.20191,_4–6,_14–15-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This ancestry was particularly prevalent among Celts of <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Northwest Europe">Northwest Europe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer_et_al.2022_208-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer_et_al.2022-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examined individuals overwhelmingly carry types of the paternal <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_R-M269" title="Haplogroup R-M269">haplogroup R-M269</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer_et_al.20194–6_203-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer_et_al.20194–6-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchiffels_et_al.20163Table_1_204-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchiffels_et_al.20163Table_1-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartiniano_et_al.20183Table_1_205-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartiniano_et_al.20183Table_1-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the maternal haplogroups <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_H_(mtDNA)" title="Haplogroup H (mtDNA)">H</a> and <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_U_(mtDNA)" class="mw-redirect" title="Haplogroup U (mtDNA)">U</a> are frequent.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer_et_al.20187_210-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer_et_al.20187-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer_et_al.20225–6_211-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer_et_al.20225–6-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>211<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These lineages are associated with steppe ancestry.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer_et_al.20194–6_203-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer_et_al.20194–6-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer_et_al.20187_210-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer_et_al.20187-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The spread of Celts into Iberia and the emergence of the <a href="/wiki/Celtiberians" title="Celtiberians">Celtiberians</a> is associated with an increase in <a href="/wiki/Northern_Europe" title="Northern Europe">north</a>-<a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">central European</a> ancestry in Iberia, and may be connected to the expansion of the <a href="/wiki/Urnfield_culture" title="Urnfield culture">Urnfield culture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlalde_et_al.20193_212-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlalde_et_al.20193-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The paternal haplogroup <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_I-M438" title="Haplogroup I-M438">haplogroup I2a1a1a</a> has been detected among Celtiberians.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlalde_et_al.2019Supplementary_Tables,_Table_4,_Row_91_213-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlalde_et_al.2019Supplementary_Tables,_Table_4,_Row_91-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>213<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There appears to have been significant gene flow among Celtic peoples of Western Europe during the Iron Age.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer_et_al.20181_214-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer_et_al.20181-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>214<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer_et_al.2022_208-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer_et_al.2022-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the Gauls of southern France display genetic links with the Celtiberians, the Gauls of northern France display links with Great Britain and Sweden.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer_et_al.20228_215-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer_et_al.20228-215"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>215<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern populations of Western Europe, particularly those who still speak <a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic languages</a>, display substantial genetic continuity with the Iron Age populations of the same areas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartiniano_et_al.20181_216-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartiniano_et_al.20181-216"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>216<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer_et_al.201814–15_217-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer_et_al.201814–15-217"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>217<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer_et_al.20224_218-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer_et_al.20224-218"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>218<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Celtic_peoples_and_tribes" title="List of ancient Celtic peoples and tribes">List of ancient Celtic peoples and tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Europe" title="Ethnic groups in Europe">Ethnic groups in Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_F.C." title="Celtic F.C.">Celtic F.C.</a>, soccer club in Glasgow</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Indo-European-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Indo-European_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMac_CanaDillon">Mac Cana & Dillon</a>. "The Celts, an ancient Indo-European people, reached the apogee of their influence and territorial expansion during the 4th century BC, extending across the length of Europe from Britain to Asia Minor."; <a href="#CITEREFPuhvelFeeLeeming2003">Puhvel, Fee & Leeming 2003</a>, p. 67. "[T]he Celts, were Indo-Europeans, a fact that explains a certain compatibility between Celtic, Roman, and Germanic mythology."; <a href="#CITEREFRiché2005">Riché 2005</a>, p. 150. "The Celts and Germans were two Indo-European groups whose civilizations had some common characteristics."; <a href="#CITEREFTodd1975">Todd 1975</a>, p. 42. "Celts and Germans were of course derived from the same Indo-European stock."; <a href="#CITEREFEncyclopedia_Britannica._Celt">Encyclopedia Britannica. Celt</a>. "Celt, also spelled Kelt, Latin Celta, plural Celtae, a member of an early Indo-European people who from the 2nd millennium bce to the 1st century bce spread over much of Europe."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Drinkwater_Definition-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Drinkwater_Definition_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Drinkwater_Definition_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDrinkwater2012">Drinkwater 2012</a>, p. 295. "Celts, a name applied by ancient writers to a population group occupying lands mainly north of the Mediterranean region from Galicia in the west to Galatia in the east. (Its application to the Welsh, the Scots, and the Irish is modern.) Their unity is recognizable by common speech and common artistic traditions.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WM_Definition-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WM_Definition_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWaldmanMason2006">Waldman & Mason 2006</a>, p. 144. "Celts, in its modern usage, is an encompassing term referring to all Celtic-speaking peoples."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EB_Definition-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-EB_Definition_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEncyclopedia_Britannica._Celt">Encyclopedia Britannica. Celt</a>. "Celt, also spelled Kelt, Latin Celta, plural Celtae, a member of an early Indo-European people who from the 2nd millennium bce to the 1st century bce spread over much of Europe. Their tribes and groups eventually ranged from the British Isles and northern Spain to as far east as Transylvania, the Black Sea coasts, and Galatia in Anatolia and were in part absorbed into the Roman Empire as Britons, Gauls, Boii, Galatians, and Celtiberians. Linguistically they survive in the modern Celtic speakers of Ireland, Highland Scotland, the Isle of Man, Wales, and Brittany.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Koch_encyclopedia-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Koch_encyclopedia_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Koch_encyclopedia_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Koch_encyclopedia_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Koch_encyclopedia_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Koch_encyclopedia_5-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Koch_encyclopedia_5-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Koch_encyclopedia_5-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFKoch2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_T._Koch" title="John T. Koch">Koch, John T.</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f899xH_quaMC&q=peoples%20and%20countries"><i>Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia</i></a>. Santa Barbara, California: <a href="/wiki/ABC-CLIO" class="mw-redirect" title="ABC-CLIO">ABC-CLIO</a>. p. xix–xxi. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-440-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-440-0"><bdi>978-1-85109-440-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 June</span> 2010</span>. <q>This Encyclopedia is designed for the use of everyone interested in Celtic studies and also for those interested in many related and subsidiary fields, including the individual CELTIC COUNTRIES and their languages, literatures, archaeology, folklore, and mythology. In its chronological scope, the Encyclopedia covers subjects from the HALLSTATT and LA TENE periods of the later pre-Roman Iron Age to the beginning of the 21st century.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Celtic+Culture%3A+A+Historical+Encyclopedia&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+California&rft.pages=xix-xxi&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-85109-440-0&rft.aulast=Koch&rft.aufirst=John+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Df899xH_quaMC%26q%3Dpeoples%2520and%2520countries&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuján2006" class="citation journal cs1">Luján, E. R. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.racv.es/files/07_Lujan.pdf">"Pueblo Celtas y no Celtas de la Galicia antigua:: Fuentes literarias frente a fuentes epigráficas"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>XXII seminario de lenguas y epigrafía antigua</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091225113903/http://www.racv.es/files/07_Lujan.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 25 December 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 July</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=XXII+seminario+de+lenguas+y+epigraf%C3%ADa+antigua&rft.atitle=Pueblo+Celtas+y+no+Celtas+de+la+Galicia+antigua%3A%3A+Fuentes+literarias+frente+a+fuentes+epigr%C3%A1ficas&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Luj%C3%A1n&rft.aufirst=E.+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.racv.es%2Ffiles%2F07_Lujan.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"If, as is the first criterion of this Encyclopedia, one bases the concept of 'Celticity' on language, one can apply the term 'Celtic' to ancient Galicia", <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoch2006" class="citation book cs1">Koch, John T., ed. (2006). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/celticculturehis00koch_128"><i>Celtic culture: a historical encyclopedia</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ABC-CLIO" class="mw-redirect" title="ABC-CLIO">ABC-CLIO</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/celticculturehis00koch_128/page/n833">790</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85109-440-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-85109-440-7"><bdi>1-85109-440-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Celtic+culture%3A+a+historical+encyclopedia&rft.pages=790&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=1-85109-440-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcelticculturehis00koch_128&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SJames-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SJames_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SJames_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SJames_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SJames_8-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SJames_8-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SJames_8-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames1999" class="citation book cs1">James, Simon (1999). <i>The Atlantic Celts – Ancient People or Modern Invention</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin_Press" title="University of Wisconsin Press">University of Wisconsin Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Atlantic+Celts+%E2%80%93+Ancient+People+or+Modern+Invention&rft.pub=University+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=James&rft.aufirst=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-JCollis-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-JCollis_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-JCollis_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-JCollis_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-JCollis_9-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-JCollis_9-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollis2003" class="citation book cs1">Collis, John (2003). <i>The Celts: Origins, Myths and Inventions</i>. Stroud: <a href="/wiki/Tempus_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Tempus Publishing">Tempus Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-2913-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-2913-7"><bdi>978-0-7524-2913-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Celts%3A+Origins%2C+Myths+and+Inventions&rft.place=Stroud&rft.pub=Tempus+Publishing&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7524-2913-7&rft.aulast=Collis&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FPryor-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FPryor_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FPryor_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FPryor_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPryor2004" class="citation book cs1">Pryor, Francis (2004). <i>Britain BC</i>. <a href="/wiki/Harper_Perennial" title="Harper Perennial">Harper Perennial</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-00-712693-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-00-712693-4"><bdi>978-0-00-712693-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Britain+BC&rft.pub=Harper+Perennial&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-00-712693-4&rft.aulast=Pryor&rft.aufirst=Francis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sims-Williams-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sims-Williams_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sims-Williams_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sims-Williams_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sims-Williams_11-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sims-Williams_11-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sims-Williams_11-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sims-Williams_11-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sims-Williams_11-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sims-Williams_11-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sims-Williams_11-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSims-Williams2020" class="citation journal cs1">Sims-Williams (August 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0959774320000098">"An Alternative to 'Celtic from the East' and 'Celtic from the West'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>Cambridge Archaeological Journal</i>. <b>30</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">511–</span>529. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0959774320000098">10.1017/S0959774320000098</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2160%2F317fdc72-f7ad-4a66-8335-db8f5d911437">2160/317fdc72-f7ad-4a66-8335-db8f5d911437</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cambridge+Archaeological+Journal&rft.atitle=An+Alternative+to+%27Celtic+from+the+East%27+and+%27Celtic+from+the+West%27&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E511-%3C%2Fspan%3E529&rft.date=2020-08&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2160%2F317fdc72-f7ad-4a66-8335-db8f5d911437&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0959774320000098&rft.au=Sims-Williams&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS0959774320000098&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLouwen2021" class="citation thesis cs1">Louwen, A. J. (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/85067342"><i>Breaking and making the ancestors. Piecing together the urnfield mortuary process in the Lower-Rhine-Basin, ca. 1300 – 400 BC</i></a> (PhD). <a href="/wiki/Leiden_University" title="Leiden University">Leiden University</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230411091655/https://www.academia.edu/85067342">Archived</a> from the original on 11 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Breaking+and+making+the+ancestors.+Piecing+together+the+urnfield+mortuary+process+in+the+Lower-Rhine-Basin%2C+ca.+1300+%E2%80%93+400+BC&rft.inst=Leiden+University&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Louwen&rft.aufirst=A.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F85067342&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEProbst1996258-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEProbst1996258_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFProbst1996">Probst 1996</a>, pp. 258.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ChadCorc-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ChadCorc_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ChadCorc_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ChadCorc_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ChadCorc_14-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChadwickCorcoran1970" class="citation book cs1">Chadwick, Nora; Corcoran, J. X. W. P. (1970). <i>The Celts</i>. <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin Books</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">28–</span>33.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Celts&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E28-%3C%2Fspan%3E33&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Chadwick&rft.aufirst=Nora&rft.au=Corcoran%2C+J.+X.+W.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCunliffe1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Barry_Cunliffe" title="Barry Cunliffe">Cunliffe, Barry</a> (1997). <i>The Ancient Celts</i>. <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin Books</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">39–</span>67.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Celts&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E39-%3C%2Fspan%3E67&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Cunliffe&rft.aufirst=Barry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-koch2010_core-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-koch2010_core_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoch2010" class="citation book cs1">Koch, John T. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wales.ac.uk/Resources/Documents/Research/ODonnell.pdf"><i>Celtic from the West Chapter 9: Paradigm Shift? Interpreting Tartessian as Celtic – see map 9.3 The Ancient Celtic Languages c. 440/430 BC – see third map in PDF at URL provided which is essentially the same map</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxbow_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxbow Books">Oxbow Books</a>. p. 193. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84217-410-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84217-410-4"><bdi>978-1-84217-410-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120709032557/http://www.wales.ac.uk/Resources/Documents/Research/ODonnell.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 9 July 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Celtic+from+the+West+Chapter+9%3A+Paradigm+Shift%3F+Interpreting+Tartessian+as+Celtic+%E2%80%93+see+map+9.3+The+Ancient+Celtic+Languages+c.+440%2F430+BC+%E2%80%93+see+third+map+in+PDF+at+URL+provided+which+is+essentially+the+same+map&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=193&rft.pub=Oxbow+Books&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-84217-410-4&rft.aulast=Koch&rft.aufirst=John+T.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wales.ac.uk%2FResources%2FDocuments%2FResearch%2FODonnell.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-koch2010_expansion-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-koch2010_expansion_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoch2010" class="citation book cs1">Koch, John T. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wales.ac.uk/Resources/Documents/Research/ODonnell.pdf"><i>Celtic from the West Chapter 9: Paradigm Shift? Interpreting Tartessian as Celtic – see map 9.2 Celtic expansion from Hallstatt/La Tene central Europe – see second map in PDF at URL provided which is essentially the same map</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxbow_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxbow Books">Oxbow Books</a>. p. 190. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84217-410-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84217-410-4"><bdi>978-1-84217-410-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120709032557/http://www.wales.ac.uk/Resources/Documents/Research/ODonnell.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 9 July 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Celtic+from+the+West+Chapter+9%3A+Paradigm+Shift%3F+Interpreting+Tartessian+as+Celtic+%E2%80%93+see+map+9.2+Celtic+expansion+from+Hallstatt%2FLa+Tene+central+Europe+%E2%80%93+see+second+map+in+PDF+at+URL+provided+which+is+essentially+the+same+map&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=190&rft.pub=Oxbow+Books&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-84217-410-4&rft.aulast=Koch&rft.aufirst=John+T.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wales.ac.uk%2FResources%2FDocuments%2FResearch%2FODonnell.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stifter-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stifter_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStifter2008" class="citation book cs1">Stifter, David (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.univie.ac.at/indogermanistik/download/Stifter/oldcelt2008_2_lepontic.pdf"><i>Old Celtic Languages</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. pp. <span class="nowrap">24–</span>37. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20110630102715/http://www.univie.ac.at/indogermanistik/download/Stifter/oldcelt2008_2_lepontic.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 30 June 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Old+Celtic+Languages&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E24-%3C%2Fspan%3E37&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Stifter&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.univie.ac.at%2Findogermanistik%2Fdownload%2FStifter%2Foldcelt2008_2_lepontic.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCunliffe2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Barry_Cunliffe" title="Barry Cunliffe">Cunliffe, Barry</a> (2003). <i>The Celts – a very short introduction</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 109. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280418-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280418-1"><bdi>978-0-19-280418-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Celts+%E2%80%93+a+very+short+introduction&rft.pages=109&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-280418-1&rft.aulast=Cunliffe&rft.aufirst=Barry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMinahan2000" class="citation book cs1">Minahan, James (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NwvoM-ZFoAgC"><i>One Europe, Many Nations: A Historical Dictionary of European National Groups</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Publishing_Group" title="Greenwood Publishing Group">Greenwood Publishing Group</a>. p. 179. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-30984-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-30984-7"><bdi>978-0-313-30984-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230116024421/https://books.google.com/books?id=NwvoM-ZFoAgC">Archived</a> from the original on 16 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 July</span> 2018</span>. <q>The <a href="/wiki/Cornish_people" title="Cornish people">Cornish</a> are related to the other Celtic peoples of Europe, the <a href="/wiki/Bretons" title="Bretons">Bretons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Irish_people" title="Irish people">Irish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scottish_people" title="Scottish people">Scots</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manx_people" title="Manx people">Manx</a>, <a href="/wiki/Welsh_people" title="Welsh people">Welsh</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Galicians" title="Galicians">Galicians</a> of northwestern Spain</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=One+Europe%2C+Many+Nations%3A+A+Historical+Dictionary+of+European+National+Groups&rft.pages=179&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-313-30984-7&rft.aulast=Minahan&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNwvoM-ZFoAgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMinahan2000" class="citation book cs1">Minahan, James (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NwvoM-ZFoAgC"><i>One Europe, Many Nations: A Historical Dictionary of European National Groups</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Publishing_Group" title="Greenwood Publishing Group">Greenwood Publishing Group</a>. p. 766. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-30984-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-30984-7"><bdi>978-0-313-30984-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230116024421/https://books.google.com/books?id=NwvoM-ZFoAgC">Archived</a> from the original on 16 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 July</span> 2018</span>. <q>Celts, 257, 278, 523, 533, 555, 643; <a href="/wiki/Bretons" title="Bretons">Bretons</a>, 129–33; <a href="/wiki/Cornish_people" title="Cornish people">Cornish</a>, 178–81; <a href="/wiki/Galicians" title="Galicians">Galicians</a>, 277–80; <a href="/wiki/Irish_people" title="Irish people">Irish</a>, 330–37; <a href="/wiki/Manx_people" title="Manx people">Manx</a>, 452–55; <a href="/wiki/Scottish_people" title="Scottish people">Scots</a>, 607–12; <a href="/wiki/Welsh_people" title="Welsh people">Welsh</a></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=One+Europe%2C+Many+Nations%3A+A+Historical+Dictionary+of+European+National+Groups&rft.pages=766&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-313-30984-7&rft.aulast=Minahan&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNwvoM-ZFoAgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WM_Scope-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WM_Scope_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWaldmanMason2006">Waldman & Mason 2006</a>, p. 144. "CELTS location: Greater Europe time period: Second millennium B.C.E. to present ancestry: Celtic</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcKevitt2006" class="citation journal cs1">McKevitt, Kerry Ann (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110624075328/http://www4.uwm.edu/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_13/mckevitt_6_13.pdf">"Mythologizing Identity and History: a look at the Celtic past of Galicia"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>E-Keltoi</i>. <b>6</b>: <span class="nowrap">651–</span>73. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www4.uwm.edu/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_13/mckevitt_6_13.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 24 June 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 April</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=E-Keltoi&rft.atitle=Mythologizing+Identity+and+History%3A+a+look+at+the+Celtic+past+of+Galicia&rft.volume=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E651-%3C%2Fspan%3E73&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=McKevitt&rft.aufirst=Kerry+Ann&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww4.uwm.edu%2Fceltic%2Fekeltoi%2Fvolumes%2Fvol6%2F6_13%2Fmckevitt_6_13.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sarunas Milisauskas, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=31LFIITb3LUC&pg=PA363"><i>European prehistory: a survey</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer</a>. 2002. p. 363. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-306-47257-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-306-47257-2"><bdi>978-0-306-47257-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 June</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=European+prehistory%3A+a+survey&rft.pages=363&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-306-47257-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D31LFIITb3LUC%26pg%3DPA363&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRankin1998" class="citation book cs1">Rankin, H. David (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fdqk4vXqntgC&q=%22celts%22"><i>Celts and the Classical World</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-15090-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-15090-3"><bdi>978-0-415-15090-3</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 June</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Celts+and+the+Classical+World&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E2&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-415-15090-3&rft.aulast=Rankin&rft.aufirst=H.+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dfdqk4vXqntgC%26q%3D%2522celts%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus, <i>The Histories</i>, 2.33; 4.49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John T. Koch (ed.), <i>Celtic Culture: a historical encyclopedia</i>. 5 vols. 2006. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, p. 371.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McCone2013-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McCone2013_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McCone2013_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">McCone, Kim (2013). "The Celts: questions of nomenclature and identity", in <i>Ireland and its Contacts</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Lausanne" title="University of Lausanne">University of Lausanne</a>. pp.21–27</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">P. De Bernardo Stempel 2008. "Linguistically Celtic ethnonyms: towards a classification", in <i>Celtic and Other Languages in Ancient Europe</i>, J. L. García Alonso (ed.), 101–18. Ediciones Universidad Salamanca.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Commentarii_de_Bello_Gallico" title="Commentarii de Bello Gallico">Commentarii de Bello Gallico</a></i> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Commentaries_on_the_Gallic_War/Book_1#1" class="extiw" title="s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 1">1.1</a>: "All Gaul is divided into three parts, one of which the Belgae live, another in which the Aquitani live, and the third are those who in their own tongue are called <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Celtae</i></span>, in our language <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Galli</i></span>."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Strabo, <i>Geography</i>, 3.1.3; 3.1.6; 3.2.2; 3.2.15; 4.4.2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)" title="Natural History (Pliny)">The Natural History</a></i> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Lusitania/Book_4#35" class="extiw" title="s:Lusitania/Book 4">21</a>: "the Mirobrigenses, surnamed Celtici" ("Mirobrigenses qui Celtici cognominantur").</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100402141724/http://revistas.ucm.es/est/11326875/articulos/HIEP0101110006A.PDF">"España"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://revistas.ucm.es/est/11326875/articulos/HIEP0101110006A.PDF">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2 April 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 June</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Espa%C3%B1a&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frevistas.ucm.es%2Fest%2F11326875%2Farticulos%2FHIEP0101110006A.PDF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fernando De Almeida, <i>Breve noticia sobre o santuário campestre romano de Miróbriga dos Celticos (Portugal)</i>: D(IS) M(ANIBUS) S(ACRUM) / C(AIUS) PORCIUS SEVE/RUS MIROBRIGEN(SIS) / CELT(ICUS) ANN(ORUM) LX / H(IC) S(ITUS) E(ST) S(IT) T(IBI) T(ERRA) L(EVIS).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoch2006" class="citation book cs1">Koch, John T. (2006). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/celticculturehis00koch_128"><i>Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ABC-CLIO" class="mw-redirect" title="ABC-CLIO">ABC-CLIO</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/celticculturehis00koch_128/page/n837">794</a>–95. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-440-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-440-0"><bdi>978-1-85109-440-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Celtic+Culture%3A+A+Historical+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=794-95&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-85109-440-0&rft.aulast=Koch&rft.aufirst=John+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcelticculturehis00koch_128&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpencer_and_Zwicky1998" class="citation book cs1">Spencer and Zwicky, Andrew and Arnold M (1998). <i>The handbook of morphology</i>. <a href="/wiki/Blackwell_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackwell Publishers">Blackwell Publishers</a>. p. 148. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-18544-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-18544-4"><bdi>978-0-631-18544-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+handbook+of+morphology&rft.pages=148&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishers&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-631-18544-4&rft.aulast=Spencer+and+Zwicky&rft.aufirst=Andrew+and+Arnold+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/uk/who-were-the-celts-it-s-complicated-1.2410501">Who were the Celts? It's complicated</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230417195847/https://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/uk/who-were-the-celts-it-s-complicated-1.2410501">Archived</a> 17 April 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>Irish Times</i>, Denis Staunton, 20 October 2015, accessed 17 April 2023.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lhuyd, E. <i>Archaeologia Britannica; An account of the languages, histories, and customs of the original inhabitants of Great Britain.</i> (reprint ed.) Irish University Press, 1971, p. 290. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7165-0031-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7165-0031-0">0-7165-0031-0</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoch2006" class="citation book cs1">Koch, John T. (2006). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/celticculturehis00koch_128"><i>Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ABC-CLIO" class="mw-redirect" title="ABC-CLIO">ABC-CLIO</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/celticculturehis00koch_128/page/n567">532</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-440-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-440-0"><bdi>978-1-85109-440-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Celtic+Culture%3A+A+Historical+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=532&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-85109-440-0&rft.aulast=Koch&rft.aufirst=John+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcelticculturehis00koch_128&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMountain1998" class="citation book cs1">Mountain, Harry (1998). <i>The Celtic Encyclopedia</i>. Vol. 1. <a href="/wiki/UPublish.com" class="mw-redirect" title="UPublish.com">uPublish</a>. p. 252. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58112-889-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58112-889-5"><bdi>978-1-58112-889-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Celtic+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=252&rft.pub=uPublish&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-1-58112-889-5&rft.aulast=Mountain&rft.aufirst=Harry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKruta1991" class="citation book cs1">Kruta, Venceslas; et al. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 June</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Complete+Idiot%27s+Guide+to+Celtic+Wisdom&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E31-%3C%2Fspan%3E34&rft.pub=Alpha+Books&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-02-864417-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D71oefF7-73MC%26q%3D%2522Celticity%2522%26pg%3DPA32&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMonaghan2008" class="citation book cs1">Monaghan, Patricia (2008). <i>The Encyclopedia of Celtic Mythology and Folklore</i>. <a href="/wiki/Facts_on_File_Inc." class="mw-redirect" title="Facts on File Inc.">Facts on File Inc.</a> <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-7556-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-7556-0"><bdi>978-0-8160-7556-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Celtic+Mythology+and+Folklore&rft.pub=Facts+on+File+Inc.&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-7556-0&rft.aulast=Monaghan&rft.aufirst=Patricia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChadwick1970" class="citation book cs1">Chadwick, Nora (1970). <i>The Celts with an introductory chapter by J.X.W.P. 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Santa Barbara, California: <a href="/wiki/ABC-CLIO" class="mw-redirect" title="ABC-CLIO">ABC-CLIO</a>. pp. 34, <span class="nowrap">365–</span>366, 529, 973, 1053. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-440-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-440-0"><bdi>978-1-85109-440-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/62381207">62381207</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221007170317/https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/62381207">Archived</a> from the original on 7 October 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 August</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Celtic+culture+%3A+a+historical+encyclopedia&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+California&rft.pages=34%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E365-%3C%2Fspan%3E366%2C+529%2C+973%2C+1053&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F62381207&rft.isbn=978-1-85109-440-0&rft.aulast=Koch&rft.aufirst=John+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F62381207&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChadwick1970" class="citation book cs1">Chadwick, Nora (1970). <i>The Celts</i>. p. 30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Celts&rft.pages=30&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Chadwick&rft.aufirst=Nora&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKruta1991" class="citation book cs1">Kruta, Venceslas (1991). <i>The Celts</i>. <a href="/wiki/Thames_%26_Hudson" title="Thames & Hudson">Thames & Hudson</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">89–</span>102.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Celts&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E89-%3C%2Fspan%3E102&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Kruta&rft.aufirst=Venceslas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStifter2008" class="citation book cs1">Stifter, David (2008). <i>Old Celtic Languages - Addenda</i>. p. 25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Old+Celtic+Languages+-+Addenda&rft.pages=25&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Stifter&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Koch_386-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Koch_386_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Koch_386_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Koch_386_51-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoch2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_T._Koch" title="John T. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_4/lorrio_zapatero_6_4.html">the original</a> on 19 August 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 April</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Center+for+Celtic+Studies+%26%23124%3B+UW-Milwaukee&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uwm.edu%2FDept%2Fceltic%2Fekeltoi%2Fvolumes%2Fvol6%2F6_4%2Florrio_zapatero_6_4.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span> The Celts in Iberia: An Overview – Alberto J. Lorrio (Universidad de Alicante) & Gonzalo Ruiz Zapatero (<a href="/wiki/Complutense_University_of_Madrid" title="Complutense University of Madrid">Universidad Complutense de Madrid</a>) – Journal of Interdisciplinary <a href="/wiki/Celtic_studies" title="Celtic studies">Celtic studies</a>, Volume 6: 167–254 The Celts in the Iberian Peninsula, 1 February 2005</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">*<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110517084539/http://www.ria.ie/publications/journals/journaldb/index.asp?select=fulltext&id=100427.">Otto Hermann Frey, "A new approach to early Celtic art"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 May</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=E-Keltoi%3A+Journal+of+Interdisciplinary+Celtic+Studies&rft.atitle=Celtic+Legacy+in+Galicia&rft.volume=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1005-%3C%2Fspan%3E35&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Alberro&rft.aufirst=Manuel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uwm.edu%2FDept%2Fceltic%2Fekeltoi%2Fvolumes%2Fvol6%2F6_20%2Falberro_6_20.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerrocal-Rangel2005" class="citation journal cs1">Berrocal-Rangel, Luis (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/index.html">"The Celts of the Southwestern Iberian Peninsula"</a>. <i>E-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies</i>. <b>6</b>: <span class="nowrap">481–</span>96. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090416055457/http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 16 April 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=E-Keltoi%3A+Journal+of+Interdisciplinary+Celtic+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Celts+of+the+Southwestern+Iberian+Peninsula&rft.volume=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E481-%3C%2Fspan%3E96&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Berrocal-Rangel&rft.aufirst=Luis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uwm.edu%2FDept%2Fceltic%2Fekeltoi%2Fvolumes%2Fvol6%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFR._Luján_Martínez2005" class="citation journal cs1">R. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 May</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=E-Keltoi%3A+Journal+of+Interdisciplinary+Celtic+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Language%28s%29+of+the+Callaeci&rft.volume=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E715-%3C%2Fspan%3E48&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=R.+Luj%C3%A1n+Mart%C3%ADnez&rft.aufirst=Eugenio&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uwm.edu%2FDept%2Fceltic%2Fekeltoi%2Fvolumes%2Fvol6%2F6_16%2Flujan_6_16.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Coutinhas, José Manuel (2006), <i>Aproximação à identidade etno-cultural dos Callaici Bracari</i>, Porto.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://arkeotavira.com/Mapas/Iberia/Populi.htm">Archeological site of Tavira</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20110223153840/http://arkeotavira.com/Mapas/Iberia/Populi.htm">Archived</a> 23 February 2011 at Wikiwix, official website</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John T. Koch, <i>Tartessian: Celtic From the South-west at the Dawn of History</i>, Celtic Studies Publications, (2009)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.heuneburg-pyrene.de/en/celtic-city#:~:text=This%20Celtic%20hilltop%20settlement%20is,was%20built%20of%20mud%20bricks">"Celtic City: Staatliche Schlösser und Gärten Baden-Württemberg"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230307030355/https://www.heuneburg-pyrene.de/en/celtic-city#:~:text=This%20Celtic%20hilltop%20settlement%20is,was%20built%20of%20mud%20bricks">Archived</a> from the original on 7 March 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 March</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Celtic+City%3A+Staatliche+Schl%C3%B6sser+und+G%C3%A4rten+Baden-W%C3%BCrttemberg&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.heuneburg-pyrene.de%2Fen%2Fceltic-city%23%3A~%3Atext%3DThis%2520Celtic%2520hilltop%2520settlement%2520is%2Cwas%2520built%2520of%2520mud%2520bricks&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKinder1988" class="citation cs2">Kinder, Hermann (1988), <i>Penguin Atlas of World History</i>, vol. I, London: <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin Books</a>, p. 108</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Penguin+Atlas+of+World+History&rft.place=London&rft.pages=108&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Kinder&rft.aufirst=Hermann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIñigo_Olalde2018" class="citation journal cs1">Iñigo Olalde (8 March 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5973796">"The Beaker Phenomenon and the Genomic Transformation of Northwest Europe"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a></i>. <b>555</b> (7695). <a href="/wiki/Nature_Portfolio" title="Nature Portfolio">Nature Portfolio</a>: <span class="nowrap">190–</span>196. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018Natur.555..190O">2018Natur.555..190O</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature25738">10.1038/nature25738</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5973796">5973796</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29466337">29466337</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=The+Beaker+Phenomenon+and+the+Genomic+Transformation+of+Northwest+Europe&rft.volume=555&rft.issue=7695&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E190-%3C%2Fspan%3E196&rft.date=2018-03-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5973796%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29466337&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature25738&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018Natur.555..190O&rft.au=I%C3%B1igo+Olalde&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5973796&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.heuneburg-pyrene.de/en/celtic-city">"Heuneburg – Celtic city of Pyrene"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Heuneburg+%E2%80%93+Celtic+city+of+Pyrene&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.heuneburg-pyrene.de%2Fen%2Fceltic-city&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.landeskunde-online.de/rhein/geschichte/antike/kelten/heuneburg/genese.htm">"Heuneburg (Herbertingen-Hundersingen)"</a>. <i>Landeskunde Online</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 April</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Landeskunde+Online&rft.atitle=Heuneburg+%28Herbertingen-Hundersingen%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.landeskunde-online.de%2Frhein%2Fgeschichte%2Fantike%2Fkelten%2Fheuneburg%2Fgenese.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Herodotus1857-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Herodotus1857_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerodotus1857" class="citation book cs1">Herodotus (1857). Creuzer, Georg Friedrich; Bähr, Johann Christian Felix (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t9rfAAAAMAAJ"><i>Herodoti Musae</i></a>. Vol. 2. Lipsiae in Bibliopolio Hahniano.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Herodoti+Musae&rft.pub=Lipsiae+in+Bibliopolio+Hahniano&rft.date=1857&rft.au=Herodotus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dt9rfAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Herodotus1829-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Herodotus1829_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerodotus1829" class="citation book cs1">Herodotus (1829). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q45PxRGLB5sC&pg=PA110"><i>Herodoti historiarum libri IX</i></a>. G. Fr. Meyer. pp. 110–.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Herodoti+historiarum+libri+IX&rft.pages=110-&rft.pub=G.+Fr.+Meyer&rft.date=1829&rft.au=Herodotus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dq45PxRGLB5sC%26pg%3DPA110&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gimbutas2011-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gimbutas2011_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGimbutas2011" class="citation book cs1">Gimbutas, Marija (25 August 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BvtRdigDtFoC&pg=PA312"><i>Bronze Age cultures in Central and Eastern Europe</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Walter_de_Gruyter" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter de Gruyter">Walter de Gruyter</a>. pp. 100–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-1116-6814-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-1116-6814-7"><bdi>978-3-1116-6814-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bronze+Age+cultures+in+Central+and+Eastern+Europe&rft.pages=100-&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2011-08-25&rft.isbn=978-3-1116-6814-7&rft.aulast=Gimbutas&rft.aufirst=Marija&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBvtRdigDtFoC%26pg%3DPA312&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Milisauskas2002-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Milisauskas2002_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMilisauskas2002" class="citation book cs1">Milisauskas, Sarunas (30 June 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=31LFIITb3LUC&pg=PA363"><i>European Prehistory: A Survey</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer Science+Business Media</a>. pp. 363–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3064-7257-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3064-7257-2"><bdi>978-0-3064-7257-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=European+Prehistory%3A+A+Survey&rft.pages=363-&rft.pub=Springer+Science%2BBusiness+Media&rft.date=2002-06-30&rft.isbn=978-0-3064-7257-2&rft.aulast=Milisauskas&rft.aufirst=Sarunas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D31LFIITb3LUC%26pg%3DPA363&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rankin1996-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rankin1996_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRankin1996" class="citation book cs1">Rankin, H. David (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fdqk4vXqntgC"><i>Celts and the Classical World</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Psychology_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychology Press">Psychology Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-4151-5090-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-4151-5090-3"><bdi>978-0-4151-5090-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Celts+and+the+Classical+World&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-4151-5090-3&rft.aulast=Rankin&rft.aufirst=H.+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dfdqk4vXqntgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alfons Semler, <i>Überlingen: Bilder aus der Geschichte einer kleinen Reichsstadt,</i>Oberbadische Verlag, Singen, 1949, pp. 11–17, specifically 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kruta, Venceslas; <i>La grande storia dei celti: La nascita, l'affermazione e la decadenza</i>, Newton & Compton, 2003, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/88-8289-851-2" title="Special:BookSources/88-8289-851-2">88-8289-851-2</a>, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-8289-851-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-8289-851-9">978-88-8289-851-9</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">" The Golasecca civilization is therefore the expression of the oldest Celts of Italy and included several groups that had the name of Insubres, Laevi, Lepontii, Oromobii (o Orumbovii)". (Raffaele C. De Marinis)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVitali1996" class="citation journal cs1">Vitali, Daniele (1996). "Manufatti in ferro di tipo La Tène in area italiana: le potenzialità non-sfruttate". <i>Mélanges de l'École Française de Rome. Antiquité</i>. <b>108</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">575–</span>605. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fmefr.1996.1954">10.3406/mefr.1996.1954</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=M%C3%A9langes+de+l%27%C3%89cole+Fran%C3%A7aise+de+Rome.+Antiquit%C3%A9&rft.atitle=Manufatti+in+ferro+di+tipo+La+T%C3%A8ne+in+area+italiana%3A+le+potenzialit%C3%A0+non-sfruttate&rft.volume=108&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E575-%3C%2Fspan%3E605&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Fmefr.1996.1954&rft.aulast=Vitali&rft.aufirst=Daniele&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPiggott2008" class="citation book cs1">Piggott, Stuart (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170219021009/http://www.transactionpub.com/title/Early-Celtic-Art-978-0-202-36186-4.html"><i>Early Celtic Art From Its Origins to its Aftermath</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Transaction_Publishers" title="Transaction Publishers">Transaction Publishers</a>. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-202-36186-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-202-36186-4"><bdi>978-0-202-36186-4</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.transactionpub.com/title/Early-Celtic-Art-978-0-202-36186-4.html">the original</a> on 19 February 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Celtic+Art+From+Its+Origins+to+its+Aftermath&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-202-36186-4&rft.aulast=Piggott&rft.aufirst=Stuart&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.transactionpub.com%2Ftitle%2FEarly-Celtic-Art-978-0-202-36186-4.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schumacher-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Schumacher_110-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchumacherSchulze-Thulinaan_de_Wiel2004" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Schumacher, Stefan; Schulze-Thulin, Britta; aan de Wiel, Caroline (2004). <i>Die keltischen Primärverben. Ein vergleichendes, etymologisches und morphologisches Lexikon</i> (in German). Institut für Sprachen und Kulturen, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Innsbruck" title="University of Innsbruck">University of Innsbruck</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">84–</span>87. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-85124-692-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-85124-692-6"><bdi>978-3-85124-692-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+keltischen+Prim%C3%A4rverben.+Ein+vergleichendes%2C+etymologisches+und+morphologisches+Lexikon&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E84-%3C%2Fspan%3E87&rft.pub=Institut+f%C3%BCr+Sprachen+und+Kulturen%2C+University+of+Innsbruck&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-3-85124-692-6&rft.aulast=Schumacher&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rft.au=Schulze-Thulin%2C+Britta&rft.au=aan+de+Wiel%2C+Caroline&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPercivaldi2003" class="citation book cs1">Percivaldi, Elena (2003). <i>I Celti: una civiltà europea</i>. <a href="/wiki/Giunti_Editore" title="Giunti Editore">Giunti Editore</a>. p. 82.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=I+Celti%3A+una+civilt%C3%A0+europea&rft.pages=82&rft.pub=Giunti+Editore&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Percivaldi&rft.aufirst=Elena&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKruta1991" class="citation book cs1">Kruta, Venceslas (1991). <i>The Celts</i>. <a href="/wiki/Thames_%26_Hudson" title="Thames & Hudson">Thames & Hudson</a>. p. 55.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Celts&rft.pages=55&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Kruta&rft.aufirst=Venceslas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStifter2008" class="citation book cs1">Stifter, David (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121002035607/http://www.univie.ac.at/indogermanistik/download/Stifter/oldcelt2008_1_general.pdf"><i>Old Celtic Languages</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. p. 12. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.univie.ac.at/indogermanistik/download/Stifter/oldcelt2008_1_general.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2 October 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 April</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Old+Celtic+Languages&rft.pages=12&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Stifter&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.univie.ac.at%2Findogermanistik%2Fdownload%2FStifter%2Foldcelt2008_1_general.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Morandi 2004, pp. 702–03, n. 277</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Schrijver, "Gaulish", in <i>Encyclopedia of the Languages of Europe</i>, ed. Glanville Price (Oxford: Blackwell, 1998), 192.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLandolfi2000" class="citation book cs1">Landolfi, Maurizio (2000). <i>Adriatico tra 4. e 3. sec. a.C</i>. L'Erma di Bretschneider. p. 43.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Adriatico+tra+4.+e+3.+sec.+a.C.&rft.pages=43&rft.pub=L%27Erma+di+Bretschneider&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Landolfi&rft.aufirst=Maurizio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCunliffe2003" class="citation book cs1">Cunliffe, Barry (2003). <i>The Celts – A Very Short Introduction</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 37. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280418-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280418-1"><bdi>978-0-19-280418-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Celts+%E2%80%93+A+Very+Short+Introduction&rft.pages=37&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-280418-1&rft.aulast=Cunliffe&rft.aufirst=Barry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EB1911-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_118-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="noprint"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span> </span>One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChisholm1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a>, ed. (1911). "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Senones" class="extiw" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Senones">Senones</a>". <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 24 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">647–</span>648.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Senones&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E647-%3C%2Fspan%3E648&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/battles_telamon.html">"Battle of Telamon, 225 BC"</a>. <i>www.historyofwar.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221201014912/http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/battles_telamon.html">Archived</a> from the original on 1 December 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 December</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.historyofwar.org&rft.atitle=Battle+of+Telamon%2C+225+BC&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historyofwar.org%2Farticles%2Fbattles_telamon.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume 3, Part 2: The Assyrian and Babylonian Empires and Other States of the Near East, from the Eighth to the Sixth Centuries BC</i> by John Boardman, I. E. S. Edwards, E. Sollberger, and N. G. L. Hammond, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-22717-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-22717-8">0-521-22717-8</a>, 1992, p. 600: "In the place of the vanished Treres and Tilataei we find the Serdi for whom there is no evidence before the first century BC. It has for long being supposed on convincing linguistic and archeological grounds that this tribe was of Celtic origin"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0064:entry=serdica-geo&highlight=serdi">"Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (1854), SE´RDICA"</a>. <i>perseus.tufts.edu</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210224222301/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0064:entry=serdica-geo&highlight=serdi">Archived</a> from the original on 24 February 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 February</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=perseus.tufts.edu&rft.atitle=Dictionary+of+Greek+and+Roman+Geography+%281854%29%2C+SE%C2%B4RDICA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0064%3Aentry%3Dserdica-geo%26highlight%3Dserdi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M. B. Shchukin, <i>Rome and the Barbarians in Central and Eastern Europe: 1st Century B.C.–1st Century A.D.</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Britannica</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCunliffe2003" class="citation book cs1">Cunliffe, Barry (2003). <i>The Celts: A Very Short Introduction</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 71. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280418-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280418-1"><bdi>978-0-19-280418-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Celts%3A+A+Very+Short+Introduction&rft.pages=71&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-280418-1&rft.aulast=Cunliffe&rft.aufirst=Barry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPope2022" class="citation journal cs1">Pope, Rachel (1 March 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10814-021-09157-1">"Re-approaching Celts: Origins, Society, and Social Change"</a>. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i>. <b>30</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>67. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10814-021-09157-1">10.1007/s10814-021-09157-1</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1573-7756">1573-7756</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Archaeological+Research&rft.atitle=Re-approaching+Celts%3A+Origins%2C+Society%2C+and+Social+Change&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E67&rft.date=2022-03-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10814-021-09157-1&rft.issn=1573-7756&rft.aulast=Pope&rft.aufirst=Rachel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs10814-021-09157-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKing" class="citation web cs1">King, Jeffrey. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1401/the-celtic-invasion-of-greece/">"The Celtic Invasion of Greece"</a>. <i>World History Encyclopedia</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 December</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+History+Encyclopedia&rft.atitle=The+Celtic+Invasion+of+Greece&rft.aulast=King&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldhistory.org%2Farticle%2F1401%2Fthe-celtic-invasion-of-greece%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCartwright2021" class="citation web cs1">Cartwright, Mark (1 April 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/celt/">"Ancient Celts"</a>. <i>World History Encyclopedia</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220814132538/https://www.worldhistory.org/celt/">Archived</a> from the original on 14 August 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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The Celtic Languages, Routledge, 2003, pp. 67ff.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSolly2019" class="citation news cs1">Solly, Meilan (27 December 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/twelve-fascinating-finds-revealed-2019-180973837/">"Twelve Fascinating Finds Revealed in 2019"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_(magazine)" title="Smithsonian (magazine)">Smithsonian</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(eds.), <i>Celtic from the West</i>, David Brown Co., 2012</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cunliffe, Barry, Facing the Ocean, Oxford University Press, 2004</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Patterson-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Patterson_133-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Patterson_133-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Patterson_133-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Patterson_133-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Patterson_133-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPattersonIsakovBooth2021" class="citation journal cs1">Patterson, N.; Isakov, M.; Booth, T. 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Stroud: <a href="/wiki/Tempus_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Tempus Publishing">Tempus Publishing</a>. p. 125. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-2913-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-2913-7"><bdi>978-0-7524-2913-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Celts%3A+Origins%2C+Myths+and+Inventions&rft.place=Stroud&rft.pages=125&rft.pub=Tempus+Publishing&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7524-2913-7&rft.aulast=Collis&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-JCollis4-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-JCollis4_137-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollis2003" class="citation book cs1">Collis, John (2003). <i>The Celts: Origins, Myths and Inventions</i>. Stroud: <a href="/wiki/Tempus_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Tempus Publishing">Tempus Publishing</a>. p. 180. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-2913-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-2913-7"><bdi>978-0-7524-2913-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Celts%3A+Origins%2C+Myths+and+Inventions&rft.place=Stroud&rft.pages=180&rft.pub=Tempus+Publishing&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7524-2913-7&rft.aulast=Collis&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-JCollis3-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-JCollis3_138-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollis2003" class="citation book cs1">Collis, John (2003). <i>The Celts: Origins, Myths and Inventions</i>. 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(2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VgBtaDT-evYC&q=Celts%20were%20master%20horsemen&pg=PA5"><i>The Celtic languages in contact</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Potsdam_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Potsdam University Press">Potsdam University Press</a>. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-940793-07-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-940793-07-2"><bdi>978-3-940793-07-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Celtic+languages+in+contact&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Potsdam+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-3-940793-07-2&rft.aulast=Tristram&rft.aufirst=Hildegard+L.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVgBtaDT-evYC%26q%3DCelts%2520were%2520master%2520horsemen%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNí_Dhoireann" class="citation web cs1">Ní Dhoireann, Kym. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100514101456/http://www.cyberpict.net/horses/clthrs.htm">"The Horse Amongst the Celts"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cyberpict.net/horses/clthrs.htm">the original</a> on 14 May 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Horse+Amongst+the+Celts&rft.aulast=N%C3%AD+Dhoireann&rft.aufirst=Kym&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cyberpict.net%2Fhorses%2Fclthrs.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.smr.herefordshire.gov.uk/hist_periods/iron_age.htm">The Iron Age</a>". Smr.herefordshire.gov.uk. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090207021902/http://www.smr.herefordshire.gov.uk/hist_periods/iron_age.htm">Archived</a> 7 February 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LspvFOZQTakC&pg=PA56">The Landscape of Britain</a></i>. Reed, Michael (1997). <a href="/wiki/CRC_Press" title="CRC Press">CRC Press</a>. p. 56. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-203-44411-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-203-44411-6">0-203-44411-6</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Simmons_1615-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Simmons_1615_143-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Simmons_1615_143-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Simmons_1615_143-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimmons2006" class="citation book cs1">Simmons, Victoria (2006). Koch, John T. (ed.). <i>Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 October</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sacramentum+Mundi+Online&rft.atitle=Holy+Spirit+-+Gifts+of+the+Holy+Spirit&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F2468-483x_smuo_com_001832&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1163%2F2468-483x_smuo_com_001832&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Simmons, <i>op. cit.</i>, citing: Davies, Wendy; <i>Wales in the Early Middle Ages</i>; p. 64.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Simmons, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 1616, citing: Kelly; <i>Guide to Early Irish Law</i>; p. 96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCunliffe2018" class="citation book cs1">Cunliffe, Barry W. 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(1996). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/landofwomentales00bite"><i>Land of Women: Tales of Sex and Gender from Early Ireland</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University_Press" title="Cornell University Press">Cornell University Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/landofwomentales00bite/page/212">212</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-8544-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-8544-2"><bdi>978-0-8014-8544-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Land+of+Women%3A+Tales+of+Sex+and+Gender+from+Early+Ireland&rft.pages=212&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-8544-2&rft.aulast=Bitel&rft.aufirst=Lisa+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flandofwomentales00bite&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPercy1996" class="citation book cs1">Percy, William A. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 September</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pederasty+and+Pedagogy+in+Archaic+Greece&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-252-06740-2&rft.aulast=Percy&rft.aufirst=William+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpederastypedagog00perc%2Fpage%2F18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span>; Rankin, H. David; <i>Celts and the Classical World</i>; p. 55.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rankin, p. 78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rankin, p. 55.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.courts.ie/history-law-ireland#:~:text=In%20many%20respects%20Brehon%20law,punishment%20was%20prescribed%20for%20wrongdoing.">"History of the Law in Ireland | The Courts Service of Ireland"</a>. <i>www.courts.ie</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 June</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.courts.ie&rft.atitle=History+of+the+Law+in+Ireland+%7C+The+Courts+Service+of+Ireland&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.courts.ie%2Fhistory-law-ireland%23%3A~%3Atext%3DIn%2520many%2520respects%2520Brehon%2520law%2Cpunishment%2520was%2520prescribed%2520for%2520wrongdoing.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cáin_Lánamna_(Couples_Law)-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cáin_Lánamna_(Couples_Law)_170-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">University College, Cork. <i> Cáin Lánamna (Couples Law) </i>. 2005.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucc.ie/celt/online/G102030.html">"Cáin Lánamna"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081216104108/http://www.ucc.ie/celt/online/G102030.html">Archived</a> from the original on 16 December 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 November</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=C%C3%A1in+L%C3%A1namna&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucc.ie%2Fcelt%2Fonline%2FG102030.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span> Access date: 7 March 2006.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tintignac.wix.com/tintignac-naves#!english/c11e3">"Accueil"</a> [Home]. <i>Site archéologique de Tintignac-Naves</i> (in French). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150801011716/http://tintignac.wix.com/tintignac-naves">Archived</a> from the original on 1 August 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Site+arch%C3%A9ologique+de+Tintignac-Naves&rft.atitle=Accueil&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftintignac.wix.com%2Ftintignac-naves%23%21english%2Fc11e3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lambert, Pierre-Yves (2003). <i>La langue gauloise</i>. Paris, Editions Errance. 2nd edition. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-87772-224-4" title="Special:BookSources/2-87772-224-4">2-87772-224-4</a>. Chapter 9 is titled "Un calandrier gaulois"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lehoux, D. R. <i>Parapegmata: or Astrology, Weather, and Calendars in the Ancient World</i>, pp 63–65. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/ftp03/NQ53766.pdf">PhD Dissertation, University of Toronto, 2000</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060923180849/http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/ftp03/NQ53766.pdf">Archived</a> 23 September 2006 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dionysius of Halicarnassus, <i>Roman Antiquities</i> p. 259 Excerpts from Book XIV</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllis1998" class="citation book cs1">Ellis, Peter Berresford (1998). <i>The Celts: A History</i>. Caroll & Graf. pp. <span class="nowrap">60–</span>63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7867-1211-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7867-1211-3"><bdi>978-0-7867-1211-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Celts%3A+A+History&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E60-%3C%2Fspan%3E63&rft.pub=Caroll+%26+Graf&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-7867-1211-3&rft.aulast=Ellis&rft.aufirst=Peter+Berresford&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Noricus ensis", <a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a>, Odes, i. 16.9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vagn Fabritius Buchwald, Iron and steel in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">ancient times</a>, 2005, p. 127</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Radomir Pleiner, in <i>The Celtic Sword</i>, Oxford: Clarendon Press (1993), p. 159.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKiley2013" class="citation book cs1">Kiley, Kevin F. (2013). <i>Uniforms of the Roman world</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Uniforms+of+the+Roman+world&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Kiley&rft.aufirst=Kevin+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (July 2022)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Polybius, <i>Histories</i> II.28</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Livy, <i>History</i> XXII.46 and XXXVIII.21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Koch_head_cult-182"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Koch_head_cult_182-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Koch_head_cult_182-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Koch_head_cult_182-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Koch_head_cult_182-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Koch_head_cult_182-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoch2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_T._Koch" title="John T. Koch">Koch, John T.</a> (2006). <i>Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia</i>. <a href="/wiki/ABC-CLIO" class="mw-redirect" title="ABC-CLIO">ABC-CLIO</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">897–</span>898.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Celtic+Culture%3A+A+Historical+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E897-%3C%2Fspan%3E898&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Koch&rft.aufirst=John+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jacobsthal, Paul; <i>Early Celtic Art</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Salma Ghezal, Elsa Ciesielski, Benjamin Girard, Aurélien Creuzieux, Peter Gosnell, Carole Mathe, Cathy Vieillescazes, Réjane Roure (2019), "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305440318303194">Embalmed heads of the Celtic Iron Age in the south of France</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190226211008/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305440318303194">Archived</a> 26 February 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Archaeological_Science" title="Journal of Archaeological Science">Journal of Archaeological Science</a></i>, Volume 101, pp.181-188, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jas.2018.09.011">10.1016/j.jas.2018.09.011</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/nov/07/the-gauls-really-did-embalm-the-severed-heads-of-enemies-research-shows">"The Gauls really did embalm the severed heads of enemies, research shows"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i>. 7 November 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220519154329/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/nov/07/the-gauls-really-did-embalm-the-severed-heads-of-enemies-research-shows">Archived</a> from the original on 19 May 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=The+Gauls+really+did+embalm+the+severed+heads+of+enemies%2C+research+shows&rft.date=2018-11-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fscience%2F2018%2Fnov%2F07%2Fthe-gauls-really-did-embalm-the-severed-heads-of-enemies-research-shows&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCunliffe1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Barry_Cunliffe" title="Barry Cunliffe">Cunliffe, Barry</a> (1997). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientcelts00cunl_933"><i>The Ancient Celts</i></a></span>. Oxford, UK; New York, NY: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientcelts00cunl_933/page/n116">202</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-815010-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-815010-7"><bdi>978-0-19-815010-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Celts&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK%3B+New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=202&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-19-815010-7&rft.aulast=Cunliffe&rft.aufirst=Barry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fancientcelts00cunl_933&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davidson_heads-187"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Davidson_heads_187-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davidson_heads_187-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavidson1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hilda_Ellis_Davidson" title="Hilda Ellis Davidson">Davidson, Hilda Ellis</a> (1988). <i>Myths and Symbols in Pagan Europe: Early Scandinavian and Celtic Religions</i>. <a href="/wiki/Syracuse_University_Press" title="Syracuse University Press">Syracuse University Press</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">72–</span>75.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Myths+and+Symbols+in+Pagan+Europe%3A+Early+Scandinavian+and+Celtic+Religions&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E72-%3C%2Fspan%3E75&rft.pub=Syracuse+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Davidson&rft.aufirst=Hilda+Ellis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEgeler2013" class="citation book cs1">Egeler, Matthias (2013). <i>Celtic Influences in Germanic Religion</i>. Utz. p. 112.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Celtic+Influences+in+Germanic+Religion&rft.pages=112&rft.pub=Utz&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Egeler&rft.aufirst=Matthias&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cunliffe_religion-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cunliffe_religion_189-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cunliffe_religion_189-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cunliffe_religion_189-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cunliffe_religion_189-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cunliffe_religion_189-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cunliffe_religion_189-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cunliffe_religion_189-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cunliffe_religion_189-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cunliffe_religion_189-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cunliffe_religion_189-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cunliffe_religion_189-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cunliffe_religion_189-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cunliffe_religion_189-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCunliffe2018" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Barry_Cunliffe" title="Barry Cunliffe">Cunliffe, Barry</a> (2018) [1997]. 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London: B.T. Batsford. p. 103.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Green,_The_Celtic_World-192"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Green,_The_Celtic_World_192-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Green,_The_Celtic_World_192-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Green,_The_Celtic_World_192-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Miranda_Aldhouse-Green" title="Miranda Aldhouse-Green">Green, Miranda</a> (2012). "Chapter 25: The Gods and the supernatural", <i>The Celtic World</i>. Routledge. pp.465–485</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Koch_religion-193"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Koch_religion_193-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Koch_religion_193-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Koch_religion_193-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Koch_religion_193-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Koch_religion_193-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoch2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_T._Koch" title="John T. Koch">Koch, John T.</a> (2006). <i>Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia</i>. <a href="/wiki/ABC-CLIO" class="mw-redirect" title="ABC-CLIO">ABC-CLIO</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">1488–</span>1491.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Celtic+Culture%3A+A+Historical+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1488-%3C%2Fspan%3E1491&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Koch&rft.aufirst=John+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sjoestedt-194"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sjoestedt_194-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sjoestedt_194-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Marie-Louise_Sjoestedt" title="Marie-Louise Sjoestedt">Sjoestedt, Marie-Louise</a> (originally published in French, 1940, reissued 1982). <i>Gods and Heroes of the Celts</i>. Translated by Myles Dillon, Turtle Island Foundation <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-913666-52-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-913666-52-1">0-913666-52-1</a>, pp. 16, 24–46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Inse_Jones_1995-195"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Inse_Jones_1995_195-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Inse_Jones_1995_195-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Inse Jones, Prudence, and Nigel Pennick. <i>History of pagan Europe</i>. London: Routledge, 1995. Print.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sjoestedt5-196"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sjoestedt5_196-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sjoestedt (1982) pp. xxvi–xix.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Green94-96-197"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Green94-96_197-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Miranda_Aldhouse-Green" title="Miranda Aldhouse-Green">Green, Miranda</a> (2002). <i>Animals in Celtic Life and Myth</i>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">94–</span>96.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Animals+in+Celtic+Life+and+Myth&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E94-%3C%2Fspan%3E96&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=Miranda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-koch687-690-198"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-koch687-690_198-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoch2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_T._Koch" title="John T. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=%27It%27s+upset+a+lot+of+people%27%3A+outrage+after+tidy-up+of+Scottish+sacred+well&rft.date=2022-01-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fuk-news%2F2022%2Fjan%2F30%2Fupset-a-lot-of-people-outrage-tidy-up-of-scottish-sacred-well-clootie-offerings&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoch2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_T._Koch" title="John T. 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id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchiffels_et_al.20163Table_1-204"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchiffels_et_al.20163Table_1_204-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchiffels_et_al.20163Table_1_204-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchiffels_et_al.2016">Schiffels et al. 2016</a>, p. 3, Table 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartiniano_et_al.20183Table_1-205"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartiniano_et_al.20183Table_1_205-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartiniano_et_al.20183Table_1_205-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMartiniano_et_al.2018">Martiniano et al. 2018</a>, p. 3, Table 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer_et_al.20181,_14–15-206"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer_et_al.20181,_14–15_206-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFischer_et_al.2018">Fischer et al. 2018</a>, pp. 1, 14–15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrunel_et_al.20205–6-207"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrunel_et_al.20205–6_207-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrunel_et_al.2020">Brunel et al. 2020</a>, pp. 5–6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer_et_al.2022-208"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer_et_al.2022_208-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer_et_al.2022_208-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer_et_al.2022_208-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFischer_et_al.2022">Fischer et al. 2022</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer_et_al.20191,_4–6,_14–15-209"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer_et_al.20191,_4–6,_14–15_209-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFischer_et_al.2019">Fischer et al. 2019</a>, pp. 1, 4–6, 14–15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer_et_al.20187-210"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer_et_al.20187_210-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer_et_al.20187_210-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFischer_et_al.2018">Fischer et al. 2018</a>, p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer_et_al.20225–6-211"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer_et_al.20225–6_211-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFischer_et_al.2022">Fischer et al. 2022</a>, pp. 5–6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlalde_et_al.20193-212"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlalde_et_al.20193_212-0">^</a></b></span> 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Szabo. eds. <i>The Celts.</i> New York: <a href="/wiki/Thames_%26_Hudson" title="Thames & Hudson">Thames & Hudson</a>, 1991. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8478-2193-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8478-2193-5">0-8478-2193-5</a>. 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Vol. 13. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-09-122220-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-09-122220-8"><bdi>978-0-09-122220-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 March</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Northern+Barbarians&rft.series=Hutchinson&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0-09-122220-8&rft.aulast=Todd&rft.aufirst=Malcolm&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7yBpAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaldmanMason2006" class="citation book cs1">Waldman, Carl; Mason, Catherine (2006). "Celts". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kfv6HKXErqAC"><i>Encyclopedia of European Peoples</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Infobase_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Infobase Publishing">Infobase Publishing</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">144–</span>169. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4381-2918-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-4381-2918-1"><bdi>1-4381-2918-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230311102543/https://books.google.com/books?id=kfv6HKXErqAC">Archived</a> from the original on 11 March 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 July</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Celts&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+European+Peoples&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E144-%3C%2Fspan%3E169&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=1-4381-2918-1&rft.aulast=Waldman&rft.aufirst=Carl&rft.au=Mason%2C+Catherine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dkfv6HKXErqAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACelts" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/40px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/60px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/80px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikivoyage has a travel guide for <i><b><a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Celts#Q35966" class="extiw" title="wikivoyage:Celts">Celts</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Celts" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Celts">Celts</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of the <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">1911 <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i></a> article "<span style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Celt" class="extiw" title="wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Celt">Celt</a></span>".</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_music">Ancient Celtic music</a> – in the <i><a href="/wiki/Citizendium" title="Citizendium">Citizendium</a></i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/index.html">Essays on Celtiberian topics</a> – in <i>e-Keltoi</i>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin,_Madison" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Wisconsin, Madison">University of Wisconsin, Madison</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://skyelander.orgfree.com/menu10.html">Ancient Celtic Warriors in History</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/celts-descended-from-spanish-fishermen-study-finds-416727.html">Celts descended from Spanish fishermen, study finds</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20020221.shtml">Discussion</a> – with academic <a href="/wiki/Barry_Cunliffe" title="Barry Cunliffe">Barry Cunliffe</a>, on <a href="/wiki/BBC_Radio_4" title="BBC Radio 4">BBC Radio 4</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/In_Our_Time_(BBC_Radio_4)" class="mw-redirect" title="In Our Time (BBC Radio 4)">In Our Time</a></i>, 21 February 2002. (Streaming <a href="/wiki/RealPlayer" title="RealPlayer">RealPlayer</a> format)</li></ul> <p><b>Geography</b> </p> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://resourcesforhistory.com/map.htm">An interactive map showing the lands of the Celts between 800 BC and 305 AD.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081006160601/http://www.arqueotavira.com/Mapas/Iberia/Populi.htm">Detailed map of the Pre-Roman Peoples of Iberia (around 200 BC), showing the Celtic territories</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.resourcesforhistory.com/map.htm">Map of Celtic lands</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210225043915/http://www.resourcesforhistory.com/map.htm">Archived</a> 25 February 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> <p><b>Organisations</b> </p> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://newworldcelts.org/">newworldcelts.org</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091030071249/http://www.celtic-congress-2007.com/">XIII. International Congress of Celtic Studies in Bonn</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Celts_and_modern_Celts" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Celts" title="Template:Celts"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Celts" title="Template talk:Celts"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Celts" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Celts"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Celts_and_modern_Celts" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Celts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Celts_(modern)" title="Celts (modern)">modern Celts</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><a href="/wiki/Celtic_nations" title="Celtic nations">Celtic nations</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Celtic_studies" title="Celtic studies">Celtic studies</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Celtic_peoples_and_tribes" title="List of ancient Celtic peoples and tribes">Celtic tribes</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic languages</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Peoples" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Peoples</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Celtic_peoples_and_tribes" title="List of ancient Celtic peoples and tribes">Ancient Celtic ethnic groups</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Names_of_the_Celts" title="Names of the Celts">Names</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belgae" title="Belgae">Belgae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Britons" title="Celtic Britons">Britons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caledonians" title="Caledonians">Caledonians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtiberians" title="Celtiberians">Celtiberians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaels" title="Gaels">Gaels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallaeci" title="Gallaeci">Gallaeci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gauls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galatians_(people)" title="Galatians (people)">Galatians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helvetii" title="Helvetii">Helvetii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lepontii" title="Lepontii">Lepontii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noricum" title="Noricum">Noricum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcae" title="Volcae">Volcae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Celts_(modern)" title="Celts (modern)">Modern Celtic ethnic groups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bretons" title="Bretons">Bretons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_people" title="Cornish people">Cornish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_people" title="Welsh people">Welsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaels" title="Gaels">Gaels</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_people" title="Irish people">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manx_people" title="Manx people">Manx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_people" title="Scottish people">Scots</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Celtic diaspora</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_diaspora" title="Cornish diaspora">Cornish diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_diaspora" title="Irish diaspora">Irish diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_diaspora" title="Scottish diaspora">Scottish diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_diaspora" class="mw-redirect" title="Welsh diaspora">Welsh diaspora</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related ethnic groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Celtic" title="Anglo-Celtic">Anglo-Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breton_Americans" title="Breton Americans">Breton Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_Americans" title="Cornish Americans">Cornish Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_people" title="English people">English people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_people" title="Irish people">Irish people</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Celtic_round_dogs.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Celtic_round_dogs.svg/100px-Celtic_round_dogs.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Celtic_round_dogs.svg/150px-Celtic_round_dogs.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Celtic_round_dogs.svg/200px-Celtic_round_dogs.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="1400" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Studies" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_studies" title="Celtic studies">Studies</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_Ireland" title="Gaelic Ireland">Gaelic Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A1l_Riata" title="Dál Riata">Dálriata</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Alba" title="Kingdom of Alba">Alba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Iron_Age" title="British Iron Age">Iron Age Britain</a> / <a href="/wiki/Brigantia_(ancient_region)" title="Brigantia (ancient region)">Brigantia (ancient region)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Roman Britain</a> / <a href="/wiki/Sub-Roman_Britain" title="Sub-Roman Britain">Sub-Roman Britain</a> / <a href="/wiki/Dumnonia" title="Dumnonia">Dumnonia</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hen_Ogledd" title="Hen Ogledd">Hen Ogledd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Iron Age Gaul</a> / <a href="/wiki/Roman_Gaul" title="Roman Gaul">Roman Gaul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Britonia" title="Britonia">Britonia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armorica" title="Armorica">Armorica</a> / <a href="/wiki/Domnon%C3%A9e" title="Domnonée">Domnonée</a> / <a href="/wiki/Brittany" title="Brittany">Brittany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallaecia" title="Gallaecia">Gallaecia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaul" title="Cisalpine Gaul">Cisalpine Gaul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_settlement_of_Southeast_Europe" title="Celtic settlement of Southeast Europe">Balkans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celts_in_Transylvania" title="Celts in Transylvania">Transylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galatia" title="Galatia">Galatia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Celtic_paganism" title="Proto-Celtic paganism">Proto-Celtic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic polytheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_deities" title="Celtic deities">Celtic deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Animism" title="Celtic Animism">Celtic Animism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_mythology" title="Celtic mythology">Celtic mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Christianity" title="Celtic Christianity">Celtic Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Rite" title="Celtic Rite">Celtic Rites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_stone_idols" title="Celtic stone idols">Celtic stone idolss</a>* <a href="/wiki/Druid" title="Druid">Druids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_Monasticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Insular Monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Celtic_temple" title="Romano-Celtic temple">Romano-Celtic temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Celtic_pagan_practices" title="Template:Celtic pagan practices">Practices</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mythology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_mythology" title="Irish mythology">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_mythology" title="Scottish mythology">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_mythology" title="Welsh mythology">Welsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matter_of_Britain" title="Matter of Britain">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breton_mythology" title="Breton mythology">Breton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_mythology" title="Cornish mythology">Cornish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bard" title="Bard">Bard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brehon" title="Brehon">Brehon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_calendar" title="Celtic calendar">Celtic calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Celtic_festivals" title="List of Celtic festivals">Celtic festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_women" title="Ancient Celtic women">Celtic women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celticisation" title="Celticisation">Celticisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_of_the_Name" title="Chief of the Name">Chief of the Name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derbfine" title="Derbfine">Derbfine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Druid" title="Druid">Druid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_clan_chief" title="Scottish clan chief">Clan chief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelicisation" title="Gaelicisation">Gaelicisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Irish_astrology" title="Early Irish astrology">Gaelic astrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A1inne" title="Fáinne">Fáinne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fili" class="mw-redirect" title="Fili">Fili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_law" title="Celtic law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanistry" title="Tanistry">Tanistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seancha%C3%AD" title="Seanchaí">Seanchaí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sept" title="Sept">Sept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BAath" title="Túath">Túath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vates" title="Vates">Vates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic warfare">Warfare</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gaelic_warfare" title="Gaelic warfare">Gaelic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_coinage" title="Celtic coinage">Coinage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Modern_Celts" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Celts_(modern)" title="Celts (modern)">Modern Celts</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Revival" title="Celtic Revival">Celtic Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_nations" title="Celtic nations">Celtic nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Celticism" title="Pan-Celticism">Pan-Celticism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Congress" title="Celtic Congress">Celtic Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_League" title="Celtic League">Celtic League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_union" title="Celtic union">Celtic union</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_music" title="Celtic music">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_rock" title="Celtic rock">Rock</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Celtic_Christianity" title="Neo-Celtic Christianity">Neo-Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_neopaganism" title="Celtic neopaganism">Neopaganism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Wicca" title="Celtic Wicca">Celtic Wicca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Druidry_(modern)" title="Druidry (modern)">Neo-Druidism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Nations" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_nations" title="Celtic nations">Nations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_League" title="Celtic League">Celtic League</a> definition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brittany" title="Brittany">Brittany</a> (<span title="Breton-language text"><i lang="br">Breizh</i></span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornwall" title="Cornwall">Cornwall</a> (<span title="Cornish-language text"><i lang="kw">Kernow</i></span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> (<span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga">Éire</i></span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Man" title="Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a> (<span title="Manx-language text"><i lang="gv">Mannin</i></span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> (<span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">Alba</i></span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a> (<span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">Cymru</i></span>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other claimants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nova_Scotia" title="Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y_Wladfa" title="Y Wladfa">Y Wladfa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Culture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Culture</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_literature" title="Celtic literature">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matter_of_Britain" title="Matter of Britain">Arthurian Legend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_bardic_poetry" title="Irish bardic poetry">Bardic Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breton_literature" title="Breton literature">Breton literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_literature" title="Cornish literature">Cornish literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_literature" title="Irish literature">Irish literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manx_literature" title="Manx literature">Manx literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_literature" title="Scottish literature">Scottish literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh-language_literature" title="Welsh-language literature">Welsh-language literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_literature_in_English" title="Welsh literature in English">Welsh literature in English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Irish_literature" title="Early Irish literature">Early Irish literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_annals" title="Irish annals">Irish annals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_literature" title="Gaelic literature">Gaelic literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_literature" title="Scottish Gaelic literature">Scottish Gaelic literature</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National cultures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Brittany" title="Culture of Brittany">Brittany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Cornwall" title="Culture of Cornwall">Cornwall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Ireland" title="Culture of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_Isle_of_Man" title="Culture of the Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Scotland" title="Culture of Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Wales" title="Culture of Wales">Wales</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_art" title="Celtic art">Art</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bell_shrine" title="Bell shrine">Bell shrines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_brooch" title="Celtic brooch">Brooches</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dragonesque_brooch" title="Dragonesque brooch">Dragonesque</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnyx" title="Carnyx">Carnyx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_cross" title="Celtic cross">Celtic cross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_knot" title="Celtic knot">Knotwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_cross" title="High cross">High crosses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_art" title="Insular art">Insular art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlace_(art)" title="Interlace (art)">Interlace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_leaf-crown" title="Celtic leaf-crown">Leaf-crowns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_maze" title="Celtic maze">Mazes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pictish_stone" title="Pictish stone">Pictish stones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torc" title="Torc">Torcs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triskelion" title="Triskelion">Triple spiral</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Clothing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Dress" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic Dress">Celtic Dress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_clothing" title="Irish clothing">Gaelic clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highland_dress" title="Highland dress">Highland dress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tartan" title="Tartan">Tartan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regional cultures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_Ireland" title="Gaelic Ireland">Gaelic culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Highlands" title="Scottish Highlands">Highland culture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_music" title="Celtic music">Music</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_music" title="Ancient Celtic music">Ancient Celtic music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Brittany" title="Music of Brittany">Breton Folk music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_folk_music" title="Gaelic folk music">Gaelic music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_traditional_music" title="Irish traditional music">Irish folk music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_folk_music" title="Scottish folk music">Scottish folk music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_folk_music" title="Welsh folk music">Welsh folk music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sean-n%C3%B3s_singing" title="Sean-nós singing">Sean-nós singing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnyx" title="Carnyx">Carnyx</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="National_music_scenes" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National music scenes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Brittany" title="Music of Brittany">Brittany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Cornwall" title="Music of Cornwall">Cornwall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_music_of_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Folk music of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_Isle_of_Man" title="Music of the Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Scotland" title="Music of Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Wales" title="Music of Wales">Wales</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Celtic_festivals" title="List of Celtic festivals">Festivals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_calendar" title="Celtic calendar">Calendar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samhain" title="Samhain">Samhain</a>/<a href="/wiki/Calan_Gaeaf" title="Calan Gaeaf">Calan Gaeaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imbolc" title="Imbolc">Imbolc</a>/<a href="/wiki/G%C5%B5yl_Fair_y_Canhwyllau" title="Gŵyl Fair y Canhwyllau">Gŵyl Fair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beltane" title="Beltane">Beltane</a>/<a href="/wiki/Calan_Mai" title="Calan Mai">Calan Mai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lughnasadh" title="Lughnasadh">Lughnasadh</a>/<a href="/wiki/Gathering_Day" title="Gathering Day">Calan Awst</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festival_Interceltique_de_Lorient" title="Festival Interceltique de Lorient">Festival Interceltique de Lorient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan_Celtic_Festival" title="Pan Celtic Festival">Pan Celtic Festival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebridean_Celtic_Festival" title="Hebridean Celtic Festival">Hebridean Celtic Festival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Connections" title="Celtic Connections">Celtic Connections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Media_Festival" title="Celtic Media Festival">Celtic Media Festival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisteddfod" title="Eisteddfod">Eisteddfod</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sport</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bando_(sport)" title="Bando (sport)">Bando</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bataireacht" class="mw-redirect" title="Bataireacht">Bataireacht</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camogie" title="Camogie">Camogie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cammag" title="Cammag">Cammag</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cnapan" title="Cnapan">Cnapan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_hurling" title="Cornish hurling">Cornish hurling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_wrestling" title="Cornish wrestling">Cornish wrestling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curling" title="Curling">Curling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_football" title="Gaelic football">Gaelic football</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ladies%27_Gaelic_football" title="Ladies' Gaelic football">Ladies'</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_handball" title="Gaelic handball">Gaelic handball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gouren" title="Gouren">Gouren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rounders" title="Rounders">Rounders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highland_games" title="Highland games">Highland games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurling" title="Hurling">Hurling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_road_bowling" title="Irish road bowling">Road bowls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shinty" title="Shinty">Shinty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_handball" title="Welsh handball">Welsh handball</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Politics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Politics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nationalism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breton_nationalism" title="Breton nationalism">Breton nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Breton_nationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Breton nationalism">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reunification_of_Brittany" title="Reunification of Brittany">reunification</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_nationalism" title="Cornish nationalism">Cornish nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_status_of_Cornwall" title="Constitutional status of Cornwall">status</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_nationalism" title="Irish nationalism">Irish nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manx_nationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Manx nationalism">Isle of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_status_of_Orkney,_Shetland_and_the_Western_Isles" title="Constitutional status of Orkney, Shetland and the Western Isles">Constitutional status of Orkney, Shetland and the Western Isles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_nationalism" title="Scottish nationalism">Scottish nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_national_identity" title="Scottish national identity">national identity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_nationalism" title="Welsh nationalism">Welsh nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_national_identity" class="mw-redirect" title="Welsh national identity">national identity</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Autonomy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_devolution" title="Cornish devolution">Cornish devolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_devolution" title="Scottish devolution">Scottish devolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_devolution" title="Welsh devolution">Welsh devolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Independence</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breton_independence" class="mw-redirect" title="Breton independence">Breton independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_independence" title="Scottish independence">Scottish independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_independence" title="Welsh independence">Welsh independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Ireland" title="United Ireland">United Ireland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Irish_republicanism" title="Irish republicanism">Irish republicanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pan-Celticism" title="Pan-Celticism">Pan-Celticism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_League" title="Celtic League">Celtic League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Congress" title="Celtic Congress">Celtic Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Revival" title="Celtic Revival">Celtic Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_society" title="Celtic society">Celtic society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_unity" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic unity">Celtic unity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columba_Project" title="Columba Project">Columba Project</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Brittonic_languages" title="Brittonic languages">Brittonic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breton_language" title="Breton language">Breton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_language" title="Cornish language">Cornish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Goidelic_languages" title="Goidelic languages">Goidelic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_language" title="Irish language">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manx_language" title="Manx language">Manx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic" title="Scottish Gaelic">Scottish Gaelic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mixed_language" title="Mixed language">Mixed</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shelta" title="Shelta">Shelta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bungi_dialect" title="Bungi dialect">Bungi Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beurla_Reagaird" title="Beurla Reagaird">Beurla Reagaird</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Continental_Celtic_languages" title="Continental Celtic languages">Ancient Celtic languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Extinct_language" title="Extinct language">Extinct</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Celtic_language" title="Proto-Celtic language">Proto-Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_Brittonic" title="Common Brittonic">Proto-Brittonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primitive_Irish" title="Primitive Irish">Proto-Goidelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtiberian_language" title="Celtiberian language">Celtiberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaulish" title="Gaulish">Gaulish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galatian_language" title="Galatian language">Galatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallaecian_language" title="Gallaecian language">Gallaecian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lepontic_language" title="Lepontic language">Lepontic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noric_language" title="Noric language">Noric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cumbric" title="Cumbric">Cumbric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pictish_language" title="Pictish language">Pictish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispano-Celtic_languages" title="Hispano-Celtic languages">Hispano-Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaulish" title="Cisalpine Gaulish">Cisalpine Gaulish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic" title="Scottish Gaelic">Scottish Gaelic</a> dialects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arran_Gaelic" title="Arran Gaelic">Arran Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deeside_Gaelic" title="Deeside Gaelic">Deeside Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galwegian_Gaelic" title="Galwegian Gaelic">Galwegian Gaelic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Law_and_Warfare" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_law" title="Celtic law">Law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_warfare" title="Ancient Celtic warfare">Warfare</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_law" title="Celtic law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Irish_law" title="Early Irish law">Early Irish law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyfraith_Hywel" title="Cyfraith Hywel">Cyfraith Hywel</a> (Medieval Welsh law)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Scots_law" title="History of Scots law">Early Scots law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_warfare" title="Ancient Celtic warfare">Warfare</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_warfare" title="Gaelic warfare">Gaelic warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cateran" title="Cateran">Ceathairne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kern_(soldier)" title="Kern (soldier)">Ceithearn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fianna" title="Fianna">Fianna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaesatae" title="Gaesatae">Gaesatae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallowglass" title="Gallowglass">Gallóglaigh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hobelar" title="Hobelar">Hobelar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redshank_(soldier)" title="Redshank (soldier)">Redshanks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trimarcisia" title="Trimarcisia">Trimarcisia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Lists" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Lists</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Celtic_peoples_and_tribes" title="List of ancient Celtic peoples and tribes">Tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Celtic_deities" title="List of Celtic deities">Deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_English_words_of_Celtic_origin" title="Lists of English words of Celtic origin">Celtic words in English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Spanish_words_of_Celtic_origin" title="List of Spanish words of Celtic origin">– in Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Galician_words_of_Celtic_origin" title="List of Galician words of Celtic origin">– in Galician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_words_of_Gaulish_origin" title="List of French words of Gaulish origin">Gaulish words in French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Celtic_place_names_in_Galicia" title="List of Celtic place names in Galicia">Celtic place names in Galicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Celtic_place_names_in_Italy" title="List of Celtic place names in Italy">– in Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Celtic_place_names_in_Portugal" title="List of Celtic place names in Portugal">– in Portugal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Celts" title="Portal:Celts">Celts portal</a></li> <li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Triple-Spiral-4turns_green_transparent.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Triple-Spiral-4turns_green_transparent.svg/16px-Triple-Spiral-4turns_green_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Triple-Spiral-4turns_green_transparent.svg/24px-Triple-Spiral-4turns_green_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Triple-Spiral-4turns_green_transparent.svg/32px-Triple-Spiral-4turns_green_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="639" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Gaels" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Gaels" title="Template:Gaels"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Gaels" title="Template talk:Gaels"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Gaels" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Gaels"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Gaels" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Gaels" title="Gaels">Gaels</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_Ireland" title="Gaelic Ireland">Gaelic Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Norman_invasion_Irish_Celtic_kinship_groups" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Norman invasion Irish Celtic kinship groups">Pre-Norman invasion Irish Celtic kinship groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_King_of_Ireland" title="High King of Ireland">High King of Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Irish_kingdoms" title="List of Irish kingdoms">Irish kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A1l_Riata" title="Dál Riata">Dál Riata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Alba" title="Kingdom of Alba">Alba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nine_Years%27_War_(Ireland)" title="Nine Years' War (Ireland)">Nine Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutes_of_Iona" title="Statutes of Iona">Statutes of Iona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_of_the_Earls" title="Flight of the Earls">Flight of the Earls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_of_Ulster" title="Plantation of Ulster">Plantation of Ulster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Rebellion_of_1641" title="Irish Rebellion of 1641">1641 Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_for_the_Settlement_of_Ireland_1652" title="Act for the Settlement of Ireland 1652">Act for the Settlement of Ireland 1652</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobitism" title="Jacobitism">Jacobitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobite_rising_of_1745" title="Jacobite rising of 1745">Jacobite rising of 1745</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_laws_(Ireland)" title="Penal laws (Ireland)">Penal Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland)" title="Great Famine (Ireland)">Great Hunger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_diaspora" title="Irish diaspora">Irish diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highland_Clearances" title="Highland Clearances">Highland Clearances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_revival" title="Gaelic revival">Gaelic Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaeltacht" title="Gaeltacht">Gaeltacht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%A0idhealtachd" title="Gàidhealtachd">Gàidhealtachd</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Gaelic culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ogham" title="Ogham">Ogham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Irish_law" title="Early Irish law">Brehon law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_mythology" title="Irish mythology">Gaelic mythology</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lebor_Gab%C3%A1la_%C3%89renn" title="Lebor Gabála Érenn">Lebor Gabála Érenn</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_warfare" title="Gaelic warfare">Gaelic warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Irish_astrology" title="Early Irish astrology">Gaelic astrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_kinship" title="Irish kinship">Gaelic kinship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_bardic_poetry" title="Irish bardic poetry">Bardic poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_literature" title="Gaelic literature">Gaelic literature</a> (<a href="/wiki/Early_Irish_literature" title="Early Irish literature">Early Irish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Modern_literature_in_Irish" title="Modern literature in Irish">Modern Irish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_literature" title="Scottish Gaelic literature">Scottish Gaelic</a> & <a href="/wiki/Manx_literature" title="Manx literature">Manx</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_type" title="Gaelic type">Gaelic type</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_script" title="Insular script">Insular script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A1inne" title="Fáinne">Fáinne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_folk_music" title="Gaelic folk music">Gaelic folk music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sean-n%C3%B3s_singing" title="Sean-nós singing">Sean-nós singing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oireachtas_na_Gaeilge" title="Oireachtas na Gaeilge">Oireachtas na Gaeilge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_National_M%C3%B2d" title="Royal National Mòd">Am Mòd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_games" title="Gaelic games">Gaelic games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highland_games" title="Highland games">Highland games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BAath" title="Túath">Túath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Christianity" title="Celtic Christianity">Insular Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiberno-Scottish_mission" title="Hiberno-Scottish mission">Gaelic Christian mission</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Goidelic_languages" title="Goidelic languages">Language</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Primitive_Irish" title="Primitive Irish">Primitive Irish</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Irish" title="Old Irish">Old Irish</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Irish" title="Middle Irish">Middle Irish</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Classical_Gaelic" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Gaelic">Classical Gaelic</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_language" title="Irish language">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manx_language" title="Manx language">Manx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic" title="Scottish Gaelic">Scottish Gaelic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Clans</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Irish" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Irish_clans" title="Irish clans">Irish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_royal_families" title="Irish royal families">Royal families</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Irish_kings" title="Lists of Irish kings">Kings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_medical_families" title="Irish medical families">Medical families</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_nobility_of_Ireland" title="Gaelic nobility of Ireland">Nobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_genealogy" title="Irish genealogy">Genealogy</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="List" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Irish_clans" title="List of Irish clans">List</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Connachta" title="Connachta">Connachta</a> (incl. <a href="/wiki/U%C3%AD_N%C3%A9ill" title="Uí Néill">Uí Néill</a>, <a href="/wiki/Airg%C3%ADalla" title="Airgíalla">Clan Colla</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clan_Donald" title="Clan Donald">Clan Donald</a>, <a href="/wiki/U%C3%AD_Mh%C3%A1ine" title="Uí Mháine">Uí Mháine</a>, etc)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalcassians" title="Dalcassians">Dalcassians</a> (incl. <a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9isi" title="Déisi">Déisi</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/E%C3%B3ganachta" title="Eóganachta">Eóganachta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iverni" title="Iverni">Érainn</a> (incl. <a href="/wiki/D%C3%A1l_Riata" title="Dál Riata">Dál Riata</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corcu_Lo%C3%ADgde" title="Corcu Loígde">Corcu Loígde</a>, <a href="/wiki/D%C3%A1l_Fiatach" title="Dál Fiatach">Dál Fiatach</a>, etc)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laigin" title="Laigin">Laigin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulaid" title="Ulaid">Ulaid</a> (incl. <a href="/wiki/D%C3%A1l_nAraidi" title="Dál nAraidi">Dál nAraidi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conmaicne" title="Conmaicne">Conmaicne</a>, and <a href="/wiki/C%C3%ADarraige" title="Cíarraige">Cíarraige</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Irish_clans_in_Ulster" title="List of Irish clans in Ulster">Ulster</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_clan" title="Scottish clan">Scottish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Scottish_clans" title="List of Scottish clans">List</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related<br />organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%9Adar%C3%A1s_na_Gaeltachta" title="Údarás na Gaeltachta">Údarás na Gaeltachta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foras_na_Gaeilge" title="Foras na Gaeilge">Foras na Gaeilge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%B2rd_na_G%C3%A0idhlig" title="Bòrd na Gàidhlig">Bòrd na Gàidhlig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_Vannin" title="Culture Vannin">Culture Vannin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conradh_na_Gaeilge" title="Conradh na Gaeilge">Conradh na Gaeilge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Comunn_G%C3%A0idhealach" title="An Comunn Gàidhealach">An Comunn Gàidhealach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yn_%C3%87heshaght_Ghailckagh" title="Yn Çheshaght Ghailckagh">Yn Çheshaght Ghailckagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seachtain_na_Gaeilge" title="Seachtain na Gaeilge">Seachtain na Gaeilge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gael_Linn" title="Gael Linn">Gael Linn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ULTACH_Trust" title="ULTACH Trust">ULTACH Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comunn_na_G%C3%A0idhlig" title="Comunn na Gàidhlig">Comunn na Gàidhlig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columba_Project" title="Columba Project">Columba Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clans_of_Ireland" title="Clans of Ireland">Clans of Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Coimisin%C3%A9ir_Teanga" title="An Coimisinéir Teanga">An Coimisinéir Teanga</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related subjects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_R-M269" title="Haplogroup R-M269">Haplogroup R-M269</a> (<a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_the_British_Isles" title="Genetic history of the British Isles">human genetics</a>)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Celts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norse%E2%80%93Gaels" title="Norse–Gaels">Norse–Gaels</a> (incl. <a href="/wiki/U%C3%AD_%C3%8Dmair" title="Uí Ímair">Uí Ímair</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clan_MacLeod" title="Clan MacLeod">Clan MacLeod</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Munster" title="Kingdom of Munster">Kingdom of Munster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Isles" title="Kingdom of the Isles">Kingdom of the Isles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelicisation" title="Gaelicisation">Gaelicisation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Gaels" title="Category:Gaels">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Gauls" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Gallic_peoples" title="Template:Gallic peoples"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Gallic_peoples" title="Template talk:Gallic peoples"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Gallic_peoples" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Gallic peoples"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Gauls" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gauls</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Allia" title="Battle of the Allia">Battle of the Allia</a> (ca. 387 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_settlement_of_Southeast_Europe" title="Celtic settlement of Southeast Europe">Celtic settlement of Southeast Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galatian_War" title="Galatian War">Galatian War</a> (189 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Transalpine_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First Transalpine War">First Transalpine War</a> (125–121 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallic_Wars" title="Gallic Wars">Gallic Wars</a> (58–50 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Gaul" title="Roman Gaul">Roman Gaul</a> (50 BC–476 AD)</li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sequani_coin_5th_to_1st_century_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Sequani gold coin"><img alt="Sequani gold coin" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Sequani_coin_5th_to_1st_century_BCE.jpg/70px-Sequani_coin_5th_to_1st_century_BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="70" height="71" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Sequani_coin_5th_to_1st_century_BCE.jpg/105px-Sequani_coin_5th_to_1st_century_BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Sequani_coin_5th_to_1st_century_BCE.jpg/140px-Sequani_coin_5th_to_1st_century_BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1954" data-file-height="1977" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ambactus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ambactus (page does not exist)">Ambactus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bard" title="Bard">Bard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Druid" title="Druid">Druid</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eubages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eubages (page does not exist)">Eubages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_culture" title="Gallo-Roman culture">Gallo-Roman culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemeton" title="Nemeton">Nemeton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppidum" title="Oppidum">Oppidum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaulish" title="Gaulish">Language</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaulish" title="Cisalpine Gaulish">Cisalpine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galatian_language" title="Galatian language">Galatian</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_T%C3%A8ne_culture" title="La Tène culture">La Tène culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaulish_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaulish religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vates" title="Vates">Vātes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vergobret" title="Vergobret">Vergobret</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Peoples</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><a href="/wiki/Gallia_Belgica" title="Gallia Belgica">Belgica</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambiani" title="Ambiani">Ambiani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aresaces" title="Aresaces">Aresaces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atrebates" title="Atrebates">Atrebates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atuatuci" title="Atuatuci">Atuatuci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bellovaci" title="Bellovaci">Bellovaci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caeracates" title="Caeracates">Caeracates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caeroesi" class="mw-redirect" title="Caeroesi">Caeroesi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caletes" title="Caletes">Caletes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catuslugi" title="Catuslugi">Catuslugi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalauni" title="Catalauni">Catalauni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condrusi" title="Condrusi">Condrusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eburones" title="Eburones">Eburones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leuci" title="Leuci">Leuci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediomatrici" title="Mediomatrici">Mediomatrici</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meldi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Meldi (page does not exist)">Meldi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menapii" title="Menapii">Menapii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morini" title="Morini">Morini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemetes" title="Nemetes">Nemetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nervii" title="Nervii">Nervii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paemani" title="Paemani">Paemani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remi" title="Remi">Remi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silvanectes" title="Silvanectes">Silvanectes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suessiones" title="Suessiones">Suessiones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treveri" title="Treveri">Treveri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triboci" title="Triboci">Triboci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vadicassii" title="Vadicassii">Vadicassii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veliocasses" title="Veliocasses">Veliocasses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viromandui" title="Viromandui">Viromandui</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><a href="/wiki/Gallia_Celtica" title="Gallia Celtica">Celtica</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrincatui" title="Abrincatui">Abrincatui</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ambiliati&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ambiliati (page does not exist)">Ambiliati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedui" title="Aedui">Aedui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambarri" title="Ambarri">Ambarri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andecavi" title="Andecavi">Andecavi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arouii&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arouii (page does not exist)">Arouii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arverni" title="Arverni">Arverni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aulerci" title="Aulerci">Aulerci</a> (<a href="/wiki/Brannovices" title="Brannovices">Brannovices</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aulerci_Cenomani" title="Aulerci Cenomani">Cenomani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diablintes" title="Diablintes">Diablintes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eburovices" title="Eburovices">Eburovices</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodiocasses" title="Bodiocasses">Bodiocasses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bituriges_Cubi" title="Bituriges Cubi">Bituriges Cubi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bituriges_Vivisci" title="Bituriges Vivisci">Bituriges Vivisci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cadurci" title="Cadurci">Cadurci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnutes" title="Carnutes">Carnutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriosolites" title="Coriosolites">Coriosolites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durocasses" title="Durocasses">Durocasses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esuvii" title="Esuvii">Esuvii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabali" title="Gabali">Gabali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helvetii" title="Helvetii">Helvetii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latobrigi" title="Latobrigi">Latobrigi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemovices" title="Lemovices">Lemovices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexovii" title="Lexovii">Lexovii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingones" title="Lingones">Lingones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandubii" title="Mandubii">Mandubii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namnetes" title="Namnetes">Namnetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitiobroges" title="Nitiobroges">Nitiobroges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osismii" title="Osismii">Osismii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parisii_(Gaul)" title="Parisii (Gaul)">Parisii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrocorii" title="Petrocorii">Petrocorii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pictones" title="Pictones">Pictones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rauraci" title="Rauraci">Rauraci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redones" title="Redones">Redones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruteni" title="Ruteni">Ruteni</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sagii&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sagii (page does not exist)">Sagii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santoni_(tribe)" title="Santoni (tribe)">Santoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senones" title="Senones">Senones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segusiavi" title="Segusiavi">Segusiavi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sequani" title="Sequani">Sequani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigurini" title="Tigurini">Tigurini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tricasses" title="Tricasses">Tricasses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulingi" title="Tulingi">Tulingi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turoni" title="Turoni">Turoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vellavii" title="Vellavii">Vellavii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venelli" title="Venelli">Venelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veneti_(Gaul)" title="Veneti (Gaul)">Veneti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viducasses" title="Viducasses">Viducasses</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><a href="/wiki/Gallia_Narbonensis" title="Gallia Narbonensis">Narbonensis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Agesinates&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Agesinates (page does not exist)">Agesinates</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Albici&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Albici (page does not exist)">Albici</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allobroges" title="Allobroges">Allobroges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatilii" title="Anatilii">Anatilii</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atacini&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Atacini (page does not exist)">Atacini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avatici" title="Avatici">Avatici</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bormani&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bormani (page does not exist)">Bormani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Budenicenses" title="Budenicenses">Budenicenses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camactulici" title="Camactulici">Camactulici</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavari" title="Cavari">Cavari</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cenomani_(Narbonensis)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cenomani (Narbonensis) (page does not exist)">Cenomani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comani_(tribe)" title="Comani (tribe)">Comani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dexivates" title="Dexivates">Dexivates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helvii" title="Helvii">Helvii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libicii_(Narbonensis)" title="Libicii (Narbonensis)">Libicii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ligauni" title="Ligauni">Ligauni</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Longostaletes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Longostaletes (page does not exist)">Longostaletes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Memini_(tribe)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Memini (tribe) (page does not exist)">Memini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nearchi" title="Nearchi">Nearchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxybii" title="Oxybii">Oxybii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reii" title="Reii">Reii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salyes" title="Salyes">Salyes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segobrigii" title="Segobrigii">Segobrigii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segovellauni" title="Segovellauni">Segovellauni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suelteri" title="Suelteri">Suelteri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolosates" class="mw-redirect" title="Tolosates">Tolosates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tricastini" title="Tricastini">Tricastini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tricores" title="Tricores">Tricores</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tricorii&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tricorii (page does not exist)">Tricorii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tritolli" title="Tritolli">Tritolli</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vertamocorii_(Narbonensis)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vertamocorii (Narbonensis) (page does not exist)">Vertamocorii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verucini" title="Verucini">Verucini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vocontii" title="Vocontii">Vocontii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcae" title="Volcae">Volcae</a> (<a href="/wiki/Arecomici" title="Arecomici">Arecomici</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tectosages" title="Tectosages">Tectosages</a>)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vulgientes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vulgientes (page does not exist)">Vulgientes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><a href="/wiki/Gallia_Alpina" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallia Alpina">Alpina</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acitavones" title="Acitavones">Acitavones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adanates" title="Adanates">Adanates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adunicates" title="Adunicates">Adunicates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alauni" title="Alauni">Alauni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambidravi" title="Ambidravi">Ambidravi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambilici" title="Ambilici">Ambilici</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambisontes" title="Ambisontes">Ambisontes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aneuniates" title="Aneuniates">Aneuniates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ausuciates" title="Ausuciates">Ausuciates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avantici" title="Avantici">Avantici</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belaci" title="Belaci">Belaci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belouni" title="Belouni">Belouni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benacenses" title="Benacenses">Benacenses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bergalei" title="Bergalei">Bergalei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodiontici" title="Bodiontici">Bodiontici</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brigantii" title="Brigantii">Brigantii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brigianii" title="Brigianii">Brigianii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brixentes" title="Brixentes">Brixentes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calucones" title="Calucones">Calucones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carni" title="Carni">Carni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catenates" title="Catenates">Catenates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catubrini" title="Catubrini">Catubrini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caturiges" title="Caturiges">Caturiges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceutrones" title="Ceutrones">Ceutrones</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosuanetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cosuanetes (page does not exist)">Cosuanetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecdinii" title="Ecdinii">Ecdinii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eguiturii" title="Eguiturii">Eguiturii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallitae" title="Gallitae">Gallitae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genauni" title="Genauni">Genauni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graioceli" title="Graioceli">Graioceli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iemerii" title="Iemerii">Iemerii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingauni" title="Ingauni">Ingauni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Licates" title="Licates">Licates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medulli" title="Medulli">Medulli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nantuates" title="Nantuates">Nantuates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemaloni" title="Nemaloni">Nemaloni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemeturii" title="Nemeturii">Nemeturii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quariates" title="Quariates">Quariates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rucinates" title="Rucinates">Rucinates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salassi" title="Salassi">Salassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savincates" title="Savincates">Savincates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebaginni" title="Sebaginni">Sebaginni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seduni" title="Seduni">Seduni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segovii" title="Segovii">Segovii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segusini" title="Segusini">Segusini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentii" title="Sentii">Sentii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sogionti" title="Sogionti">Sogionti</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Suanetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Suanetes (page does not exist)">Suanetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suetrii" title="Suetrii">Suetrii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tebavii" title="Tebavii">Tebavii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triulatti" title="Triulatti">Triulatti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ucennii" title="Ucennii">Ucennii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vediantii" title="Vediantii">Vediantii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velaunii" title="Velaunii">Velaunii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venisami" title="Venisami">Venisami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venostes" title="Venostes">Venostes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vennones" title="Vennones">Vennones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veragri" title="Veragri">Veragri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vergunni" title="Vergunni">Vergunni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vesubiani" title="Vesubiani">Vesubiani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vindelici" title="Vindelici">Vindelici</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><a href="/wiki/Gallia_Cisalpina" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallia Cisalpina">Cisalpina</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anamares&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anamares (page does not exist)">Anamares</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anauni&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anauni (page does not exist)">Anauni</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anesiates&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anesiates (page does not exist)">Anesiates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arusnates" title="Arusnates">Arusnates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagienni" title="Bagienni">Bagienni</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Boii_(Cisalpine_Gaul)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Boii (Cisalpine Gaul) (page does not exist)">Boii</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bromanenses&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bromanenses (page does not exist)">Bromanenses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cenomani_(Cisalpine_Gaul)" title="Cenomani (Cisalpine Gaul)">Cenomani</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gallianates&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gallianates (page does not exist)">Gallianates</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gennanates&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gennanates (page does not exist)">Gennanates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insubres" title="Insubres">Insubres</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Libicii_(Cisalpine_Gaul)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Libicii (Cisalpine Gaul) (page does not exist)">Libicii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marici_(tribe)" title="Marici (tribe)">Marici</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Montunates&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Montunates (page does not exist)">Montunates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orobii" title="Orobii">Orobii</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Subinates&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Subinates (page does not exist)">Subinates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taurini" title="Taurini">Taurini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertamocorii" title="Vertamocorii">Vertamocorii</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Votodrones&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Votodrones (page does not exist)">Votodrones</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><a href="/wiki/Gallia_Aquitania" title="Gallia Aquitania">Aquitania</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Boii_(Aquitania)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Boii (Aquitania) (page does not exist)">Boii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cocosates" title="Cocosates">Cocosates</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lactorates&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lactorates (page does not exist)">Lactorates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sotiates" title="Sotiates">Sotiates</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tarusates&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tarusates (page does not exist)">Tarusates</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vasates_(tribe)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vasates (tribe) (page does not exist)">Vasates</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_settlement_of_Southeast_Europe" title="Celtic settlement of Southeast Europe">Eastern Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anartes" title="Anartes">Anartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabiates" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabiates">Arabiates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boii" title="Boii">Boii</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Britolagai&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Britolagai (page does not exist)">Britolagai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornacates" class="mw-redirect" title="Cornacates">Cornacates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Costoboci" title="Costoboci">Costoboci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gotini" class="mw-redirect" title="Gotini">Gotini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eravisci" title="Eravisci">Eravisci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hercuniates" class="mw-redirect" title="Hercuniates">Hercuniates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latobici" title="Latobici">Latobici</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scordisci" title="Scordisci">Scordisci</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dindari" title="Dindari">Dindari</a> and <a href="/wiki/Celegeri" title="Celegeri">Celegeri</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serdi" title="Serdi">Serdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taurisci" title="Taurisci">Taurisci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varciani" title="Varciani">Varciani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><a href="/wiki/Galatia" title="Galatia">Galatia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aigosages" title="Aigosages">Aigosages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tectosages" title="Tectosages">Tectosages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolistobogii" title="Tolistobogii">Tolistobogii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trocmi" title="Trocmi">Trocmi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-Roman<br />settlements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alesia_(city)" title="Alesia (city)">Alesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argentomagus" title="Argentomagus">Argentomagus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avaricum" title="Avaricum">Avaricum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basel-M%C3%BCnsterh%C3%BCgel" title="Basel-Münsterhügel">Basel-Münsterhügel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibracte" title="Bibracte">Bibracte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibrax" title="Bibrax">Bibrax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cenabum" title="Cenabum">Cenabum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cularo" title="Cularo">Cularo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppidum_d%27Ens%C3%A9rune" title="Oppidum d'Ensérune">Ensérune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entremont_(oppidum)" title="Entremont (oppidum)">Entremont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gergovia" title="Gergovia">Gergovia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magetobria" title="Magetobria">Magetobria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noreia" title="Noreia">Noreia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tylis" title="Tylis">Tylis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertillum" title="Vertillum">Vertillum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><i>Part of:</i> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Celts</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pre-Roman_peoples_of_the_Iberian_Peninsula" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pre-Roman_peoples_in_Iberia" title="Template:Pre-Roman peoples in Iberia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pre-Roman_peoples_in_Iberia" title="Template talk:Pre-Roman peoples in Iberia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pre-Roman_peoples_in_Iberia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pre-Roman peoples in Iberia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pre-Roman_peoples_of_the_Iberian_Peninsula" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_Pre-Roman_peoples_of_the_Iberian_Peninsula" title="List of the Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula">Pre-Roman peoples</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aquitani" title="Aquitani">Aquitani</a> (<a href="/wiki/Proto-Basque_language" title="Proto-Basque language">Proto-Basques</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iacetani" title="Iacetani">Iacetani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascones" title="Vascones">Vascones</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Iberians" title="Iberians">Iberians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ausetani" title="Ausetani">Ausetani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bastetani" title="Bastetani">Bastetani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bergistani" title="Bergistani">Bergistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castellani_people" title="Castellani people">Castellani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceretani" title="Ceretani">Ceretani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cessetani" title="Cessetani">Cessetani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contestani" title="Contestani">Contestani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edetani" title="Edetani">Edetani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigetes" title="Indigetes">Indigetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilercavones" title="Ilercavones">Ilercavones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilergetes" title="Ilergetes">Ilergetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigetes" title="Indigetes">Indigetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lacetani" title="Lacetani">Lacetani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laietani" title="Laietani">Laietani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedetani" title="Sedetani">Sedetani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Celts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Celtiberians" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Celtiberians" title="Celtiberians">Celtiberians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arevaci" title="Arevaci">Arevaci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belli" title="Belli">Belli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cratistii" title="Cratistii">Cratistii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lobetani" title="Lobetani">Lobetani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusones" title="Lusones">Lusones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olcades" title="Olcades">Olcades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oretani" title="Oretani">Oretani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pellendones" title="Pellendones">Pellendones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titii_(Celtiberian)" title="Titii (Celtiberian)">Titii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turboletae" title="Turboletae">Turboletae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uraci" title="Uraci">Uraci</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gallaeci" title="Gallaeci">Gallaeci</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albiones" title="Albiones">Albiones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arroni" title="Arroni">Arroni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artabri" title="Artabri">Artabri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baedi" title="Baedi">Baedi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bracari" title="Bracari">Bracari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capori" title="Capori">Capori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtici_Praestamarici" title="Celtici Praestamarici">Celtici Praestamarici</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtici_Supertamarici" title="Celtici Supertamarici">Celtici Supertamarici</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cibarci" title="Cibarci">Cibarci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cileni" title="Cileni">Cileni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coelerni" title="Coelerni">Coelerni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equaesi" title="Equaesi">Equaesi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallaeci_(tribe)" title="Gallaeci (tribe)">Gallaeci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grovii" title="Grovii">Grovii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iadovi" title="Iadovi">Iadovi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interamici" title="Interamici">Interamici</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lapatianci" title="Lapatianci">Lapatianci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemavi" title="Lemavi">Lemavi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leuni" title="Leuni">Leuni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limici" title="Limici">Limici</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louguei" title="Louguei">Louguei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luanqui" title="Luanqui">Luanqui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namarini" title="Namarini">Namarini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narbasi" title="Narbasi">Narbasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemetati" title="Nemetati">Nemetati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nerii" title="Nerii">Nerii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poemani" title="Poemani">Poemani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaquerni" title="Quaquerni">Quaquerni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seurbi" title="Seurbi">Seurbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seurri" title="Seurri">Seurri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamagani" title="Tamagani">Tamagani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turodi" title="Turodi">Turodi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other Celtic<br />peoples</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allotriges" title="Allotriges">Allotriges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astures" title="Astures">Astures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autrigones" title="Autrigones">Autrigones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgae" title="Belgae">Belgae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Suessetani" title="Suessetani">Suessetani</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berones" title="Berones">Berones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantabri" title="Cantabri">Cantabri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caristii" title="Caristii">Caristii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carpetani" title="Carpetani">Carpetani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtici" title="Celtici">Celtici</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mir%C3%B3briga" title="Miróbriga">Mirobrigenses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ophiussa" title="Ophiussa">Ophi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sefes" title="Sefes">Sefes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noric_language" title="Noric language">Eastern Celts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Volcae" title="Volcae">Volcae</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oestriminis" title="Oestriminis">Oestriminis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plentauri" title="Plentauri">Plentauri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turduli" title="Turduli">Turduli</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bardili_(Turduli)" title="Bardili (Turduli)">Bardili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turduli_Oppidani" title="Turduli Oppidani">Oppidani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turduli_Veteres" title="Turduli Veteres">Veteres</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turmodigi" title="Turmodigi">Turmodigi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccaei" title="Vaccaei">Vaccaei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varduli" title="Varduli">Varduli</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Para-<a class="mw-selflink selflink">Celtic</a> peoples?</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lusitanians" title="Lusitanians">Lusitanians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paesuri" title="Paesuri">Paesuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapoli" title="Tapoli">Tapoli</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vettones" title="Vettones">Vettones</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bletonesii" title="Bletonesii">Bletonesii</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tartessos" title="Tartessos">Tartessos</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cynetes" title="Cynetes">Cynetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turdetani" title="Turdetani">Turdetani</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mastia" title="Mastia">Mastieni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turdetani" title="Turdetani">Turdetani Proper</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Germanic peoples?</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germani_(Oretania)" title="Germani (Oretania)">Germani (Oretania)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greeks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achaeans_(tribe)" title="Achaeans (tribe)">Achaeans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aeolians" title="Aeolians">Aeolians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorians" title="Dorians">Dorians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionians" title="Ionians">Ionians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Semitic peoples</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthaginian_Iberia" title="Carthaginian Iberia">Carthaginians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Punic_people" title="Punic people">Punics</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>The <a href="/wiki/Madeira" title="Madeira">Madeira</a>, <a href="/wiki/Azores" title="Azores">Azores</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Canary_Islands" title="Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a> were not occupied by the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Romans</a>. The Madeira and Azores islands were unoccupied until the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_people" title="Portuguese people">Portuguese</a> in the 15th century; the Canary islands, the <a href="/wiki/Guanches" title="Guanches">Guanches</a> occupied the territory until the Castilians.</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q35966#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q35966#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q35966#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4030206-4">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00565634">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Keltové"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph117669&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Keltky"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph916839&CON_LNG=ENG">2</a></span></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/1zcgkpnk5pxdh1x">Sweden</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810534015705606">Poland</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/008016">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Celts&oldid=1264602312">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Celts&oldid=1264602312</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Category</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Celts" title="Category:Celts">Celts</a></li></ul></div><div 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[\"CITEREFDietler2010\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFDrinkwater2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDrinkwater2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEgeler2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEllis1998\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFEncyclopedia_Britannica._Celt\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEvans2004\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFFischer_et_al.2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFischer_et_al.2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFischer_et_al.2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGimbutas2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreen2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarding2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHerodotus1829\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHerodotus1857\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoz2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIñigo_Olalde2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJames1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJeffers2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJordán_Cólera2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKiley2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKinder1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKing\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoch2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoch2006\"] = 9,\n [\"CITEREFKoch2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoch2010\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFKoch2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKruta1991\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFLandolfi2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaoLuNothnagel2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLorrio_and_Ruiz_Zapatero2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLouwen2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLuján2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacCulloch1911\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMac_CanaDillon\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartiniano_et_al.2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcKevitt2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMilisauskas2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMinahan2000\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMonaghan2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMountain1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMurray2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNelson2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNovembreJohnsonBrycKutalik2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNí_Dhoireann\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlalde2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlalde_et_al.2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOppenheimer2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPattersonIsakovBooth2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPedreño2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPercivaldi2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPercy1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPiggott2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPope2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrichard1841\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFProbst1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPryor2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPuhvelFeeLeeming2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQuintela2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFR._Luján_Martínez2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRankin1996\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFRankin1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRiché2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchiffels_et_al.2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchumacherSchulze-Thulinaan_de_Wiel2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimmons2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSims-Williams2020\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSolly2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpencer_and_Zwicky1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStifter2008\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFTierney\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTodd1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTristram2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVitali1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWaldmanMason2006\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 5,\n [\"Abbr\"] = 2,\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 3,\n [\"Celts\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 5,\n [\"Citation\"] = 4,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 29,\n [\"Cite bioRxiv\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 93,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 27,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite thesis\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 26,\n [\"Clarify\"] = 2,\n [\"Clear\"] = 1,\n [\"Clear left\"] = 2,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 2,\n [\"Crossref\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Doi\"] = 1,\n [\"EB1911\"] = 1,\n [\"EB1911 poster\"] = 1,\n [\"Failed verification\"] = 1,\n [\"Full citation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 4,\n [\"Gaels\"] = 1,\n [\"Gallic peoples\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvid\"] = 8,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 9,\n [\"IPAc-en\"] = 2,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 22,\n [\"Indo-European topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 19,\n [\"Langx\"] = 4,\n [\"Legend\"] = 12,\n [\"Legend-col\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 13,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 2,\n [\"Pp\"] = 1,\n [\"Pre-Roman peoples in Iberia\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Respell\"] = 2,\n [\"See also\"] = 4,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 24,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Small\"] = 1,\n [\"Transliteration\"] = 6,\n [\"Unreliable source\"] = 1,\n [\"Use British English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 10,\n [\"When\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikivoyage\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","560","27.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","280","13.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","200","9.8"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","140","6.9"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","100","4.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","80","3.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::newTitle","60","2.9"],["\u003Cmw.title.lua:50\u003E","60","2.9"],["newFrame \u003Cmw.lua:153\u003E","40","2.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","40","2.0"],["[others]","480","23.5"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-7b75595666-dz74w","timestamp":"20250112034923","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Celts","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Celts","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q35966","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q35966","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-10-28T09:18:54Z","dateModified":"2024-12-22T15:48:57Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/1\/1f\/Celts_in_Europe.png","headline":"Indo-European ethnolinguistic group of tribal societies in Iron Age Europe"}</script> </body> </html>