CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Medicine - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"077920a9-92a0-4cbd-9116-22dea0a2975d","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Medicine","wgTitle":"Medicine","wgCurRevisionId":1259120215,"wgRevisionId":1259120215,"wgArticleId":18957,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Pages using the Phonos extension","Articles containing Latin-language text","Webarchive template wayback links","Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from June 2014","CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024","CS1 Czech-language sources (cs)","CS1 Spanish-language sources (es)","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Wikipedia pending changes protected pages","Pages including recorded pronunciations", "Articles with limited geographic scope from February 2023","United Kingdom-centric","All articles lacking reliable references","Articles lacking reliable references from July 2024","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from July 2024","Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2015","All articles containing potentially dated statements","Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata","Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets via Module:Annotated link","Use dmy dates from March 2022","Medicine"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Medicine","wgRelevantArticleId":18957,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgStableRevisionId":1259120215, "wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":90000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q11190","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready", "user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","ext.phonos.styles":"ready","ext.phonos.icons":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.flaggedRevs.basic":"ready","mediawiki.codex.messagebox.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","ext.phonos.init","mediawiki.page.media","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.flaggedRevs.advanced","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups", "ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.flaggedRevs.basic%7Cext.phonos.icons%2Cstyles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cmediawiki.codex.messagebox.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Flag_of_WHO.svg/1200px-Flag_of_WHO.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="800"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Flag_of_WHO.svg/800px-Flag_of_WHO.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="533"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Flag_of_WHO.svg/640px-Flag_of_WHO.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="427"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Medicine - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicine"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Medicine&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicine"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Medicine rootpage-Medicine skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Medicine" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Medicine" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Medicine" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Medicine" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Etymology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Etymology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Etymology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Etymology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clinical_practice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clinical_practice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Clinical practice</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clinical_practice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Institutions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Institutions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Institutions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Institutions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Institutions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Institutions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Delivery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Delivery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Delivery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Delivery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Branches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Branches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Branches</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Branches-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Branches subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Branches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Basic_sciences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Basic_sciences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Basic sciences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Basic_sciences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Specialties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Specialties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Specialties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Specialties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Surgical_specialty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surgical_specialty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>Surgical specialty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surgical_specialty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Internal_medicine_specialty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internal_medicine_specialty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.2</span> <span>Internal medicine specialty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internal_medicine_specialty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diagnostic_specialties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diagnostic_specialties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.3</span> <span>Diagnostic specialties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diagnostic_specialties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_major_specialties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_major_specialties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.4</span> <span>Other major specialties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_major_specialties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interdisciplinary_fields" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interdisciplinary_fields"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Interdisciplinary fields</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interdisciplinary_fields-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education_and_legal_controls" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education_and_legal_controls"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Education and legal controls</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education_and_legal_controls-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medical_ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medical_ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Medical ethics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medical_ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ancient_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Ancient world</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Middle Ages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Modern</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quality,_efficiency,_and_access" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quality,_efficiency,_and_access"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Quality, efficiency, and access</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quality,_efficiency,_and_access-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Medicine</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 190 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-190" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">190 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneeskunde" title="Geneeskunde – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Geneeskunde" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medizin" title="Medizin – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Medizin" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%95%E1%8A%AD%E1%88%9D%E1%8A%93" title="ሕክምና – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ሕክምና" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B7%D8%A8" title="طب – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="طب" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina" title="Medicina – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Medicina" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%90%DC%A3%DC%9D%DC%98%DC%AC%DC%90" title="ܐܣܝܘܬܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܐܣܝܘܬܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ܐܪܡܝܐ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%AA%D5%B7%D5%AF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Բժշկութիւն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Բժշկութիւն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A8decina" title="Mèdecina – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Mèdecina" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Arpetan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%8E%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE-%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="চিকিৎসা-বিজ্ঞান – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="চিকিৎসা-বিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina" title="Medicina – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Medicina" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poh%C3%A3nokuaa" title="Pohãnokuaa – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Pohãnokuaa" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Медицина – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Медицина" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Авар</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qulla" title="Qulla – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Qulla" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aymar aru</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibb" title="Tibb – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Tibb" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B7%DB%8C%D8%A8" title="طیب – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="طیب" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bm mw-list-item"><a href="https://bm.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C9%94k%C9%94t%C9%94r%C9%94ya" title="Dɔkɔtɔrɔya – Bambara" lang="bm" hreflang="bm" data-title="Dɔkɔtɔrɔya" data-language-autonym="Bamanankan" data-language-local-name="Bambara" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bamanankan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%8E%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="চিকিৎসাবিজ্ঞান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="চিকিৎসাবিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/I-ha%CC%8Dk" title="I-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="I-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Медицина – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Медицина" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%8B%D1%86%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Медыцына – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Медыцына" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%8D%D0%B4%D1%8B%D1%86%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Мэдыцына – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Мэдыцына" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80_(%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE)" title="डाक्टरी (बिद्या) – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="डाक्टरी (बिद्या)" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagbulong" title="Pagbulong – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Pagbulong" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bi mw-list-item"><a href="https://bi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medisin" title="Medisin – Bislama" lang="bi" hreflang="bi" data-title="Medisin" data-language-autonym="Bislama" data-language-local-name="Bislama" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bislama</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Медицина – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Медицина" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%82%E0%BD%A6%E0%BD%BC%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%82" title="གསོ་རིག – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="གསོ་རིག" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina" title="Medicina – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Medicina" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezegiezh" title="Mezegiezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Mezegiezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0_%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Анагааха ухаан – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Анагааха ухаан" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina" title="Medicina – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Medicina" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Медицина – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Медицина" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medisina" title="Medisina – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Medisina" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9ka%C5%99stv%C3%AD" title="Lékařství – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Lékařství" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wumuti" title="Wumuti – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Wumuti" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tum mw-list-item"><a href="https://tum.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mankhwala" title="Mankhwala – Tumbuka" lang="tum" hreflang="tum" data-title="Mankhwala" data-language-autonym="ChiTumbuka" data-language-local-name="Tumbuka" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiTumbuka</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina" title="Medicina – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Medicina" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Corsu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meddygaeth" title="Meddygaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Meddygaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A6gevidenskab" title="Lægevidenskab – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Lægevidenskab" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B7%D8%A8" title="طب – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="طب" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medizin" title="Medizin – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Medizin" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meditsiin" title="Meditsiin – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Meditsiin" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CE%B1%CF%84%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE" title="Ιατρική – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ιατρική" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina" title="Medicina – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Medicina" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicino" title="Medicino – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Medicino" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medecina" title="Medecina – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Medecina" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medikuntza" title="Medikuntza – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Medikuntza" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B2%D8%B4%DA%A9%DB%8C" title="پزشکی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پزشکی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctori" title="Doctori – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Doctori" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A6knafr%C3%B8%C3%B0i" title="Læknafrøði – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Læknafrøði" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9decine" title="Médecine – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Médecine" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gen%C3%AAskunde" title="Genêskunde – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Genêskunde" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medisine" title="Medisine – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Medisine" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%ADochaine" title="Míochaine – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Míochaine" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lheeys" title="Lheeys – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Lheeys" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/E%C3%B2las-leighis" title="Eòlas-leighis – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Eòlas-leighis" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina" title="Medicina – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Medicina" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Лорал – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Лорал" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ГӀалгӀай</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y%C3%AE-ho%CC%8Dk" title="Yî-ho̍k – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Yî-ho̍k" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%98%ED%95%99" title="의학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="의학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%AA%D5%B7%D5%AF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Բժշկություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բժշկություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="आयुर्विज्ञान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="आयुर्विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina" title="Medicina – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Medicina" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gor mw-list-item"><a href="https://gor.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kedokteran" title="Kedokteran – Gorontalo" lang="gor" hreflang="gor" data-title="Kedokteran" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Hulontalo" data-language-local-name="Gorontalo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Hulontalo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicino" title="Medicino – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Medicino" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medisina" title="Medisina – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Medisina" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bpy mw-list-item"><a href="https://bpy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%8E%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="চিকিৎসা বিজ্ঞান – Bishnupriya" lang="bpy" hreflang="bpy" data-title="চিকিৎসা বিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী" data-language-local-name="Bishnupriya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kedokteran" title="Kedokteran – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kedokteran" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina" title="Medicina – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Medicina" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina" title="Medicina – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Medicina" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iu mw-list-item"><a href="https://iu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%91%96%E1%92%83%E1%91%8E" title="ᑖᒃᑎ – Inuktitut" lang="iu" hreflang="iu" data-title="ᑖᒃᑎ" data-language-autonym="ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut" data-language-local-name="Inuktitut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%C3%A6" title="Медицинæ – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Медицинæ" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A6knisfr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Læknisfræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Læknisfræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina" title="Medicina – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Medicina" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%90%D7%94" title="רפואה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="רפואה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kedhokteran" title="Kedhokteran – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Kedhokteran" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B5%E0%B3%88%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9E%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8" title="ವೈದ್ಯವಿಜ್ಞಾನ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ವೈದ್ಯವಿಜ್ಞಾನ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="მედიცინა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მედიცინა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%DB%8E%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AC_%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86" title="یێلاج زان – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="یێلاج زان" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medic%C3%ABna" title="Medicëna – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Medicëna" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="Kashubian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kaszëbsczi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Медицина – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Медицина" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medhegneth" title="Medhegneth – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Medhegneth" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiba" title="Tiba – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Tiba" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medsin" title="Medsin – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Medsin" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9dsin" title="Médsin – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Médsin" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bij%C3%AE%C5%9Fk%C3%AE" title="Bijîşkî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Bijîşkî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Медицина – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Медицина" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medisina" title="Medisina – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Medisina" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladino</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BB%81%E0%BA%9E%E0%BA%94%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%94" title="ແພດສາດ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ແພດສາດ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina" title="Medicina – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Medicina" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medic%C4%ABna" title="Medicīna – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Medicīna" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medezin" title="Medezin – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Medezin" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina" title="Medicina – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Medicina" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%ABxinn-a" title="Mëxinn-a – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Mëxinn-a" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genaesk%C3%B3nde" title="Genaeskónde – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Genaeskónde" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medica" title="Medica – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Medica" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orvostudom%C3%A1ny" title="Orvostudomány – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Orvostudomány" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Медицина – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Медицина" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="വൈദ്യശാസ്ത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="വൈദ്യശാസ്ത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medi%C4%8Bina" title="Mediċina – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Mediċina" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="वैद्यकशास्त्र – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="वैद्यकशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="მედიცინა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="მედიცინა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B7%D8%A8" title="طب – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="طب" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perubatan" title="Perubatan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Perubatan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%8D%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%97%EA%AF%A5%EA%AF%9B%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A3%EA%AF%9F" title="ꯍꯤꯗꯥꯛꯂꯣꯟ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯍꯤꯗꯥꯛꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kadokteran" title="Kadokteran – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Kadokteran" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%AC-h%C5%8Fk" title="Ĭ-hŏk – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Ĭ-hŏk" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medecina" title="Medecina – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Medecina" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B0%D1%85_%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Анагаах ухаан – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Анагаах ухаан" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%86%E1%80%B1%E1%80%B8%E1%80%95%E1%80%8A%E1%80%AC" title="ဆေးပညာ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဆေးပညာ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneeskunde" title="Geneeskunde – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geneeskunde" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genaeskeunde" title="Genaeskeunde – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Genaeskeunde" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="चिकित्सा विज्ञान – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="चिकित्सा विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE" title="चिकित्सा – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="चिकित्सा" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8C%BB%E5%AD%A6" title="医学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="医学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mericina" title="Mericina – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Mericina" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Napulitano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Медицина – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Медицина" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih mw-list-item"><a href="https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medisin" title="Medisin – Norfuk / Pitkern" lang="pih" hreflang="pih" data-title="Medisin" data-language-autonym="Norfuk / Pitkern" data-language-local-name="Norfuk / Pitkern" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norfuk / Pitkern</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medisin" title="Medisin – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Medisin" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medisin" title="Medisin – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Medisin" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medisine" title="Medisine – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Medisine" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medecina" title="Medecina – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Medecina" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Медицин – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Медицин" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%9A%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%95%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%A4%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%B8%E0%AC%BE_%E0%AC%AC%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%9C%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%9E%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A8" title="ଚିକିତ୍ସା ବିଜ୍ଞାନ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଚିକିତ୍ସା ବିଜ୍ଞାନ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibbiyot" title="Tibbiyot – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Tibbiyot" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%A1%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%A8" title="ਮੈਡੀਸਿਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਮੈਡੀਸਿਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pi mw-list-item"><a href="https://pi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="चिकित्सा विज्ञान – Pali" lang="pi" hreflang="pi" data-title="चिकित्सा विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="पालि" data-language-local-name="Pali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>पालि</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B7%D8%A8" title="طب – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="طب" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%84%DA%AF%D8%B1%D9%8A" title="درملگري – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="درملگري" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medisn" title="Medisn – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Medisn" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9decinne" title="Médecinne – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Médecinne" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Picard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medizin" title="Medizin – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Medizin" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medycyna" title="Medycyna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Medycyna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina" title="Medicina – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Medicina" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina" title="Medicina – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Medicina" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicin%C4%83" title="Medicină – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Medicină" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medischina" title="Medischina – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Medischina" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Rumantsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hampi_yachay" title="Hampi yachay – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Hampi yachay" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%96%D1%86%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Медіціна – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Медіціна" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Медицина – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Медицина" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Медицина – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Медицина" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="आयुर्विज्ञानम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="आयुर्विज्ञानम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%9B%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%A0%E1%B1%AA%E1%B1%B7%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B9_%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%AC%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%A5" title="ᱛᱤᱠᱪᱷᱟᱹ ᱥᱟᱬᱮᱥ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱛᱤᱠᱪᱷᱟᱹ ᱥᱟᱬᱮᱥ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meighina" title="Meighina – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Meighina" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicin" title="Medicin – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Medicin" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heelkunde" title="Heelkunde – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Heelkunde" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mjek%C3%ABsia" title="Mjekësia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Mjekësia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midicina" title="Midicina – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Midicina" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%9B%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="වෛද්‍ය විද්‍යාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="වෛද්‍ය විද්‍යාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Medicine" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B7%D8%A8" title="طب – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="طب" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medic%C3%ADna" title="Medicína – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Medicína" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina" title="Medicina – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Medicina" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daawo" title="Daawo – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Daawo" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B4%DA%A9%DB%8C" title="پزیشکی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="پزیشکی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Медицина – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Медицина" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina" title="Medicina – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Medicina" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tatamba" title="Tatamba – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Tatamba" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A4%C3%A4ketiede" title="Lääketiede – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Lääketiede" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicin_(vetenskap)" title="Medicin (vetenskap) – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Medicin (vetenskap)" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medisina" title="Medisina – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Medisina" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="மருத்துவம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மருத்துவம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasnijjit" title="Tasnijjit – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Tasnijjit" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taclḥit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasnujjya" title="Tasnujjya – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tasnujjya" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Медицина – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Медицина" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B5%E0%B1%88%E0%B0%A6%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%82" title="వైద్యశాస్త్రం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="వైద్యశాస్త్రం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="แพทยศาสตร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="แพทยศาสตร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ti mw-list-item"><a href="https://ti.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%95%E1%8A%AD%E1%88%9D%E1%8A%93" title="ሕክምና – Tigrinya" lang="ti" hreflang="ti" data-title="ሕክምና" data-language-autonym="ትግርኛ" data-language-local-name="Tigrinya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ትግርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%88%D0%BA%D3%A3" title="Пизишкӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Пизишкӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8F%85%E1%8F%AC%E1%8F%98" title="ᏅᏬᏘ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᏅᏬᏘ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᏣᎳᎩ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C4%B1p" title="Tıp – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Tıp" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Медицина – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Медицина" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B7%D8%A8" title="طب – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="طب" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%87%D9%8A%D8%BA%DB%87%D8%B1_%D8%AA%DB%90%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%89%D8%AA%D9%89" title="ئۇيغۇر تېبابىتى – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="ئۇيغۇر تېبابىتى" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ywhag" title="Ywhag – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Ywhag" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vahcuengh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medezina" title="Medezina – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Medezina" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicin" title="Medicin – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Medicin" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Y học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Y học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanav" title="Sanav – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Sanav" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Volapük</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arstitiid%C3%BCs" title="Arstitiidüs – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Arstitiidüs" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medcene" title="Medcene – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Medcene" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medisina" title="Medisina – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Medisina" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo mw-list-item"><a href="https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paj" title="Paj – Wolof" lang="wo" hreflang="wo" data-title="Paj" data-language-autonym="Wolof" data-language-local-name="Wolof" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Wolof</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%86%AB%E5%AD%B8" title="醫學 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="醫學" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ts mw-list-item"><a href="https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vutshunguri" title="Vutshunguri – Tsonga" lang="ts" hreflang="ts" data-title="Vutshunguri" data-language-autonym="Xitsonga" data-language-local-name="Tsonga" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Xitsonga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A2%D7%93%D7%99%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%9F" title="מעדיצין – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="מעדיצין" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%86%AB%E5%AD%B8" title="醫學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="醫學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C4%B1b" title="Tıb – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Tıb" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Med%C4%97c%C4%97na" title="Medėcėna – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Medėcėna" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8C%BB%E5%AD%A6" title="医学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="医学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tly mw-list-item"><a href="https://tly.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C9%99bob%C9%99t" title="Təbobət – Talysh" lang="tly" hreflang="tly" data-title="Təbobət" data-language-autonym="Tolışi" data-language-local-name="Talysh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tolışi</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q11190#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Medicine" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Medicine"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicine&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicine&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Medicine"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicine&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicine&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Medicine" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Medicine" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicine&oldid=1259120215" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicine&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Medicine&id=1259120215&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FMedicine"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FMedicine"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Medicine&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicine&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Medicine" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibooks mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Subject:Health_sciences" hreflang="en"><span>Wikibooks</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiquote mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Medicine" hreflang="en"><span>Wikiquote</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiversity mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Medicine" hreflang="en"><span>Wikiversity</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q11190" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-indicator-fr-review-status" class="mw-indicator"><indicator name="fr-review-status" class="mw-fr-review-status-indicator" id="mw-fr-revision-toggle"><span class="cdx-fr-css-icon-review--status--stable"></span><b>Checked</b></indicator></div> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-autoreview" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#pending" title="All edits by unregistered and new users are subject to review prior to becoming visible to unregistered users"><img alt="Page protected with pending changes" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b7/Pending-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Pending-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b7/Pending-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Pending-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b7/Pending-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Pending-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><div id="mw-fr-revision-messages"><div id="mw-fr-revision-details" class="mw-fr-revision-details-dialog" style="display:none;"><div tabindex="0"></div><div class="cdx-dialog cdx-dialog--horizontal-actions"><header class="cdx-dialog__header cdx-dialog__header--default"><div class="cdx-dialog__header__title-group"><h2 class="cdx-dialog__header__title">Page version status</h2><p class="cdx-dialog__header__subtitle">This is an accepted version of this page</p></div><button class="cdx-button cdx-button--action-default cdx-button--weight-quiet
							cdx-button--size-medium cdx-button--icon-only cdx-dialog__header__close-button" aria-label="Close" onclick="document.getElementById("mw-fr-revision-details").style.display = "none";" type="submit"><span class="cdx-icon cdx-icon--medium
							cdx-fr-css-icon--close"></span></button></header><div class="cdx-dialog__body">This is the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Pending_changes" title="Wikipedia:Pending changes">latest accepted revision</a>, <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log&type=review&page=Special:Badtitle/Message">reviewed</a> on <i>23 November 2024</i>.</div></div><div tabindex="0"></div></div></div></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of illness</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the science of healing. For medicaments, see <a href="/wiki/Medication" title="Medication">Medication</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Medicine_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Medicine (disambiguation)">Medicine (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Medical" redirects here. "Medical" is also the common informal term for a <a href="/wiki/Medical_examination" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical examination">medical examination</a>, q.v.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_WHO.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Flag_of_WHO.svg/220px-Flag_of_WHO.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Flag_of_WHO.svg/330px-Flag_of_WHO.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Flag_of_WHO.svg/440px-Flag_of_WHO.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Flag of <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> featuring <a href="/wiki/Rod_of_Asclepius" title="Rod of Asclepius">Rod of Asclepius</a>, a common symbol for medicine and health care</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Medicine</b> is the <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Praxis_(process)" title="Praxis (process)">practice</a><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of caring for patients, managing the <a href="/wiki/Medical_diagnosis" title="Medical diagnosis">diagnosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prognosis" title="Prognosis">prognosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Preventive_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Preventive medicine">prevention</a>, <a href="/wiki/Therapy" title="Therapy">treatment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palliative_care" title="Palliative care">palliation</a> of their <a href="/wiki/Injury" title="Injury">injury</a> or <a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">disease</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Health_promotion" title="Health promotion">promoting their health</a>. Medicine encompasses a variety of <a href="/wiki/Health_care" title="Health care">health care</a> practices evolved to maintain and restore <a href="/wiki/Health" title="Health">health</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Prevention_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Prevention (medical)">prevention</a> and treatment of <a href="/wiki/Illness" class="mw-redirect" title="Illness">illness</a>. Contemporary medicine applies <a href="/wiki/Biomedical_sciences" title="Biomedical sciences">biomedical sciences</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biomedical_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Biomedical research">biomedical research</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medical_genetics" title="Medical genetics">genetics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Medical_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical technology">medical technology</a> to <a href="/wiki/Diagnosis_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Diagnosis (medical)">diagnose</a>, treat, and prevent injury and disease, typically through <a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceutical">pharmaceuticals</a> or <a href="/wiki/Surgery" title="Surgery">surgery</a>, but also through therapies as diverse as <a href="/wiki/Psychotherapy" title="Psychotherapy">psychotherapy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Splint_(medicine)" title="Splint (medicine)">external splints and traction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medical_device" title="Medical device">medical devices</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biologic_medical_product" class="mw-redirect" title="Biologic medical product">biologics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Radiation_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation (medicine)">ionizing radiation</a>, amongst others.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Medicine has been practiced since <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_medicine" title="Prehistoric medicine">prehistoric times</a>, and for most of this time it was an <a href="/wiki/Art" title="Art">art</a> (an area of creativity and skill), frequently having connections to the <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religious</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophical</a> beliefs of local culture. For example, a <a href="/wiki/Medicine_man" title="Medicine man">medicine man</a> would apply <a href="/wiki/Herbs" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbs">herbs</a> and say <a href="/wiki/Prayer" title="Prayer">prayers</a> for healing, or an ancient <a href="/wiki/Philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher">philosopher</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physician" title="Physician">physician</a> would apply <a href="/wiki/Bloodletting" title="Bloodletting">bloodletting</a> according to the theories of <a href="/wiki/Humorism" title="Humorism">humorism</a>. In recent centuries, since the <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">advent of modern science</a>, most medicine has become a combination of art and science (both <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundamental science">basic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Applied_science" title="Applied science">applied</a>, under the <a href="/wiki/Umbrella_term" class="mw-redirect" title="Umbrella term">umbrella</a> of <b>medical science</b>). For example, while stitching technique for <a href="/wiki/Surgical_suture" title="Surgical suture">sutures</a> is an art learned through practice, knowledge of what happens at the <a href="/wiki/Cytology" class="mw-redirect" title="Cytology">cellular</a> and <a href="/wiki/Molecular_medicine" title="Molecular medicine">molecular</a> level in the tissues being stitched arises through science. </p><p>Prescientific forms of medicine, now known as <a href="/wiki/Traditional_medicine" title="Traditional medicine">traditional medicine</a> or <i>folk medicine</i>, remain commonly used in the absence of scientific medicine and are thus called <a href="/wiki/Alternative_medicine" title="Alternative medicine">alternative medicine</a>. Alternative treatments outside of scientific medicine with ethical, safety and efficacy concerns are termed <a href="/wiki/Quackery" title="Quackery">quackery</a>. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicine&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Medicine (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small"><a href="/wiki/British_English" title="British English">UK</a>: </span><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</span><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span></span>/</a></span> <span class="noprint"><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/5\/5a\/En-uk-medicine.ogg\/En-uk-medicine.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"En-uk-medicine.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/5a/En-uk-medicine.ogg/En-uk-medicine.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:En-uk-medicine.ogg" title="File:En-uk-medicine.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span></span>, <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991"><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small"><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">US</a>: </span><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</span><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span></span>/</a></span> <span class="noprint"><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-2" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/7\/7e\/En-us-medicine.ogg\/En-us-medicine.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"En-us-medicine.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7e/En-us-medicine.ogg/En-us-medicine.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:En-us-medicine.ogg" title="File:En-us-medicine.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span></span>) is the science and practice of the <a href="/wiki/Diagnosis" title="Diagnosis">diagnosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prognosis" title="Prognosis">prognosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Therapy" title="Therapy">treatment</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Preventive_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Preventive medicine">prevention</a> of <a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">disease</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The word "medicine" is derived from <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> <i>medicus</i>, meaning "a physician".<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Clinical_practice">Clinical practice</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicine&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Clinical practice"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Doctor_Luke_Fildes_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Oil painting of medicine in the age of colonialism" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/The_Doctor_Luke_Fildes_crop.jpg/240px-The_Doctor_Luke_Fildes_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/The_Doctor_Luke_Fildes_crop.jpg/360px-The_Doctor_Luke_Fildes_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/The_Doctor_Luke_Fildes_crop.jpg/480px-The_Doctor_Luke_Fildes_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1053" /></a><figcaption><i>The Doctor</i> by <a href="/wiki/Sir_Luke_Fildes" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Luke Fildes">Sir Luke Fildes</a> (1891)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Elizabeth_Blackwell.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Elizabeth_Blackwell.jpg/220px-Elizabeth_Blackwell.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="309" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Elizabeth_Blackwell.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="288" data-file-height="405" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Blackwell" title="Elizabeth Blackwell">Elizabeth Blackwell</a>, the first female physician in the United States graduated from <a href="/wiki/State_University_of_New_York_Upstate_Medical_University" title="State University of New York Upstate Medical University">SUNY Upstate</a> (1847)</figcaption></figure> <p>Medical availability and clinical practice vary across the world due to regional differences in <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technology</a>. Modern scientific medicine is highly developed in the <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a>, while in <a href="/wiki/Developing_country" title="Developing country">developing countries</a> such as parts of Africa or Asia, the population may rely more heavily on <a href="/wiki/Traditional_medicine" title="Traditional medicine">traditional medicine</a> with limited evidence and efficacy and no required formal training for practitioners.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Developed_country" title="Developed country">developed world</a>, <a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_medicine" title="Evidence-based medicine">evidence-based medicine</a> is not universally used in clinical practice; for example, a 2007 survey of literature reviews found that about 49% of the interventions lacked sufficient evidence to support either benefit or harm.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In modern clinical practice, <a href="/wiki/Physicians" class="mw-redirect" title="Physicians">physicians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physician_assistants" class="mw-redirect" title="Physician assistants">physician assistants</a> personally assess patients to <a href="/wiki/Medical_diagnosis" title="Medical diagnosis">diagnose</a>, prognose, treat, and prevent disease using clinical judgment. The <a href="/wiki/Doctor-patient_relationship" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctor-patient relationship">doctor-patient relationship</a> typically begins with an interaction with an examination of the patient's <a href="/wiki/Medical_history" title="Medical history">medical history</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medical_record" title="Medical record">medical record</a>, followed by a medical interview<sup id="cite_ref-coulehan-2005_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-coulehan-2005-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a <a href="/wiki/Physical_examination" title="Physical examination">physical examination</a>. Basic diagnostic <a href="/wiki/Medical_device" title="Medical device">medical devices</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Stethoscope" title="Stethoscope">stethoscope</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tongue_depressor" title="Tongue depressor">tongue depressor</a>) are typically used. After examining for <a href="/wiki/Medical_sign" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical sign">signs</a> and interviewing for <a href="/wiki/Symptoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Symptoms">symptoms</a>, the doctor may order <a href="/wiki/Medical_test" title="Medical test">medical tests</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Blood_test" title="Blood test">blood tests</a>), take a <a href="/wiki/Biopsy" title="Biopsy">biopsy</a>, or prescribe <a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_drug" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceutical drug">pharmaceutical drugs</a> or other therapies. <a href="/wiki/Differential_diagnosis" title="Differential diagnosis">Differential diagnosis</a> methods help to rule out conditions based on the information provided. During the encounter, properly informing the patient of all relevant facts is an important part of the relationship and the development of trust. The medical encounter is then documented in the medical record, which is a legal document in many jurisdictions.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Follow-ups may be shorter but follow the same general procedure, and specialists follow a similar process. The diagnosis and treatment may take only a few minutes or a few weeks, depending on the complexity of the issue. </p><p>The components of the medical interview<sup id="cite_ref-coulehan-2005_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-coulehan-2005-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and encounter are: </p> <ul><li>Chief complaint (CC): the reason for the current medical visit. These are the <i><a href="/wiki/Symptom" class="mw-redirect" title="Symptom">symptoms</a></i>. They are in the patient's own words and are recorded along with the duration of each one. Also called <i>chief concern</i> or <i>presenting complaint</i>.</li> <li>Current activity: occupation, hobbies, what the patient actually does.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_history_(medicine)" title="Family history (medicine)">Family history</a> (FH): listing of diseases in the family that may impact the patient. A <a href="/wiki/Family_tree" title="Family tree">family tree</a> is sometimes used.</li> <li>History of present <a href="/wiki/Illness" class="mw-redirect" title="Illness">illness</a> (HPI): the chronological order of events of symptoms and further clarification of each symptom. Distinguishable from history of previous illness, often called past medical history (PMH). <a href="/wiki/Medical_history" title="Medical history">Medical history</a> comprises HPI and PMH.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medication" title="Medication">Medications</a> (Rx): what drugs the patient takes including <a href="/wiki/Medical_prescription" title="Medical prescription">prescribed</a>, <a href="/wiki/Over-the-counter_drug" title="Over-the-counter drug">over-the-counter</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Home_remedy" class="mw-redirect" title="Home remedy">home remedies</a>, as well as alternative and <a href="/wiki/Herbalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbalism">herbal medicines or remedies</a>. <a href="/wiki/Allergy" title="Allergy">Allergies</a> are also recorded.</li> <li>Past medical history (PMH/PMHx): concurrent medical problems, past hospitalizations and operations, injuries, past <a href="/wiki/Infectious_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious disease">infectious diseases</a> or <a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">vaccinations</a>, history of known allergies.</li> <li>Review of systems (ROS) or <i>systems inquiry</i>: a set of additional questions to ask, which may be missed on HPI: a general enquiry (have you noticed any <a href="/wiki/Weight_loss" title="Weight loss">weight loss</a>, change in sleep quality, fevers, lumps and bumps? etc.), followed by questions on the body's main organ systems (<a href="/wiki/Human_heart" class="mw-redirect" title="Human heart">heart</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_lung" class="mw-redirect" title="Human lung">lungs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Digestive_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Digestive tract">digestive tract</a>, <a href="/wiki/Urinary_system" title="Urinary system">urinary tract</a>, etc.).</li> <li>Social history (SH): birthplace, residences, marital history, social and economic status, habits (including <a href="/wiki/Diet_(nutrition)" title="Diet (nutrition)">diet</a>, medications, <a href="/wiki/Tobacco_smoking" title="Tobacco smoking">tobacco</a>, alcohol).</li></ul> <p>The physical examination is the examination of the patient for medical signs of disease that are objective and observable, in contrast to symptoms that are volunteered by the patient and are not necessarily objectively observable.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The healthcare provider uses sight, hearing, touch, and sometimes smell (e.g., in infection, <a href="/wiki/Uremia" title="Uremia">uremia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diabetic_ketoacidosis" title="Diabetic ketoacidosis">diabetic ketoacidosis</a>). Four actions are the basis of physical examination: <a href="/wiki/Inspection_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Inspection (medicine)">inspection</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palpation" title="Palpation">palpation</a> (feel), <a href="/wiki/Percussion_(medicine)" title="Percussion (medicine)">percussion</a> (tap to determine resonance characteristics), and <a href="/wiki/Auscultation" title="Auscultation">auscultation</a> (listen), generally in that order, although auscultation occurs prior to percussion and palpation for abdominal assessments.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The clinical examination involves the study of:<sup id="cite_ref-the_free_dictionary_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-the_free_dictionary-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abdomen" title="Abdomen">Abdomen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rectum" title="Rectum">rectum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiovascular">Cardiovascular</a> (<a href="/wiki/Heart" title="Heart">heart</a> and <a href="/wiki/Blood_vessel" title="Blood vessel">blood vessels</a>)</li> <li>General appearance of the patient and specific indicators of disease (nutritional status, presence of jaundice, pallor or <a href="/wiki/Nail_clubbing" title="Nail clubbing">clubbing</a>)</li> <li>Genitalia (and pregnancy if the patient is or could be pregnant)</li> <li>Head, <a href="/wiki/Eye" title="Eye">eye</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ear" title="Ear">ear</a>, nose, and throat (<a href="/wiki/HEENT_examination" title="HEENT examination">HEENT</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-the_free_dictionary_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-the_free_dictionary-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musculoskeletal" class="mw-redirect" title="Musculoskeletal">Musculoskeletal</a> (including spine and extremities)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurological" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurological">Neurological</a> (consciousness, awareness, brain, vision, <a href="/wiki/Cranial_nerves" title="Cranial nerves">cranial nerves</a>, spinal cord and <a href="/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system" title="Peripheral nervous system">peripheral nerves</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">Psychiatric</a> (orientation, <a href="/wiki/Mental_state_examination" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental state examination">mental state</a>, mood, evidence of abnormal perception or thought).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Respiratory">Respiratory</a> (large airways and <a href="/wiki/Human_lung" class="mw-redirect" title="Human lung">lungs</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-the_free_dictionary_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-the_free_dictionary-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_skin" title="Human skin">Skin</a></li> <li>Vital signs including height, weight, body temperature, <a href="/wiki/Blood_pressure" title="Blood pressure">blood pressure</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pulse" title="Pulse">pulse</a>, respiration rate, and hemoglobin <a href="/wiki/Oxygen_saturation" title="Oxygen saturation">oxygen saturation</a><sup id="cite_ref-the_free_dictionary_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-the_free_dictionary-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>It is to likely focus on areas of interest highlighted in the medical history and may not include everything listed above. </p><p>The treatment plan may include ordering additional <a href="/wiki/Medical_laboratory" title="Medical laboratory">medical laboratory</a> tests and <a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">medical imaging</a> studies, starting therapy, referral to a <a href="/wiki/Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">specialist</a>, or watchful observation. A follow-up may be advised. Depending upon the <a href="/wiki/Health_insurance" title="Health insurance">health insurance</a> plan and the <a href="/wiki/Managed_care" title="Managed care">managed care</a> system, various forms of "<a href="/wiki/Utilization_review" class="mw-redirect" title="Utilization review">utilization review</a>", such as prior authorization of tests, may place barriers on accessing expensive services.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The medical decision-making (MDM) process includes the analysis and synthesis of all the above data to come up with a list of possible diagnoses (the differential diagnoses), along with an idea of what needs to be done to obtain a definitive diagnosis that would explain the patient's problem. </p><p>On subsequent visits, the process may be repeated in an abbreviated manner to obtain any new history, symptoms, physical findings, lab or imaging results, or specialist <a href="/wiki/Consultation_(doctor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Consultation (doctor)">consultations</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Institutions">Institutions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicine&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Institutions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pellegrinaio_Santa_Maria_della_Scala_n5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Color fresco of an ancient hospital setting" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Pellegrinaio_Santa_Maria_della_Scala_n5.jpg/220px-Pellegrinaio_Santa_Maria_della_Scala_n5.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Pellegrinaio_Santa_Maria_della_Scala_n5.jpg/330px-Pellegrinaio_Santa_Maria_della_Scala_n5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Pellegrinaio_Santa_Maria_della_Scala_n5.jpg/440px-Pellegrinaio_Santa_Maria_della_Scala_n5.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1820" data-file-height="1460" /></a><figcaption>The Hospital of <a href="/wiki/Santa_Maria_della_Scala_(Siena)" class="mw-redirect" title="Santa Maria della Scala (Siena)">Santa Maria della Scala</a>, fresco by <a href="/wiki/Domenico_di_Bartolo" title="Domenico di Bartolo">Domenico di Bartolo</a>, 1441–1442</figcaption></figure> <p>Contemporary medicine is, in general, conducted within <a href="/wiki/Health_care_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Health care system">health care systems</a>. Legal, <a href="/wiki/Credential" title="Credential">credentialing</a>, and financing frameworks are established by individual governments, augmented on occasion by international organizations, such as churches. The characteristics of any given health care system have a significant impact on the way medical care is provided. </p><p>From ancient times, Christian emphasis on practical charity gave rise to the development of systematic nursing and hospitals, and the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> today remains the largest non-government provider of medical services in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Advanced industrial countries (with the exception of the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and many developing countries provide medical services through a system of <a href="/wiki/Universal_health_care" title="Universal health care">universal health care</a> that aims to guarantee care for all through a <a href="/wiki/Single-payer_health_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-payer health care">single-payer health care</a> system or compulsory private or cooperative health insurance. This is intended to ensure that the entire population has access to medical care on the basis of need rather than ability to pay. Delivery may be via private medical practices, state-owned hospitals and clinics, or charities, most commonly a combination of all three. </p><p>Most <a href="/wiki/Tribe" title="Tribe">tribal</a> societies provide no guarantee of healthcare for the population as a whole. In such societies, healthcare is available to those who can afford to pay for it, have self-insured it (either directly or as part of an employment contract), or may be covered by care financed directly by the government or tribe. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Drug_ampoule_JPN.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="collection of glass bottles of different sizes" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Drug_ampoule_JPN.jpg/170px-Drug_ampoule_JPN.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Drug_ampoule_JPN.jpg/255px-Drug_ampoule_JPN.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Drug_ampoule_JPN.jpg/340px-Drug_ampoule_JPN.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2214" data-file-height="3040" /></a><figcaption>Modern drug <a href="/wiki/Ampoule" title="Ampoule">ampoules</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Transparency of information is another factor defining a delivery system. Access to information on conditions, treatments, quality, and pricing greatly affects the choice of patients/consumers and, therefore, the incentives of medical professionals. While the US healthcare system has come under fire for its lack of openness,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> new legislation may encourage greater openness. There is a perceived tension between the need for transparency on the one hand and such issues as patient confidentiality and the possible exploitation of information for commercial gain on the other. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Health_professional" title="Health professional">health professionals</a> who provide care in medicine comprise multiple <a href="/wiki/Profession" title="Profession">professions</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Medicine" title="Doctor of Medicine">medics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nursing" title="Nursing">nurses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physical_therapy" title="Physical therapy">physiotherapists</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Psychologist" title="Psychologist">psychologists</a>. These professions will have their own <a href="/wiki/Professional_ethics" title="Professional ethics">ethical standards</a>, professional education, and bodies. The medical profession has been conceptualized from a <a href="/wiki/Medical_sociology#The_Medical_Profession" title="Medical sociology">sociological perspective</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Delivery">Delivery</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicine&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Delivery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Health_care" title="Health care">Health care</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clinic" title="Clinic">clinic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hospital" title="Hospital">hospital</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hospice" title="Hospice">hospice</a></div> <p>Provision of medical care is classified into primary, secondary, and tertiary care categories.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nurses_at_Butawin_Urban_Clinic,_PNG_(10711159465).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="photograph of three nurses" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Nurses_at_Butawin_Urban_Clinic%2C_PNG_%2810711159465%29.jpg/170px-Nurses_at_Butawin_Urban_Clinic%2C_PNG_%2810711159465%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Nurses_at_Butawin_Urban_Clinic%2C_PNG_%2810711159465%29.jpg/255px-Nurses_at_Butawin_Urban_Clinic%2C_PNG_%2810711159465%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Nurses_at_Butawin_Urban_Clinic%2C_PNG_%2810711159465%29.jpg/340px-Nurses_at_Butawin_Urban_Clinic%2C_PNG_%2810711159465%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="682" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Nurses in <a href="/wiki/Kokopo" title="Kokopo">Kokopo</a>, <a href="/wiki/East_New_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="East New Britain">East New Britain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Primary_care" title="Primary care">Primary care</a> medical services are provided by <a href="/wiki/Physician" title="Physician">physicians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physician_assistant" title="Physician assistant">physician assistants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nurse_practitioner" title="Nurse practitioner">nurse practitioners</a>, or other health professionals who have first contact with a patient seeking medical treatment or care.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These occur in physician offices, <a href="/wiki/Clinic" title="Clinic">clinics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nursing_home" title="Nursing home">nursing homes</a>, schools, home visits, and other places close to patients. About 90% of medical visits can be treated by the primary care provider. These include treatment of acute and chronic illnesses, <a href="/wiki/Preventive_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Preventive care">preventive care</a> and <a href="/wiki/Health_education" title="Health education">health education</a> for all ages and both sexes. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Secondary_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary care">Secondary care</a> medical services are provided by <a href="/wiki/Medical_specialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical specialist">medical specialists</a> in their offices or clinics or at local community hospitals for a patient referred by a primary care provider who first diagnosed or treated the patient.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Referrals are made for those patients who required the expertise or procedures performed by specialists. These include both <a href="/wiki/Ambulatory_care" title="Ambulatory care">ambulatory care</a> and <a href="/wiki/Inpatient" class="mw-redirect" title="Inpatient">inpatient</a> services, <a href="/wiki/Emergency_department" title="Emergency department">emergency departments</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intensive_care_medicine" title="Intensive care medicine">intensive care medicine</a>, surgery services, <a href="/wiki/Physical_therapy" title="Physical therapy">physical therapy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Childbirth" title="Childbirth">labor and delivery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Endoscopy" title="Endoscopy">endoscopy</a> units, diagnostic laboratory and medical imaging services, <a href="/wiki/Hospice_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Hospice care">hospice</a> centers, etc. Some primary care providers may also take care of hospitalized patients and deliver babies in a secondary care setting. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Tertiary_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Tertiary care">Tertiary care</a> medical services are provided by specialist hospitals or regional centers equipped with diagnostic and treatment facilities not generally available at local hospitals. These include <a href="/wiki/Trauma_center" title="Trauma center">trauma centers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Burn_(injury)" class="mw-redirect" title="Burn (injury)">burn</a> treatment centers, advanced <a href="/wiki/Neonatology" title="Neonatology">neonatology</a> unit services, <a href="/wiki/Organ_transplant" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ transplant">organ transplants</a>, high-risk pregnancy, <a href="/wiki/Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">radiation</a> <a href="/wiki/Oncology" title="Oncology">oncology</a>, etc. </p><p>Modern medical care also depends on information – still delivered in many health care settings on paper records, but increasingly nowadays by <a href="/wiki/Electronic_health_record" title="Electronic health record">electronic means</a>. </p><p>In low-income countries, modern healthcare is often too expensive for the average person. International healthcare policy researchers have advocated that "user fees" be removed in these areas to ensure access, although even after removal, significant costs and barriers remain.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_prescribing_and_dispensing" title="Separation of prescribing and dispensing">Separation of prescribing and dispensing</a> is a practice in medicine and pharmacy in which the physician who provides a <a href="/wiki/Medical_prescription" title="Medical prescription">medical prescription</a> is independent from the <a href="/wiki/Pharmacist" title="Pharmacist">pharmacist</a> who provides the <a href="/wiki/Prescription_drug" title="Prescription drug">prescription drug</a>. In the Western world there are centuries of tradition for separating pharmacists from physicians. In Asian countries, it is traditional for physicians to also provide drugs.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Branches">Branches</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicine&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Branches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Drawing_by_Marguerite_Martyn_of_a_visiting_nurse_with_medicine_and_four_babies,_1918.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Drawing_by_Marguerite_Martyn_of_a_visiting_nurse_with_medicine_and_four_babies%2C_1918.jpg/220px-Drawing_by_Marguerite_Martyn_of_a_visiting_nurse_with_medicine_and_four_babies%2C_1918.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Drawing_by_Marguerite_Martyn_of_a_visiting_nurse_with_medicine_and_four_babies%2C_1918.jpg/330px-Drawing_by_Marguerite_Martyn_of_a_visiting_nurse_with_medicine_and_four_babies%2C_1918.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Drawing_by_Marguerite_Martyn_of_a_visiting_nurse_with_medicine_and_four_babies%2C_1918.jpg/440px-Drawing_by_Marguerite_Martyn_of_a_visiting_nurse_with_medicine_and_four_babies%2C_1918.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1941" /></a><figcaption>Drawing by <a href="/wiki/Marguerite_Martyn" title="Marguerite Martyn">Marguerite Martyn</a> (1918) of a visiting nurse in St. Louis, Missouri, with medicine and babies</figcaption></figure> <p>Working together as an <a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinary_team" class="mw-redirect" title="Interdisciplinary team">interdisciplinary team</a>, many highly trained <a href="/wiki/Health_profession" class="mw-redirect" title="Health profession">health professionals</a> besides medical practitioners are involved in the delivery of modern health care. Examples include: <a href="/wiki/Nurse" class="mw-redirect" title="Nurse">nurses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emergency_medical_technician" title="Emergency medical technician">emergency medical technicians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paramedics" class="mw-redirect" title="Paramedics">paramedics</a>, laboratory scientists, <a href="/wiki/Pharmacists" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmacists">pharmacists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Podiatry" title="Podiatry">podiatrists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physiotherapists" class="mw-redirect" title="Physiotherapists">physiotherapists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_therapists" class="mw-redirect" title="Respiratory therapists">respiratory therapists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Speech_therapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Speech therapy">speech therapists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Occupational_therapy" title="Occupational therapy">occupational therapists</a>, radiographers, <a href="/wiki/Dietitian" title="Dietitian">dietitians</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bioengineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioengineering">bioengineers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medical_physics" title="Medical physics">medical physicists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Surgeons" class="mw-redirect" title="Surgeons">surgeons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Surgeon%27s_assistant" title="Surgeon's assistant">surgeon's assistant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Surgical_technologist" title="Surgical technologist">surgical technologist</a>. </p><p>The scope and sciences underpinning human medicine overlap many other fields. A patient admitted to the hospital is usually under the care of a specific team based on their main presenting problem, e.g., the cardiology team, who then may interact with other specialties, e.g., surgical, radiology, to help diagnose or treat the main problem or any subsequent complications/developments. </p><p>Physicians have many specializations and subspecializations into certain branches of medicine, which are listed below. There are variations from country to country regarding which specialties certain subspecialties are in. </p><p>The main branches of medicine are: </p> <ul><li>Basic sciences of medicine; this is what every physician is educated in, and some return to in <a href="/wiki/Biomedical_research#Preclinical_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Biomedical research">biomedical research</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinary_sub-specialties_of_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Interdisciplinary sub-specialties of medicine">Interdisciplinary fields</a>, where different medical specialties are mixed to function in certain occasions.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_specialties" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical specialties">Medical specialties</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Basic_sciences">Basic sciences</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicine&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Basic sciences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">Anatomy</a></i> is the study of the physical structure of <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a>. In contrast to <i>macroscopic</i> or <i>gross anatomy</i>, <i>cytology</i> and <i>histology</i> are concerned with microscopic structures.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></i> is the study of the chemistry taking place in living organisms, especially the structure and function of their chemical components.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Biomechanics" title="Biomechanics">Biomechanics</a></i> is the study of the structure and function of biological systems by means of the methods of <a href="/wiki/Mechanics" title="Mechanics">Mechanics</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></i> is an interdisciplinary science that uses the methods of <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">physical chemistry</a> to study biological systems.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></i> is the application of statistics to biological fields in the broadest sense. A knowledge of biostatistics is essential in the planning, evaluation, and interpretation of medical research. It is also fundamental to <a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">epidemiology</a> and evidence-based medicine.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cytology</a></i> is the microscopic study of individual <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a>.</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Albert_Edelfelt_-_Louis_Pasteur_-_1885.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Albert_Edelfelt_-_Louis_Pasteur_-_1885.jpg/220px-Albert_Edelfelt_-_Louis_Pasteur_-_1885.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Albert_Edelfelt_-_Louis_Pasteur_-_1885.jpg/330px-Albert_Edelfelt_-_Louis_Pasteur_-_1885.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Albert_Edelfelt_-_Louis_Pasteur_-_1885.jpg/440px-Albert_Edelfelt_-_Louis_Pasteur_-_1885.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2082" data-file-height="2532" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Louis_Pasteur" title="Louis Pasteur">Louis Pasteur</a></i>, as portrayed in his laboratory, 1885 by <a href="/wiki/Albert_Edelfelt" title="Albert Edelfelt">Albert Edelfelt</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Statue_of_Robert_Koch_in_Berlin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Statue_of_Robert_Koch_in_Berlin.jpg/220px-Statue_of_Robert_Koch_in_Berlin.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="344" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Statue_of_Robert_Koch_in_Berlin.jpg/330px-Statue_of_Robert_Koch_in_Berlin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Statue_of_Robert_Koch_in_Berlin.jpg/440px-Statue_of_Robert_Koch_in_Berlin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1506" data-file-height="2354" /></a><figcaption>Statue of <a href="/wiki/Robert_Koch" title="Robert Koch">Robert Koch</a> in <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a></figcaption></figure> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">Embryology</a></i> is the study of the early development of organisms.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Endocrinology" title="Endocrinology">Endocrinology</a></i> is the study of hormones and their effect throughout the body of animals.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></i> is the study of the demographics of disease processes, and includes, but is not limited to, the study of epidemics.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></i> is the study of genes, and their role in <a href="/wiki/Biological_inheritance" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological inheritance">biological inheritance</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gynecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Gynecology">Gynecology</a></i> is the study of female reproductive system.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">Histology</a></i> is the study of the structures of <a href="/wiki/Biological_tissue" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological tissue">biological tissues</a> by light <a href="/wiki/Microscopy" title="Microscopy">microscopy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electron_microscope" title="Electron microscope">electron microscopy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Immunohistochemistry" title="Immunohistochemistry">immunohistochemistry</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a></i> is the study of the <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune system</a>, which includes the innate and adaptive immune system in humans, for example.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lifestyle_medicine" title="Lifestyle medicine">Lifestyle medicine</a></i> is the study of the <a href="/wiki/Chronic_conditions" class="mw-redirect" title="Chronic conditions">chronic conditions</a>, and how to prevent, treat and reverse them.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Medical_physics" title="Medical physics">Medical physics</a></i> is the study of the applications of physics principles in medicine.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a></i> is the study of <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Protozoa" title="Protozoa">protozoa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bacterium" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacterium">bacteria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">fungi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></i> is the study of molecular underpinnings of the process of <a href="/wiki/DNA_replication" title="DNA replication">replication</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transcription_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcription (genetics)">transcription</a> and <a href="/wiki/Translation_(biology)" title="Translation (biology)">translation</a> of the genetic material.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></i> includes those disciplines of science that are related to the study of the <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous system</a>. A main focus of neuroscience is the <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a> and physiology of the human brain and <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a>. Some related clinical specialties include <a href="/wiki/Neurology" title="Neurology">neurology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neurosurgery" title="Neurosurgery">neurosurgery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">psychiatry</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nutrition_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutrition science">Nutrition science</a></i> (theoretical focus) and <i><a href="/wiki/Dietetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Dietetics">dietetics</a></i> (practical focus) is the study of the relationship of food and drink to health and disease, especially in determining an optimal diet. Medical nutrition therapy is done by dietitians and is prescribed for <a href="/wiki/Diabetes" title="Diabetes">diabetes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease" title="Cardiovascular disease">cardiovascular diseases</a>, weight and eating <a href="/wiki/Mental_illness" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental illness">disorders</a>, allergies, <a href="/wiki/Malnutrition" title="Malnutrition">malnutrition</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Neoplasia" class="mw-redirect" title="Neoplasia">neoplastic</a> diseases.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pathology_as_a_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathology as a science">Pathology as a science</a></i> is the study of disease – the causes, course, progression and resolution thereof.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></i> is the study of drugs and their actions.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Photobiology" title="Photobiology">Photobiology</a></i> is the study of the interactions between <a href="/wiki/Non-ionizing_radiation" title="Non-ionizing radiation">non-ionizing radiation</a> and living organisms.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">Physiology</a></i> is the study of the normal functioning of the body and the underlying regulatory mechanisms.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Radiobiology" title="Radiobiology">Radiobiology</a></i> is the study of the interactions between <a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing radiation</a> and living organisms.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Toxicology" title="Toxicology">Toxicology</a></i> is the study of hazardous effects of drugs and <a href="/wiki/Poison" title="Poison">poisons</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Specialties">Specialties</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicine&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Specialties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">Medical specialty</a></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Globalize plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-globalize" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Globe icon." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/48px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png" decoding="async" width="48" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/73px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/97px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="290" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The examples and perspective in this section <b>deal primarily with UK and do not represent a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Countering_systemic_bias" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias">worldwide view</a> of the subject</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> You may <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medicine&action=edit">improve this section</a>, discuss the issue on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Medicine" title="Talk:Medicine">talk page</a>, or create a new section, as appropriate.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In the broadest meaning of "medicine", there are many different specialties. In the UK, most specialities have their own body or college, which has its own entrance examination. These are collectively known as the Royal Colleges, although not all currently use the term "Royal". The development of a speciality is often driven by new technology (such as the development of effective anaesthetics) or ways of working (such as emergency departments); the new specialty leads to the formation of a unifying body of doctors and the prestige of administering their own examination. </p><p>Within medical circles, specialities usually fit into one of two broad categories: "Medicine" and "Surgery". "Medicine" refers to the practice of non-operative medicine, and most of its subspecialties require preliminary training in Internal Medicine. In the UK, this was traditionally evidenced by passing the examination for the Membership of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_College_of_Physicians" title="Royal College of Physicians">Royal College of Physicians</a> (MRCP) or the equivalent college in Scotland or Ireland. "Surgery" refers to the practice of operative medicine, and most subspecialties in this area require preliminary training in General Surgery, which in the UK leads to membership of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_College_of_Surgeons_of_England" title="Royal College of Surgeons of England">Royal College of Surgeons of England</a> (MRCS). At present, some specialties of medicine do not fit easily into either of these categories, such as radiology, pathology, or anesthesia. Most of these have branched from one or other of the two camps above; for example anaesthesia developed first as a <a href="/wiki/Faculty_(teaching_staff)" class="mw-redirect" title="Faculty (teaching staff)">faculty</a> of the Royal College of Surgeons (for which MRCS/FRCS would have been required) before becoming the <a href="/wiki/Royal_College_of_Anaesthetists" title="Royal College of Anaesthetists">Royal College of Anaesthetists</a> and membership of the college is attained by sitting for the examination of the Fellowship of the Royal College of Anesthetists (FRCA). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Surgical_specialty">Surgical specialty</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicine&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Surgical specialty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Surgery" title="Surgery">Surgery</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Surgeons_at_Work.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Surgeons_at_Work.jpg/220px-Surgeons_at_Work.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Surgeons_at_Work.jpg/330px-Surgeons_at_Work.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Surgeons_at_Work.jpg/440px-Surgeons_at_Work.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="833" /></a><figcaption>Surgeons in an <a href="/wiki/Operating_room" class="mw-redirect" title="Operating room">operating room</a></figcaption></figure> <p><i>Surgery</i> is an ancient medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental techniques on a patient to investigate or treat a <a href="/wiki/Pathological" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathological">pathological</a> condition such as disease or <a href="/wiki/Injury" title="Injury">injury</a>, to help improve bodily function or appearance or to repair unwanted ruptured areas (for example, <a href="/wiki/Perforated_eardrum" title="Perforated eardrum">a perforated ear drum</a>). Surgeons must also manage pre-operative, post-operative, and potential surgical candidates on the hospital wards. In some centers, <a href="/wiki/Anesthesiology" title="Anesthesiology">anesthesiology</a> is part of the division of surgery (for historical and logistical reasons), although it is not a surgical discipline. Other medical specialties may employ surgical procedures, such as <a href="/wiki/Ophthalmology" title="Ophthalmology">ophthalmology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dermatology" title="Dermatology">dermatology</a>, but are not considered surgical sub-specialties per se. </p><p>Surgical training in the U.S. requires a minimum of five years of residency after medical school. Sub-specialties of surgery often require seven or more years. In addition, fellowships can last an additional one to three years. Because post-residency fellowships can be competitive, many trainees devote two additional years to research. Thus in some cases surgical training will not finish until more than a decade after medical school. Furthermore, surgical training can be very difficult and time-consuming. </p><p>Surgical subspecialties include those a physician may specialize in after undergoing general surgery residency training as well as several surgical fields with separate residency training. Surgical subspecialties that one may pursue following general surgery residency training: <i><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bariatric_surgery" title="Bariatric surgery">Bariatric surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiac_surgery" title="Cardiac surgery">Cardiovascular surgery</a> – may also be pursued through a separate cardiovascular surgery residency track</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorectal_surgery" title="Colorectal surgery">Colorectal surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_surgery" title="Endocrine surgery">Endocrine surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_surgery" title="General surgery">General surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_surgery" title="Hand surgery">Hand surgery</a></li> <li>Hepatico-Pancreatico-Biliary Surgery</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimally-invasive_surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Minimally-invasive surgery">Minimally invasive surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pediatric_surgery" title="Pediatric surgery">Pediatric surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_surgery" title="Plastic surgery">Plastic surgery</a> – may also be pursued through a separate plastic surgery residency track</li> <li>Surgical critical care</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surgical_oncology" title="Surgical oncology">Surgical oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organ_transplantation" title="Organ transplantation">Transplant surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trauma_surgery" title="Trauma surgery">Trauma surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_surgery" title="Vascular surgery">Vascular surgery</a> – may also be pursued through a separate vascular surgery residency track</li></ul> <p>Other surgical specialties within medicine with their own individual residency training: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dermatology" title="Dermatology">Dermatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurosurgery" title="Neurosurgery">Neurosurgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ophthalmology" title="Ophthalmology">Ophthalmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_and_maxillofacial_surgery" title="Oral and maxillofacial surgery">Oral and maxillofacial surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthopedic_surgery" title="Orthopedic surgery">Orthopedic surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otorhinolaryngology" title="Otorhinolaryngology">Otorhinolaryngology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Podiatry" title="Podiatry">Podiatric surgery</a> – do not undergo medical school training, but rather separate training in podiatry school</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urology" title="Urology">Urology</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Internal_medicine_specialty">Internal medicine specialty</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicine&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Internal medicine specialty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Internal_medicine" title="Internal medicine">Internal medicine</a></div> <p><b>Internal medicine</b> is the <a href="/wiki/Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">medical specialty</a> dealing with the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of adult diseases.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to some sources, an emphasis on internal structures is implied.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In North America, specialists in internal medicine are commonly called "internists". Elsewhere, especially in <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth</a> nations, such specialists are often called <a href="/wiki/Physician" title="Physician">physicians</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These terms, <i>internist</i> or <i>physician</i> (in the narrow sense, common outside North America), generally exclude practitioners of gynecology and obstetrics, pathology, psychiatry, and especially surgery and its subspecialities. </p><p>Because their patients are often seriously ill or require complex investigations, internists do much of their work in hospitals. Formerly, many internists were not subspecialized; such <i>general physicians</i> would see any complex nonsurgical problem; this style of practice has become much less common. In modern urban practice, most internists are subspecialists: that is, they generally limit their medical practice to problems of one organ system or to one particular area of medical knowledge. For example, <a href="/wiki/Gastroenterology" title="Gastroenterology">gastroenterologists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nephrology" title="Nephrology">nephrologists</a> specialize respectively in diseases of the gut and the kidneys.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the Commonwealth of Nations and some other countries, specialist <a href="/wiki/Pediatrics" title="Pediatrics">pediatricians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geriatrics" title="Geriatrics">geriatricians</a> are also described as <i>specialist physicians</i> (or internists) who have subspecialized by age of patient rather than by organ system. Elsewhere, especially in North America, general pediatrics is often a form of <a href="/wiki/Primary_care_physician" title="Primary care physician">primary care</a>. </p><p>There are many subspecialities (or subdisciplines) of <a href="/wiki/Internal_medicine" title="Internal medicine">internal medicine</a>: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em"> <dl><dd><ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Angiology" title="Angiology">Angiology</a>/Vascular Medicine</i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bariatrics" title="Bariatrics">Bariatrics</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cardiology" title="Cardiology">Cardiology</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Critical_care_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Critical care medicine">Critical care medicine</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Endocrinology" title="Endocrinology">Endocrinology</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gastroenterology" title="Gastroenterology">Gastroenterology</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Geriatrics" title="Geriatrics">Geriatrics</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hematology" title="Hematology">Hematology</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hepatology" title="Hepatology">Hepatology</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Infectious_disease_(medical_specialty)" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious disease (medical specialty)">Infectious disease</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nephrology" title="Nephrology">Nephrology</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Neurology" title="Neurology">Neurology</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oncology" title="Oncology">Oncology</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pediatrics" title="Pediatrics">Pediatrics</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pulmonology" title="Pulmonology">Pulmonology</a>/Pneumology/Respirology/chest medicine</i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rheumatology" title="Rheumatology">Rheumatology</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sports_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Sports Medicine">Sports Medicine</a></i></li></ul></dd></dl></div> <p>Training in internal medicine (as opposed to surgical training), varies considerably across the world: see the articles on <i><a href="/wiki/Medical_education" title="Medical education">medical education</a></i> for more details. In North America, it requires at least three years of residency training after medical school, which can then be followed by a one- to three-year fellowship in the subspecialties listed above. In general, resident work hours in medicine are less than those in surgery, averaging about 60 hours per week in the US. This difference does not apply in the UK where all doctors are now required by law to work less than 48 hours per week on average. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Diagnostic_specialties">Diagnostic specialties</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicine&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Diagnostic specialties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Clinical_laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Clinical laboratory">Clinical laboratory</a> sciences</i> are the clinical diagnostic services that apply laboratory techniques to diagnosis and management of patients. In the United States, these services are supervised by a pathologist. The personnel that work in these <a href="/wiki/Medical_laboratory" title="Medical laboratory">medical laboratory</a> departments are technically trained staff who do not hold medical degrees, but who usually hold an undergraduate <a href="/wiki/Medical_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical technology">medical technology</a> degree, who actually perform the <a href="/wiki/Medical_test" title="Medical test">tests</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assay" title="Assay">assays</a>, and procedures needed for providing the specific services. Subspecialties include <a href="/wiki/Transfusion_medicine" title="Transfusion medicine">transfusion medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cellular_pathology" class="mw-redirect" title="Cellular pathology">cellular pathology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clinical_chemistry" title="Clinical chemistry">clinical chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hematology" title="Hematology">hematology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clinical_microbiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Clinical microbiology">clinical microbiology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clinical_immunology" class="mw-redirect" title="Clinical immunology">clinical immunology</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Clinical_neurophysiology" title="Clinical neurophysiology">Clinical neurophysiology</a></i> is concerned with testing the physiology or function of the central and peripheral aspects of the nervous system. These kinds of tests can be divided into recordings of: (1) spontaneous or continuously running electrical activity, or (2) stimulus evoked responses. Subspecialties include <a href="/wiki/Electroencephalography" title="Electroencephalography">electroencephalography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electromyography" title="Electromyography">electromyography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Evoked_potential" title="Evoked potential">evoked potential</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nerve_conduction_study" title="Nerve conduction study">nerve conduction study</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polysomnography" title="Polysomnography">polysomnography</a>. Sometimes these tests are performed by techs without a medical degree, but the interpretation of these tests is done by a medical professional.</li> <li><i>Diagnostic <a href="/wiki/Radiology" title="Radiology">radiology</a></i> is concerned with imaging of the body, e.g. by <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">x-rays</a>, x-ray <a href="/wiki/Computed_tomography" class="mw-redirect" title="Computed tomography">computed tomography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ultrasonography" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultrasonography">ultrasonography</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance">nuclear magnetic resonance</a> <a href="/wiki/Tomography" title="Tomography">tomography</a>. Interventional radiologists can access areas in the body under imaging for an intervention or diagnostic sampling.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_medicine" title="Nuclear medicine">Nuclear medicine</a></i> is concerned with studying human organ systems by administering radiolabelled substances (radiopharmaceuticals) to the body, which can then be imaged outside the body by a <a href="/wiki/Gamma_camera" title="Gamma camera">gamma camera</a> or a PET scanner. Each radiopharmaceutical consists of two parts: a tracer that is specific for the function under study (e.g., neurotransmitter pathway, metabolic pathway, blood flow, or other), and a radionuclide (usually either a gamma-emitter or a positron emitter). There is a degree of overlap between nuclear medicine and radiology, as evidenced by the emergence of combined devices such as the PET/CT scanner.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pathology_as_a_medical_specialty" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathology as a medical specialty">Pathology as a medical specialty</a></i> is the branch of medicine that deals with the study of diseases and the morphologic, physiologic changes produced by them. As a diagnostic specialty, pathology can be considered the basis of modern scientific medical knowledge and plays a large role in <a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_medicine" title="Evidence-based medicine">evidence-based medicine</a>. Many modern molecular tests such as <a href="/wiki/Flow_cytometry" title="Flow cytometry">flow cytometry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">polymerase chain reaction</a> (PCR), <a href="/wiki/Immunohistochemistry" title="Immunohistochemistry">immunohistochemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">cytogenetics</a>, gene rearrangements studies and <a href="/wiki/Fluorescent_in_situ_hybridization" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluorescent in situ hybridization">fluorescent in situ hybridization</a> (FISH) fall within the territory of pathology.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_major_specialties">Other major specialties</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicine&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Other major specialties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following are some major medical specialties that do not directly fit into any of the above-mentioned groups: </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Anesthesiology" title="Anesthesiology">Anesthesiology</a></i> (also known as <i>anaesthetics</i>): concerned with the perioperative management of the surgical patient. The anesthesiologist's role during surgery is to prevent derangement in the vital organs' (i.e. brain, heart, kidneys) functions and postoperative pain. Outside of the operating room, the anesthesiology physician also serves the same function in the labor and delivery ward, and some are specialized in critical medicine.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Emergency_medicine" title="Emergency medicine">Emergency medicine</a></i> is concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of acute or life-threatening conditions, including <a href="/wiki/Physical_trauma" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical trauma">trauma</a>, surgical, medical, pediatric, and psychiatric emergencies.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Family_medicine" title="Family medicine">Family medicine</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Family_practice" class="mw-redirect" title="Family practice">family practice</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/General_practice" title="General practice">general practice</a></i> or <i>primary care</i> is, in many countries, the first port-of-call for patients with non-emergency medical problems. Family physicians often provide services across a broad range of settings including office based practices, emergency department coverage, inpatient care, and nursing home care.</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Changing_lives_for_girls_and_women_every_week_(12330467294).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Changing_lives_for_girls_and_women_every_week_%2812330467294%29.jpg/220px-Changing_lives_for_girls_and_women_every_week_%2812330467294%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Changing_lives_for_girls_and_women_every_week_%2812330467294%29.jpg/330px-Changing_lives_for_girls_and_women_every_week_%2812330467294%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Changing_lives_for_girls_and_women_every_week_%2812330467294%29.jpg/440px-Changing_lives_for_girls_and_women_every_week_%2812330467294%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5616" data-file-height="3744" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gynecologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Gynecologist">Gynecologist</a> Michel Akotionga of <a href="/wiki/Ouagadougou" title="Ouagadougou">Ouagadougou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Burkina_Faso" title="Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a></figcaption></figure> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Medical_genetics" title="Medical genetics">Medical genetics</a></i> is concerned with the diagnosis and management of hereditary disorders.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Neurology" title="Neurology">Neurology</a></i> is concerned with diseases of the nervous system. In the UK, neurology is a subspecialty of general medicine.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Obstetrics" title="Obstetrics">Obstetrics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gynecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Gynecology">gynecology</a></i> (often abbreviated as <i><a href="/wiki/OB/GYN" class="mw-redirect" title="OB/GYN">OB/GYN</a></i> (American English) or <i>Obs & Gynae</i> (British English)) are concerned respectively with childbirth and the female reproductive and associated organs. <a href="/wiki/Reproductive_medicine" title="Reproductive medicine">Reproductive medicine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fertility_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertility medicine">fertility medicine</a> are generally practiced by gynecological specialists.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pediatrics" title="Pediatrics">Pediatrics</a></i> (AE) or <i>paediatrics</i> (BE) is devoted to the care of infants, children, and adolescents. Like internal medicine, there are many pediatric subspecialties for specific age ranges, organ systems, disease classes, and sites of care delivery.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_medicine" title="Pharmaceutical medicine">Pharmaceutical medicine</a></i> is the medical scientific discipline concerned with the discovery, development, evaluation, registration, monitoring and medical aspects of marketing of medicines for the benefit of patients and public health.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Physical_medicine_and_rehabilitation" title="Physical medicine and rehabilitation">Physical medicine and rehabilitation</a></i> (or <i>physiatry</i>) is concerned with functional improvement after injury, illness, or <a href="/wiki/Congenital_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Congenital disorder">congenital disorders</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Podiatric_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Podiatric medicine">Podiatric medicine</a></i> is the study of, diagnosis, and medical and surgical treatment of disorders of the foot, ankle, lower limb, hip and lower back.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Preventive_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Preventive medicine">Preventive medicine</a></i> is the branch of medicine concerned with preventing disease. <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Community_health" title="Community health">Community health</a></i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">public health</a></i> is an aspect of health services concerned with threats to the overall health of a community based on <a href="/wiki/Population_health" title="Population health">population health</a> analysis.</li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">Psychiatry</a></i> is the branch of medicine concerned with the <a href="/wiki/Biopsychosocial" class="mw-redirect" title="Biopsychosocial">bio-psycho-social</a> study of the <a href="/wiki/Etiology" title="Etiology">etiology</a>, diagnosis, treatment and prevention of <a href="/wiki/Cognitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive">cognitive</a>, <a href="/wiki/Perceptual" class="mw-redirect" title="Perceptual">perceptual</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emotional" class="mw-redirect" title="Emotional">emotional</a> and <a href="/wiki/Behavioral" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioral">behavioral</a> disorders. Related fields include <a href="/wiki/Psychotherapy" title="Psychotherapy">psychotherapy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clinical_psychology" title="Clinical psychology">clinical psychology</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interdisciplinary_fields">Interdisciplinary fields</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicine&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Interdisciplinary fields"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some interdisciplinary sub-specialties of medicine include: </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Addiction_medicine" title="Addiction medicine">Addiction medicine</a></i> deals with the treatment of addiction.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aerospace_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerospace medicine">Aerospace medicine</a></i> deals with medical problems related to flying and <a href="/wiki/Human_spaceflight" title="Human spaceflight">space travel</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Biomedical_Engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Biomedical Engineering">Biomedical Engineering</a></i> is a field dealing with the application of <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a> principles to medical practice.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Clinical_pharmacology" title="Clinical pharmacology">Clinical pharmacology</a></i> is concerned with how systems of <a href="/wiki/Therapeutics" class="mw-redirect" title="Therapeutics">therapeutics</a> interact with patients.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Conservation_medicine" title="Conservation medicine">Conservation medicine</a></i> studies the relationship between human and non-human animal health, and environmental conditions. Also known as ecological medicine, <a href="/wiki/Environmental_medicine" title="Environmental medicine">environmental medicine</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Medical_geology" title="Medical geology">medical geology</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Disaster_medicine" title="Disaster medicine">Disaster medicine</a></i> deals with medical aspects of emergency preparedness, disaster mitigation and management.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Diving_medicine" title="Diving medicine">Diving medicine</a></i> (or <a href="/wiki/Hyperbaric_medicine" title="Hyperbaric medicine">hyperbaric medicine</a>) is the prevention and treatment of diving-related problems.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></i> is a perspective on medicine derived through applying <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolutionary</a> theory.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Forensic_medicine" title="Forensic medicine">Forensic medicine</a></i> deals with medical questions in <a href="/wiki/Legal" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal">legal</a> context, such as determination of the time and cause of death, type of weapon used to inflict trauma, reconstruction of the facial features using remains of deceased (skull) thus aiding identification.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gender-based_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender-based medicine">Gender-based medicine</a></i> studies the biological and physiological differences between the human sexes and how that affects differences in disease.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Health_informatics" title="Health informatics">Health informatics</a></i> is a relatively recent field that deal with the application of computers and <a href="/wiki/Information_technology" title="Information technology">information technology</a> to medicine.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hospice_and_Palliative_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Hospice and Palliative Medicine">Hospice and Palliative Medicine</a></i> is a relatively modern branch of clinical medicine that deals with pain and symptom relief and emotional support in patients with <a href="/wiki/Terminal_illness" title="Terminal illness">terminal illnesses</a> including cancer and <a href="/wiki/Heart_failure" title="Heart failure">heart failure</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hospital_medicine" title="Hospital medicine">Hospital medicine</a></i> is the general medical care of hospitalized patients. Physicians whose primary professional focus is hospital medicine are called <a href="/wiki/Hospitalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Hospitalist">hospitalists</a> in the United States and <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>. The term Most Responsible Physician (MRP) or attending physician is also used interchangeably to describe this role.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Laser_medicine" title="Laser medicine">Laser medicine</a></i> involves the use of lasers in the diagnostics or treatment of various conditions.</li> <li>Many other <a href="/wiki/Health_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Health science">health science</a> fields, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Dietetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Dietetics">dietetics</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Medical_ethics" title="Medical ethics">Medical ethics</a></i> deals with <a href="/wiki/Ethic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethic">ethical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moral" title="Moral">moral</a> principles that apply values and judgments to the practice of medicine.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Medical_humanities" title="Medical humanities">Medical humanities</a></i> includes the <a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">humanities</a> (<a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>, history and religion), <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social science</a> (<a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cultural_studies" title="Cultural studies">cultural studies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>), and the arts (<a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">literature</a>, theater, film, and <a href="/wiki/Visual_arts" title="Visual arts">visual arts</a>) and their application to <a href="/wiki/Medical_education" title="Medical education">medical education</a> and practice.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nosokinetics" title="Nosokinetics">Nosokinetics</a></i> is the science/subject of measuring and modelling the process of care in health and social care systems.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nosology" title="Nosology">Nosology</a></i> is the classification of diseases for various purposes.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Occupational_medicine" title="Occupational medicine">Occupational medicine</a></i> is the provision of health advice to organizations and individuals to ensure that the highest standards of health and safety at work can be achieved and maintained.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pain_management" title="Pain management">Pain management</a></i> (also called <i><a href="/wiki/Pain_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Pain medicine">pain medicine</a></i>, or <i>algiatry</i>) is the medical discipline concerned with the relief of pain.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pharmacogenomics" title="Pharmacogenomics">Pharmacogenomics</a></i> is a form of <i>individualized medicine</i>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Podiatry" title="Podiatry">Podiatric medicine</a></i> is the study of, diagnosis, and medical treatment of disorders of the foot, ankle, lower limb, hip and lower back.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sexual_medicine" title="Sexual medicine">Sexual medicine</a></i> is concerned with diagnosing, assessing and treating all disorders related to sexuality.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sports_medicine" title="Sports medicine">Sports medicine</a></i> deals with the treatment and prevention and rehabilitation of sports/exercise injuries such as <a href="/wiki/Muscle_spasm" class="mw-redirect" title="Muscle spasm">muscle spasms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muscle_tear" class="mw-redirect" title="Muscle tear">muscle tears</a>, injuries to ligaments (ligament tears or ruptures) and their repair in <a href="/wiki/Sportsperson" class="mw-redirect" title="Sportsperson">athletes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amateur" title="Amateur">amateur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Professional" title="Professional">professional</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Therapeutics" class="mw-redirect" title="Therapeutics">Therapeutics</a></i> is the field, more commonly referenced in earlier periods of history, of the various remedies that can be used to treat disease and promote health.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Travel_medicine" title="Travel medicine">Travel medicine</a></i> or <i>emporiatrics</i> deals with health problems of international travelers or travelers across highly different environments.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tropical_medicine" title="Tropical medicine">Tropical medicine</a></i> deals with the prevention and treatment of tropical diseases. It is studied separately in temperate climates where those diseases are quite unfamiliar to medical practitioners and their local clinical needs.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Urgent_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Urgent care">Urgent care</a></i> focuses on delivery of unscheduled, walk-in care outside of the hospital emergency department for injuries and illnesses that are not severe enough to require care in an emergency department. In some jurisdictions this function is combined with the emergency department.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veterinary_medicine" title="Veterinary medicine">Veterinary medicine</a>; <a href="/wiki/Veterinarians" class="mw-redirect" title="Veterinarians">veterinarians</a> apply similar techniques as physicians to the care of non-human animals.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wilderness_medicine_(practice)" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilderness medicine (practice)">Wilderness medicine</a></i> entails the practice of medicine in the wild, where conventional medical facilities may not be available.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Education_and_legal_controls">Education and legal controls</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicine&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Education and legal controls"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Medical_education" title="Medical education">Medical education</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medical_license" title="Medical license">Medical license</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Medical_students_learning_about_stitches_(2760577402).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Medical_students_learning_about_stitches_%282760577402%29.jpg/220px-Medical_students_learning_about_stitches_%282760577402%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Medical_students_learning_about_stitches_%282760577402%29.jpg/330px-Medical_students_learning_about_stitches_%282760577402%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Medical_students_learning_about_stitches_%282760577402%29.jpg/440px-Medical_students_learning_about_stitches_%282760577402%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2932" data-file-height="1968" /></a><figcaption>Medical students learning about stitches</figcaption></figure> <p>Medical education and training varies around the world. It typically involves entry level education at a university <a href="/wiki/Medical_school" title="Medical school">medical school</a>, followed by a period of supervised practice or <a href="/wiki/Medical_intern" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical intern">internship</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Residency_(medicine)" title="Residency (medicine)">residency</a>. This can be followed by postgraduate vocational training. A variety of teaching methods have been employed in medical education, still itself a focus of active research. In Canada and the United States of America, a Doctor of Medicine degree, often abbreviated M.D., or a <a href="/wiki/Osteopathic_medicine_in_the_United_States" title="Osteopathic medicine in the United States">Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine</a> degree, often abbreviated as D.O. and unique to the United States, must be completed in and delivered from a recognized university. </p><p>Since knowledge, techniques, and medical technology continue to evolve at a rapid rate, many regulatory authorities require <a href="/wiki/Continuing_medical_education" title="Continuing medical education">continuing medical education</a>. Medical practitioners upgrade their knowledge in various ways, including <a href="/wiki/Medical_journal" title="Medical journal">medical journals</a>, seminars, conferences, and online programs. A database of objectives covering medical knowledge, as suggested by national societies across the United States, can be searched at <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://data.medobjectives.marian.edu/">http://data.medobjectives.marian.edu/</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181004185930/http://data.medobjectives.marian.edu/">Archived</a> 4 October 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Madrid_(RPS_13-07-2010)_Organizaci%C3%B3n_M%C3%A9dica_Colegial_de_Espa%C3%B1a,_fachada.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Madrid_%28RPS_13-07-2010%29_Organizaci%C3%B3n_M%C3%A9dica_Colegial_de_Espa%C3%B1a%2C_fachada.jpg/180px-Madrid_%28RPS_13-07-2010%29_Organizaci%C3%B3n_M%C3%A9dica_Colegial_de_Espa%C3%B1a%2C_fachada.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Madrid_%28RPS_13-07-2010%29_Organizaci%C3%B3n_M%C3%A9dica_Colegial_de_Espa%C3%B1a%2C_fachada.jpg/270px-Madrid_%28RPS_13-07-2010%29_Organizaci%C3%B3n_M%C3%A9dica_Colegial_de_Espa%C3%B1a%2C_fachada.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Madrid_%28RPS_13-07-2010%29_Organizaci%C3%B3n_M%C3%A9dica_Colegial_de_Espa%C3%B1a%2C_fachada.jpg/360px-Madrid_%28RPS_13-07-2010%29_Organizaci%C3%B3n_M%C3%A9dica_Colegial_de_Espa%C3%B1a%2C_fachada.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1720" data-file-height="1994" /></a><figcaption>Headquarters of the <a href="/wiki/Organizaci%C3%B3n_M%C3%A9dica_Colegial_de_Espa%C3%B1a" title="Organización Médica Colegial de España">Organización Médica Colegial de España</a>, which regulates the medical profession in Spain</figcaption></figure> <p>In most countries, it is a legal requirement for a medical doctor to be licensed or registered. In general, this entails a medical degree from a university and accreditation by a medical board or an equivalent national organization, which may ask the applicant to pass exams. This restricts the considerable legal authority of the medical profession to physicians that are trained and qualified by national standards. It is also intended as an assurance to patients and as a safeguard against <a href="/wiki/Charlatan" title="Charlatan">charlatans</a> that practice inadequate medicine for personal gain. While the laws generally require medical doctors to be trained in "evidence based", Western, or <a href="/wiki/Hippocratic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hippocratic">Hippocratic</a> Medicine, they are not intended to discourage different paradigms of health. </p><p>In the European Union, the profession of doctor of medicine is regulated. A profession is said to be regulated when access and exercise is subject to the possession of a specific professional qualification. The regulated professions database contains a list of regulated professions for doctor of medicine in the EU member states, EEA countries and Switzerland. This list is covered by the <a href="/wiki/Directive_2005/36/EC" title="Directive 2005/36/EC">Directive 2005/36/EC</a>. </p><p>Doctors who are negligent or intentionally harmful in their care of patients can face charges of <a href="/wiki/Medical_malpractice" title="Medical malpractice">medical malpractice</a> and be subject to civil, criminal, or professional sanctions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Medical_ethics">Medical ethics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicine&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Medical ethics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Medical_ethics" title="Medical ethics">Medical ethics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HippocraticOath.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/HippocraticOath.jpg/170px-HippocraticOath.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/HippocraticOath.jpg/255px-HippocraticOath.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/HippocraticOath.jpg/340px-HippocraticOath.jpg 2x" data-file-width="696" data-file-height="983" /></a><figcaption>A 12th-century <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine empire">Byzantine</a> manuscript of the <a href="/wiki/Hippocratic_Oath" title="Hippocratic Oath">Hippocratic Oath</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Medical ethics is a system of moral principles that apply values and judgments to the practice of medicine. As a scholarly discipline, medical ethics encompasses its practical application in clinical settings as well as work on its history, philosophy, theology, and sociology. Six of the values that commonly apply to medical ethics discussions are: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy#Medicine" title="Autonomy">autonomy</a> – the patient has the right to refuse or choose their treatment. (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">Voluntas aegroti suprema lex</i>.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beneficence_(ethics)" title="Beneficence (ethics)">beneficence</a> – a practitioner should act in the best interest of the patient. (Latin: <i lang="la">Salus aegroti suprema lex</i>.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice_(ethics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Justice (ethics)">justice</a> – concerns the distribution of scarce health resources, and the decision of who gets what treatment (fairness and equality).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primum_non_nocere" title="Primum non nocere">non-maleficence</a> – "first, do no harm" (Latin: <i lang="la">primum non-nocere</i>).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respect_for_persons" title="Respect for persons">respect for persons</a> – the patient (and the person treating the patient) have the right to be treated with dignity.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truthfulness</a> and <a href="/wiki/Honesty" title="Honesty">honesty</a> – the concept of <a href="/wiki/Informed_consent" title="Informed consent">informed consent</a> has increased in importance since the historical events of the <a href="/wiki/Doctors%27_Trial" title="Doctors' Trial">Doctors' Trial</a> of the Nuremberg trials, <a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_syphilis_experiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuskegee syphilis experiment">Tuskegee syphilis experiment</a>, and others.</li></ul> <p>Values such as these do not give answers as to how to handle a particular situation, but provide a useful framework for understanding conflicts. When moral values are in conflict, the result may be an ethical <a href="/wiki/Dilemma" title="Dilemma">dilemma</a> or crisis. Sometimes, no good solution to a dilemma in medical ethics exists, and occasionally, the values of the medical community (i.e., the hospital and its staff) conflict with the values of the individual patient, family, or larger non-medical community. Conflicts can also arise between health care providers, or among family members. For example, some argue that the principles of autonomy and beneficence clash when patients refuse <a href="/wiki/Blood_transfusions" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood transfusions">blood transfusions</a>, considering them life-saving; and truth-telling was not emphasized to a large extent before the HIV era. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicine&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">History of medicine</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a chronological guide, see <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology" title="Timeline of medicine and medical technology">Timeline of medicine and medical technology</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Imhotep-Louvre.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Imhotep-Louvre.JPG/170px-Imhotep-Louvre.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Imhotep-Louvre.JPG/255px-Imhotep-Louvre.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Imhotep-Louvre.JPG/340px-Imhotep-Louvre.JPG 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Statuette of ancient Egyptian physician <a href="/wiki/Imhotep" title="Imhotep">Imhotep</a>, the first physician from antiquity known by name</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_world">Ancient world</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicine&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Ancient world"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_medicine" title="Prehistoric medicine">Prehistoric medicine</a> incorporated plants (<a href="/wiki/Herbalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbalism">herbalism</a>), animal parts, and minerals. In many cases these materials were used ritually as magical substances by priests, <a href="/wiki/Shamans" class="mw-redirect" title="Shamans">shamans</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Medicine_man" title="Medicine man">medicine men</a>. Well-known spiritual systems include <a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">animism</a> (the notion of inanimate objects having spirits), <a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(beliefs)" title="Spiritualism (beliefs)">spiritualism</a> (an appeal to gods or communion with ancestor spirits); <a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">shamanism</a> (the vesting of an individual with mystic powers); and <a href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">divination</a> (magically obtaining the truth). The field of <a href="/wiki/Medical_anthropology" title="Medical anthropology">medical anthropology</a> examines the ways in which culture and society are organized around or impacted by issues of health, health care and related issues. </p><p>The earliest known medical texts in the world were found in the ancient <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syrian</a> city of <a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Ebla</a> and date back to 2500 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other early records on medicine have been discovered from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_medicine" title="Ancient Egyptian medicine">ancient Egyptian medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonian Medicine">Babylonian Medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ayurveda" title="Ayurveda">Ayurvedic</a> medicine (in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>), <a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Chinese medicine">classical Chinese medicine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Alternative_medicine" title="Alternative medicine">Alternative medicine</a>) predecessor to the modern <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine" title="Traditional Chinese medicine">traditional Chinese medicine</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_medicine" title="Ancient Greek medicine">ancient Greek medicine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_ancient_Rome" title="Medicine in ancient Rome">Roman medicine</a>. </p><p>In Egypt, <a href="/wiki/Imhotep" title="Imhotep">Imhotep</a> (3rd millennium BCE) is the first physician in history known by name. The oldest <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_medical_papyri" title="Egyptian medical papyri">Egyptian medical text</a> is the <i><a href="/wiki/Kahun_Gynaecological_Papyrus" title="Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus">Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus</a></i> from around 2000 BCE, which describes gynaecological diseases. The <i><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Smith_Papyrus" title="Edwin Smith Papyrus">Edwin Smith Papyrus</a></i> dating back to 1600 BCE is an early work on surgery, while the <i><a href="/wiki/Ebers_Papyrus" title="Ebers Papyrus">Ebers Papyrus</a></i> dating back to 1500 BCE is akin to a textbook on medicine.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In China, archaeological evidence of medicine in Chinese dates back to the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> <a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang dynasty</a>, based on seeds for herbalism and tools presumed to have been used for surgery.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i><a href="/wiki/Huangdi_Neijing" title="Huangdi Neijing">Huangdi Neijing</a></i>, the progenitor of Chinese medicine, is a medical text written beginning in the 2nd century BCE and compiled in the 3rd century.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In India, the surgeon <a href="/wiki/Sushruta" title="Sushruta">Sushruta</a> described numerous surgical operations, including the earliest forms of <a href="/wiki/Plastic_surgery" title="Plastic surgery">plastic surgery</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on an unreliable source. See this article's talk page under the section heading '''Reliability(History - India)''' (July 2024)">unreliable source?</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>Earliest records of dedicated hospitals come from Mihintale in <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> where evidence of dedicated medicinal treatment facilities for patients are found.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HSAsclepiusKos_retouched.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/HSAsclepiusKos_retouched.jpg/240px-HSAsclepiusKos_retouched.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/HSAsclepiusKos_retouched.jpg/360px-HSAsclepiusKos_retouched.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/HSAsclepiusKos_retouched.jpg/480px-HSAsclepiusKos_retouched.jpg 2x" data-file-width="495" data-file-height="492" /></a><figcaption>Mosaic on the floor of the <a href="/wiki/Asclepieion" title="Asclepieion">Asclepieion</a> of Kos, depicting <a href="/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Asklepius" class="mw-redirect" title="Asklepius">Asklepius</a> in the middle (2nd–3rd century)</figcaption></figure> <p>In Greece, the ancient Greek physician <a href="/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a>, the "father of modern medicine",<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> laid the foundation for a rational approach to medicine. Hippocrates introduced the <a href="/wiki/Hippocratic_Oath" title="Hippocratic Oath">Hippocratic Oath</a> for physicians, which is still relevant and in use today, and was the first to categorize illnesses as <a href="/wiki/Acute_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Acute (medical)">acute</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chronic_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chronic (medicine)">chronic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Endemic_(epidemiology)" title="Endemic (epidemiology)">endemic</a> and epidemic, and use terms such as, "exacerbation, <a href="/wiki/Relapse" title="Relapse">relapse</a>, resolution, crisis, <a href="/wiki/Paroxysm" class="mw-redirect" title="Paroxysm">paroxysm</a>, peak, and <a href="/wiki/Convalescence" title="Convalescence">convalescence</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Greek physician <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a> was also one of the greatest surgeons of the ancient world and performed many audacious operations, including brain and eye surgeries. After the fall of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a> and the onset of the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a>, the Greek tradition of medicine went into decline in Western Europe, although it continued uninterrupted in the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire</a>. </p><p>Most of our knowledge of ancient <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebrew medicine">Hebrew medicine</a> during the <a href="/wiki/1st_millennium_BC" title="1st millennium BC">1st millennium BC</a> comes from the <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a>, i.e. the Five Books of <a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a>, which contain various health related laws and rituals. The Hebrew contribution to the development of modern medicine started in the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Era">Byzantine Era</a>, with the physician <a href="/wiki/Asaph_the_Jew" title="Asaph the Jew">Asaph the Jew</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicine&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Middle Ages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Al-Risalah_al-Dhahabiah.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Al-Risalah_al-Dhahabiah.JPG/220px-Al-Risalah_al-Dhahabiah.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="374" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Al-Risalah_al-Dhahabiah.JPG/330px-Al-Risalah_al-Dhahabiah.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Al-Risalah_al-Dhahabiah.JPG 2x" data-file-width="348" data-file-height="591" /></a><figcaption>A manuscript of <i><a href="/wiki/Al-Risalah_al-Dhahabiah" title="Al-Risalah al-Dhahabiah">Al-Risalah al-Dhahabiah</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Ali_al-Ridha" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali al-Ridha">Ali al-Ridha</a>, the eighth Imam of <a href="/wiki/Twelver" class="mw-redirect" title="Twelver">Shia Muslims</a>. The text says: "Golden dissertation in medicine which is sent by Imam Ali ibn Musa al-Ridha, peace be upon him, to <a href="/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun" title="Al-Ma'mun">al-Ma'mun</a>."</figcaption></figure> <p>The concept of hospital as institution to offer medical care and possibility of a cure for the patients due to the ideals of Christian charity, rather than just merely a place to die, appeared in the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although the concept of <a href="/wiki/Uroscopy" title="Uroscopy">uroscopy</a> was known to Galen, he did not see the importance of using it to localize the disease. It was under the Byzantines with physicians such of <a href="/wiki/Theophilus_Protospatharius" title="Theophilus Protospatharius">Theophilus Protospatharius</a> that they realized the potential in uroscopy to determine disease in a time when no microscope or stethoscope existed. That practice eventually spread to the rest of Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After 750 CE, the Muslim world had the works of Hippocrates, Galen and Sushruta translated into <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic medicine">Islamic physicians</a> engaged in some significant medical research. Notable Islamic medical pioneers include the Persian <a href="/wiki/Polymath" title="Polymath">polymath</a>, <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a>, who, along with Imhotep and Hippocrates, has also been called the "father of medicine".<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He wrote <i><a href="/wiki/The_Canon_of_Medicine" title="The Canon of Medicine">The Canon of Medicine</a></i> which became a standard medical text at many medieval European <a href="/wiki/University" title="University">universities</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> considered one of the most famous books in the history of medicine.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others include <a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Qasim_al-Zahrawi" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi">Abulcasis</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Zuhr" title="Ibn Zuhr">Avenzoar</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Nafis" title="Ibn al-Nafis">Ibn al-Nafis</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Persians" title="Persians">Persian</a> physician <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Zakar%C4%ABya_R%C4%81zi" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi">Rhazes</a><sup id="cite_ref-tschanz-2003_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tschanz-2003-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was one of the first to question the Greek theory of <a href="/wiki/Humorism" title="Humorism">humorism</a>, which nevertheless remained influential in both medieval Western and medieval Islamic medicine.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some volumes of Rhazes's work <i>Al-Mansuri</i>, namely "On Surgery" and "A General Book on Therapy", became part of the medical curriculum in European universities.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, he has been described as a doctor's doctor,<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the father of pediatrics,<sup id="cite_ref-tschanz-2003_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tschanz-2003-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-elgood-2010_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-elgood-2010-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a pioneer of ophthalmology. For example, he was the first to recognize the reaction of the eye's pupil to light.<sup id="cite_ref-elgood-2010_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-elgood-2010-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Persian <a href="/wiki/Bimaristan" title="Bimaristan">Bimaristan</a> hospitals were an early example of <a href="/wiki/Public_hospital" title="Public hospital">public hospitals</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Europe, <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> decreed that a hospital should be attached to each cathedral and monastery and the historian <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Blainey" title="Geoffrey Blainey">Geoffrey Blainey</a> likened the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_health_care" title="Catholic Church and health care">activities of the Catholic Church in health care</a> during the Middle Ages to an early version of a welfare state: "It conducted hospitals for the old and orphanages for the young; hospices for the sick of all ages; places for the lepers; and hostels or inns where pilgrims could buy a cheap bed and meal". It supplied food to the population during famine and distributed food to the poor. This welfare system the church funded through collecting taxes on a large scale and possessing large farmlands and estates. The <a href="/wiki/Benedictine" class="mw-redirect" title="Benedictine">Benedictine</a> order was noted for setting up hospitals and infirmaries in their monasteries, growing medical herbs and becoming the chief medical care givers of their districts, as at the great <a href="/wiki/Abbey_of_Cluny" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbey of Cluny">Abbey of Cluny</a>. The Church also established a network of <a href="/wiki/Cathedral_schools" class="mw-redirect" title="Cathedral schools">cathedral schools</a> and universities where medicine was studied. The <a href="/wiki/Schola_Medica_Salernitana" title="Schola Medica Salernitana">Schola Medica Salernitana</a> in Salerno, looking to the learning of <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</a> physicians, grew to be the finest medical school in Medieval Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SantaMariaDellaScalaSienaBack.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/SantaMariaDellaScalaSienaBack.JPG/260px-SantaMariaDellaScalaSienaBack.JPG" decoding="async" width="260" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/SantaMariaDellaScalaSienaBack.JPG/390px-SantaMariaDellaScalaSienaBack.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/SantaMariaDellaScalaSienaBack.JPG/520px-SantaMariaDellaScalaSienaBack.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2432" /></a><figcaption>Siena's <a href="/wiki/Santa_Maria_della_Scala_(Siena)" class="mw-redirect" title="Santa Maria della Scala (Siena)">Santa Maria della Scala Hospital</a>, one of Europe's oldest hospitals. During the Middle Ages, the Catholic Church established universities to revive the study of sciences, drawing on the learning of Greek and Arab physicians in the study of medicine.</figcaption></figure> <p>However, the fourteenth and fifteenth century <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> devastated both the Middle East and Europe, and it has even been argued that Western Europe was generally more effective in recovering from the pandemic than the Middle East.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the early modern period, important early figures in medicine and anatomy emerged in Europe, including <a href="/wiki/Gabriele_Falloppio" title="Gabriele Falloppio">Gabriele Falloppio</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Harvey" title="William Harvey">William Harvey</a>. </p><p>The major shift in medical thinking was the gradual rejection, especially during the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> in the 14th and 15th centuries, of what may be called the "traditional authority" approach to science and medicine. This was the notion that because some prominent person in the past said something must be so, then that was the way it was, and anything one observed to the contrary was an anomaly (which was paralleled by a similar shift in European society in general – see <a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus" title="Nicolaus Copernicus">Copernicus</a>'s rejection of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>'s theories on astronomy). Physicians like <a href="/wiki/Vesalius" class="mw-redirect" title="Vesalius">Vesalius</a> improved upon or disproved some of the theories from the past. The main tomes used both by medicine students and expert physicians were <a href="/wiki/Materia_Medica" class="mw-redirect" title="Materia Medica">Materia Medica</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pharmacopoeia" title="Pharmacopoeia">Pharmacopoeia</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Andreas_Vesalius" title="Andreas Vesalius">Andreas Vesalius</a> was the author of <i><a href="/wiki/De_humani_corporis_fabrica" class="mw-redirect" title="De humani corporis fabrica">De humani corporis fabrica</a></i>, an important book on <a href="/wiki/Human_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Human anatomy">human anatomy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bacteria and microorganisms were first observed with a microscope by <a href="/wiki/Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek" title="Antonie van Leeuwenhoek">Antonie van Leeuwenhoek</a> in 1676, initiating the scientific field <a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">microbiology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Independently from Ibn al-Nafis, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Servetus" title="Michael Servetus">Michael Servetus</a> rediscovered the <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_circulation" title="Pulmonary circulation">pulmonary circulation</a>, but this discovery did not reach the public because it was written down for the first time in the "Manuscript of Paris"<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in 1546, and later published in the theological work for which he paid with his life in 1553. Later this was described by <a href="/wiki/Renaldus_Columbus" class="mw-redirect" title="Renaldus Columbus">Renaldus Columbus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Andrea_Cesalpino" title="Andrea Cesalpino">Andrea Cesalpino</a>. <a href="/wiki/Herman_Boerhaave" title="Herman Boerhaave">Herman Boerhaave</a> is sometimes referred to as a "father of physiology" due to his exemplary teaching in Leiden and textbook 'Institutiones medicae' (1708). <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Fauchard" title="Pierre Fauchard">Pierre Fauchard</a> has been called "the father of modern <a href="/wiki/Dentistry" title="Dentistry">dentistry</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern">Modern</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicine&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Modern"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Paul-Louis_Simond_injecting_plague_vaccine_June_4th_1898_Karachi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Paul-Louis_Simond_injecting_plague_vaccine_June_4th_1898_Karachi.jpg/220px-Paul-Louis_Simond_injecting_plague_vaccine_June_4th_1898_Karachi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Paul-Louis_Simond_injecting_plague_vaccine_June_4th_1898_Karachi.jpg/330px-Paul-Louis_Simond_injecting_plague_vaccine_June_4th_1898_Karachi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Paul-Louis_Simond_injecting_plague_vaccine_June_4th_1898_Karachi.jpg/440px-Paul-Louis_Simond_injecting_plague_vaccine_June_4th_1898_Karachi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="488" data-file-height="358" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Paul-Louis_Simond" title="Paul-Louis Simond">Paul-Louis Simond</a> injecting a plague vaccine in <a href="/wiki/Karachi" title="Karachi">Karachi</a>, 1898</figcaption></figure> <p>Veterinary medicine was, for the first time, truly separated from human medicine in 1761, when the French veterinarian <a href="/wiki/Claude_Bourgelat" title="Claude Bourgelat">Claude Bourgelat</a> founded the world's first veterinary school in Lyon, France. Before this, medical doctors treated both humans and other animals. </p><p>Modern scientific <a href="/wiki/Biomedical_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Biomedical research">biomedical research</a> (where results are testable and <a href="/wiki/Reproducible" class="mw-redirect" title="Reproducible">reproducible</a>) began to replace early Western traditions based on herbalism, the Greek "four humours" and other such pre-modern notions. The modern era really began with <a href="/wiki/Edward_Jenner" title="Edward Jenner">Edward Jenner</a>'s discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Smallpox_vaccine" title="Smallpox vaccine">smallpox vaccine</a> at the end of the 18th century (inspired by the method of <a href="/wiki/Variolation" title="Variolation">variolation</a> originated in ancient China),<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Koch" title="Robert Koch">Robert Koch</a>'s discoveries around 1880 of the transmission of disease by bacteria, and then the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">antibiotics</a> around 1900. </p><p>The post-18th century <a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">modernity</a> period brought more groundbreaking researchers from Europe. From <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> and Austria, doctors <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Virchow" title="Rudolf Virchow">Rudolf Virchow</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Conrad_R%C3%B6ntgen" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen">Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karl_Landsteiner" title="Karl Landsteiner">Karl Landsteiner</a> and <a href="/wiki/Otto_Loewi" title="Otto Loewi">Otto Loewi</a> made notable contributions. In the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming">Alexander Fleming</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lister,_1st_Baron_Lister" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister">Joseph Lister</a>, <a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a> and <a href="/wiki/Florence_Nightingale" title="Florence Nightingale">Florence Nightingale</a> are considered important. <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spanish</a> doctor <a href="/wiki/Santiago_Ram%C3%B3n_y_Cajal" title="Santiago Ramón y Cajal">Santiago Ramón y Cajal</a> is considered the father of modern <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">neuroscience</a>. </p><p>From New Zealand and Australia came <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Wilkins" title="Maurice Wilkins">Maurice Wilkins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Howard_Florey" title="Howard Florey">Howard Florey</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Frank_Macfarlane_Burnet" class="mw-redirect" title="Frank Macfarlane Burnet">Frank Macfarlane Burnet</a>. </p><p>Others that did significant work include <a href="/wiki/William_Williams_Keen" title="William Williams Keen">William Williams Keen</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Coley" title="William Coley">William Coley</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_D._Watson" class="mw-redirect" title="James D. Watson">James D. Watson</a> (United States); <a href="/wiki/Salvador_Luria" title="Salvador Luria">Salvador Luria</a> (Italy); <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Yersin" title="Alexandre Yersin">Alexandre Yersin</a> (Switzerland); <a href="/wiki/Kitasato_Shibasabur%C5%8D" title="Kitasato Shibasaburō">Kitasato Shibasaburō</a> (Japan); <a href="/wiki/Jean-Martin_Charcot" title="Jean-Martin Charcot">Jean-Martin Charcot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Claude_Bernard" title="Claude Bernard">Claude Bernard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Broca" title="Paul Broca">Paul Broca</a> (France); <a href="/wiki/Adolfo_Lutz" title="Adolfo Lutz">Adolfo Lutz</a> (Brazil); <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Korotkov" title="Nikolai Korotkov">Nikolai Korotkov</a> (Russia); <a href="/wiki/William_Osler" title="William Osler">Sir William Osler</a> (Canada); and <a href="/wiki/Harvey_Cushing" title="Harvey Cushing">Harvey Cushing</a> (United States). </p><p>As science and technology developed, medicine became more reliant upon <a href="/wiki/Medication" title="Medication">medications</a>. Throughout history and in Europe right until the late 18th century, not only plant products were used as medicine, but also animal (including human) body parts and fluids.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a> developed in part from herbalism and some drugs are still derived from plants (<a href="/wiki/Atropine" title="Atropine">atropine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ephedrine" title="Ephedrine">ephedrine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Warfarin" title="Warfarin">warfarin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aspirin" title="Aspirin">aspirin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Digoxin" title="Digoxin">digoxin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vinca_alkaloid" title="Vinca alkaloid"><i>vinca</i> alkaloids</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Taxo" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxo">taxol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hyoscine_hydrobromide" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyoscine hydrobromide">hyoscine</a>, etc.).<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Vaccine" title="Vaccine">Vaccines</a> were discovered by Edward Jenner and <a href="/wiki/Louis_Pasteur" title="Louis Pasteur">Louis Pasteur</a>. </p><p>The first antibiotic was <a href="/wiki/Arsphenamine" title="Arsphenamine">arsphenamine</a> (Salvarsan) discovered by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Ehrlich" title="Paul Ehrlich">Paul Ehrlich</a> in 1908 after he observed that bacteria took up toxic dyes that human cells did not. The first major class of antibiotics was the <a href="/wiki/Sulfonamide_(medicine)" title="Sulfonamide (medicine)">sulfa drugs</a>, derived by German chemists originally from <a href="/wiki/Azo_dye" title="Azo dye">azo dyes</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Syd%C3%A4nl%C3%A4%C3%A4kkeen_pakkausta_l%C3%A4%C3%A4ketehdas_Starilla_vuonna_1953._Kuva_Vapriikin_kuva-arkisto._(16248845637).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Syd%C3%A4nl%C3%A4%C3%A4kkeen_pakkausta_l%C3%A4%C3%A4ketehdas_Starilla_vuonna_1953._Kuva_Vapriikin_kuva-arkisto._%2816248845637%29.jpg/220px-Syd%C3%A4nl%C3%A4%C3%A4kkeen_pakkausta_l%C3%A4%C3%A4ketehdas_Starilla_vuonna_1953._Kuva_Vapriikin_kuva-arkisto._%2816248845637%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Syd%C3%A4nl%C3%A4%C3%A4kkeen_pakkausta_l%C3%A4%C3%A4ketehdas_Starilla_vuonna_1953._Kuva_Vapriikin_kuva-arkisto._%2816248845637%29.jpg/330px-Syd%C3%A4nl%C3%A4%C3%A4kkeen_pakkausta_l%C3%A4%C3%A4ketehdas_Starilla_vuonna_1953._Kuva_Vapriikin_kuva-arkisto._%2816248845637%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Syd%C3%A4nl%C3%A4%C3%A4kkeen_pakkausta_l%C3%A4%C3%A4ketehdas_Starilla_vuonna_1953._Kuva_Vapriikin_kuva-arkisto._%2816248845637%29.jpg/440px-Syd%C3%A4nl%C3%A4%C3%A4kkeen_pakkausta_l%C3%A4%C3%A4ketehdas_Starilla_vuonna_1953._Kuva_Vapriikin_kuva-arkisto._%2816248845637%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2506" data-file-height="3204" /></a><figcaption>Packaging of <a href="/wiki/Cardiology" title="Cardiology">cardiac medicine</a> at the Star pharmaceutical factory in <a href="/wiki/Tampere" title="Tampere">Tampere</a>, <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a> in 1953</figcaption></figure> <p>Pharmacology has become increasingly sophisticated; modern <a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">biotechnology</a> allows drugs targeted towards specific physiological processes to be developed, sometimes designed for compatibility with the body to reduce <a href="/wiki/Side_effect" title="Side effect">side-effects</a>. <a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a> and knowledge of <a href="/wiki/Human_genetics" title="Human genetics">human genetics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">human evolution</a> is having increasingly significant influence on medicine, as the causative <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a> of most monogenic <a href="/wiki/Genetic_disorder" title="Genetic disorder">genetic disorders</a> have now been identified, and the development of techniques in <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a> are influencing medical technology, practice and decision-making. </p><p>Evidence-based medicine is a contemporary movement to establish the most effective <a href="/wiki/Algorithms" class="mw-redirect" title="Algorithms">algorithms</a> of practice (ways of doing things) through the use of <a href="/wiki/Systematic_review" title="Systematic review">systematic reviews</a> and <a href="/wiki/Meta-analysis" title="Meta-analysis">meta-analysis</a>. The movement is facilitated by modern global <a href="/wiki/Information_science" title="Information science">information science</a>, which allows as much of the available evidence as possible to be collected and analyzed according to standard protocols that are then disseminated to healthcare providers. The <a href="/wiki/Cochrane_Collaboration" class="mw-redirect" title="Cochrane Collaboration">Cochrane Collaboration</a> leads this movement. A 2001 review of 160 Cochrane systematic reviews revealed that, according to two readers, 21.3% of the reviews concluded insufficient evidence, 20% concluded evidence of no effect, and 22.5% concluded positive effect.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Quality,_efficiency,_and_access"><span id="Quality.2C_efficiency.2C_and_access"></span>Quality, efficiency, and access</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicine&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Quality, efficiency, and access"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Evidence-based medicine, prevention of <a href="/wiki/Medical_error" title="Medical error">medical error</a> (and other "<a href="/wiki/Iatrogenesis" title="Iatrogenesis">iatrogenesis</a>"), and avoidance of <a href="/wiki/Unnecessary_health_care" title="Unnecessary health care">unnecessary health care</a> are a priority in modern medical systems. These topics generate significant political and public policy attention, particularly in the United States where healthcare is regarded as excessively costly but <a href="/wiki/Population_health" title="Population health">population health</a> metrics lag similar nations.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Globally, many developing countries lack access to care and <a href="/wiki/Access_to_medicines" title="Access to medicines">access to medicines</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of 2015<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medicine&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, most wealthy developed countries provide health care to all citizens, with a few exceptions such as the United States where lack of health insurance coverage may limit access.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicine&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/12px-WHO_Rod.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/18px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/24px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="107" data-file-height="250" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Medicine" title="Portal:Medicine">Medicine portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <b>Medicine</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects">sister projects</span></a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Medicine" class="extiw" title="wikt:Category:Medicine">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Medicine" class="extiw" title="c:Medicine">Media</a> from Commons</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/27px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/41px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/54px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Health" class="extiw" title="n:Health">News</a> from Wikinews</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Medicine" class="extiw" title="q:Medicine">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Category:Medicine" class="extiw" title="s:Category:Medicine">Texts</a> from Wikisource</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Subject:Health_sciences" class="extiw" title="b:Subject:Health sciences">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/41px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/54px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Medicine" class="extiw" title="v:Medicine">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</span></li></ul></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_medicine" title="Outline of medicine">Outline of medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_health" title="Outline of health">Outline of health</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine" title="Glossary of medicine">Glossary of medicine</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_medicine" title="Alternative medicine">Alternative medicine</a> – Form of non-scientific healing</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_causes_of_death_by_rate" title="List of causes of death by rate">List of causes of death by rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_disorders" title="List of disorders">List of disorders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_medicine" title="List of important publications in medicine">List of important publications in medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_diseases" title="Lists of diseases">Lists of diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_aid" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical aid">Medical aid</a> – Type of insurance<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_billing" title="Medical billing">Medical billing</a> – Part of the US health system's reimbursement process</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_classification" title="Medical classification">Medical classification</a> – Use of schemes of standardized codes</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_encyclopedia" title="Medical encyclopedia">Medical encyclopedia</a> – Written compendium about diseases</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_equipment" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical equipment">Medical equipment</a> – Device to be used for medical purposes<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_ethics" title="Medical ethics">Medical ethics</a> – System of moral principles of the practice of medicine</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_literature" title="Medical literature">Medical literature</a> – Scientific literature of medicine</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_malpractice" title="Medical malpractice">Medical malpractice</a> – Legal cause of action</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_psychology" title="Medical psychology">Medical psychology</a> – Application of psychological principles to the practice of medicine</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_sociology" title="Medical sociology">Medical sociology</a> – Branch of sociology</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_healthcare" title="Philosophy of healthcare">Philosophy of healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quackery" title="Quackery">Quackery</a> – Promotion of fraudulent or ignorant medical practices</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_medicine" title="Traditional medicine">Traditional medicine</a> – Formalized folk medicine</li></ul> </div> <div style="clear:right;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicine&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFFirth2020" class="citation book cs1">Firth J (2020). "Science in medicine: when, how, and what". <i>Oxford textbook of medicine</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-874669-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-874669-0"><bdi>978-0-19-874669-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Science+in+medicine%3A+when%2C+how%2C+and+what&rft.btitle=Oxford+textbook+of+medicine&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-0-19-874669-0&rft.aulast=Firth&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaunders2000" class="citation journal cs1">Saunders J (June 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1071282">"The practice of clinical medicine as an art and as a science"</a>. <i>Med Humanit</i>. <b>26</b> (1): 18–22. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fmh.26.1.18">10.1136/mh.26.1.18</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1468-215X">1468-215X</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1071282">1071282</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12484313">12484313</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:73306806">73306806</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Med+Humanit&rft.atitle=The+practice+of+clinical+medicine+as+an+art+and+as+a+science&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=18-22&rft.date=2000-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1071282%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A73306806%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fmh.26.1.18&rft.issn=1468-215X&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12484313&rft.aulast=Saunders&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1071282&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/medicine">"Dictionary, medicine"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304154538/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/medicine">Archived</a> from the original on 4 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 December</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dictionary%2C+medicine&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdictionary.reference.com%2Fbrowse%2Fmedicine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/115715?result=1&rskey=YZWqVc&">"Medicine, n.1"</a>. <i>OED Online</i>. Oxford University Press. September 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210818030846/https://www.oed.com/start;jsessionid=1E0E779892225A3E7EC8E73A292FDF0D?authRejection=true&url=%2Fview%2FEntry%2F115715%3Fresult%3D1%26rskey%3DYZWqVc">Archived</a> from the original on 18 August 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 November</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Medicine%2C+n.1&rft.btitle=OED+Online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oed.com%2Fview%2FEntry%2F115715%3Fresult%3D1%26rskey%3DYZWqVc%26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/medicine?q=medicine">"Medicine"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Dictionaries_Online" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxford Dictionaries Online">Oxford Dictionaries Online</a></i>. Oxford University Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210818030846/https://languages.oup.com/">Archived</a> from the original on 18 August 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 November</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Medicine&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionaries+Online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foxforddictionaries.com%2Fdefinition%2Fmedicine%3Fq%3Dmedicine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Etymology: <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">medicina</i>, from <i>ars medicina</i> "the medical art", from <i>medicus</i> "physician". (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=medicine">Etym.Online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071011122928/http://etymonline.com/index.php?term=medicine">Archived</a> 11 October 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>) Cf. <i>mederi</i> "to heal", etym. "know the best course for", from <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">PIE</a> base *med- "to measure, limit. Cf. <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> <i>medos</i> "counsel, plan", <a href="/wiki/Avestan_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Avestan language">Avestan</a> <i>vi-mad</i> "physician"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=medicine">"Medicine"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071011122928/http://etymonline.com/index.php?term=medicine">Archived</a> 11 October 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i>Online Etymology Dictionary</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1">"Traditional medicine: growing needs and potential". <i>WHO Policy Perspectives on Medicines</i>. No. 2. <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a>. 2002. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10665%2F67294">10665/67294</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=WHO+Policy+Perspectives+on+Medicines&rft.atitle=Traditional+medicine%3A+growing+needs+and+potential&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10665%2F67294&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEl_DibAtallahAndriolo2007" class="citation journal cs1">El Dib RP, Atallah AN, Andriolo RB (August 2007). "Mapping the Cochrane evidence for decision making in health care". <i>Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice</i>. <b>13</b> (4): 689–692. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2753.2007.00886.x">10.1111/j.1365-2753.2007.00886.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17683315">17683315</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Evaluation+in+Clinical+Practice&rft.atitle=Mapping+the+Cochrane+evidence+for+decision+making+in+health+care&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=689-692&rft.date=2007-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1365-2753.2007.00886.x&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17683315&rft.aulast=El+Dib&rft.aufirst=RP&rft.au=Atallah%2C+AN&rft.au=Andriolo%2C+RB&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-coulehan-2005-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-coulehan-2005_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-coulehan-2005_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoulehanBlock2005" class="citation book cs1">Coulehan JL, Block MR (2005). <i>The Medical Interview: Mastering Skills for Clinical Practice</i> (5th ed.). F. A. Davis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8036-1246-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8036-1246-4"><bdi>978-0-8036-1246-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/232304023">232304023</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Medical+Interview%3A+Mastering+Skills+for+Clinical+Practice&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=F.+A.+Davis&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F232304023&rft.isbn=978-0-8036-1246-4&rft.aulast=Coulehan&rft.aufirst=John+L.&rft.au=Block%2C+Marian+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAddisonBradenCuppEmmert2005" class="citation journal cs1">Addison K, Braden JH, Cupp JE, Emmert D, Hall LA, Hall T, et al. (September 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080309002938/http://library.ahima.org/xpedio/groups/public/documents/ahima/bok1_027921.hcsp?dDocName=bok1_027921">"Update: guidelines for defining the legal health record for-disclosure purposes"</a>. <i>Journal of AHIMA</i>. <b>76</b> (8): 64A–64G. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16245584">16245584</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://library.ahima.org/xpedio/groups/public/documents/ahima/bok1_027921.hcsp?dDocName=bok1_027921">the original</a> on 9 March 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+AHIMA&rft.atitle=Update%3A+guidelines+for+defining+the+legal+health+record+for-disclosure+purposes&rft.volume=76&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=64A-64G&rft.date=2005-09&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16245584&rft.aulast=Addison&rft.aufirst=K&rft.au=Braden%2C+JH&rft.au=Cupp%2C+JE&rft.au=Emmert%2C+D&rft.au=Hall%2C+LA&rft.au=Hall%2C+T&rft.au=Hess%2C+B&rft.au=Kohn%2C+D&rft.au=Kruse%2C+MT&rft.au=McLendon%2C+K&rft.au=McQueary%2C+J&rft.au=Musa%2C+D&rft.au=Olenik%2C+KL&rft.au=Quinsey%2C+CA&rft.au=Reynolds%2C+R&rft.au=Servais%2C+C&rft.au=Watters%2C+A&rft.au=Wiedemann%2C+LA&rft.au=Wilkins%2C+M&rft.au=Wills%2C+M&rft.au=Vogt%2C+NE&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibrary.ahima.org%2Fxpedio%2Fgroups%2Fpublic%2Fdocuments%2Fahima%2Fbok1_027921.hcsp%3FdDocName%3Dbok1_027921&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNordqvist2009" class="citation web cs1">Nordqvist C (26 August 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140701123344/http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/161858.php">"What Are Symptoms? What Are Signs?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Medical_News_Today" title="Medical News Today">Medical News Today</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/161858.php">the original</a> on 1 July 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Medical+News+Today&rft.atitle=What+Are+Symptoms%3F+What+Are+Signs%3F&rft.date=2009-08-26&rft.aulast=Nordqvist&rft.aufirst=Christian&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.medicalnewstoday.com%2Farticles%2F161858.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2F00152193-200611002-00005">"Assessing patients effectively: Here's how to do the basic four techniques"</a>. <i>Nursing2014</i>. <b>8</b> (2): 6. 2006. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2F00152193-200611002-00005">10.1097/00152193-200611002-00005</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nursing2014&rft.atitle=Assessing+patients+effectively%3A+Here%27s+how+to+do+the+basic+four+techniques&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=6&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1097%2F00152193-200611002-00005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1097%252F00152193-200611002-00005&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-the_free_dictionary-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-the_free_dictionary_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-the_free_dictionary_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-the_free_dictionary_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-the_free_dictionary_14-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Clinical+examination#:~:text=including%20some%20tests.-,The%20examination,and%20blood%20pressure%E2%80%94are%20recorded.">"Clinical examination"</a>. <i>The Free Dictionary</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210204001630/https://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Clinical+examination#:~:text=including%20some%20tests.-,The%20examination,and%20blood%20pressure%E2%80%94are%20recorded.">Archived</a> from the original on 4 February 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 January</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Free+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Clinical+examination&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmedical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com%2FClinical%2Bexamination%23%3A~%3Atext%3Dincluding%2520some%2520tests.-%2CThe%2520examination%2Cand%2520blood%2520pressure%25E2%2580%2594are%2520recorded.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrembowski_DEDiehr_PNovak_LCRoussel_AE2000" class="citation journal cs1">Grembowski DE, <a href="/wiki/Paula_Diehr" title="Paula Diehr">Diehr P</a>, Novak LC, Roussel AE, Martin DP, Patrick DL, et al. (August 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1089144">"Measuring the "managedness" and covered benefits of health plans"</a>. <i>Health Services Research</i>. <b>35</b> (3): 707–734. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1089144">1089144</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10966092">10966092</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Health+Services+Research&rft.atitle=Measuring+the+%22managedness%22+and+covered+benefits+of+health+plans&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=707-734&rft.date=2000-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1089144%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10966092&rft.au=Grembowski+DE&rft.au=Diehr+P&rft.au=Novak+LC&rft.au=Roussel+AE&rft.au=Martin+DP&rft.au=Patrick+DL&rft.au=Williams+B&rft.au=Ulrich+CM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1089144&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlainey2011" class="citation book cs1">Blainey G (2011). <a href="/wiki/A_Short_History_of_Christianity" title="A Short History of Christianity"><i>A Short History of Christianity</i></a>. Penguin Viking. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/793902685">793902685</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+Christianity&rft.pub=Penguin+Viking&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F793902685&rft.aulast=Blainey&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (June 2014)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091019103757/http://www.iom.edu/Reports/2004/Insuring-Americas-Health-Principles-and-Recommendations.aspx">"Insuring America's Health: Principles and Recommendations"</a>. Institute of Medicine at the National Academies of Science. 14 January 2004. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iom.edu/Reports/2004/Insuring-Americas-Health-Principles-and-Recommendations.aspx">the original</a> on 19 October 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Insuring+America%27s+Health%3A+Principles+and+Recommendations&rft.pub=Institute+of+Medicine+at+the+National+Academies+of+Science&rft.date=2004-01-14&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iom.edu%2FReports%2F2004%2FInsuring-Americas-Health-Principles-and-Recommendations.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBattistaMcCabe1999" class="citation web cs1">Battista JR, McCabe J (4 June 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180423105127/http://cthealth.server101.com/the_case_for_universal_health_care_in_the_united_states.htm">"The Case For Single Payer, Universal Health Care for the United States"</a>. Cthealth.server101.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cthealth.server101.com/the_case_for_universal_health_care_in_the_united_states.htm">the original</a> on 23 April 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 May</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Case+For+Single+Payer%2C+Universal+Health+Care+for+the+United+States&rft.pub=Cthealth.server101.com&rft.date=1999-06-04&rft.aulast=Battista&rft.aufirst=John+R.&rft.au=McCabe%2C+Justine&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcthealth.server101.com%2Fthe_case_for_universal_health_care_in_the_united_states.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSipkoff2004" class="citation journal cs1">Sipkoff M (January 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.managedcaremag.com/archives/0401/0401.forum.html">"Transparency called key to uniting cost control, quality improvement"</a>. <i>Managed Care</i>. <b>13</b> (1): 38–42. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14763279">14763279</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040217160421/http://www.managedcaremag.com/archives/0401/0401.forum.html">Archived</a> from the original on 17 February 2004<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 April</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Managed+Care&rft.atitle=Transparency+called+key+to+uniting+cost+control%2C+quality+improvement&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=38-42&rft.date=2004-01&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14763279&rft.aulast=Sipkoff&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.managedcaremag.com%2Farchives%2F0401%2F0401.forum.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCalnan2015" class="citation cs1">Calnan M (2015). Collyer F (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://link.springer.com/10.1057/9781137355621_19">"Eliot Freidson: Sociological Narratives of Professionalism and Modern Medicine"</a>. <i>The Palgrave Handbook of Social Theory in Health, Illness and Medicine</i>. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 287–305. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9781137355621_19">10.1057/9781137355621_19</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-47022-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-349-47022-8"><bdi>978-1-349-47022-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220314171741/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9781137355621_19">Archived</a> from the original on 14 March 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 November</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Palgrave+Handbook+of+Social+Theory+in+Health%2C+Illness+and+Medicine&rft.atitle=Eliot+Freidson%3A+Sociological+Narratives+of+Professionalism+and+Modern+Medicine&rft.pages=287-305&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9781137355621_19&rft.isbn=978-1-349-47022-8&rft.aulast=Calnan&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1057%2F9781137355621_19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.arthapedia.in/index.php%3Ftitle%3DPrimary,_Secondary_and_Tertiary_HealthCare">"Primary, Secondary and Tertiary HealthCare – Arthapedia"</a>. <i>www.arthapedia.in</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210128011946/http://www.arthapedia.in/index.php%3Ftitle=Primary,_Secondary_and_Tertiary_HealthCare">Archived</a> from the original on 28 January 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 January</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.arthapedia.in&rft.atitle=Primary%2C+Secondary+and+Tertiary+HealthCare+%E2%80%93+Arthapedia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.arthapedia.in%2Findex.php%253Ftitle%253DPrimary%2C_Secondary_and_Tertiary_HealthCare&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/001933.htm">"Types of health care providers: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia"</a>. <i>medlineplus.gov</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210123051332/https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/001933.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 23 January 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 January</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=medlineplus.gov&rft.atitle=Types+of+health+care+providers%3A+MedlinePlus+Medical+Encyclopedia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmedlineplus.gov%2Fency%2Farticle%2F001933.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://internationalmedicalcorps.org.uk/what-we-do/all-emergencies/secondary-health-care#:~:text=Secondary%20Health%20Care%20is%20the,most%20often%20provided%20in%20hospitals.">"Secondary Health Care"</a>. <i>International Medical Corps</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210117030041/https://internationalmedicalcorps.org.uk/what-we-do/all-emergencies/secondary-health-care#:~:text=Secondary%20Health%20Care%20is%20the,most%20often%20provided%20in%20hospitals.">Archived</a> from the original on 17 January 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 January</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=International+Medical+Corps&rft.atitle=Secondary+Health+Care&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Finternationalmedicalcorps.org.uk%2Fwhat-we-do%2Fall-emergencies%2Fsecondary-health-care%23%3A~%3Atext%3DSecondary%2520Health%2520Care%2520is%2520the%2Cmost%2520often%2520provided%2520in%2520hospitals.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaokriWeilDraboDembelé2013" class="citation journal cs1">Laokri S, Weil O, Drabo KM, Dembelé SM, Kafando B, Dujardin B (April 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3629451">"Removal of user fees no guarantee of universal health coverage: observations from Burkina Faso"</a>. <i>Bulletin of the World Health Organization</i>. <b>91</b> (4): 277–282. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2471%2FBLT.12.110015">10.2471/BLT.12.110015</a> (inactive 13 November 2024). <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3629451">3629451</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23599551">23599551</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+World+Health+Organization&rft.atitle=Removal+of+user+fees+no+guarantee+of+universal+health+coverage%3A+observations+from+Burkina+Faso&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=277-282&rft.date=2013-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3629451%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23599551&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2471%2FBLT.12.110015&rft.aulast=Laokri&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Weil%2C+O&rft.au=Drabo%2C+KM&rft.au=Dembel%C3%A9%2C+SM&rft.au=Kafando%2C+B&rft.au=Dujardin%2C+B&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3629451&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChouYipLeeHuang2003" class="citation journal cs1">Chou YJ, Yip WC, Lee CH, Huang N, Sun YP, Chang HJ (September 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fheapol%2Fczg038">"Impact of separating drug prescribing and dispensing on provider behaviour: Taiwan's experience"</a>. <i>Health Policy and Planning</i>. <b>18</b> (3): 316–329. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fheapol%2Fczg038">10.1093/heapol/czg038</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12917273">12917273</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Health+Policy+and+Planning&rft.atitle=Impact+of+separating+drug+prescribing+and+dispensing+on+provider+behaviour%3A+Taiwan%27s+experience&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=316-329&rft.date=2003-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fheapol%2Fczg038&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12917273&rft.aulast=Chou&rft.aufirst=YJ&rft.au=Yip%2C+WC&rft.au=Lee%2C+CH&rft.au=Huang%2C+N&rft.au=Sun%2C+YP&rft.au=Chang%2C+HJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fheapol%252Fczg038&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.facs.org/education/resources/medical-students/faq/specialties#:~:text=The%20American%20College%20of%20Surgeons,surgery%2C%20otorhinolaryngology%2C%20pediatric%20surgery%2C">"What are the surgical specialties?"</a>. <i>American College of Surgeons</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210122184813/https://www.facs.org/education/resources/medical-students/faq/specialties#:~:text=The%20American%20College%20of%20Surgeons,surgery%2C%20otorhinolaryngology%2C%20pediatric%20surgery%2C">Archived</a> from the original on 22 January 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 January</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+College+of+Surgeons&rft.atitle=What+are+the+surgical+specialties%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.facs.org%2Feducation%2Fresources%2Fmedical-students%2Ffaq%2Fspecialties%23%3A~%3Atext%3DThe%2520American%2520College%2520of%2520Surgeons%2Csurgery%252C%2520otorhinolaryngology%252C%2520pediatric%2520surgery%252C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCulyer2014" class="citation book cs1">Culyer AJ (31 July 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LUcjBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA335"><i>The Dictionary of Health Economics, Third Edition</i></a>. Chelthenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 335. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78100-199-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78100-199-8"><bdi>978-1-78100-199-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210818030924/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/The_Dictionary_of_Health_Economics_Third/LUcjBAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=medical+specialty+dealing+with+the+prevention%2C+diagnosis%2C+and+treatment+of+adult+diseases&pg=PA335&printsec=frontcover">Archived</a> from the original on 18 August 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 January</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dictionary+of+Health+Economics%2C+Third+Edition&rft.place=Chelthenham%2C+UK&rft.pages=335&rft.pub=Edward+Elgar+Publishing&rft.date=2014-07-31&rft.isbn=978-1-78100-199-8&rft.aulast=Culyer&rft.aufirst=Anthony+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLUcjBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA335&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090628224336/http://www.mercksource.com/pp/us/cns/cns_hl_dorlands_split.jsp?pg=/ppdocs/us/common/dorlands/dorland/five/000063883.htm">"internal medicine"</a> at <i><a href="/wiki/Dorland%27s_medical_reference_works" title="Dorland's medical reference works">Dorland's Medical Dictionary</a></i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFowler1994" class="citation book cs1">Fowler HW (1994). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofmo00fowl"><i>A Dictionary of Modern English Usage (Wordsworth Collection) (Wordsworth Collection)</i></a></span>. NTC/Contemporary Publishing Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85326-318-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85326-318-7"><bdi>978-1-85326-318-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Modern+English+Usage+%28Wordsworth+Collection%29+%28Wordsworth+Collection%29&rft.pub=NTC%2FContemporary+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-1-85326-318-7&rft.aulast=Fowler&rft.aufirst=HW&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdictionaryofmo00fowl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080306053048/http://www.racp.edu.au/index.cfm?objectid=49EF1EB5-2A57-5487-D74DBAFBAE9143A3">"The Royal Australasian College of Physicians: What are Physicians?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Royal_Australasian_College_of_Physicians" title="Royal Australasian College of Physicians">Royal Australasian College of Physicians</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.racp.edu.au/index.cfm?objectid=49EF1EB5-2A57-5487-D74DBAFBAE9143A3">the original</a> on 6 March 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 February</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Royal+Australasian+College+of+Physicians%3A+What+are+Physicians%3F&rft.pub=Royal+Australasian+College+of+Physicians&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.racp.edu.au%2Findex.cfm%3Fobjectid%3D49EF1EB5-2A57-5487-D74DBAFBAE9143A3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071218085231/https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9106176?query=Therapeutics&ct=">"therapeutics (medicine)"</a>. <i>Britannica Online Encyclopedia</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9106176?query=Therapeutics&ct=">the original</a> on 18 December 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 April</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Britannica+Online+Encyclopedia&rft.atitle=therapeutics+%28medicine%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Feb%2Farticle-9106176%3Fquery%3DTherapeutics%26ct%3D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrooksBialaArbor2018" class="citation journal cs1">Brooks S, Biala N, Arbor S (March 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5833091">"A searchable database of medical education objectives – creating a comparable gold standard"</a>. <i>BMC Medical Education</i>. <b>18</b> (1): 31. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs12909-018-1136-z">10.1186/s12909-018-1136-z</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5833091">5833091</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29499684">29499684</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMC+Medical+Education&rft.atitle=A+searchable+database+of+medical+education+objectives+%E2%80%93+creating+a+comparable+gold+standard&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=31&rft.date=2018-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5833091%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29499684&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2Fs12909-018-1136-z&rft.aulast=Brooks&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Biala%2C+N&rft.au=Arbor%2C+S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5833091&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRadnerRobson2011" class="citation book cs1">Radner K, Robson E (22 September 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Nvgz3NOuo5EC&dq=oldest+medical+recipes+ebla&pg=PA690"><i>The Oxford Handbook of Cuneiform Culture</i></a>. OUP Oxford. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-955730-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-955730-1"><bdi>978-0-19-955730-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240227154617/https://books.google.com/books?id=Nvgz3NOuo5EC&dq=oldest+medical+recipes+ebla&pg=PA690">Archived</a> from the original on 27 February 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 December</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Cuneiform+Culture&rft.pub=OUP+Oxford&rft.date=2011-09-22&rft.isbn=978-0-19-955730-1&rft.aulast=Radner&rft.aufirst=Karen&rft.au=Robson%2C+Eleanor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNvgz3NOuo5EC%26dq%3Doldest%2Bmedical%2Brecipes%2Bebla%26pg%3DPA690&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVogelBerke2009" class="citation book cs1">Vogel WH, Berke A (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t_5pzrF1QocC&dq=oldest+medical+ebla&pg=PA16"><i>Brief History of Vision and Ocular Medicine</i></a>. Kugler Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-6299-220-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-6299-220-1"><bdi>978-90-6299-220-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240227083815/https://books.google.com/books?id=t_5pzrF1QocC&dq=oldest+medical+ebla&pg=PA16">Archived</a> from the original on 27 February 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 December</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Brief+History+of+Vision+and+Ocular+Medicine&rft.pub=Kugler+Publications&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-90-6299-220-1&rft.aulast=Vogel&rft.aufirst=Wolfgang+H.&rft.au=Berke%2C+Andreas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dt_5pzrF1QocC%26dq%3Doldest%2Bmedical%2Bebla%26pg%3DPA16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Page(5) <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.asor.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Five_Articles_about_Drugs_Medicine__Alcohol_From_ANEToday_E-book.pdf">https://www.asor.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Five_Articles_about_Drugs_Medicine__Alcohol_From_ANEToday_E-book.pdf</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240120032650/https://www.asor.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Five_Articles_about_Drugs_Medicine__Alcohol_From_ANEToday_E-book.pdf">Archived</a> 20 January 2024 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAckerknecht1982" class="citation book cs1">Ackerknecht E (1982). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryofme00acke"><i>A Short History of Medicine</i></a></span>. JHU Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryofme00acke/page/22">22</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-2726-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-2726-6"><bdi>978-0-8018-2726-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+Medicine&rft.pages=22&rft.pub=JHU+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-2726-6&rft.aulast=Ackerknecht&rft.aufirst=Erwin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fshorthistoryofme00acke&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHong2004" class="citation journal cs1">Hong F (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131201231218/http://www.medicine.mcgill.ca/MJM/issues/v08n01/crossroads/hong.pdf">"History of Medicine in China"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>McGill Journal of Medicine</i>. <b>8</b> (1): 7984. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.medicine.mcgill.ca/MJM/issues/v08n01/crossroads/hong.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 1 December 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=McGill+Journal+of+Medicine&rft.atitle=History+of+Medicine+in+China&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=7984&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Hong&rft.aufirst=Francis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.medicine.mcgill.ca%2FMJM%2Fissues%2Fv08n01%2Fcrossroads%2Fhong.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnschuld2003" class="citation book cs1">Unschuld P (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N2ZdrPCbpNIC&pg=PR9"><i>Huang Di Nei Jing: Nature, Knowledge, Imagery in an Ancient Chinese Medical Text</i></a>. University of California Press. p. ix. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92849-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92849-7"><bdi>978-0-520-92849-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160418053843/https://books.google.com/books?id=N2ZdrPCbpNIC&pg=PR9">Archived</a> from the original on 18 April 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 November</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Huang+Di+Nei+Jing%3A+Nature%2C+Knowledge%2C+Imagery+in+an+Ancient+Chinese+Medical+Text&rft.pages=ix&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-520-92849-7&rft.aulast=Unschuld&rft.aufirst=Pual&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DN2ZdrPCbpNIC%26pg%3DPR9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRanaArora2002" class="citation journal cs1">Rana RE, Arora BS (2002). "History of plastic surgery in India". <i>Journal of Postgraduate Medicine</i>. <b>48</b> (1): 76–78. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12082339">12082339</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Postgraduate+Medicine&rft.atitle=History+of+plastic+surgery+in+India&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=76-78&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12082339&rft.aulast=Rana&rft.aufirst=RE&rft.au=Arora%2C+BS&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAluvihare1993" class="citation journal cs1">Aluvihare A (November 1993). "Rohal Kramaya Lovata Dhayadha Kale Sri Lankikayo". <i>Vidhusara Science Magazine</i>: 5.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Vidhusara+Science+Magazine&rft.atitle=Rohal+Kramaya+Lovata+Dhayadha+Kale+Sri+Lankikayo.&rft.pages=5&rft.date=1993-11&rft.aulast=Aluvihare&rft.aufirst=A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRannan-EliyaDe_Mel1997" class="citation web cs1">Rannan-Eliya RP, De Mel N (9 February 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/ihsg/publications/pdf/No-42.PDF">"Resource mobilization in Sri Lanka's health sector"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Harvard School of Public Health & Health Policy Programme, Institute of Policy Studies</i>. p. 19. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20011029204848/http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/ihsg/publications/pdf/No-42.PDF">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 29 October 2001<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 July</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Harvard+School+of+Public+Health+%26+Health+Policy+Programme%2C+Institute+of+Policy+Studies&rft.atitle=Resource+mobilization+in+Sri+Lanka%27s+health+sector&rft.pages=19&rft.date=1997-02-09&rft.aulast=Rannan-Eliya&rft.aufirst=RP&rft.au=De+Mel%2C+N&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hsph.harvard.edu%2Fihsg%2Fpublications%2Fpdf%2FNo-42.PDF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrammaticosDiamantis2008" class="citation journal cs1">Grammaticos PC, Diamantis A (2008). "Useful known and unknown views of the father of modern medicine, Hippocrates and his teacher Democritus". <i>Hellenic Journal of Nuclear Medicine</i>. <b>11</b> (1): 2–4. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18392218">18392218</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hellenic+Journal+of+Nuclear+Medicine&rft.atitle=Useful+known+and+unknown+views+of+the+father+of+modern+medicine%2C+Hippocrates+and+his+teacher+Democritus&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=2-4&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18392218&rft.aulast=Grammaticos&rft.aufirst=PC&rft.au=Diamantis%2C+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/eccmid16/abstract.asp?id=50854">The father of modern medicine: the first research of the physical factor of tetanus</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111118132902/http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/eccmid16/abstract.asp?id=50854">Archived</a> 18 November 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarrison1966" class="citation book cs1">Garrison FH (1966). <i>History of Medicine</i>. <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>: W.B. Saunders Company. p. 97.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Medicine&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pages=97&rft.pub=W.B.+Saunders+Company&rft.date=1966&rft.aulast=Garrison&rft.aufirst=Fielding+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartí-Ibáñez1961" class="citation book cs1">Martí-Ibáñez F (1961). <i>A Prelude to Medical History</i>. <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>: MD Publications, Inc. p. 90. Library of Congress ID: 61-11617.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Prelude+to+Medical+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=90&rft.pub=MD+Publications%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1961&rft.aulast=Mart%C3%AD-Ib%C3%A1%C3%B1ez&rft.aufirst=F%C3%A9lix&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVaisrubA._DenmanNaparstekGilon2008" class="citation web cs1">Vaisrub S, A Denman M, Naparstek Y, Gilon D (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0013_0_13493.html">"Medicine"</a>. <i>Encyclopaedia Judaica</i>. The Gale Group. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150518071643/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0013_0_13493.html">Archived</a> from the original on 18 May 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 August</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopaedia+Judaica&rft.atitle=Medicine&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Vaisrub&rft.aufirst=Samuel&rft.au=A.+Denman%2C+Michael&rft.au=Naparstek%2C+Yaakov&rft.au=Gilon%2C+Dan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishvirtuallibrary.org%2Fjsource%2Fjudaica%2Fejud_0002_0013_0_13493.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindberg1992" class="citation book cs1">Lindberg D (1992). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/beginningsofwest00lind"><i>The Beginnings of Western Science</i></a></span>. University of Chicago Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/beginningsofwest00lind/page/349">349</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-48231-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-48231-6"><bdi>978-0-226-48231-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Beginnings+of+Western+Science&rft.pages=349&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-226-48231-6&rft.aulast=Lindberg&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbeginningsofwest00lind&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrioreschi2004" class="citation book cs1">Prioreschi P (2004). <i>A History of Medicine: Byzantine and Islamic medicine</i>. Horatius Press. p. 146.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Medicine%3A+Byzantine+and+Islamic+medicine.&rft.pages=146&rft.pub=Horatius+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Prioreschi&rft.aufirst=Plinio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBecka1980" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Becka J (January 1980). "[The father of medicine, Avicenna, in our science and culture. Abu Ali ibn Sina (980–1037)]". <i>Casopis Lekaru Ceskych</i> (in Czech). <b>119</b> (1): 17–23. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6989499">6989499</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Casopis+Lekaru+Ceskych&rft.atitle=%5BThe+father+of+medicine%2C+Avicenna%2C+in+our+science+and+culture.+Abu+Ali+ibn+Sina+%28980%E2%80%931037%29%5D&rft.volume=119&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=17-23&rft.date=1980-01&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F6989499&rft.aulast=Becka&rft.aufirst=J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081007070250/http://hcs.osu.edu/hort/history/023.html">"Avicenna 980–1037"</a>. Hcs.osu.edu. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hcs.osu.edu/hort/history/023.html">the original</a> on 7 October 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 January</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Avicenna+980%E2%80%931037&rft.pub=Hcs.osu.edu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhcs.osu.edu%2Fhort%2Fhistory%2F023.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080528230506/https://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-92902/The-Canon-of-Medicine">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"The Canon of Medicine" (work by Avicenna)"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. 2008. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-92902/The-Canon-of-Medicine">the original</a> on 28 May 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 June</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%22The+Canon+of+Medicine%22+%28work+by+Avicenna%29&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Feb%2Ftopic-92902%2FThe-Canon-of-Medicine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAhmad2007" class="citation journal cs1">Ahmad Z (2007). "Al-Zahrawi – The Father of Surgery". <i>ANZ Journal of Surgery</i>. <b>77</b> (Suppl. 1): A83. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1445-2197.2007.04130_8.x">10.1111/j.1445-2197.2007.04130_8.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:57308997">57308997</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ANZ+Journal+of+Surgery&rft.atitle=Al-Zahrawi+%E2%80%93+The+Father+of+Surgery&rft.volume=77&rft.issue=Suppl.+1&rft.pages=A83&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1445-2197.2007.04130_8.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A57308997%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Ahmad&rft.aufirst=Z&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbdel-Halim2006" class="citation journal cs1">Abdel-Halim RE (November 2006). "Contributions of Muhadhdhab Al-Deen Al-Baghdadi to the progress of medicine and urology. A study and translations from his book Al-Mukhtar". <i>Saudi Medical Journal</i>. <b>27</b> (11): 1631–1641. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17106533">17106533</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Saudi+Medical+Journal&rft.atitle=Contributions+of+Muhadhdhab+Al-Deen+Al-Baghdadi+to+the+progress+of+medicine+and+urology.+A+study+and+translations+from+his+book+Al-Mukhtar&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=1631-1641&rft.date=2006-11&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17106533&rft.aulast=Abdel-Halim&rft.aufirst=RE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130308101134/http://www.scribd.com/doc/78110223/Traditional-Medicine-Among-Gulf-Arabs">"Chairman's Reflections: Traditional Medicine Among Gulf Arabs, Part II: Blood-letting"</a>. <i>Heart Views</i>. <b>5</b> (2): 74–85 [80]. 2004. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scribd.com/doc/78110223/Traditional-Medicine-Among-Gulf-Arabs">the original</a> on 8 March 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Heart+Views&rft.atitle=Chairman%27s+Reflections%3A+Traditional+Medicine+Among+Gulf+Arabs%2C+Part+II%3A+Blood-letting&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=74-85+80&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scribd.com%2Fdoc%2F78110223%2FTraditional-Medicine-Among-Gulf-Arabs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartín-AraguzBustamante-MartínezFernández-Armayor_AjoMoreno-Martínez2002" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Martín-Araguz A, Bustamante-Martínez C, Fernández-Armayor Ajo V, Moreno-Martínez JM (1 May 2002). "[Neuroscience in Al Andalus and its influence on medieval scholastic medicine]". <i>Revista de Neurología</i> (in Spanish). <b>34</b> (9): 877–892. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.33588%2Frn.3409.2001382">10.33588/rn.3409.2001382</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12134355">12134355</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revista+de+Neurolog%C3%ADa&rft.atitle=%5BNeuroscience+in+Al+Andalus+and+its+influence+on+medieval+scholastic+medicine%5D&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=877-892&rft.date=2002-05-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.33588%2Frn.3409.2001382&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12134355&rft.aulast=Mart%C3%ADn-Araguz&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Bustamante-Mart%C3%ADnez%2C+C&rft.au=Fern%C3%A1ndez-Armayor+Ajo%2C+V&rft.au=Moreno-Mart%C3%ADnez%2C+JM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tschanz-2003-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tschanz-2003_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tschanz-2003_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTschanz2003" class="citation journal cs1">Tschanz DW (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/199703/the.arab.roots.of.european.medicine.htm">"Arab(?) Roots of European Medicine"</a>. <i>Heart Views</i>. <b>4</b> (2). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040503004153/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/199703/the.arab.roots.of.european.medicine.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 3 May 2004<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 June</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Heart+Views&rft.atitle=Arab%28%3F%29+Roots+of+European+Medicine&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Tschanz&rft.aufirst=David+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.saudiaramcoworld.com%2Fissue%2F199703%2Fthe.arab.roots.of.european.medicine.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://coursesa.matrix.msu.edu/~fisher/hst372/readings/tschanz.html">copy</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20041130161059/http://coursesa.matrix.msu.edu/~fisher/hst372/readings/tschanz.html">Archived</a> 30 November 2004 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPormannSavage-Smith2007" class="citation book cs1">Pormann PE, <a href="/wiki/Emilie_Savage-Smith" title="Emilie Savage-Smith">Savage-Smith E</a> (2007). "On the dominance of the Greek humoral theory, which was the basis for the practice of bloodletting". <i>Medieval Islamic medicine</i>. Washington DC: Georgetown University. pp. 10, 43–45. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/works/OL12911905W">12911905W</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=On+the+dominance+of+the+Greek+humoral+theory%2C+which+was+the+basis+for+the+practice+of+bloodletting&rft.btitle=Medieval+Islamic+medicine&rft.place=Washington+DC&rft.pages=10%2C+43-45&rft.pub=Georgetown+University&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fworks%2FOL12911905W%23id-name%3DOL&rft.aulast=Pormann&rft.aufirst=Peter+E.&rft.au=Savage-Smith%2C+Emilie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIskandar2006" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Iskandar A (2006). "Al-Rāzī". <i>Encyclopaedia of the history of science, technology, and medicine in non-western cultures</i> (2nd ed.). Springer. pp. 155–156.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Al-R%C4%81z%C4%AB&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+the+history+of+science%2C+technology%2C+and+medicine+in+non-western+cultures&rft.pages=155-156&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Iskandar&rft.aufirst=Albert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGanchy2008" class="citation book cs1">Ganchy S (2008). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/islamsciencemedi0000ganc"><i>Islam and Science, Medicine, and Technology</i></a></span>. New York: Rosen Pub.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam+and+Science%2C+Medicine%2C+and+Technology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Rosen+Pub.&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Ganchy&rft.aufirst=Sally&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fislamsciencemedi0000ganc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-elgood-2010-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-elgood-2010_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-elgood-2010_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElgood2010" class="citation book cs1">Elgood C (2010). <i>A Medical History of Persia and The Eastern Caliphate</i> (1st ed.). London: Cambridge. pp. 202–203. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-01588-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-01588-2"><bdi>978-1-108-01588-2</bdi></a>. <q>By writing a monograph on 'Diseases in Children' he may also be looked upon as the father of paediatrics.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Medical+History+of+Persia+and+The+Eastern+Caliphate&rft.place=London&rft.pages=202-203&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Cambridge&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-108-01588-2&rft.aulast=Elgood&rft.aufirst=Cyril&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMicheau1996" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Micheau F (1996). "The Scientific Institutions in the Medieval Near East". In Rashed R, Morelon R (eds.). <i>Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science</i>. Routledge. pp. 991–992.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Scientific+Institutions+in+the+Medieval+Near+East&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+History+of+Arabic+Science&rft.pages=991-992&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Micheau&rft.aufirst=Fran%C3%A7oise&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarrett2004" class="citation book cs1">Barrett P (2004). <i>Science and Theology Since Copernicus: The Search for Understanding</i>. <a href="/wiki/Continuum_International_Publishing_Group" title="Continuum International Publishing Group">Continuum International Publishing Group</a>. p. 18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-567-08969-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-567-08969-4"><bdi>978-0-567-08969-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Theology+Since+Copernicus%3A+The+Search+for+Understanding&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=Continuum+International+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-567-08969-4&rft.aulast=Barrett&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlainey2011" class="citation book cs1">Blainey G (2011). <a href="/wiki/A_Short_History_of_Christianity" title="A Short History of Christianity"><i>A Short History of Christianity</i></a>. Penguin Viking. pp. 214–215. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/793902685">793902685</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+Christianity&rft.pages=214-215&rft.pub=Penguin+Viking&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F793902685&rft.aulast=Blainey&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael Dols has shown that the Black Death was much more commonly believed by European authorities than by Middle Eastern authorities to be contagious; as a result, flight was more commonly counseled, and in urban Italy quarantines were organized on a much wider level than in urban Egypt or Syria (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDols1977" class="citation book cs1">Dols MW (1977). <i>The Black Death in the Middle East</i>. Princeton. pp. 119, 285–290. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/2296964">2296964</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Black+Death+in+the+Middle+East&rft.pages=119%2C+285-290&rft.pub=Princeton&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F2296964&rft.aulast=Dols&rft.aufirst=Michael+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ceb.nlm.nih.gov/proj/ttp/books.htm">"Page through a virtual copy of Vesalius's <i>De Humanis Corporis Fabrica</i>"</a>. Archive.nlm.nih.gov. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141011220907/http://ceb.nlm.nih.gov/proj/ttp/books.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 11 October 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 April</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Page+through+a+virtual+copy+of+Vesalius%27s+De+Humanis+Corporis+Fabrica&rft.pub=Archive.nlm.nih.gov&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fceb.nlm.nih.gov%2Fproj%2Fttp%2Fbooks.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMadiganMartinko2006" class="citation book cs1">Madigan M, Martinko J, eds. (2006). <i>Brock Biology of Microorganisms</i> (11th ed.). Prentice Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-144329-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-144329-7"><bdi>978-0-13-144329-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Brock+Biology+of+Microorganisms&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-13-144329-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://michaelservetusresearch.com/ENGLISH/works.html">Michael Servetus Research</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121113223851/http://www.michaelservetusresearch.com/ENGLISH/works.html">Archived</a> 13 November 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Website with a graphical study on the Manuscript of Paris by Servetus</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLynchO'SullivanMcGillycuddy2006" class="citation journal cs1">Lynch CD, O'Sullivan VR, McGillycuddy CT (December 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.bdj.4814350">"Pierre Fauchard: the 'father of modern dentistry'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>British Dental Journal</i>. <b>201</b> (12): 779–781. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.bdj.4814350">10.1038/sj.bdj.4814350</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17183395">17183395</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Dental+Journal&rft.atitle=Pierre+Fauchard%3A+the+%27father+of+modern+dentistry%27&rft.volume=201&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=779-781&rft.date=2006-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fsj.bdj.4814350&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17183395&rft.aulast=Lynch&rft.aufirst=CD&rft.au=O%27Sullivan%2C+VR&rft.au=McGillycuddy%2C+CT&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252Fsj.bdj.4814350&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2010" class="citation book cs1">Williams G (2010). <i>Angel of Death</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-27471-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-27471-6"><bdi>978-0-230-27471-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Angel+of+Death&rft.place=Basingstoke&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-230-27471-6&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Gareth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCooper2004" class="citation journal cs1">Cooper P (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081203131508/http://www.pharmj.com/Editorial/20041218/christmas/p900bodyparts.html">"Medicinal properties of body parts"</a>. <i>The Pharmaceutical Journal</i>. <b>273</b> (7330): 900–902. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pharmj.com/editorial/20041218/christmas/p900bodyparts.html">the original</a> on 3 December 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Pharmaceutical+Journal&rft.atitle=Medicinal+properties+of+body+parts&rft.volume=273&rft.issue=7330&rft.pages=900-902&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Cooper&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pharmj.com%2Feditorial%2F20041218%2Fchristmas%2Fp900bodyparts.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_Der_HeijdenJacobsSnoeijerHallard2004" class="citation journal cs1">van Der Heijden R, Jacobs DI, Snoeijer W, Hallard D, Verpoorte R (March 2004). "The Catharanthus alkaloids: pharmacognosy and biotechnology". <i>Current Medicinal Chemistry</i>. <b>11</b> (5): 607–628. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2174%2F0929867043455846">10.2174/0929867043455846</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15032608">15032608</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Medicinal+Chemistry&rft.atitle=The+Catharanthus+alkaloids%3A+pharmacognosy+and+biotechnology&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=607-628&rft.date=2004-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2174%2F0929867043455846&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15032608&rft.aulast=van+Der+Heijden&rft.aufirst=R&rft.au=Jacobs%2C+DI&rft.au=Snoeijer%2C+W&rft.au=Hallard%2C+D&rft.au=Verpoorte%2C+R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAtanasovWaltenbergerPferschy-WenzigLinder2015" class="citation journal cs1">Atanasov AG, Waltenberger B, Pferschy-Wenzig EM, Linder T, Wawrosch C, Uhrin P, et al. (December 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4748402">"Discovery and resupply of pharmacologically active plant-derived natural products: A review"</a>. <i>Biotechnology Advances</i>. <b>33</b> (8): 1582–1614. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.biotechadv.2015.08.001">10.1016/j.biotechadv.2015.08.001</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4748402">4748402</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26281720">26281720</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biotechnology+Advances&rft.atitle=Discovery+and+resupply+of+pharmacologically+active+plant-derived+natural+products%3A+A+review&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=1582-1614&rft.date=2015-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4748402%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26281720&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.biotechadv.2015.08.001&rft.aulast=Atanasov&rft.aufirst=AG&rft.au=Waltenberger%2C+B&rft.au=Pferschy-Wenzig%2C+EM&rft.au=Linder%2C+T&rft.au=Wawrosch%2C+C&rft.au=Uhrin%2C+P&rft.au=Temml%2C+V&rft.au=Wang%2C+L&rft.au=Schwaiger%2C+S&rft.au=Heiss%2C+EH&rft.au=Rollinger%2C+JM&rft.au=Schuster%2C+D&rft.au=Breuss%2C+JM&rft.au=Bochkov%2C+V&rft.au=Mihovilovic%2C+MD&rft.au=Kopp%2C+B&rft.au=Bauer%2C+R&rft.au=Dirsch%2C+VM&rft.au=Stuppner%2C+H&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4748402&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEzzoBausellMoermanBerman2001" class="citation journal cs1">Ezzo J, Bausell B, Moerman DE, Berman B, Hadhazy V (2001). "Reviewing the reviews. How strong is the evidence? How clear are the conclusions?". <i>International Journal of Technology Assessment in Health Care</i>. <b>17</b> (4): 457–466. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0266462301107014">10.1017/S0266462301107014</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11758290">11758290</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:21855086">21855086</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Technology+Assessment+in+Health+Care&rft.atitle=Reviewing+the+reviews.+How+strong+is+the+evidence%3F+How+clear+are+the+conclusions%3F&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=457-466&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A21855086%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11758290&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0266462301107014&rft.aulast=Ezzo&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Bausell%2C+B&rft.au=Moerman%2C+DE&rft.au=Berman%2C+B&rft.au=Hadhazy%2C+V&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBentleyEffrosPalarKeeler2008" class="citation journal cs1">Bentley TG, Effros RM, Palar K, Keeler EB (December 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2690367">"Waste in the U.S. Health care system: a conceptual framework"</a>. <i>The Milbank Quarterly</i>. <b>86</b> (4): 629–659. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-0009.2008.00537.x">10.1111/j.1468-0009.2008.00537.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2690367">2690367</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19120983">19120983</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Milbank+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Waste+in+the+U.S.+Health+care+system%3A+a+conceptual+framework&rft.volume=86&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=629-659&rft.date=2008-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2690367%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19120983&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1468-0009.2008.00537.x&rft.aulast=Bentley&rft.aufirst=TG&rft.au=Effros%2C+RM&rft.au=Palar%2C+K&rft.au=Keeler%2C+EB&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2690367&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201008211224/https://www.who.int/healthinfo/universal_health_coverage/report/2017/en/">"WHO | Tracking universal health coverage: 2017 Global Monitoring Report"</a>. <i>WHO</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/healthinfo/universal_health_coverage/report/2017/en/">the original</a> on 8 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 June</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WHO&rft.atitle=WHO+%7C+Tracking+universal+health+coverage%3A+2017+Global+Monitoring+Report&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fhealthinfo%2Funiversal_health_coverage%2Freport%2F2017%2Fen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://read.oecd-ilibrary.org/social-issues-migration-health/health-at-a-glance-2015/coverage-for-health-care_health_glance-2015-39-en">"Coverage for health care | READ online"</a>. <i>OECD iLibrary</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210308132841/https://read.oecd-ilibrary.org/social-issues-migration-health/health-at-a-glance-2015/coverage-for-health-care_health_glance-2015-39-en">Archived</a> from the original on 8 March 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 June</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=OECD+iLibrary&rft.atitle=Coverage+for+health+care+%7C+READ+online&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fread.oecd-ilibrary.org%2Fsocial-issues-migration-health%2Fhealth-at-a-glance-2015%2Fcoverage-for-health-care_health_glance-2015-39-en&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Medicine" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Medicine" title="Template:Medicine"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Medicine" title="Template talk:Medicine"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Medicine" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Medicine"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Medicine" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Medicine</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">Specialties</a><br />and<br /><a href="/wiki/Subspecialty" title="Subspecialty">subspecialties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Surgery" title="Surgery">Surgery</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardiac_surgery" title="Cardiac surgery">Cardiac surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiothoracic_surgery" title="Cardiothoracic surgery">Cardiothoracic surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_surgery" title="Endocrine surgery">Endocrine surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eye_surgery" title="Eye surgery">Eye surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_surgery" title="General surgery">General surgery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colorectal_surgery" title="Colorectal surgery">Colorectal surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digestive_system_surgery" title="Digestive system surgery">Digestive system surgery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurosurgery" title="Neurosurgery">Neurosurgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_and_maxillofacial_surgery" title="Oral and maxillofacial surgery">Oral and maxillofacial surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthopedic_surgery" title="Orthopedic surgery">Orthopedic surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_surgery" title="Hand surgery">Hand surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otorhinolaryngology" title="Otorhinolaryngology">Otolaryngology</a> <ul><li><small>ENT</small></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pediatric_surgery" title="Pediatric surgery">Pediatric surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_surgery" title="Plastic surgery">Plastic surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_surgery" title="Reproductive surgery">Reproductive surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surgical_oncology" title="Surgical oncology">Surgical oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organ_transplantation" title="Organ transplantation">Transplant surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trauma_surgery" title="Trauma surgery">Trauma surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urology" title="Urology">Urology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andrology" title="Andrology">Andrology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_surgery" title="Vascular surgery">Vascular surgery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Internal_medicine" title="Internal medicine">Internal<br />medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allergy" title="Allergy">Allergy</a> / <a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angiology" title="Angiology">Angiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiology" title="Cardiology">Cardiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endocrinology" title="Endocrinology">Endocrinology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastroenterology" title="Gastroenterology">Gastroenterology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hepatology" title="Hepatology">Hepatology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geriatrics" title="Geriatrics">Geriatrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hematology" title="Hematology">Hematology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospital_medicine" title="Hospital medicine">Hospital medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infectious_diseases_(medical_specialty)" title="Infectious diseases (medical specialty)">Infectious diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nephrology" title="Nephrology">Nephrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oncology" title="Oncology">Oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulmonology" title="Pulmonology">Pulmonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rheumatology" title="Rheumatology">Rheumatology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Obstetrics_and_gynaecology" title="Obstetrics and gynaecology">Obstetrics and<br />gynaecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gynaecology" title="Gynaecology">Gynaecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynecologic_oncology" title="Gynecologic oncology">Gynecologic oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal%E2%80%93fetal_medicine" title="Maternal–fetal medicine">Maternal–fetal medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetrics" title="Obstetrics">Obstetrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_endocrinology_and_infertility" title="Reproductive endocrinology and infertility">Reproductive endocrinology and infertility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urogynecology" title="Urogynecology">Urogynecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medical_diagnosis" title="Medical diagnosis">Diagnostic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radiology" title="Radiology">Radiology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interventional_radiology" title="Interventional radiology">Interventional radiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroradiology" title="Neuroradiology">Neuroradiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_medicine" title="Nuclear medicine">Nuclear medicine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">Pathology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_pathology" title="Anatomical pathology">Anatomical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_pathology" title="Clinical pathology">Clinical pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_chemistry" title="Clinical chemistry">Clinical chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytopathology" title="Cytopathology">Cytopathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_microbiology" title="Medical microbiology">Medical microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfusion_medicine" title="Transfusion medicine">Transfusion medicine</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Addiction_medicine" title="Addiction medicine">Addiction medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolescent_medicine" title="Adolescent medicine">Adolescent medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anesthesiology" title="Anesthesiology">Anesthesiology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Obstetric_anesthesiology" title="Obstetric anesthesiology">Obstetric anesthesiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurosurgical_anesthesia" title="Neurosurgical anesthesia">Neurosurgical anesthesiology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_medicine" title="Aviation medicine">Aviation medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dermatology" title="Dermatology">Dermatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster_medicine" title="Disaster medicine">Disaster medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_medicine" title="Diving medicine">Diving medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_medicine" title="Emergency medicine">Emergency medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_gathering_medicine" title="Mass gathering medicine">Mass gathering medicine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_medicine" title="Family medicine">Family medicine</a> / <a href="/wiki/General_practice" title="General practice">General practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospital_medicine" title="Hospital medicine">Hospital medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensive_care_medicine" title="Intensive care medicine">Intensive care medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_genetics" title="Medical genetics">Medical genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narcology" title="Narcology">Narcology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurology" title="Neurology">Neurology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_neurophysiology" title="Clinical neurophysiology">Clinical neurophysiology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_medicine" title="Occupational medicine">Occupational medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ophthalmology" title="Ophthalmology">Ophthalmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_medicine" title="Oral medicine">Oral medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_management" title="Pain management">Pain management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palliative_care" title="Palliative care">Palliative care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pediatrics" title="Pediatrics">Pediatrics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neonatology" title="Neonatology">Neonatology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phlebologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Phlebologist">Phlebology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_medicine_and_rehabilitation" title="Physical medicine and rehabilitation">Physical medicine and rehabilitation</a> (PM&R)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preventive_healthcare" title="Preventive healthcare">Preventive medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_healthcare" title="Prison healthcare">Prison healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">Psychiatry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Addiction_psychiatry" title="Addiction psychiatry">Addiction psychiatry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">Radiation oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_medicine" title="Reproductive medicine">Reproductive medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_medicine" title="Sexual medicine">Sexual medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Venereology" title="Venereology">Venereology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sleep_medicine" title="Sleep medicine">Sleep medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_medicine" title="Sports medicine">Sports medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organ_transplantation" title="Organ transplantation">Transplantation medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_medicine" title="Tropical medicine">Tropical medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Travel_medicine" title="Travel medicine">Travel medicine</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medical_education" title="Medical education">Medical<br />education</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_school" title="Medical school">Medical school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Medicine,_Bachelor_of_Surgery" title="Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery">Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Medical_Sciences" title="Bachelor of Medical Sciences">Bachelor of Medical Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_of_Medicine" title="Master of Medicine">Master of Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_of_Surgery" title="Master of Surgery">Master of Surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Medicine" title="Doctor of Medicine">Doctor of Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Osteopathic_Medicine" title="Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine">Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MD%E2%80%93PhD" title="MD–PhD">MD–PhD</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_Scientist_Training_Program" title="Medical Scientist Training Program">Medical Scientist Training Program</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_medicine" title="Alternative medicine">Alternative medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_health_professions" title="Allied health professions">Allied health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_oncology" title="Molecular oncology">Molecular oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanomedicine" title="Nanomedicine">Nanomedicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personalized_medicine" title="Personalized medicine">Personalized medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_health" title="Rural health">Rural health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Therapy" title="Therapy">Therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_medicine" title="Traditional medicine">Traditional medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veterinary_medicine" title="Veterinary medicine">Veterinary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physician" title="Physician">Physician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_physician" title="Chief physician">Chief physician</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">History of medicine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Medicine" title="Category:Medicine">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Medicine" class="extiw" title="commons:Medicine">Commons</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Medicine" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Medicine">Wikiproject</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Medicine" title="Portal:Medicine">Portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_medicine" title="Outline of medicine">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11190#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11190#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11190#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Medizin"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4038243-6">Germany</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="medicine"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85083064">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="médecine"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119832928">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="médecine"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119832928">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00563899">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="lékařství"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph115195&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000055439&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007560492905171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/008275">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p></div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medicine&oldid=1259120215">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medicine&oldid=1259120215</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Category</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Medicine" title="Category:Medicine">Medicine</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_the_Phonos_extension" title="Category:Pages using the Phonos extension">Pages using the Phonos extension</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Latin-language text">Articles containing Latin-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_June_2014" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from June 2014">Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from June 2014</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Czech-language_sources_(cs)" title="Category:CS1 Czech-language sources (cs)">CS1 Czech-language sources (cs)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Spanish-language_sources_(es)" title="Category:CS1 Spanish-language sources (es)">CS1 Spanish-language sources (es)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_pending_changes_protected_pages" title="Category:Wikipedia pending changes protected pages">Wikipedia pending changes protected pages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_including_recorded_pronunciations" title="Category:Pages including recorded pronunciations">Pages including recorded pronunciations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_limited_geographic_scope_from_February_2023" title="Category:Articles with limited geographic scope from February 2023">Articles with limited geographic scope from February 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_Kingdom-centric" title="Category:United Kingdom-centric">United Kingdom-centric</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_lacking_reliable_references" title="Category:All articles lacking reliable references">All articles lacking reliable references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_lacking_reliable_references_from_July_2024" title="Category:Articles lacking reliable references from July 2024">Articles lacking reliable references from July 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_July_2024" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from July 2024">Articles with unsourced statements from July 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements_from_2015" title="Category:Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2015">Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2015</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements" title="Category:All articles containing potentially dated statements">All articles containing potentially dated statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_Sister_project_links_with_hidden_wikidata" title="Category:Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata">Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_displaying_short_descriptions_of_redirect_targets_via_Module:Annotated_link" title="Category:Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets via Module:Annotated link">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets via Module:Annotated link</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_March_2022" title="Category:Use dmy dates from March 2022">Use dmy dates from March 2022</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 23 November 2024, at 13:39<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medicine&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-8bk57","wgBackendResponseTime":175,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.244","walltime":"1.628","ppvisitednodes":{"value":9272,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":209715,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":4650,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":19,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":30,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":287736,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1371.876 1 -total"," 32.76% 449.446 1 Template:Reflist"," 12.10% 165.954 18 Template:Annotated_link"," 11.97% 164.190 21 Template:Cite_book"," 7.56% 103.735 25 Template:Cite_journal"," 7.12% 97.617 4 Template:Langx"," 6.84% 93.873 1 Template:Medicine"," 6.71% 92.080 2 Template:Navbox"," 6.26% 85.886 1 Template:Short_description"," 5.09% 69.886 1 Template:Sister_project_links"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.778","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":24182735,"limit":52428800}},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-2hmlm","timestamp":"20241124203943","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Medicine","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Medicine","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q11190","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q11190","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-11-15T03:01:04Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/8\/89\/Flag_of_WHO.svg","headline":"field of study for diagnosing, treating and preventing disease"}</script> </body> </html>