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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Allograft_and_allotransplantation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Allograft_and_allotransplantation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Allograft and allotransplantation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Allograft_and_allotransplantation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Isograft" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Isograft"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.1 Isograft </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Isograft-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Xenograft_and_xenotransplantation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Xenograft_and_xenotransplantation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Xenograft and xenotransplantation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Xenograft_and_xenotransplantation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Domino_transplants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Domino_transplants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 Domino transplants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Domino_transplants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-ABO-incompatible_transplants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ABO-incompatible_transplants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5 ABO-incompatible transplants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-ABO-incompatible_transplants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transplantation_in_obese_individuals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transplantation_in_obese_individuals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6 Transplantation in obese individuals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transplantation_in_obese_individuals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impact_of_Human_Herpesvirus_6_(HHV-6)_Reactivation_on_Pediatric_Liver_Transplantation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact_of_Human_Herpesvirus_6_(HHV-6)_Reactivation_on_Pediatric_Liver_Transplantation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.7 Impact of Human Herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6) Reactivation on Pediatric Liver Transplantation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impact_of_Human_Herpesvirus_6_(HHV-6)_Reactivation_on_Pediatric_Liver_Transplantation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Organs_and_tissues_transplanted" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organs_and_tissues_transplanted"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Organs and tissues transplanted </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Organs_and_tissues_transplanted-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Organs and tissues transplanted subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Organs_and_tissues_transplanted-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Eye" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eye"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Eye </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eye-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chest" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chest"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Chest </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chest-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abdomen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abdomen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Abdomen </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abdomen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tissues,_cells_and_fluids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tissues,_cells_and_fluids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Tissues, cells and fluids </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tissues,_cells_and_fluids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indications_for_transplantation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indications_for_transplantation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Indications for transplantation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indications_for_transplantation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Complications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Complications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Complications </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Complications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types_of_donor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types_of_donor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Types of donor </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types_of_donor-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Types of donor subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Types_of_donor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Living_donor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Living_donor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Living donor </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Living_donor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Deceased_donor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deceased_donor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Deceased donor </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deceased_donor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Allocation_of_organs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Allocation_of_organs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Allocation of organs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Allocation_of_organs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reasons_for_donation_and_ethical_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reasons_for_donation_and_ethical_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Reasons for donation and ethical issues </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Reasons_for_donation_and_ethical_issues-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Reasons for donation and ethical issues subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Reasons_for_donation_and_ethical_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Living_related_donors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Living_related_donors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Living related donors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Living_related_donors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Paired_exchange" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paired_exchange"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.1 Paired exchange </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paired_exchange-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Good_Samaritan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Good_Samaritan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Good Samaritan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Good_Samaritan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Financial_compensation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Financial_compensation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Financial compensation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Financial_compensation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forced_donation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forced_donation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Forced donation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forced_donation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Organ_transplantation_by_region" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organ_transplantation_by_region"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Organ transplantation by region </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Organ_transplantation_by_region-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Timeline_of_transplants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Timeline_of_transplants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Timeline of transplants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Timeline_of_transplants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Society and culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Society and culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Success_rates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Success_rates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Success rates </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Success_rates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparative_costs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparative_costs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Comparative costs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparative_costs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Safety" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Safety"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.3 Safety </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Safety-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transplant_laws" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transplant_laws"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.4 Transplant laws </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transplant_laws-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethical_concerns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethical_concerns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.5 Ethical concerns </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethical_concerns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Artificial_organ_transplantation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Artificial_organ_transplantation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.6 Artificial organ transplantation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Artificial_organ_transplantation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Research </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Negative_effects_of_transplantation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Negative_effects_of_transplantation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Negative effects of transplantation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Negative_effects_of_transplantation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Myths" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Myths"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Myths </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Myths-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Organ transplantation</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 78 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-78" aria-hidden="true" > 78 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oorplantings" title="Oorplantings – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Oorplantings" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B9%D8%B6%D8%A7%D8%A1" title="زراعة الأعضاء – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="زراعة الأعضاء" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transplantasiya" title="Transplantasiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Transplantasiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%99%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%97_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A8" title="অঙ্গ প্রতিস্থাপন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অঙ্গ প্রতিস্থাপন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kh%C3%AC-koan_%C3%AE-si%CC%8Dt" title="Khì-koan î-si̍t – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Khì-koan î-si̍t" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Трансплантация – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Трансплантация" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Трансплантацыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Трансплантацыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Трансплантация – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Трансплантация" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transplantacija" title="Transplantacija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Transplantacija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trasplantament" title="Trasplantament – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Trasplantament" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transplantace" title="Transplantace – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Transplantace" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trawsblannu_organau" title="Trawsblannu organau – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Trawsblannu organau" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organtransplantation" title="Organtransplantation – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Organtransplantation" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transplantation" title="Transplantation – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Transplantation" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siirdamine" title="Siirdamine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Siirdamine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%83%CF%87%CE%B5%CF%85%CF%83%CE%B7" title="Μεταμόσχευση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μεταμόσχευση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trasplante_(medicina)" title="Trasplante (medicina) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Trasplante (medicina)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transplantado" title="Transplantado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Transplantado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transplante_(medikuntza)" title="Transplante (medikuntza) – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Transplante (medikuntza)" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86%D8%AF_%D8%B9%D8%B6%D9%88" title="پیوند عضو – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پیوند عضو" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greffe_(m%C3%A9decine)" title="Greffe (médecine) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Greffe (médecine)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trasphland%C3%BA_org%C3%A1n" title="Trasphlandú orgán – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Trasphlandú orgán" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transplante" title="Transplante – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Transplante" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%85%E0%AA%82%E0%AA%97_%E0%AA%AA%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%A4%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%AF%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%B0%E0%AB%8B%E0%AA%AA%E0%AA%A3" title="અંગ પ્રત્યારોપણ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="અંગ પ્રત્યારોપણ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hi-k%C3%B4n_Y%C3%AC-chh%E1%B9%B3%CC%8Dt" title="Hi-kôn Yì-chhṳ̍t – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Hi-kôn Yì-chhṳ̍t" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9E%A5%EA%B8%B0_%EC%9D%B4%EC%8B%9D" title="장기 이식 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="장기 이식" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%93%D5%B8%D5%AD%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Փոխպատվաստում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Փոխպատվաստում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A3" title="अंग प्रत्यारोपण – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अंग प्रत्यारोपण" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transplantacija_organa" title="Transplantacija organa – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Transplantacija organa" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transplantasi_organ" title="Transplantasi organ – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Transplantasi organ" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transplantation_de_organo" title="Transplantation de organo – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Transplantation de organo" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADff%C3%A6raflutningur" title="Líffæraflutningur – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Líffæraflutningur" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trapianto" title="Trapianto – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Trapianto" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A9%D7%AA%D7%9C%D7%AA_%D7%90%D7%99%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9D" title="השתלת איברים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="השתלת איברים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9E%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A2%E1%83%90%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ტრანსპლანტაცია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ტრანსპლანტაცია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Трансплантация – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Трансплантация" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Трансплантация – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Трансплантация" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transplantatio_organorum" title="Transplantatio organorum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Transplantatio organorum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Org%C4%81nu_transplant%C4%81cija" title="Orgānu transplantācija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Orgānu transplantācija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transplantacija" title="Transplantacija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Transplantacija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szerv%C3%A1t%C3%BCltet%C3%A9s" title="Szervátültetés – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Szervátültetés" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B5_(%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0)" title="Пресадување (медицина) – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Пресадување (медицина)" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%82_%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%BD" title="അവയവം മാറ്റിവയ്ക്കൽ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അവയവം മാറ്റിവയ്ക്കൽ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pemindahan_organ" title="Pemindahan organ – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pemindahan organ" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transplantatie" title="Transplantatie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Transplantatie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A3" title="अङ्ग प्रत्यारोपण – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="अङ्ग प्रत्यारोपण" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A3" title="अंग प्रत्यारोपण – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="अंग प्रत्यारोपण" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A7%BB%E6%A4%8D_(%E5%8C%BB%E7%99%82)" title="移植 (医療) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="移植 (医療)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transplantasjon" title="Transplantasjon – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Transplantasjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organtransplantasjon" title="Organtransplantasjon – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Organtransplantasjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greffage_d%27organnes" title="Greffage d'organnes – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Greffage d'organnes" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nouormand</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transplantatsiya" title="Transplantatsiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Transplantatsiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pi mw-list-item"><a href="https://pi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A3" title="अंग प्रत्यारोपण – Pali" lang="pi" hreflang="pi" data-title="अंग प्रत्यारोपण" data-language-autonym="पालि" data-language-local-name="Pali" class="interlanguage-link-target">पालि</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transplantatschoon" title="Transplantatschoon – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Transplantatschoon" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Przeszczepianie_narz%C4%85d%C3%B3w" title="Przeszczepianie narządów – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Przeszczepianie narządów" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transplanta%C3%A7%C3%A3o_de_%C3%B3rg%C3%A3os" title="Transplantação de órgãos – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Transplantação de órgãos" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transplantare_de_organ" title="Transplantare de organ – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Transplantare de organ" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Трансплантация – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Трансплантация" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="अङ्गप्रत्यारोपणम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="अङ्गप्रत्यारोपणम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transplantimi_i_organeve" title="Transplantimi i organeve – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Transplantimi i organeve" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transplant_(surgery)" title="Transplant (surgery) – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Transplant (surgery)" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transplant%C3%A1cia_(anat%C3%B3mia)" title="Transplantácia (anatómia) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Transplantácia (anatómia)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presaditev" title="Presaditev – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Presaditev" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DB%95%D8%B4%D8%AA%DB%95%D8%B1%DA%AF%DB%95%D8%B1%DB%8C%DB%8C_%DA%86%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%A6%DB%95%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85" title="نەشتەرگەریی چاندنی ئەندام – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="نەشتەرگەریی چاندنی ئەندام" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Трансплантација – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Трансплантација" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transplantacija" title="Transplantacija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Transplantacija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elinsiirto" title="Elinsiirto – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Elinsiirto" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transplantation" title="Transplantation – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Transplantation" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transplantasyon_ng_organo" title="Transplantasyon ng organo – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Transplantasyon ng organo" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81" title="உறுப்பு மாற்று – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="உறுப்பு மாற்று" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%96%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B0" title="การปลูกถ่ายอวัยวะ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การปลูกถ่ายอวัยวะ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organ_nakli" title="Organ nakli – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Organ nakli" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transplantasi%C3%BDa" title="Transplantasiýa – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Transplantasiýa" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Трансплантація – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Трансплантація" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%E1%BA%A5y_gh%C3%A9p_n%E1%BB%99i_t%E1%BA%A1ng" title="Cấy ghép nội tạng – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Cấy ghép nội tạng" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" 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noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Medical procedure in which an organ is removed from one body and placed in the body of a recipient</div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Medical intervention</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: lightblue">Organ transplant</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Lost_towel_number_15_found.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Lost_towel_number_15_found.JPG/330px-Lost_towel_number_15_found.JPG" decoding="async" width="280" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Lost_towel_number_15_found.JPG/500px-Lost_towel_number_15_found.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Lost_towel_number_15_found.JPG/960px-Lost_towel_number_15_found.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Reenactment of the first heart transplant, performed in <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016377">D016377</a></td></tr><tr class="noprint"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div style="text-align: right;">[<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q105196" class="extiw" title="d:Q105196">edit on Wikidata</a>]</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Transplant surgeon</caption><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Occupation</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Names</th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li>Physician</li> <li>Surgeon</li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Occupation type</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Specialty_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Specialty (medicine)">Specialty</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Activity sectors</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">Medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Surgery" title="Surgery">Surgery</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Description</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Education required</div></th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Medicine" title="Doctor of Medicine">Doctor of Medicine</a> (M.D.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Osteopathic_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctor of Osteopathic medicine">Doctor of Osteopathic medicine</a> (D.O.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Medicine,_Bachelor_of_Surgery" title="Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery">Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery</a> (M.B.B.S., MBChB)</li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Fields of employment</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Hospital" title="Hospital">Hospitals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clinic" title="Clinic">Clinics</a></td></tr></tbody></table> Organ transplantation is a medical procedure in which an <a href="/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ (anatomy)">organ</a> is removed from one body and placed in the body of a recipient, to replace a damaged or missing organ. The donor and recipient may be at the same location, or organs may be transported from a <a href="/wiki/Organ_donation" title="Organ donation">donor</a> site to another location. <a href="/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ (anatomy)">Organs</a> and/or <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">tissues</a> that are transplanted within the same person's body are called <a href="/wiki/Autograft" class="mw-redirect" title="Autograft">autografts</a>. Transplants that are recently performed between two subjects of the same species are called <a href="/wiki/Allografts" class="mw-redirect" title="Allografts">allografts</a>. Allografts can either be from a living or cadaveric source. Organs that have been successfully transplanted include the <a href="/wiki/Heart_transplantation" title="Heart transplantation">heart</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kidney_transplantation" title="Kidney transplantation">kidneys</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liver_transplantation" title="Liver transplantation">liver</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lung_transplantation" title="Lung transplantation">lungs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pancreas_transplantation" title="Pancreas transplantation">pancreas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intestinal_transplant" class="mw-redirect" title="Intestinal transplant">intestine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thymus_transplantation" title="Thymus transplantation">thymus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Uterus_transplantation" title="Uterus transplantation">uterus</a>. Tissues include <a href="/wiki/Bone_grafting" title="Bone grafting">bones</a>, tendons (both referred to as musculoskeletal grafts), <a href="/wiki/Corneal_transplantation" title="Corneal transplantation">corneae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Skin_grafting" title="Skin grafting">skin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Artificial_heart_valve" title="Artificial heart valve">heart valves</a>, nerves and veins. Worldwide, the kidneys are the most commonly transplanted organs, followed by the liver and then the heart. [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Corneae and musculoskeletal grafts are the most commonly transplanted tissues; these outnumber organ transplants by more than tenfold. [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Organ donors may be living, <a href="/wiki/Brain_death" title="Brain death">brain dead</a>, or dead via circulatory death.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> Tissue may be recovered from donors who die of circulatory death,<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> as well as of brain death – up to 24 hours past the cessation of heartbeat. Unlike organs, most tissues (with the exception of <a href="/wiki/Cornea" title="Cornea">corneas</a>) can be preserved and stored for up to five years, meaning they can be "banked". Transplantation raises a number of <a href="/wiki/Bioethical" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioethical">bioethical</a> issues, including the definition of death, when and how consent should be given for an organ to be transplanted, and payment for organs for transplantation.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Other ethical issues include transplantation tourism (medical tourism) and more broadly the socio-economic context in which organ procurement or transplantation may occur. A particular problem is <a href="/wiki/Organ_trafficking" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ trafficking">organ trafficking</a>.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> There is also the ethical issue of not holding out false hope to patients.<a href="#cite_note-The-Guardian-Simon-Garfield-April-6-2008-6">[6]</a> Transplantation medicine is one of the most challenging and complex areas of modern medicine. Some of the key areas for medical management are the problems of <a href="/wiki/Transplant_rejection" title="Transplant rejection">transplant rejection</a>, during which the body has an <a href="/wiki/Immune_response" title="Immune response">immune response</a> to the transplanted organ, possibly leading to transplant failure and the need to immediately remove the organ from the recipient. When possible, transplant rejection can be reduced through <a href="/wiki/Serotype" title="Serotype">serotyping</a> to determine the most appropriate donor-recipient match and through the use of <a href="/wiki/Immunosuppressant_drugs" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunosuppressant drugs">immunosuppressant drugs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_of_transplant">Types of transplant</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_transplantation&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Types of transplant">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Autograft">Autograft</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_transplantation&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Autograft">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Autotransplantation" title="Autotransplantation">Autotransplantation</a></div> Autografts are the transplant of tissue to the same person. Sometimes this is done with surplus tissue, tissue that can regenerate, or tissues more desperately needed elsewhere (examples include skin grafts, vein extraction for <a href="/wiki/CABG" class="mw-redirect" title="CABG">CABG</a>, etc.). Sometimes an autograft is done to remove the tissue and then treat it or the person before returning it<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> (examples include <a href="/wiki/Hematopoietic_stem_cell_transplantation#Graft_types" title="Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation">stem cell autograft</a> and storing blood in advance of surgery). In a <a href="/wiki/Rotationplasty" title="Rotationplasty">rotationplasty</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Interphalangeal_articulations_of_foot" class="mw-redirect" title="Interphalangeal articulations of foot">distal joint</a> is used to replace a more proximal one; typically a foot or ankle joint is used to replace a knee joint. The person's foot is severed and reversed, the knee removed, and the <a href="/wiki/Tibia" title="Tibia">tibia</a> joined with the <a href="/wiki/Femur" title="Femur">femur</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Allograft_and_allotransplantation">Allograft and allotransplantation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_transplantation&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Allograft and allotransplantation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Allotransplantation" title="Allotransplantation">Allotransplantation</a></div> An allograft is a transplant of an organ or tissue between two genetically non-identical members of the same <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a>. Most human tissue and organ transplants are allografts. Due to the genetic difference between the organ and the recipient, the recipient's <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune system</a> will identify the organ as foreign and attempt to destroy it, causing transplant rejection. The risk of transplant rejection can be estimated by measuring the <a href="/wiki/Panel_reactive_antibody" class="mw-redirect" title="Panel reactive antibody">panel-reactive antibody</a> level.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Isograft">Isograft</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_transplantation&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Isograft">edit</a>]</div> An isograft is a subset of allograft in which organs or tissues are transplanted from a donor to a genetically identical recipient (such as an identical twin). Isografts are differentiated from other types of transplants because while they are anatomically identical to allografts, they do not trigger an <a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">immune response</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Xenograft_and_xenotransplantation">Xenograft and xenotransplantation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_transplantation&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Xenograft and xenotransplantation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Xenotransplantation" title="Xenotransplantation">Xenotransplantation</a></div> A xenograft is a transplant of organs or tissue from one species to another. An example is porcine heart valve transplant, which is quite common and successful. Another example is attempted <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">piscine</a>–<a href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">primate</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a> to non-human primate) transplant of pancreatic islets. The latter research study was intended to pave the way for potential human use if successful. However, xenotransplantation is often an extremely dangerous type of transplant because of the increased risk of non-functional compatibility, rejection, and disease carried in the tissue. In the opposite direction, attempts are being made to devise a way to transplant human fetal hearts and kidneys into animals for future transplantation into human patients to address the shortage of donor organs.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Domino_transplants">Domino transplants</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_transplantation&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Domino transplants">edit</a>]</div> In people with <a href="/wiki/Cystic_fibrosis" title="Cystic fibrosis">cystic fibrosis</a> (CF), where both lungs need to be replaced, it is a technically easier operation with a higher rate of success to replace both the heart and lungs of the recipient with those of the donor. As the recipient's original heart is usually healthy, it can then be transplanted into a second recipient in need of a heart transplant, thus making the person with CF a living heart donor.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> In a 2016 case at Stanford Medical Center, a woman who was needing a heart-lung transplant had cystic fibrosis which had led to one lung expanding and the other shrinking, thereby displacing her heart. The second patient who in turn received her heart was a woman with right ventricular dysplasia which had led to a dangerously abnormal rhythm. The dual operations required three surgical teams, including one to remove the heart and lungs from a recently deceased initial donor. The two living recipients did well and had an opportunity to meet six weeks after their simultaneous operations.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Another example of this situation occurs with a special form of liver transplant in which the recipient has <a href="/wiki/Familial_amyloid_polyneuropathy" title="Familial amyloid polyneuropathy">familial amyloid polyneuropathy</a>, a disease where the liver slowly produces a <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a> that damages other organs. The recipient's liver can then be transplanted into an older person for whom the effects of the disease will not necessarily contribute significantly to mortality.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> This term also refers to a series of living donor transplants in which one donor donates to the highest recipient on the waiting list and the transplant center utilizes that donation to facilitate multiple transplants. These other transplants are otherwise impossible due to <a href="/wiki/Blood_type" title="Blood type">blood type</a> or antibody barriers to transplantation. The "<a href="/wiki/Good_Samaritan" class="mw-redirect" title="Good Samaritan">Good Samaritan</a>" kidney is transplanted into one of the other recipients, whose donor in turn donates his or her kidney to an unrelated recipient. This method allows all organ recipients to get a transplant even if their living donor is not a match for them. This further benefits people below any of these recipients on waiting lists, as they move closer to the top of the list for a deceased-donor organ. <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_Hospital" title="Johns Hopkins Hospital">Johns Hopkins Hospital</a> in <a href="/wiki/Baltimore" title="Baltimore">Baltimore</a> and <a href="/wiki/Northwestern_University" title="Northwestern University">Northwestern University</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Northwestern_Memorial_Hospital" title="Northwestern Memorial Hospital">Northwestern Memorial Hospital</a> have received significant attention for pioneering transplants of this kind.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> In February 2012, the last link in a record 60-person domino chain of 30 kidney transplants was completed.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> In May 2023, <a href="/w/index.php?title=New_York_Presbyterian_Morgan_Stanley_Children%27s_Hospital&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="New York Presbyterian Morgan Stanley Children's Hospital (page does not exist)">New York Presbyterian Morgan Stanley Children's Hospital</a> performed the first domino heart transplantation in a baby, eventually saving two baby girls.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="ABO-incompatible_transplants">ABO-incompatible transplants</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_transplantation&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: ABO-incompatible transplants">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/ABO-incompatible_transplantation" title="ABO-incompatible transplantation">ABO-incompatible transplantation</a></div> Because very young children (generally under 12 months, but often as old as 24 months<a href="#cite_note-west2009-18">[18]</a>) do not have a well-developed immune system,<a href="#cite_note-west2001-19">[19]</a> it is possible for them to receive organs from otherwise incompatible donors. This is known as ABO-incompatible (ABOi) transplantation. Graft survival and people's mortality are approximately the same between ABOi and ABO-compatible (ABOc) recipients.<a href="#cite_note-saczkowski2010-20">[20]</a> While focus has been on infant heart transplants, the principles generally apply to other forms of solid organ transplantation.<a href="#cite_note-west2009-18">[18]</a> The most important factors are that the recipient not have produced <a href="/wiki/Isohemagglutinin" class="mw-redirect" title="Isohemagglutinin">isohemagglutinins</a>, and that they have low levels of T cell-independent <a href="/wiki/Antigen" title="Antigen">antigens</a>.<a href="#cite_note-west2001-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-burch2004-21">[21]</a> <a href="/wiki/United_Network_for_Organ_Sharing" title="United Network for Organ Sharing">United Network for Organ Sharing</a> (UNOS) regulations allow for ABOi transplantation in children under two years of age if <a href="/wiki/Isohemagglutinin" class="mw-redirect" title="Isohemagglutinin">isohemagglutinin</a> titers are 1:4 or below,<a href="#cite_note-unos_policy_3.7-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-urschel2013-23">[23]</a> and if there is no matching ABOc recipient.<a href="#cite_note-unos_policy_3.7-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-urschel2013-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-almond2010-24">[24]</a> Studies have shown that the period under which a recipient may undergo ABOi transplantation may be prolonged by exposure to nonself A and B antigens.<a href="#cite_note-fan2004-25">[25]</a> Furthermore, should the recipient (for example, type B-positive with a type AB-positive graft) require eventual retransplantation, the recipient may receive a new organ of either blood type.<a href="#cite_note-west2009-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-urschel2013-23">[23]</a> Limited success has been achieved in ABO-incompatible heart transplants in adults,<a href="#cite_note-tyden2012-26">[26]</a> though this requires that the adult recipients have low levels of anti-A or anti-B antibodies.<a href="#cite_note-tyden2012-26">[26]</a> Renal transplantation is more successful, with similar long-term graft survival rates to ABOc transplants.<a href="#cite_note-urschel2013-23">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transplantation_in_obese_individuals">Transplantation in obese individuals</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_transplantation&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Transplantation in obese individuals">edit</a>]</div> Until recently, people with <a href="/wiki/Obesity" title="Obesity">obesity</a> were not considered appropriate candidate donors for renal transplantation. In 2009, the physicians at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois_Medical_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Illinois Medical Center">University of Illinois Medical Center</a> performed the first robotic renal transplantation in an obese recipient and have continued to transplant people with a <a href="/wiki/Body_mass_index" title="Body mass index">body mass index</a> over 35 using <a href="/wiki/Robotic_surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Robotic surgery">robotic surgery</a>. As of January 2014, over 100 people who would otherwise have been turned down because of their weight have successfully been transplanted.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Impact_of_Human_Herpesvirus_6_(HHV-6)_Reactivation_on_Pediatric_Liver_Transplantation">Impact of Human Herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6) Reactivation on Pediatric Liver Transplantation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_transplantation&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Impact of Human Herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6) Reactivation on Pediatric Liver Transplantation">edit</a>]</div> Human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6) reactivation emerges as a notable concern in pediatric liver transplantation, potentially influencing both graft and recipient health. HHV-6, prevalent in a substantial portion of the population, can manifest in liver transplant recipients with inherited chromosomally integrated HHV-6 (iciHHV-6), predisposing them to heightened risks of complications such as graft-versus-host disease and allograft rejections. Recent case studies underscore the significance of HHV-6 reactivation, demonstrating its ability to infect liver grafts and impact recipient outcomes. Clinical management involves early detection, targeted antiviral therapy, and vigilant monitoring post-transplantation, with future research aimed at optimizing preventive measures and therapeutic interventions to mitigate the impact of HHV-6 reactivation on pediatric liver transplant outcomes.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Organs_and_tissues_transplanted">Organs and tissues transplanted</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_transplantation&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Organs and tissues transplanted">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Transplantable_organs_and_tissues" title="Transplantable organs and tissues">Transplantable organs and tissues</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eye">Eye</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_transplantation&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Eye">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Eyeball (First successful transplantation of a non-functional eye was performed in 2024)<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chest">Chest</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_transplantation&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Chest">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heart_transplantation" title="Heart transplantation">Heart</a> (deceased-donor only; porcine xenograft attempted)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lung_transplantation" title="Lung transplantation">Lung</a> (deceased-donor and living-related lung transplantation)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thymus_transplantation" title="Thymus transplantation">Thymus</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abdomen">Abdomen</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_transplantation&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Abdomen">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kidney_transplantation" title="Kidney transplantation">Kidney</a> (deceased-donor and living-donor; porcine xenograft attempted)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liver_transplantation" title="Liver transplantation">Liver</a> (deceased-donor, which enables donation of a whole liver; and living-donor, where each donor can provide up to 70% of a liver)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pancreas_transplantation" title="Pancreas transplantation">Pancreas</a> (deceased-donor only; a very severe type of diabetes ensues if a live person's entire pancreas is removed)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intestine_transplantation" title="Intestine transplantation">Intestine</a> (deceased-donor and living-donor; normally refers to the small intestine)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stomach" title="Stomach">Stomach</a> (deceased-donor only)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uterus" title="Uterus">Uterus</a> (deceased-donor only)<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testicle" title="Testicle">Testis</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> (deceased-donor and living-donor)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penis_transplantation" title="Penis transplantation">Penis</a> (deceased-donor only)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tissues,_cells_and_fluids">Tissues, cells and fluids</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_transplantation&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Tissues, cells and fluids">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hand_transplantation" title="Hand transplantation">Hand</a> (deceased-donor only), see first recipient <a href="/wiki/Clint_Hallam" class="mw-redirect" title="Clint Hallam">Clint Hallam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornea_transplant" class="mw-redirect" title="Cornea transplant">Cornea</a> (deceased-donor only) see the <a href="/wiki/Ophthalmologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Ophthalmologist">ophthalmologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Eduard_Zirm" title="Eduard Zirm">Eduard Zirm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skin_graft" class="mw-redirect" title="Skin graft">Skin</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Face_transplant#Face_replant" title="Face transplant">face replant</a> (autograft) and <a href="/wiki/Face_transplant" title="Face transplant">face transplant</a> (extremely rare)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islets_of_Langerhans" class="mw-redirect" title="Islets of Langerhans">Islets of Langerhans</a> (pancreas islet cells) (deceased-donor and living-donor)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bone_marrow_transplant" class="mw-redirect" title="Bone marrow transplant">Bone marrow</a> or adult <a href="/wiki/Stem_cell" title="Stem cell">stem cell</a> (living-donor and autograft)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_transfusion" title="Blood transfusion">Blood transfusion</a>, whole blood or fractionated <a href="/wiki/Blood_product" title="Blood product">blood products</a> (living-donor and autograft)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_vessels" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood vessels">Blood vessels</a> (autograft and deceased-donor)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heart_valve" title="Heart valve">Heart valve</a> (deceased-donor, living-donor and xenograft [porcine/<a href="/wiki/Cow" class="mw-redirect" title="Cow">bovine</a>])</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bone_transplant" class="mw-redirect" title="Bone transplant">Bone</a> (deceased-donor and living-donor)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Indications_for_transplantation">Indications for transplantation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_transplantation&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Indications for transplantation">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Kidney transplantation is becoming increasingly common and is the preferred treatment for end-stage renal failure.<a href="#cite_note-nv-34">[34]</a></li> <li>Liver transplantation is the only curative therapy for end-stage liver disease, and the liver is the second most frequently transplanted solid organ.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></li> <li>Pancreatic transplantation is a complex surgical procedure performed in patients with severe chronic diabetes, often in association with renal transplantation.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></li> <li>Heart transplantation is increasingly performed in patients with end-stage heart failure, most often related to ischemic and non-ischemic cardiomyopathies.<a href="#cite_note-myw-37">[37]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Complications">Complications</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_transplantation&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Complications">edit</a>]</div> The main complications are procedural complications, infection, acute rejection, cardiac allograft vasculopathy and malignancy.<a href="#cite_note-myw-37">[37]</a> Non-vascular and vascular complications can occur in the initial post-transplant phase and at later stages. Overall postoperative complications after kidney transplantation occur in approximately 12% to 25% of kidney transplant patients.<a href="#cite_note-nv-34">[34]</a> Following a transplant, recipients will be given <a href="/wiki/Venipuncture" title="Venipuncture">lab draws</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ultrasound" title="Ultrasound">ultrasounds</a>, and other tests to see if the transplanted <a href="/wiki/Organ_(biology)" title="Organ (biology)">organ</a> is being <a href="/wiki/Transplant_rejection" title="Transplant rejection">accepted</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_of_donor">Types of donor</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_transplantation&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Types of donor">edit</a>]</div> Organ donors may be living or may have died of <a href="/wiki/Brain_death" title="Brain death">brain death</a> or circulatory death. Most deceased donors are those who have been pronounced brain dead. Brain dead means the cessation of brain function, typically after receiving an injury (either traumatic or pathological) to the brain, or otherwise cutting off blood circulation to the brain (<a href="/wiki/Drowning" title="Drowning">drowning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Suffocation" class="mw-redirect" title="Suffocation">suffocation</a>, etc.). Breathing is maintained via <a href="/wiki/Life_Support" class="mw-redirect" title="Life Support">artificial sources</a>, which, in turn, maintains heartbeat. Once brain death has been declared, the person can be considered for organ donation. Criteria for brain death vary. Because less than 3% of all deaths in the US are the result of brain death, the overwhelming majority of deaths are ineligible for organ donation, resulting in severe shortages. It is important to note currently that patients that have been pronounced brain dead are one of the most common and ideal donors, since often these donors are young and healthy, thus leading to high quality organs.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> Organ donation is possible after cardiac death in some situations, primarily when the person is severely brain-injured and not expected to survive without artificial breathing and mechanical support. Independent of any decision to donate, a person's next-of-kin may decide to end artificial support. If the person is expected to expire within a short period of time after support is withdrawn, arrangements can be made to withdraw that support in an operating room to allow quick recovery of the organs after circulatory death has occurred.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Tissues may be recovered from donors who die of either brain or circulatory death. In general, tissues may be recovered from donors up to 24 hours past the cessation of heartbeat. In contrast to organs, most tissues (with the exception of corneas) can be preserved and stored for up to five years, meaning they can be "banked." Also, more than 60 grafts may be obtained from a single tissue donor. Because of these three factors – the ability to recover from a non-heart-beating donor, the ability to bank tissue, and the number of grafts available from each donor – tissue transplants are much more common than organ transplants. The <a href="/wiki/American_Association_of_Tissue_Banks" title="American Association of Tissue Banks">American Association of Tissue Banks</a> estimates that more than one million tissue transplants take place in the United States each year.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Living_donor">Living donor</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_transplantation&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Living donor">edit</a>]</div> In living donors, the donor remains alive and donates a renewable tissue, cell, or fluid (e.g., blood, skin), or donates an organ or part of an organ in which the remaining organ can regenerate or take on the workload of the rest of the organ (primarily single kidney donation, partial donation of liver, lung lobe, small bowel). Regenerative medicine may one day allow for laboratory-grown organs, using person's own cells via stem cells, or healthy cells extracted from the failing organs.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Deceased_donor">Deceased donor</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_transplantation&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Deceased donor">edit</a>]</div> Deceased donors (formerly cadaveric) are people who have been declared brain-dead and whose organs are kept viable by <a href="/wiki/Medical_ventilator" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical ventilator">ventilators</a> or other mechanical mechanisms until they can be excised for transplantation. Apart from brainstem-dead donors, who have formed the majority of deceased donors for the last 20 years, there is increasing use of after-circulatory-death donors (formerly non-heart-beating donors) to increase the potential pool of donors as demand for transplants continues to grow.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> Prior to the legal recognition of brain death in the 1980s, all deceased organ donors had died of circulatory death. These organs have inferior outcomes to organs from a brain-dead donor.<a href="#cite_note-deceaseddonoroutcome-40">[40]</a> For instance, patients who underwent liver transplantation using donation-after-circulatory-death allografts have been shown to have significantly lower graft survival than those from donation-after-brain-death allografts due to biliary complications and <a href="/wiki/Liver_transplantation#Recovery_and_outcomes" title="Liver transplantation">primary nonfunction in liver transplantation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> However, given the scarcity of suitable organs and the number of people who die waiting, any potentially suitable organ must be considered. Jurisdictions with medically <a href="/wiki/Assisted_suicide" title="Assisted suicide">assisted suicide</a> may co-ordinate organ donations from that source.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Allocation_of_organs">Allocation of organs</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_transplantation&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Allocation of organs">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Organ_procurement" title="Organ procurement">Organ procurement</a></div> In most countries there is a shortage of suitable organs for transplantation. Countries often have formal systems in place to manage the process of determining who is an organ donor and in what order organ recipients receive available organs. The overwhelming majority of deceased-donor organs in the United States are allocated by federal contract to the <a href="/wiki/Organ_Procurement_and_Transplantation_Network" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ Procurement and Transplantation Network">Organ Procurement and Transplantation Network</a>, held since it was created by the <a href="/wiki/Organ_Transplant_Act_of_1984" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ Transplant Act of 1984">Organ Transplant Act of 1984</a> by the <a href="/wiki/United_Network_for_Organ_Sharing" title="United Network for Organ Sharing">United Network for Organ Sharing</a>, or UNOS. (UNOS does not handle donor cornea tissue; corneal donor tissue is usually handled by multiple eye banks with guidance from the Eye Bank Association of America (EBAA) and Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Individual regional <a href="/wiki/Organ_procurement_organization" title="Organ procurement organization">organ procurement organizations</a>, all members of the Organ Procurement and Transplantation Network, are responsible for the identification of suitable donors and collection of the donated organs. UNOS then allocates organs based on the method considered most fair by the leadership in the field. The allocation methodology varies somewhat by organ, and changes periodically. For example, liver allocation is based partially on MELD score (Model of End-Stage Liver Disease), an empirical score based on lab values indicative of the sickness of the person from liver disease. In 1984, the National Organ Transplant Act (NOTA) was passed; it gave way to the Organ Procurement and Transplantation Network, which maintains the organ registry and ensures equitable allocation of organs. The Scientific Registry of Transplant Recipients was also established to conduct ongoing studies into the evaluation and clinical status of organ transplants. In 2000 the Children's Health Act passed and required NOTA to consider special issues around pediatric patients and organ allocation. An example of "line jumping" occurred in 2003 at Duke University when doctors attempted to correct an initially incorrect transplant. An American teenager received a heart-lung donation with the wrong blood type for her. She then received a second transplant even though she was then in such poor physical shape that she normally would not be considered a good candidate for a transplant.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> In an April 2008 article in The Guardian, Steven Tsui, the head of the transplant team at Papworth Hospital in the UK, is quoted in raising the ethical issue of not holding out false hope. He stated, "Conventionally we would say if people's life expectancy was a year or less we would consider them a candidate for a heart transplant. But we also have to manage expectations. If we know that in an average year we will do 30 heart transplants, there is no point putting 60 people on our waiting list, because we know half of them will die and it's not right to give them false hope."<a href="#cite_note-The-Guardian-Simon-Garfield-April-6-2008-6">[6]</a> Experiencing somewhat increased popularity, but still very rare, is directed or targeted donation, in which the family of a deceased donor (often honoring the wishes of the deceased) requests an organ be given to a specific person, subverting the allocation system. In the United States, there are various lengths of waiting times due to the different availabilities of organs in different UNOS regions. In other countries such as the UK, only medical factors and the position on the waiting list can affect who receives the organ. One of the more publicized cases of this type was the 1994 Chester and Patti Szuber transplant. This was the first time that a parent had received a heart donated by one of their own children. Although the decision to accept the heart from his recently killed child was not an easy decision, the Szuber family agreed that giving Patti's heart to her father would have been something that she would have wanted.<a href="#cite_note-Szuber-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Access to organ transplantation is one reason for the growth of <a href="/wiki/Medical_tourism" title="Medical tourism">medical tourism</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reasons_for_donation_and_ethical_issues">Reasons for donation and ethical issues</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_transplantation&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Reasons for donation and ethical issues">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Living_related_donors">Living related donors</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_transplantation&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Living related donors">edit</a>]</div> Living related donors donate to family members or friends in whom they have an emotional investment. The risk of surgery is offset by the psychological benefit of not losing someone related to them, or not seeing them suffer the ill effects of waiting on a list. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Paired_exchange">Paired exchange</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_transplantation&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Paired exchange">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pairwise_exchange.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Pairwise_exchange.svg/250px-Pairwise_exchange.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Pairwise_exchange.svg/375px-Pairwise_exchange.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Pairwise_exchange.svg/500px-Pairwise_exchange.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="580" data-file-height="493" /></a><figcaption>Diagram of an exchange between otherwise incompatible pairs</figcaption></figure> A "paired-exchange" is a technique of matching willing living donors to compatible recipients using <a href="/wiki/Serotype" title="Serotype">serotyping</a>. For example, a spouse may be willing to donate a kidney to their partner but cannot since there is not a biological match. The willing spouse's kidney is donated to a matching recipient who also has an incompatible but willing spouse. The second donor must match the first recipient to complete the pair exchange. Typically the surgeries are scheduled simultaneously in case one of the donors decides to back out and the couples are kept anonymous from each other until after the transplant. Paired-donor exchange, led by work in the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060425142144/http://www.nepke.org/">New England Program for Kidney Exchange</a> as well as at Johns Hopkins University and the Ohio organ procurement organizations, may more efficiently allocate organs and lead to more transplants. Paired exchange programs were popularized in the <a href="/wiki/New_England_Journal_of_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="New England Journal of Medicine">New England Journal of Medicine</a> article "Ethics of a paired-kidney-exchange program" in 1997 by L.F. Ross.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> It was also proposed by Felix T. Rapport<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> in 1986 as part of his initial proposals for live-donor transplants "The case for a living emotionally related international kidney donor exchange registry" in Transplant Proceedings.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> A paired exchange is the simplest case of a much larger exchange registry program where willing donors are matched with any number of compatible recipients.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> Transplant exchange programs have been suggested as early as 1970: "A cooperative kidney typing and exchange program."<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> The first pair exchange transplant in the US was in 2001 at <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_Hospital" title="Johns Hopkins Hospital">Johns Hopkins Hospital</a>.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> The first complex multihospital kidney exchange involving 12 people was performed in February 2009 by The Johns Hopkins Hospital, <a href="/wiki/Barnes-Jewish_Hospital" title="Barnes-Jewish Hospital">Barnes-Jewish Hospital</a> in <a href="/wiki/St._Louis" title="St. Louis">St. Louis</a> and Integris Baptist Medical Center in <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_City" title="Oklahoma City">Oklahoma City</a>.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> Another 12-person multihospital kidney exchange was performed four weeks later by <a href="/wiki/Saint_Barnabas_Medical_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Barnabas Medical Center">Saint Barnabas Medical Center</a> in <a href="/wiki/Livingston,_New_Jersey" title="Livingston, New Jersey">Livingston, New Jersey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Newark,_New_Jersey" title="Newark, New Jersey">Newark Beth Israel Medical Center</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_York-Presbyterian_Hospital" class="mw-redirect" title="New York-Presbyterian Hospital">New York-Presbyterian Hospital</a>.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> Surgical teams led by Johns Hopkins continue to pioneer this field with more complex chains of exchange, such as an eight-way multihospital kidney exchange.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> In December 2009, a 13 organ 13 recipient matched kidney exchange took place, coordinated through Georgetown University Hospital and Washington Hospital Center, Washington, DC.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Good_Samaritan">Good Samaritan</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_transplantation&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Good Samaritan">edit</a>]</div> Good Samaritan or "altruistic" donation is giving a donation to someone that has no prior affiliation with the donor. The idea of altruistic donation is to give with no interest of personal gain, it is out of pure selflessness. On the other hand, the current allocation system does not assess a donor's motive, so altruistic donation is not a requirement.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Some people choose to do this out of a personal need to donate. Some donate to the next person on the list; others use some method of choosing a recipient based on criteria important to them. Websites are being developed that facilitate such donation. Over half of the members of the <a href="/wiki/Jesus_Christians" title="Jesus Christians">Jesus Christians</a>, an Australian religious group, have donated kidneys in such a fashion.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Financial_compensation">Financial compensation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_transplantation&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Financial compensation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Organ_theft" title="Organ theft">Organ theft</a>, <a href="/wiki/Organ_trade" title="Organ trade">Organ trade</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Repugnancy_costs" title="Repugnancy costs">Repugnancy costs</a></div> Monetary compensation for organ donors, in the form of reimbursement for out-of-pocket expenses, has been legalised in <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> and strictly only in the case of kidney transplant in the case of <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a> (minimal reimbursement is offered in the case of other forms of organ harvesting by Singapore). Kidney disease organizations in both countries have expressed their support.<a href="#cite_note-aus-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-bmj-60">[60]</a> In compensated donation, donors get money or other compensation in exchange for their organs. This practice is common in some parts of the world, whether legal or not, and is one of the many factors driving <a href="/wiki/Medical_tourism" title="Medical tourism">medical tourism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> In the illegal black market the donors may not get sufficient after-operation care,<a href="#cite_note-wsj-62">[62]</a> the price of a kidney may be above $160,000,<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> middlemen take most of the money, the operation is more dangerous to both the donor and receiver, and the receiver often gets <a href="/wiki/Hepatitis" title="Hepatitis">hepatitis</a> or <a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Economist-64">[64]</a> In legal markets of Iran<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> the price of a kidney is $2,000 to $4,000.<a href="#cite_note-Economist-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tober2007-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> An article by <a href="/wiki/Gary_Becker" title="Gary Becker">Gary Becker</a> and Julio Elias on "Introducing Incentives in the market for Live and Cadaveric Organ Donations"<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> said that a <a href="/wiki/Free_market" title="Free market">free market</a> could help solve the problem of a scarcity in organ transplants. Their economic modeling was able to estimate the price tag for human kidneys ($15,000) and human livers ($32,000). In the United States, <a href="/wiki/The_National_Organ_Transplant_Act_of_1984" class="mw-redirect" title="The National Organ Transplant Act of 1984">The National Organ Transplant Act of 1984</a> made organ sales illegal. In the United Kingdom, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_Organ_Transplants_Act_1989&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Human Organ Transplants Act 1989 (page does not exist)">Human Organ Transplants Act 1989</a> first made organ sales illegal, and has been superseded by the <a href="/wiki/Human_Tissue_Act_2004" title="Human Tissue Act 2004">Human Tissue Act 2004</a>. In 2007, two major European conferences recommended against the sale of organs.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> Recent development of websites and personal advertisements for organs among listed candidates has raised the stakes when it comes to the selling of organs, and have also sparked significant ethical debates over directed donation, "good-Samaritan" donation, and the current US organ allocation policy. Bioethicist Jacob M. Appel has argued that organ solicitation on billboards and the internet may actually increase the overall supply of organs.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> In an experimental survey, Elias, Lacetera and Macis (2019) find that preferences for compensation for kidney donors have strong moral foundations; participants in the experiment especially reject direct payments by patients, which they find would violate principles of fairness.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> Many countries have different approaches to organ donation such as the opt-out approach and many advertisements of organ donors, encouraging people to donate. Although these laws have been implemented in a certain country they are not forced upon everyone as it is an individual decision. Two books, Kidney for Sale By Owner by Mark Cherry (Georgetown University Press, 2005) and Stakes and Kidneys: Why Markets in Human Body Parts are Morally Imperative by James Stacey Taylor: (Ashgate Press, 2005), advocate using markets to increase the supply of organs available for transplantation. In a 2004 journal article economist Alex Tabarrok argues that allowing organ sales, and elimination of organ donor lists will increase supply, lower costs and diminish social anxiety towards organ markets.<a href="#cite_note-econjournalwatch.org-72">[72]</a> Iran has had a legal market for kidneys since 1988.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> The donor is paid approximately US$1200 by the government and also usually receives additional funds from either the recipient or local charities.<a href="#cite_note-Tober2007-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand_Institute" title="Ayn Rand Institute">Ayn Rand Institute</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> approve and advocate a legal market elsewhere. They argued that if 0.06% of Americans between 19 and 65 were to sell one kidney, the national waiting list would disappear (which, the Economist wrote, happened in Iran). The Economist argued that donating kidneys is no more risky than <a href="/wiki/Surrogacy" title="Surrogacy">surrogate motherhood</a>, which can be done legally for pay in most countries. In Pakistan, 40 percent to 50 percent of the residents of some villages have only one kidney because they have sold the other for a transplant into a wealthy person, probably from another country, said Dr. Farhat Moazam of Pakistan, at a <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> conference. Pakistani donors are offered $2,500 for a kidney but receive only about half of that because middlemen take so much.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> In Chennai, southern India, poor fishermen and their families sold kidneys after their livelihoods were destroyed by the Indian Ocean tsunami on 26 December 2004. About 100 people, mostly women, sold their kidneys for 40,000–60,000 rupees ($900–1,350).<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> Thilakavathy Agatheesh, 30, who sold a kidney in May 2005 for 40,000 rupees said, "I used to earn some money selling fish but now the post-surgery stomach cramps prevent me from going to work." Most kidney sellers say that selling their kidney was a mistake.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> In Cyprus in 2010, police closed a fertility clinic under charges of trafficking in human eggs. The Petra Clinic, as it was known locally, brought in women from Ukraine and Russia for egg harvesting and sold the genetic material to foreign fertility tourists.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> This sort of reproductive trafficking violates laws in the European Union. In 2010, <a href="/wiki/Scott_Carney" title="Scott Carney">Scott Carney</a> reported for the <a href="/wiki/Pulitzer_Center_on_Crisis_Reporting" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting">Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting</a> and the magazine <a href="/wiki/Fast_Company_(magazine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast Company (magazine)">Fast Company</a> explored illicit fertility networks in Spain, the United States and Israel.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Forced_donation">Forced donation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_transplantation&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Forced donation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Falun_Gong#Organ_harvesting" title="Persecution of Falun Gong">Persecution of Falun Gong § Organ harvesting</a></div> There have been concerns that certain authorities are harvesting organs from people deemed undesirable, such as prison populations. The World Medical Association stated that prisoners and other individuals in custody are not in a position to give consent freely, and therefore their organs must not be used for transplantation.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> According to former Chinese Deputy Minister of Health, Huang Jiefu, the practice of transplanting organs from executed prisoners is still occurring as of February 2017<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Organ_transplantation&action=edit">[update]</a>.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-85">[85]</a> World Journal reported Huang had admitted approximately 95% of all organs used for transplantation are from executed prisoners.<a href="#cite_note-:0-85">[85]</a> The lack of a public organ donation program in China is used as a justification for this practice. In July 2006, the <a href="/wiki/Kilgour-Matas_report" class="mw-redirect" title="Kilgour-Matas report">Kilgour-Matas report</a><a href="#cite_note-orgharv-86">[86]</a> stated, "the source of 41,500 transplants for the six-year period 2000 to 2005 is unexplained" and "we believe that there has been and continues today to be large scale organ seizures from unwilling <a href="/wiki/Falun_Gong" title="Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a> practitioners".<a href="#cite_note-orgharv-86">[86]</a> Investigative journalist <a href="/wiki/Ethan_Gutmann" title="Ethan Gutmann">Ethan Gutmann</a> estimates 65,000 Falun Gong practitioners were killed for their organs from 2000 to 2008.<a href="#cite_note-Jay-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-Slaughter-88">[88]</a> However 2016 reports updated the death toll of the 15-year period since the persecution of Falun Gong began putting the death toll at 150,000<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> to 1.5 million.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> In December 2006, after not getting assurances from the Chinese government about allegations relating to Chinese prisoners, the two major organ transplant hospitals in Queensland, Australia stopped transplantation training for Chinese surgeons and banned joint research programs into organ transplantation with China.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> In May 2008, two United Nations Special Rapporteurs reiterated their requests for "the Chinese government to fully explain the allegation of taking vital organs from Falun Gong practitioners and the source of organs for the sudden increase in organ transplants that has been going on in China since the year 2000".<a href="#cite_note-MW-92">[92]</a> People in other parts of the world are responding to this availability of organs, and a number of individuals (including US and Japanese citizens) have elected to travel to China or India as <a href="/wiki/Medical_tourism" title="Medical tourism">medical tourists</a> to receive organ transplants which may have been sourced in what might be considered elsewhere to be unethical manner.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-n10-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-RogersRobertson2019-97">[97]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Organ_transplantation_by_region">Organ transplantation by region</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_transplantation&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Organ transplantation by region">edit</a>]</div> Some estimates of the number of transplants performed in various regions of the world have been derived from the <a href="/wiki/Global_Burden_of_Disease_Study" title="Global Burden of Disease Study">Global Burden of Disease Study</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Whit2014-98">[98]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:WHO_Organ_Tranplant.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Distribution of solid organ transplantation activity, by region used in the Global Burden of Disease Study, 2006–2011[98]"><img alt="Distribution of solid organ transplantation activity, by region used in the Global Burden of Disease Study, 2006–2011[98]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/WHO_Organ_Tranplant.png/800px-WHO_Organ_Tranplant.png" decoding="async" width="800" height="348" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/WHO_Organ_Tranplant.png 1.5x" data-file-width="953" data-file-height="415" /></a><figcaption>Distribution of solid organ transplantation activity, by region used in the Global Burden of Disease Study, 2006–2011<a href="#cite_note-Whit2014-98">[98]</a></figcaption></figure> <table class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-left:15px; text-align:center"> <caption>Transplantation of organs in different regions in 2000<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <td> </td> <td>Kidney (pmp*) </td> <td>Liver (pmp) </td> <td>Heart (pmp) </td></tr> <tr> <td>United States </td> <td>52 </td> <td>19 </td> <td>8 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Europe </td> <td>27 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Africa </td> <td>11 </td> <td>3.5 </td> <td>1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Asia </td> <td>3 </td> <td>0.3 </td> <td>0.03 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Latin America </td> <td>13 </td> <td>1.6 </td> <td>0.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td>*All numbers per million population </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> According to the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe</a>, Spain through the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Transplant_Organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish Transplant Organization">Spanish Transplant Organization</a> shows the highest worldwide rate of 35.1<a href="#cite_note-COE35.1-100">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-ONT35.1-101">[101]</a> donors per million population in 2005 and 33.8<a href="#cite_note-ONT33.8-102">[102]</a> in 2006. In 2011, it was 35.3.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> In addition to the citizens waiting for organ transplants in the US and other developed nations, there are long waiting lists in the rest of the world. More than 2 million people need organ transplants in China, 50,000 waiting in Latin America (90% of whom are waiting for kidneys), as well as thousands more in the less documented continent of Africa. Donor bases vary in developing nations. In Latin America the donor rate is 40–100 per million per year, similar to that of developed countries. However, in Uruguay, Cuba, and Chile, 90% of organ transplants came from cadaveric donors. Cadaveric donors represent 35% of donors in Saudi Arabia. There is continuous effort to increase the utilization of cadaveric donors in Asia. However, the popularity of living, single kidney donors in India yields a cadaveric donor prevalence of less than 1 per million population. India has a very low donation rate, as compared to the world average, despite the fact, that it ranks third among the countries with largest transplantation activities.<a href="#cite_note-Reddy2025-104">[104]</a> Traditionally, Muslims believe body desecration in life or death to be forbidden, and thus many reject organ transplant.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> However most Muslim authorities nowadays accept the practice if another life will be saved.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> As an example, it may be assumed in countries such as <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a> with a cosmopolitan populace that includes <a href="/wiki/Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslims</a>, a special <a href="/wiki/Majlis_Ugama_Islam_Singapura" title="Majlis Ugama Islam Singapura">Majlis Ugama Islam Singapura</a> governing body is formed to look after the interests of Singapore's Muslim community over issues that includes their burial arrangements. Organ transplantation in Singapore is generally overseen by the <a href="/w/index.php?title=National_Organ_Transplant_Unit&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="National Organ Transplant Unit (page does not exist)">National Organ Transplant Unit</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Health_(Singapore)" title="Ministry of Health (Singapore)">Ministry of Health (Singapore)</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NOTU-107">[107]</a> Due to a diversity in mindsets and religious viewpoints, while Muslims on this island are generally not expected to donate their organs even upon death, youth in Singapore are educated on the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_Organ_Transplant_Act&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Human Organ Transplant Act (page does not exist)">Human Organ Transplant Act</a> at the age of 18, which is around the age of military conscription. The Organ Donor Registry maintains two types of information, firstly people of Singapore that donate their organs or bodies for transplantation, research or education upon their death, under the <a href="/wiki/Medical_(Therapy,_Education_and_Research)_Act" title="Medical (Therapy, Education and Research) Act">Medical (Therapy, Education and Research) Act</a> (MTERA),<a href="#cite_note-MTERAopt-inscheme-108">[108]</a> and secondly people that object to the removal of kidneys, liver, heart and corneas upon death for the purpose of transplantation, under the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_Organ_Transplant_Act&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Human Organ Transplant Act (page does not exist)">Human Organ Transplant Act</a> (HOTA).<a href="#cite_note-HOTA-109">[109]</a> The Live On social awareness movement is also formed to educate Singaporeans on organ donation.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> <a href="/wiki/Organ_transplantation_in_China" title="Organ transplantation in China">Organ transplantation in China</a> has taken place since the 1960s, and China has one of the largest transplant programmes in the world, peaking at over 13,000 transplants a year by 2004.<a href="#cite_note-Lancet-111">[111]</a> Organ donation, however, is against Chinese tradition and culture,<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> and involuntary organ donation is illegal under Chinese law.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> China's transplant programme attracted the attention of international <a href="/wiki/News_media" title="News media">news media</a> in the 1990s due to ethical concerns about the <a href="/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ (anatomy)">organs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">tissue</a> removed from the corpses of executed criminals being commercially traded.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-icrc-116">[116]</a> In 2006 it became clear that about 41,500 organs had been sourced from Falun Gong practitioners in China since 2000.<a href="#cite_note-orgharv-86">[86]</a> With regard to <a href="/wiki/Organ_transplantation_in_Israel" title="Organ transplantation in Israel">organ transplantation in Israel</a>, there is a severe organ shortage due to religious objections by some rabbis who oppose all organ donations and others who advocate that a rabbi participate in all decision making regarding a particular donor[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]. One-third of all heart transplants performed on Israelis are done in China; others are done in Europe. Dr. Jacob Lavee, head of the heart-transplant unit, Sheba Medical Center, Tel Aviv, believes that "transplant tourism" is unethical and Israeli insurers should not pay for it. The organization HODS (Halachic Organ Donor Society) is working to increase knowledge and participation in organ donation among Jews throughout the world.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> Transplantation rates also differ based on race, sex, and income. A study done with people beginning long term dialysis showed that the sociodemographic barriers to renal transplantation present themselves even before patients are on the transplant list.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> For example, different groups express definite interest and complete pretransplant workup at different rates. Previous efforts to create fair transplantation policies had focused on people currently on the transplantation waiting list. In the United States, nearly 35,000 organ transplants were done in 2017, a 3.4 percent increase over 2016. About 18 percent of these were from living donors – people who gave one kidney or a part of their liver to someone else. But 115,000 Americans remain on waiting lists for organ transplants.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> By September 2022, the US had reached one million organ transplants overall.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_transplantation&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> Successful human <a href="/wiki/Allotransplantation" title="Allotransplantation">allotransplants</a> have a relatively long history of operative skills that were present long before the necessities for post-operative survival were discovered. <a href="/wiki/Transplant_rejection" title="Transplant rejection">Rejection</a> and the side effects of preventing rejection (especially infection and <a href="/wiki/Nephropathy" class="mw-redirect" title="Nephropathy">nephropathy</a>) were, are, and may always be the key problem. Several apocryphal accounts of transplants exist well prior to the scientific understanding and advancements that would be necessary for them to have actually occurred. The <a href="/wiki/Chinese_people" title="Chinese people">Chinese</a> physician <a href="/wiki/Bian_Que" title="Bian Que">Pien Chi'ao</a> reportedly exchanged <a href="/wiki/Heart" title="Heart">hearts</a> between a man of strong spirit but weak will with one of a man of weak spirit but strong will in an attempt to achieve balance in each man. <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Roman Catholic</a> accounts report the 3rd-century saints <a href="/wiki/Saint_Damian" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Damian">Damian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saints_Cosmas_and_Damian" class="mw-redirect" title="Saints Cosmas and Damian">Cosmas</a> as replacing the <a href="/wiki/Gangrene" title="Gangrene">gangrenous</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cancerous" class="mw-redirect" title="Cancerous">cancerous</a> leg of the Roman deacon Justinian with the leg of a recently deceased <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopian</a>.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> Most accounts have the saints performing the transplant in the 4th century, many decades after their deaths; some accounts have them only instructing living surgeons who performed the procedure. The more likely accounts of early transplants deal with skin transplantation. The first reasonable account is of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_people" title="Indian people">Indian</a> surgeon <a href="/wiki/Sushruta" title="Sushruta">Sushruta</a> in the 2nd century BC, who used autografted skin transplantation in nose reconstruction, a <a href="/wiki/Rhinoplasty" title="Rhinoplasty">rhinoplasty</a>. Success or failure of these procedures is not well documented. Centuries later, the <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italian</a> surgeon <a href="/wiki/Gasparo_Tagliacozzi" class="mw-redirect" title="Gasparo Tagliacozzi">Gasparo Tagliacozzi</a> performed successful skin autografts; he also failed consistently with <a href="/wiki/Allografts" class="mw-redirect" title="Allografts">allografts</a>, offering the first suggestion of rejection centuries before that mechanism could possibly be understood. He attributed it to the "force and power of individuality" in his 1596 work De Curtorum Chirurgia per Insitionem. <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alexis_Carrel_nobel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Alexis_Carrel_nobel.jpg/250px-Alexis_Carrel_nobel.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Alexis_Carrel_nobel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="396" /></a><figcaption>Alexis Carrel: 1912's Nobel Prize for his work on organ transplantation</figcaption></figure> The first successful corneal allograft transplant was performed in 1837 in a <a href="/wiki/Gazelle" title="Gazelle">gazelle</a> model; the first successful human corneal transplant, a <a href="/wiki/Cornea_transplant" class="mw-redirect" title="Cornea transplant">keratoplastic</a> operation, was performed by <a href="/wiki/Eduard_Zirm" title="Eduard Zirm">Eduard Zirm</a> at <a href="/wiki/Palack%C3%BD_University_of_Olomouc#Medicine_and_Dentistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Palacký University of Olomouc">Olomouc Eye Clinic</a>, now in the <a href="/wiki/Czech_Republic" title="Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a>, in 1905. The first transplant in the modern sense – the implantation of organ tissue in order to replace an organ function – was a <a href="/wiki/Thyroid" title="Thyroid">thyroid</a> transplant in 1883. It was performed by the <a href="/wiki/Swiss_people" title="Swiss people">Swiss</a> surgeon and later <a href="/wiki/Nobel_laureate" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel laureate">Nobel laureate</a> <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Kocher" class="mw-redirect" title="Theodor Kocher">Theodor Kocher</a>. In the preceding decades Kocher had perfected the removal of excess thyroid tissue in cases of <a href="/wiki/Goiter" class="mw-redirect" title="Goiter">goiter</a> to an extent that he was able to remove the whole organ without the person dying from the operation. Kocher carried out the total removal of the organ in some cases as a measure to prevent recurrent goiter. By 1883, the surgeon noticed that the complete removal of the organ leads to a complex of particular symptoms that we today have learned to associate with a lack of thyroid hormone. Kocher reversed these symptoms by implanting thyroid tissue to these people and thus performed the first organ transplant. In the following years Kocher and other surgeons used thyroid transplantation also to treat thyroid deficiency that appeared spontaneously, without a preceding organ removal. Thyroid transplantation became the model for a whole new therapeutic strategy: organ transplantation. After the example of the thyroid, other organs were transplanted in the decades around 1900. Some of these transplants were done in animals for purposes of research, where organ removal and transplantation became a successful strategy of investigating the function of organs. Kocher was awarded his <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> in 1909 for the discovery of the function of the thyroid gland. At the same time, organs were also transplanted for treating diseases in humans. The thyroid gland became the model for transplants of <a href="/wiki/Adrenal_gland" title="Adrenal gland">adrenal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parathyroid_gland" title="Parathyroid gland">parathyroid glands</a>, pancreas, <a href="/wiki/Ovary" title="Ovary">ovary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Testicle" title="Testicle">testicles</a> and kidney. By 1900, the idea that one can successfully treat internal diseases by replacing a failed organ through transplantation had been generally accepted.<a href="#cite_note-Schlich,_Thomas_1930-123">[123]</a> Pioneering work in the surgical technique of transplantation was made in the early 1900s by the <a href="/wiki/French_people" title="French people">French</a> surgeon <a href="/wiki/Alexis_Carrel" title="Alexis Carrel">Alexis Carrel</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Charles_Claude_Guthrie" title="Charles Claude Guthrie">Charles Guthrie</a>, with the transplantation of <a href="/wiki/Artery" title="Artery">arteries</a> or <a href="/wiki/Vein" title="Vein">veins</a>. Their skillful <a href="/wiki/Anastomosis" title="Anastomosis">anastomosis</a> operations and the new suturing techniques laid the groundwork for later transplant <a href="/wiki/Surgery" title="Surgery">surgery</a> and won Carrel the 1912 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a>. From 1902, Carrel performed transplant experiments on <a href="/wiki/Dog" title="Dog">dogs</a>. Surgically successful in moving <a href="/wiki/Kidney" title="Kidney">kidneys</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heart" title="Heart">hearts</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Spleen" title="Spleen">spleens</a>, he was one of the first to identify the problem of <a href="/wiki/Transplant_Rejection" class="mw-redirect" title="Transplant Rejection">rejection</a>, which remained insurmountable for decades. The discovery of transplant immunity by the <a href="/wiki/Germans" title="Germans">German</a> surgeon <a href="/wiki/Georg_Sch%C3%B6ne" title="Georg Schöne">Georg Schöne</a>, various strategies of matching donor and recipient, and the use of different agents for immune suppression did not result in substantial improvement so that organ transplantation was largely abandoned after <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">WWI</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Schlich,_Thomas_1930-123">[123]</a> In 1954, the first ever successful transplant of any organ was done at the Brigham & Women's Hospital in Boston. The surgery was performed by American surgeon <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Murray" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Murray">Dr. Joseph Murray</a>, who received the Nobel Prize in Medicine for his work. The success of this transplant was mostly due to the family relation between the recipient, a Richard Herrick of Maine, and his donor and identical twin brother Ronald. Richard Herrick was in the Navy and became severely ill with acute renal failure. His brother Ronald donated his kidney to Richard, and Richard lived on for another eight years. Prior to this case, transplant recipients did not survive for more than thirty days. Their close family relation meant there was no need for anti-rejection medications, which was not known until this time, so the case shed light on the cause of rejection and of possible anti-rejection medicine. Major steps in <a href="/wiki/Skin_transplant" class="mw-redirect" title="Skin transplant">skin transplantation</a> occurred during the First World War, notably in the work of <a href="/wiki/Harold_Gillies" title="Harold Gillies">Harold Gillies</a> at <a href="/wiki/Aldershot" title="Aldershot">Aldershot</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>. Among his advances was the tubed pedicle graft, which maintained a flesh connection from the donor site until the graft established its own <a href="/wiki/Blood" title="Blood">blood</a> flow. Gillies' assistant, <a href="/wiki/Archibald_McIndoe" title="Archibald McIndoe">Archibald McIndoe</a>, carried on the work into <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">the Second World War</a> as <a href="/wiki/Reconstructive_surgery" title="Reconstructive surgery">reconstructive surgery</a>. In 1962, the first successful replantation surgery was performed – re-attaching a severed limb and restoring (limited) function and feeling. Transplant of a single <a href="/wiki/Gonad" title="Gonad">gonad</a> (testis) from a living donor was carried out in early July 1926 in <a href="/wiki/Zaje%C4%8Dar" title="Zaječar">Zaječar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Serbia" title="Serbia">Serbia</a>, by a <a href="/wiki/Russians" title="Russians">Russian</a> <a href="/wiki/%C3%89migr%C3%A9" title="Émigré">émigré</a> surgeon Dr. Peter Vasil'evič Kolesnikov. The donor was a convicted murderer, one Ilija Krajan, whose death sentence was commuted to 20 years imprisonment, and he was led to believe that it was done because he had donated his testis to an elderly medical doctor. Both the donor and the receiver survived, but charges were brought in a court of law by the public prosecutor against Dr. Kolesnikov, not for performing the operation, but for lying to the donor.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> The first attempted human deceased-donor transplant was performed by the <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukrainian</a> surgeon <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yurii_Voronoy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yurii Voronoy (page does not exist)">Yurii Voronoy</a> in the 1930s;<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> but failed due to <a href="/wiki/Ischemia" title="Ischemia">ischemia</a>. <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Murray" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Murray">Joseph Murray</a> and <a href="/wiki/J._Hartwell_Harrison" title="J. Hartwell Harrison">J. Hartwell Harrison</a> performed the first successful transplant, a kidney transplant between identical <a href="/wiki/Twin" title="Twin">twins</a>, in 1954, because no <a href="/wiki/Immunosuppression" title="Immunosuppression">immunosuppression</a> was necessary for genetically identical individuals. In the late 1940s <a href="/wiki/British_people" title="British people">British</a> surgeon <a href="/wiki/Peter_Medawar" title="Peter Medawar">Peter Medawar</a>, working for the <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_for_Medical_Research" title="National Institute for Medical Research">National Institute for Medical Research</a>, improved the understanding of rejection. Identifying the immune reactions in 1951, Medawar suggested that <a href="/wiki/Immunosuppressive_drug" title="Immunosuppressive drug">immunosuppressive drugs</a> could be used. <a href="/wiki/Cortisone" title="Cortisone">Cortisone</a> had been recently discovered and the more effective <a href="/wiki/Azathioprine" title="Azathioprine">azathioprine</a> was identified in 1959, but it was not until the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Ciclosporin" title="Ciclosporin">cyclosporine</a> in 1970 that transplant surgery found a sufficiently powerful immunosuppressive. There was a successful deceased-donor <a href="/wiki/Lung" title="Lung">lung</a> transplant into an emphysema and <a href="/wiki/Lung_cancer" title="Lung cancer">lung cancer</a> patient in June 1963 by <a href="/wiki/James_Hardy_(surgeon)" title="James Hardy (surgeon)">James Hardy</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Mississippi_Medical_Center" title="University of Mississippi Medical Center">University of Mississippi Medical Center</a> in <a href="/wiki/Jackson,_Mississippi" title="Jackson, Mississippi">Jackson, Mississippi</a>. The patient John Russell survived for eighteen days before dying of <a href="/wiki/Kidney_failure" title="Kidney failure">kidney failure</a>.<a href="#cite_note-JAMA,_world's_first_lung_transplant,_1963-127">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-Anesthesia_For_Transplant_Surgery,_Sood_and_Vohra,_2014-129">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-Second_Wind,_Mary_Jo_Festle,_2012-130">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-UMMC_(University_of_Mississippi_Medical_Center),_Bruce_Coleman,_2013-131">[131]</a> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Starzl" title="Thomas Starzl">Thomas Starzl</a> of <a href="/wiki/Denver" title="Denver">Denver</a> attempted a liver transplant in the same year, but he was not successful until 1967. In the early 1960s and prior to long-term dialysis becoming available, <a href="/wiki/Keith_Reemtsma" title="Keith Reemtsma">Keith Reemtsma</a> and his colleagues at Tulane University in New Orleans attempted transplants of chimpanzee kidneys into 13 human patients. Most of these patients only lived one to two months. However, in 1964, a 23-year-old woman lived for nine months and even returned to her job as a school teacher until she suddenly collapsed and died. It was assumed that she died from an acute electrolyte disturbance. At autopsy, the kidneys had not been rejected nor was there any other obvious cause of death.<a href="#cite_note-Brief_History_of_Cross_Species,_Baylor_Proceedings,_2012-132">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-Xenotransplantation,_Cooper,_Kemp,_Reemtsma,_White,_1991-134">[134]</a> One source states this patient died from pneumonia.<a href="#cite_note-Kidney_Transplantation,_Bioengineering,_and_Regeneration,_Giuseppe_Orlando,_and_others,_2017-135">[135]</a> Tom Starzl and his team in Colorado used baboon kidneys with six human patients who lived one or two months, but with no longer term survivors.<a href="#cite_note-Brief_History_of_Cross_Species,_Baylor_Proceedings,_2012-132">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> Others in the United States and France had limited experiences.<a href="#cite_note-Brief_History_of_Cross_Species,_Baylor_Proceedings,_2012-132">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> The heart was a major prize for transplant surgeons. But over and above rejection issues, the heart deteriorates within minutes of death, so any operation would have to be performed at great speed. The development of the <a href="/wiki/Heart-lung_machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Heart-lung machine">heart-lung machine</a> was also needed. Lung pioneer <a href="/wiki/James_Hardy_(surgeon)" title="James Hardy (surgeon)">James Hardy</a> was prepared to attempt a human heart transplant in 1964, but when a premature failure of comatose <a href="/wiki/Boyd_Rush" title="Boyd Rush">Boyd Rush</a>'s heart caught Hardy with no human donor, he used a <a href="/wiki/Common_chimpanzee" class="mw-redirect" title="Common chimpanzee">chimpanzee</a> heart, which beat in his patient's chest for approximately one hour and then failed.<a href="#cite_note-JAMA_29_June_1964-138">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-Every_Second_Counts,_Donald_McRae,_2006-139">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brief_History_of_Cross_Species,_Baylor_Proceedings,_2012-132">[132]</a> The first partial success was achieved on 3 December 1967, when <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Barnard" title="Christiaan Barnard">Christiaan Barnard</a> of <a href="/wiki/Cape_Town" title="Cape Town">Cape Town</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>, performed the world's first human-to-human heart transplant with patient <a href="/wiki/Louis_Washkansky" title="Louis Washkansky">Louis Washkansky</a> as the recipient. Washkansky survived for eighteen days amid what many[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>] saw as a distasteful publicity circus. The media interest prompted a spate of heart transplants. Over a hundred were performed in 1968–1969, but almost all the people died within 60 days. Barnard's second patient, <a href="/wiki/Philip_Blaiberg" title="Philip Blaiberg">Philip Blaiberg</a>, lived for 19 months. It was the advent of <a href="/wiki/Cyclosporine" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyclosporine">cyclosporine</a> that altered transplants from research surgery to life-saving treatment. In 1968 surgical pioneer <a href="/wiki/Denton_Cooley" title="Denton Cooley">Denton Cooley</a> performed 17 transplants, including the first <a href="/wiki/Heart-lung_transplant" class="mw-redirect" title="Heart-lung transplant">heart-lung transplant</a>. Fourteen of his patients were dead within six months. By 1984 two-thirds of all heart transplant patients survived for five years or more. With organ transplants becoming commonplace, limited only by donors, surgeons moved on to riskier fields, including multiple-organ transplants on humans and whole-body transplant research on animals. On 9 March 1981, the first successful heart-lung transplant took place at <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a> Hospital. The head surgeon, <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Reitz" title="Bruce Reitz">Bruce Reitz</a>, credited the patient's recovery to <a href="/wiki/Cyclosporine" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyclosporine">cyclosporine</a>. As the rising success rate of transplants and modern <a href="/wiki/Immunosuppression" title="Immunosuppression">immunosuppression</a> make transplants more common, the need for more organs has become critical. Transplants from living donors, especially relatives, have become increasingly common. Additionally, there is substantive research into <a href="/wiki/Xenotransplantation" title="Xenotransplantation">xenotransplantation</a>, or transgenic organs; although these forms of transplant are not yet being used in humans, clinical trials involving the use of specific <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cell</a> types have been conducted with promising results, such as using <a href="/wiki/Pig" title="Pig">porcine</a> <a href="/wiki/Islets_of_Langerhans" class="mw-redirect" title="Islets of Langerhans">islets of Langerhans</a> to treat <a href="/wiki/Type_1_diabetes" title="Type 1 diabetes">type 1 diabetes</a>. However, there are still many problems that would need to be solved before they would be feasible options in people requiring transplants. Recently, researchers have been looking into means of reducing the general burden of immunosuppression. Common approaches include avoidance of steroids, reduced exposure to <a href="/wiki/Calcineurin" title="Calcineurin">calcineurin</a> inhibitors, increased coverance of <a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">vaccination</a> for <a href="/wiki/Vaccine-preventable_disease" title="Vaccine-preventable disease">Vaccine-preventable disease</a><a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> and other means of weaning drugs based on patient outcome and function. While short-term outcomes appear promising, long-term outcomes are still unknown, and in general, reduced immunosuppression increases the risk of rejection and decreases the risk of infection. The risk of early rejection is increased if <a href="/wiki/Corticosteroid" title="Corticosteroid">corticosteroid</a> immunosuppression are avoided or withdrawn after renal transplantation.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> Many other new drugs are under development for transplantation.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> The emerging field of <a href="/wiki/Regenerative_medicine" title="Regenerative medicine">regenerative medicine</a> promises to solve the problem of organ transplant rejection by regrowing organs in the lab, using person's own cells (stem cells or healthy cells extracted from the donor site). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Timeline_of_transplants">Timeline of transplants</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_transplantation&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Timeline of transplants">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>1869: First skin autograft-transplantation by Carl Bunger, who documented the first modern successful <a href="/wiki/Skin_graft" class="mw-redirect" title="Skin graft">skin graft</a> on a person. Bunger repaired a person's nose destroyed by <a href="/wiki/Syphilis" title="Syphilis">syphilis</a> by grafting flesh from the inner thigh to the nose, in a method reminiscent of the <a href="/wiki/Sushrutha" class="mw-redirect" title="Sushrutha">Sushrutha</a>.</li> <li>1905: First successful cornea transplant by <a href="/wiki/Eduard_Zirm" title="Eduard Zirm">Eduard Zirm</a> (Czech Republic)</li> <li>1908: First skin allograft-transplantation of skin from a donor to a recipient (Switzerland)</li> <li>1931: First uterus transplantation (<a href="/wiki/Lili_Elbe" title="Lili Elbe">Lili Elbe</a>).</li> <li>1950: First successful kidney transplant by Dr. <a href="/wiki/Richard_H._Lawler" title="Richard H. Lawler">Richard H. Lawler</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a>, US)<a href="#cite_note-Lawler-144">[144]</a></li> <li>1954: First living related kidney transplant (<a href="/wiki/Identical_twins" class="mw-redirect" title="Identical twins">identical twins</a>) (US)<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a></li> <li>1954: Brazil's first successful corneal transplant, the first liver (Brazil)</li> <li>1955: First <a href="/wiki/Heart_valve" title="Heart valve">heart valve</a> allograft into descending <a href="/wiki/Aorta" title="Aorta">aorta</a> (Canada)</li> <li>1963: First successful lung transplant by <a href="/wiki/James_Hardy_(surgeon)" title="James Hardy (surgeon)">James D. Hardy</a> with patient living 18 days (US)</li> <li>1964: <a href="/wiki/James_Hardy_(surgeon)" title="James Hardy (surgeon)">James D. Hardy</a> attempts heart transplant using chimpanzee heart (US)</li> <li>1964: Human patient lived nine months with chimpanzee kidneys, twelve other human patients only lived one to two months, Keith Reemtsma and team (New Orleans, US)</li> <li>1965: <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>'s first successful kidney transplant at <a href="/wiki/Hospital_Cl%C3%ADnic_de_Barcelona" title="Hospital Clínic de Barcelona">Hospital Clinic</a> de <a href="/wiki/Barcelona" title="Barcelona">Barcelona</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catalonia" title="Catalonia">Catalonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>, by a <a href="/wiki/Surgeon" title="Surgeon">surgeon</a> team led by Josep Maria Gil-Vernet and Antoni Caralps. The patient, a woman, had a very long life since the procedure.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a></li> <li>1965: Australia's first successful (living) kidney transplant (<a href="/wiki/Queen_Elizabeth_Hospital,_Adelaide" class="mw-redirect" title="Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Adelaide">Queen Elizabeth Hospital</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Australia" title="South Australia">SA</a>, Australia)</li> <li>1966: First successful pancreas transplant by <a href="/wiki/Richard_C._Lillehei" title="Richard C. Lillehei">Richard C. Lillehei</a> and William Kelly (<a href="/wiki/Minnesota" title="Minnesota">Minnesota</a>, US)</li> <li>1967: First successful liver transplant by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Starzl" title="Thomas Starzl">Thomas Starzl</a> (Denver, US)</li> <li>1967: First successful heart transplant by <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Barnard" title="Christiaan Barnard">Christiaan Barnard</a> (Cape Town, South Africa)</li> <li>1978 Use of ciclosporin in clinical renal transplants<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a></li> <li>1981 Use of monoclonal antibodies to lymphocytes in organ grafting</li> <li>1981: First successful heart/lung transplant by <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Reitz" title="Bruce Reitz">Bruce Reitz</a> (Stanford, US)</li> <li>1983: First successful lung lobe transplant by <a href="/wiki/Joel_D._Cooper" title="Joel D. Cooper">Joel Cooper</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Toronto_General_Hospital" title="Toronto General Hospital">Toronto General Hospital</a> (<a href="/wiki/Toronto" title="Toronto">Toronto</a>, Canada)</li> <li>1984: First successful double organ transplant by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Starzl" title="Thomas Starzl">Thomas Starzl</a> and Henry T. Bahnson (<a href="/wiki/Pittsburgh" title="Pittsburgh">Pittsburgh</a>, US)</li> <li>1986: First successful double-lung transplant (<a href="/wiki/Ann_Harrison_(lung_transplant_recipient)" title="Ann Harrison (lung transplant recipient)">Ann Harrison</a>) by <a href="/wiki/Joel_D._Cooper" title="Joel D. Cooper">Joel Cooper</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Toronto_General_Hospital" title="Toronto General Hospital">Toronto General Hospital</a> (Toronto, Canada)</li> <li>1990: First successful adult segmental living-related liver transplant by <a href="/wiki/Mehmet_Haberal" title="Mehmet Haberal">Mehmet Haberal</a> (Ankara, Turkey)</li> <li>1992: First successful combined liver-kidney transplantation from a living-related donor by <a href="/wiki/Mehmet_Haberal" title="Mehmet Haberal">Mehmet Haberal</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] (Ankara, Turkey)</li> <li>1995: First successful <a href="/wiki/Laparoscopic_surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Laparoscopic surgery">laparoscopic</a> live-donor nephrectomy by Lloyd Ratner and Louis Kavoussi (<a href="/wiki/Baltimore" title="Baltimore">Baltimore</a>, US)</li> <li>1997: First successful allogeneic vascularized transplantation of a fresh and perfused human <a href="/wiki/Knee" title="Knee">knee</a> joint by <a href="/wiki/Gunther_O._Hofmann" title="Gunther O. Hofmann">Gunther O. Hofmann</a></li> <li>1997: Illinois' first living donor kidney-pancreas transplant and first robotic living donor pancreatectomy in the US. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois_Medical_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Illinois Medical Center">University of Illinois Medical Center</a></li> <li>1998: First successful live-donor partial <a href="/wiki/Pancreas_transplant" class="mw-redirect" title="Pancreas transplant">pancreas transplant</a> by David Sutherland (Minnesota, US)</li> <li>1998: First successful hand transplant by Dr. <a href="/wiki/Jean-Michel_Dubernard" title="Jean-Michel Dubernard">Jean-Michel Dubernard</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lyon" title="Lyon">Lyon</a>, France)</li> <li>1998: United States' first adult-to-adult living donor liver transplant <a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois_Medical_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Illinois Medical Center">University of Illinois Medical Center</a></li> <li>1999: First successful tissue engineered <a href="/wiki/Bladder" title="Bladder">bladder</a> transplanted by <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Atala" title="Anthony Atala">Anthony Atala</a> (<a href="/wiki/Boston_Children%27s_Hospital" title="Boston Children's Hospital">Boston Children's Hospital</a>, US)</li> <li>2000: First robotic donor nephrectomy for a living-donor kidney transplant in the world <a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois_Medical_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Illinois Medical Center">University of Illinois Medical Center</a></li> <li>2004: First liver and small bowel transplants from same living donor into same recipient in the world <a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois_Medical_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Illinois Medical Center">University of Illinois Medical Center</a></li> <li>2005: First successful ovarian transplant by Dr. P. N. Mhatre (Wadia Hospital, <a href="/wiki/Mumbai" title="Mumbai">Mumbai</a>, India)</li> <li>2005: First successful partial <a href="/wiki/Face_transplant" title="Face transplant">face transplant</a> (France)</li> <li>2005: First robotic hepatectomy in the United States <a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois_Medical_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Illinois Medical Center">University of Illinois Medical Center</a></li> <li>2006: Illinois' first paired donation for ABO incompatible kidney transplant <a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois_Medical_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Illinois Medical Center">University of Illinois Medical Center</a></li> <li>2006: First <a href="/wiki/Jaw" title="Jaw">jaw</a> transplant to combine donor <a href="/wiki/Jaw" title="Jaw">jaw</a> with <a href="/wiki/Bone_marrow" title="Bone marrow">bone marrow</a> from the patient, by <a href="/wiki/Eric_M._Genden" title="Eric M. Genden">Eric M. Genden</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mount_Sinai_Hospital,_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Mount Sinai Hospital, New York">Mount Sinai Hospital</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>, US)</li> <li>2006: First successful human <a href="/wiki/Penis_transplant" class="mw-redirect" title="Penis transplant">penis transplant</a> (later reversed after 15 days due to 44-year-old recipient's wife's psychological rejection) (<a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a>, China)<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a></li> <li>2008: First successful complete full double <a href="/wiki/Arm" title="Arm">arm</a> transplant by Edgar Biemer, Christoph Höhnke and Manfred Stangl (<a href="/wiki/Technical_University_of_Munich" title="Technical University of Munich">Technical University of Munich</a>, Germany)</li> <li>2008: First baby born from transplanted ovary. The transplant was carried out by Dr Sherman Silber at the Infertility Centre of St Louis in Missouri. The donor is her twin sister.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a></li> <li>2008: First transplant of a <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate_trachea" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebrate trachea">human windpipe</a> using a patient's own stem cells, by <a href="/wiki/Paolo_Macchiarini" title="Paolo Macchiarini">Paolo Macchiarini</a> (<a href="/wiki/Barcelona" title="Barcelona">Barcelona</a>, Spain)</li> <li>2008: First successful transplantation of near total area (80%) of <a href="/wiki/Face_transplant" title="Face transplant">face</a>, (including <a href="/wiki/Palate" title="Palate">palate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nose" title="Nose">nose</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cheeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Cheeks">cheeks</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Eyelid" title="Eyelid">eyelid</a>) by <a href="/wiki/Maria_Siemionow" title="Maria Siemionow">Maria Siemionow</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Clinic" title="Cleveland Clinic">Cleveland Clinic</a>, US)</li> <li>2009: Worlds' first robotic kidney transplant in an obese patient <a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois_Medical_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Illinois Medical Center">University of Illinois Medical Center</a></li> <li>2010: First full facial transplant by Dr. Joan Pere Barret and team (Hospital Universitari Vall d'Hebron on 26 July 2010, in <a href="/wiki/Barcelona" title="Barcelona">Barcelona</a>, Spain)</li> <li>2011: First double leg transplant by Dr. Cavadas and team (Valencia's Hospital, La Fe, Spain)</li> <li>2012: First simultaneous robotic bariatric surgery (sleeve gastrectomy) and kidney transplantation (university of Illinois at Chicago). (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chicago.medicine.uic.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/6/2018/06/The-Cutting-Edge-Fall-2012.pdf#:~:text=By%20simultaneously%20undergoing%20two%20procedures%E2%80%94robotic-assisted%20kidney%20transplantation%20and,Surgeons%20can%20utilize%20the%20same%20minimally%20invasive%20incisions/">1</a>). (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://today.uic.edu/first-simultaneous-robotic-kidney-transplant-sleeve-gastrectomy-performed/">2</a>)</li> <li>2012: First Robotic Alloparathyroid transplant. University of Illinois Chicago</li> <li>2013: First successful entire face transplantation as an urgent life-saving surgery at <a href="/wiki/Curie_Institute,_Warsaw" class="mw-redirect" title="Curie Institute, Warsaw">Maria Skłodowska-Curie Institute of Oncology</a> branch in <a href="/wiki/Gliwice" title="Gliwice">Gliwice</a>, Poland.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a></li> <li>2014: First successful uterine transplant resulting in live birth (Sweden)</li> <li>2014: First successful penis transplant. (South Africa)<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a></li> <li>2014: First neonatal organ transplant. (UK)<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a></li> <li>2018: Skin gun invented, which takes a small amount of healthy skin to be grown in a lab, then is sprayed onto burnt skin. This way skin will heal in days instead of months and will not scar.</li> <li>2019: First <a href="/wiki/Delivery_drone" title="Delivery drone">drone delivery</a> of a donated kidney, that was then successfully transplanted into a patient. (US)<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a></li> <li>2021: First transplant of both arms and shoulders performed on an Icelandic patient at the Édouard Herriot Hospital. (FR)<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a></li> <li>2022: First successful heart transplant from a pig to a human patient. (US)<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> The recipient later died as the pig's heart was infected with porcine cytomegalovirus.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_transplantation&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Society and culture">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Success_rates">Success rates</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_transplantation&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Success rates">edit</a>]</div> Since 2000, there have been approximately 2,200 lung transplants performed each year worldwide. From 2000 to 2006, the <a href="/wiki/Median" title="Median">median</a> survival period for lung transplant patients has been 5.5 years.<a href="#cite_note-History_of_Lung_Transplantation,_Dabak,_Şenbaklavacı,_April_2016-158">[158]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Comparative_costs">Comparative costs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_transplantation&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Comparative costs">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Organ_transplantation_in_China" title="Organ transplantation in China">In China</a>, a kidney transplant operation runs for around $70,000, liver for $160,000, and heart for $120,000.<a href="#cite_note-orgharv-86">[86]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Safety">Safety</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_transplantation&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Safety">edit</a>]</div> In the United States, tissue transplants are regulated by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) which sets strict regulations on the safety of the transplants, primarily aimed at the prevention of the spread of communicable disease. Regulations include criteria for donor screening and testing as well as strict regulations on the processing and distribution of tissue grafts. Organ transplants are not regulated by the FDA.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> It is essential that the HLA complexes of both the donor and recipient be as closely matched as possible to prevent graft rejection. In November 2007, the <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">CDC</a> reported the first-ever case of <a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_C" title="Hepatitis C">Hepatitis C</a> being simultaneously transferred through an organ transplant. The donor was a 38-year-old male, considered "high-risk" by donation organizations, and his organs transmitted HIV and Hepatitis C to four organ recipients. Experts say that the reason the diseases did not show up on screening tests is probably because they were contracted within three weeks before the donor's death, so antibodies would not have existed in high enough numbers to detect. The crisis has caused many to call for more sensitive screening tests, which could pick up antibodies sooner. Currently, the screens cannot detect the small number of antibodies produced in HIV infections within the last 90 days or Hepatitis C infections within the last 18–21 days before a donation is made. <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid_test" title="Nucleic acid test">Nucleic acid testing</a> is now being done by many organ procurement organizations and is able to detect HIV and hepatitis C directly within seven to ten days of exposure to the virus.<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transplant_laws">Transplant laws</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_transplantation&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Transplant laws">edit</a>]</div> Both developing and developed countries have forged various policies to try to increase the safety and availability of organ transplants to their citizens. However, whilst potential recipients in developing countries may mirror their more developed counterparts in desperation, potential donors in developing countries do not. The <a href="/wiki/Indian_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian government">Indian government</a> has had difficulty tracking the flourishing organ black market in their country, but in recent times it has amended its organ transplant law to make punishment more stringent for commercial dealings in organs. It has also included new clauses in the law to support deceased organ donation, such as making it mandatory to request for organ donation in case of brain death. Other countries victimized by illegal organ trade have also implemented legislative reactions. Moldova has made international <a href="/w/index.php?title=Adoption_in_Moldova&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Adoption in Moldova (page does not exist)">adoption illegal</a> in fear of organ traffickers. China has made selling of organs illegal as of July 2006 and claims that all prisoner organ donors have filed consent. However, doctors in other countries, such as the United Kingdom, have accused China of abusing its <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_China" title="Capital punishment in China">high capital punishment rate</a>. Despite these efforts, illegal organ trafficking continues to thrive and can be attributed to corruption in healthcare systems, which has been traced as high up as the doctors themselves in China and Ukraine, and the blind eye economically strained governments and health care programs must sometimes turn to organ trafficking. Some organs are also shipped to Uganda and the Netherlands. This was a main product in the <a href="/wiki/Triangular_trade" title="Triangular trade">triangular trade</a> in 1934.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Starting on 1 May 2007, doctors involved in commercial trade of organs will face fines and suspensions in China. Only a few certified hospitals will be allowed to perform organ transplants in order to curb illegal transplants. Harvesting organs without donor's consent was also deemed a crime.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> On 27 June 2008, Indonesian, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sulaiman_Damanik&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sulaiman Damanik (page does not exist)">Sulaiman Damanik</a>, 26, pleaded guilty in <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a> court for sale of his kidney to <a href="/wiki/CK_Tang" class="mw-redirect" title="CK Tang">CK Tang</a>'s executive chair, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tang_Wee_Sung&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tang Wee Sung (page does not exist)">Tang Wee Sung</a>, 55, for 150 million <a href="/wiki/Rupiah" class="mw-redirect" title="Rupiah">rupiah</a> (S$22,200). The Transplant Ethics Committee must approve living donor kidney transplants. Organ trading is banned in Singapore and in many other countries to prevent the exploitation of "poor and socially disadvantaged donors who are unable to make informed choices and suffer potential medical risks." Toni, 27, the other accused, donated a kidney to an Indonesian patient in March, alleging he was the patient's adopted son, and was paid 186 million rupiah (US$20,200). Upon sentence, both would suffer each, 12 months in jail or 10,000 <a href="/wiki/Singapore_dollar" title="Singapore dollar">Singapore dollars</a> (US$7,600) fine.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> In an article appearing in the April 2004 issue of <a href="/wiki/Econ_Journal_Watch" title="Econ Journal Watch">Econ Journal Watch</a>,<a href="#cite_note-econjournalwatch.org-72">[72]</a> economist <a href="/wiki/Alex_Tabarrok" title="Alex Tabarrok">Alex Tabarrok</a> examined the impact of direct consent laws on transplant organ availability. Tabarrok found that social pressures resisting the use of transplant organs decreased over time as the opportunity of individual decisions increased. Tabarrok concluded his study suggesting that gradual elimination of organ donation restrictions and move to a free market in organ sales will increase supply of organs and encourage broader social acceptance of organ donation as a practice. In the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> 24 states have no law preventing discrimination against potential organ recipients based on cognitive ability, including children. A 2008 study found that of the transplant centers surveyed in those states 85 percent considered disability when deciding transplant list and forty four percent would deny an organ transplant to a child with a neurodevelopmental disability.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethical_concerns">Ethical concerns</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_transplantation&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Ethical concerns">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_organ_transplantation" title="Ethics of organ transplantation">Ethics of organ transplantation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_Istanbul" title="Declaration of Istanbul">Declaration of Istanbul</a></div> The existence and distribution of organ transplantation procedures in <a href="/wiki/Developing_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Developing countries">developing countries</a>, while almost always beneficial to those receiving them, raise many <a href="/wiki/Ethical" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethical">ethical</a> concerns. Both the source and method of obtaining the organ to transplant are major ethical issues to consider, as well as the notion of <a href="/wiki/Distributive_justice" title="Distributive justice">distributive justice</a>. The <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> argues that transplantations promote health, but the notion of "transplantation tourism" has the potential to violate <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a> or exploit the poor, to have unintended health consequences, and to provide unequal access to services, all of which ultimately may cause harm. Regardless of the "gift of life", in the context of developing countries, this might be coercive. The practice of coercion could be considered exploitative of the poor population, violating basic human rights according to Articles 3 and 4 of the <a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a>. There is also a powerful opposing view, that trade in organs, if properly and effectively regulated to ensure that the seller is fully informed of all the consequences of donation, is a mutually beneficial transaction between two consenting adults, and that prohibiting it would itself be a violation of Articles 3 and 29 of the <a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a>. Even within developed countries there is concern that enthusiasm for increasing the supply of organs may trample on respect for the right to life. The question is made even more complicated by the fact that the "irreversibility" criterion for <a href="/wiki/Legal_death" title="Legal death">legal death</a> cannot be <a href="/wiki/Medical_definition_of_death" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical definition of death">adequately defined</a> and can easily change with changing technology.<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Artificial_organ_transplantation">Artificial organ transplantation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_transplantation&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Artificial organ transplantation">edit</a>]</div> Surgeons, notably <a href="/wiki/Paolo_Macchiarini" title="Paolo Macchiarini">Paolo Macchiarini</a>, in Sweden performed the first implantation of a synthetic trachea in July 2011, for a 36-year-old patient who had cancer. Stem cells taken from the patient's hip were treated with growth factors and incubated on a plastic replica of his natural trachea.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> According to information uncovered by the Swedish documentary "Dokument Inifrån: Experimenten" (Swedish: "Documents from the Inside: The Experiments") the patient, Andemariam went on to develop an increasingly terrible and eventually bloody cough to dying, incubated, in the hospital. At that point, determined by autopsy, 90% of the synthetic windpipe had come loose. He allegedly made several trips to see Macchiarini for his complications, and at one point had surgery again to have his synthetic windpipe replaced, but Macchiarini was notoriously difficult to get an appointment with. According to the autopsy, the old synthetic windpipe did not appear to have been replaced.<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> Macchiarini's academic credentials have been called into question<a href="#cite_note-vanityfair-169">[169]</a> and he has recently been accused of alleged research misconduct.<a href="#cite_note-expressen.se-170">[170]</a> Left ventricular assist devices are often used as a "bridge" to provide additional time while a patient waits for a transplant. For example, former US vice-president Dick Cheney had such a device implanted in 2010 and then 20 months later received a heart transplant in 2012. In year 2012, about 3,000 ventricular assist devices were inserted in the United States, as compared to approximately 2,500 heart transplants. The use of airbags in cars as well as greater use of helmets by bicyclists and skiers has reduced the number of persons with fatal head injuries, which is a common source of donors hearts.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research">Research</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_transplantation&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Research">edit</a>]</div> An early-stage medical laboratory and research company, called <a href="/wiki/Organovo" title="Organovo">Organovo</a>, designs and develops functional, three dimensional human tissue for medical research and therapeutic applications. The company utilizes its <a href="/wiki/NovoGen" title="NovoGen">NovoGen</a> MMX Bioprinter for 3D bioprinting. Organovo anticipates that the bioprinting of human tissues will accelerate the preclinical drug testing and discovery process, enabling treatments to be created more quickly and at lower cost. Additionally, Organovo has long-term expectations that this technology could be suitable for surgical therapy and transplantation.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> A further area of active research is concerned with improving and assessing organs during their preservation. Various techniques have emerged which show great promise, most of which involve perfusing the organ under either hypothermic (4–10 °C) or normothermic (37 °C) conditions. All of these add additional cost and logistical complexity to the organ retrieval, preservation and transplant process, but early results suggest it may well be worth it. Hypothermic perfusion is in clinical use for transplantation of kidneys and liver whilst normothermic perfusion has been used effectively in the heart, lung, liver<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> and, less so, in the kidney. Another area of research being explored is the use of genetically engineered animals for transplants. Similar to human organ donors, scientists have developed a genetically engineered pig with the aim of reducing rejection to pig organs by human patients. This is currently at the basic research stage, but shows great promise in alleviating the long waiting lists for organ transplants and the number of people in need of transplants outweighs the amount of organs donated. Trials are being done to prevent the pig organ transplant to enter a clinical trial phase until the potential disease transfer from pigs to humans can be safely and satisfactorily managed (Isola & Gordon, 1991). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Negative_effects_of_transplantation">Negative effects of transplantation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_transplantation&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Negative effects of transplantation">edit</a>]</div> In 2021, the <a href="/wiki/National_Academies_of_Sciences,_Engineering,_and_Medicine" title="National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine">National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine</a> published a report titled Exploring the State of the Science of Solid Organ Transplantation and Disability which discussed <a href="/wiki/Quality_of_life" title="Quality of life">quality of life</a> after transplantation.<a href="#cite_note-:1-174">[174]</a> In the chapter about pediatric transplantation, Nitika Gupta, Eyal Shemesh, George Mazariegos, Dorry Segev, and other researchers discuss outcomes in young transplant recipients. Pediatric intestine transplant recipients have poor long-term outcomes with 15% requiring retransplant within 5 years of receiving their first transplant and 40-60% experiencing transplant failure after 10 years. Pediatric transplant recipients frequently have mental and behavioral problems. As many as one in three adolescent transplant recipients are <a href="/wiki/Adherence_(medicine)" title="Adherence (medicine)">nonadherenant</a> to their medication regimens. <a href="/wiki/Adolescence" title="Adolescence">Adolescent</a> <a href="/wiki/Kidney" title="Kidney">kidney</a> recipients are more likely to be diagnosed with <a href="/wiki/Mental_disorder" title="Mental disorder">mental disorders</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">depression</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anxiety" title="Anxiety">anxiety</a> following transplantation, living with their <a href="/wiki/Parent" title="Parent">parents</a> and experiencing <a href="/wiki/Unemployment" title="Unemployment">unemployment</a> as <a href="/wiki/Adult" title="Adult">adults</a>, and having <a href="/wiki/Academic_grading_in_the_United_States" title="Academic grading in the United States">poor grades</a> in <a href="/wiki/School" title="School">school</a>. They were also more likely to commit <a href="/wiki/Suicide" title="Suicide">suicide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Substance_abuse" title="Substance abuse">abuse substances</a>. Dr. Clifford Chin explains his opinion that rather than being a cure, <a href="/wiki/Heart" title="Heart">heart</a> transplantation creates a <a href="/wiki/Chronic_condition" title="Chronic condition">chronic illness</a> with a plethora of adverse <a href="/wiki/Side_effect" title="Side effect">side effects</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Global_developmental_delay" title="Global developmental delay">developmental delay</a>, limited ability to participate in everyday activities, and impaired <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive function">cognitive function</a>, which may suggest an <a href="/wiki/Arrested_development" title="Arrested development">arrested development</a>, but <a href="/wiki/Hepatologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Hepatologist">hepatologist</a> Saeed Mohammad later explains how lack of proper <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> levels may effect intellectual ability following the transplant. Saeed Mohammad also discussed the correlation between <a href="/wiki/Child_development_stages" title="Child development stages">developmental milestones</a> and pediatric transplantation in general. He considers pediatric transplant recipients to be <a href="/wiki/Chronically_ill" class="mw-redirect" title="Chronically ill">chronically ill</a>, even though the transplants <a href="/wiki/Cure" title="Cure">cured</a> their illnesses. He explains how children who had received transplants are often underestimated, but also points out that <a href="/wiki/Immunosuppression#Deliberately_induced" title="Immunosuppression">immunosuppressive therapy</a> can affect <a href="/wiki/Brain_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain development">brain development</a>. Patients who had received liver transplants between the ages of eleven and seventeen had lower survival rates than compared to those who had received liver transplants when they were under five years old, especially if they had their transplant between the ages of sixteen and seventeen. Nitika Gupta, a <a href="/wiki/Pediatrics" title="Pediatrics">pediatric</a> <a href="/wiki/Hepatologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Hepatologist">hepatologist</a>, points out that teenagers' <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brains</a> are still <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">forming and developing</a>, which can have critical effects on patients. It should be pointed out that the researchers refer to pediatric transplant recipients as <a href="/wiki/Chronically_ill" class="mw-redirect" title="Chronically ill">chronically ill</a>, <a href="/wiki/Special_needs" title="Special needs">special needs</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chronic_condition" title="Chronic condition">affected by chronic health conditions</a>, though transplantation is a <a href="/wiki/Medical_operation" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical operation">medical operation</a>, rather than a <a href="/wiki/Medical_condition" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical condition">diagnosable condition</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:1-174">[174]</a> In young <a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">liver</a> transplant recipients, nonadherence was more common in <a href="/wiki/Girl" title="Girl">girls</a>, patients living in single-parent homes, and patients nineteen and older.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Myths">Myths</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_transplantation&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Myths">edit</a>]</div> There are <a href="/wiki/Myth" title="Myth">myths</a> that transplantation, regardless of <a href="/wiki/Organ_(biology)" title="Organ (biology)">organ</a>, leads to <a href="/wiki/Infertility" title="Infertility">infertility</a>, <a href="/wiki/Obsessive-compulsive_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Obsessive-compulsive disorder">obsessive-compulsive disorder</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Avoidant_personality_disorder" title="Avoidant personality disorder">avoidance</a>. In reality, <a href="/wiki/Female" title="Female">females</a> can often get <a href="/wiki/Pregnancy" title="Pregnancy">pregnant</a>, and most patients don't experience <a href="/wiki/Avoidant_personality_disorder" title="Avoidant personality disorder">avoidant behavior</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_transplantation&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_organ" title="Artificial organ">Artificial organ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beating_heart_cadaver" title="Beating heart cadaver">Beating heart cadaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_transfusion" title="Blood transfusion">Blood transfusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laboratory-grown_organ" class="mw-redirect" title="Laboratory-grown organ">Laboratory-grown organ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organ_donation" title="Organ donation">Organ donation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regenerative_medicine" title="Regenerative medicine">Regenerative medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transplant_rejection" title="Transplant rejection">Transplant rejection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenotransplantation" title="Xenotransplantation">Xenotransplantation</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_transplantation&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFManaraMurphyO'Callaghan2011" class="citation journal cs1">Manara, A. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldjournal.com/wj-ch-news.php?nt_seq_id=1275791">the original</a> on 9 October 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C%E6%97%A5%E5%A0%B1%E2%94%80%E2%94%80%E5%A4%A7%E9%99%B8%E6%96%B0%E8%81%9E&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldjournal.com%2Fwj-ch-news.php%3Fnt_seq_id%3D1275791&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrgan+transplantation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-orgharv-86">^ <a href="#cite_ref-orgharv_86-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-orgharv_86-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-orgharv_86-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-orgharv_86-3">d</a> <a href="/wiki/David_Kilgour" title="David Kilgour">David Kilgour</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Matas" title="David Matas">David Matas</a> (6 July 2006, revised 31 January 2007) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://organharvestinvestigation.net">An Independent Investigation into Allegations of Organ Harvesting of Falun Gong Practitioners in China</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161004182359/http://organharvestinvestigation.net/">Archived</a> 4 October 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (free in 22 languages) organharvestinvestigation.net </li> <li id="cite_note-Jay-87"><a href="#cite_ref-Jay_87-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Jay_Nordlinger" title="Jay Nordlinger">Jay Nordlinger</a> (25 August 2014) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nationalreview.com/sites/default/files/nordlinger_gutmann08-25-14.html">"Face The Slaughter: The Slaughter: Mass Killings, Organ Harvesting, and China's Secret Solution to Its Dissident Problem, by Ethan Gutmann"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160223172904/http://www.nationalreview.com/sites/default/files/nordlinger_gutmann08-25-14.html">Archived</a> 23 February 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, National Review </li> <li id="cite_note-Slaughter-88"><a href="#cite_ref-Slaughter_88-0">^</a> Ethan Gutmann (August 2014) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/The-Slaughter-Killings-Harvesting-Dissident/dp/161614940X">The Slaughter: Mass Killings, Organ Harvesting and China's Secret Solution to Its Dissident Problem</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160302164440/http://www.amazon.com/The-Slaughter-Killings-Harvesting-Dissident/dp/161614940X">Archived</a> 2 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> "Average number of Falun Gong in Laogai System at any given time" Low estimate 450,000, High estimate 1,000,000 p. 320. 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The Independent. London. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/japans-rich-buy-organs-from-executed-chinese-prisoners-470719.html">the original</a> on 19 July 2008. Retrieved 17 April 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Independent&rft.atitle=Japan%27s+rich+buy+organs+from+executed+Chinese+prisoners&rft.date=2006-03-21&rft.aulast=Coonan&rft.aufirst=Clifford&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Fasia%2Fjapans-rich-buy-organs-from-executed-chinese-prisoners-470719.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrgan+transplantation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-n10-96"><a href="#cite_ref-n10_96-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCyranoskiGaindGibneyMasood2019" class="citation journal cs1">Cyranoski, David; Gaind, Nisha; Gibney, Elizabeth; Masood, Ehsan; Maxmen, Amy; Reardon, Sara; Schiermeier, Quirin; Tollefson, Jeff; Witze, Alexandra (19 December 2019). "Nature's 10: Ten people who mattered in science in 2019". 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BMJ Open. 9 (2): e024473. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmjopen-2018-024473">10.1136/bmjopen-2018-024473</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6377532">6377532</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30723071">30723071</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMJ+Open&rft.atitle=Compliance+with+ethical+standards+in+the+reporting+of+donor+sources+and+ethics+review+in+peer-reviewed+publications+involving+organ+transplantation+in+China%3A+a+scoping+review&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=e024473&rft.date=2019-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6377532%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30723071&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fbmjopen-2018-024473&rft.aulast=Rogers&rft.aufirst=Wendy&rft.au=Robertson%2C+Matthew+P&rft.au=Ballantyne%2C+Angela&rft.au=Blakely%2C+Brette&rft.au=Catsanos%2C+Ruby&rft.au=Clay-Williams%2C+Robyn&rft.au=Fiatarone+Singh%2C+Maria&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6377532&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrgan+transplantation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Whit2014-98">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Whit2014_98-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Whit2014_98-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWhiteHirthMahílloDomínguez-Gil2014" class="citation journal cs1">White, SL; Hirth, R; Mahíllo, B; Domínguez-Gil, B; Delmonico, FL; Noel, L; Chapman, J; Matesanz, R; Carmona, M; Alvarez, M; Núñez, JR; Leichtman, A (1 November 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4221768">"The global diffusion of organ transplantation: trends, drivers and policy implications"</a>. 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Archived from the original on 9 November 2004.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Transplantation+Society&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.transplantation-soc.org%2Fglobalalliance.php%236a&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrgan+transplantation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-COE35.1-100"><a href="#cite_ref-COE35.1_100-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.coe.int/t/dg3/health/Source/2006transplantNWSLTTR_en.pdf">"Deceased Organ Donors, Annual Rate (p. m. p.) Europe"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe</a>. p. 4.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Deceased+Organ+Donors%2C+Annual+Rate+%28p.+m.+p.%29+Europe&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Council+of+Europe&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.coe.int%2Ft%2Fdg3%2Fhealth%2FSource%2F2006transplantNWSLTTR_en.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrgan+transplantation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ONT35.1-101"><a href="#cite_ref-ONT35.1_101-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ont.es/Estadistica?accion=3&id_estadistica=24&posicion=1">"Donantes de órganos en España. Número total y tasa anual (p. m. p.)"</a> [Organ Donors in Spain. Total number and annual rate (p. m. p.)]. <a href="/wiki/Organizaci%C3%B3n_Nacional_de_Transplantes" class="mw-redirect" title="Organización Nacional de Transplantes">Organización Nacional de Transplantes</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Donantes+de+%C3%B3rganos+en+Espa%C3%B1a.+N%C3%BAmero+total+y+tasa+anual+%28p.+m.+p.%29&rft.pub=Organizaci%C3%B3n+Nacional+de+Transplantes&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ont.es%2FEstadistica%3Faccion%3D3%26id_estadistica%3D24%26posicion%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrgan+transplantation" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a>‍] (I wasn't sure about this – but I'm pretty sure <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.coe.int/t/dg3/health/Source/2006transplantNWSLTTR_en.pdf">this</a> already supports our claim. This link is "dead cold" – archive.is, WayBack, WebCite, etc.) </li> <li id="cite_note-ONT33.8-102"><a href="#cite_ref-ONT33.8_102-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ont.es/prensa/NotasDePrensa/DonacionOrganosMundo.pdf">"La ONT estima en 94.500 los transplantes de órganos solidos realizados en 2006 en todo el mundo"</a> [The ONT estimated 94,500 solid organ transplants performed in 2006 worldwide] (PDF) (in Spanish). Transplant Commission of the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe</a>. 28 August 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110915052644/http://www.ont.es/prensa/NotasDePrensa/DonacionOrganosMundo.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 15 September 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=La+ONT+estima+en+94.500+los+transplantes+de+%C3%B3rganos+solidos+realizados+en+2006+en+todo+el+mundo&rft.pub=Transplant+Commission+of+the+Council+of+Europe&rft.date=2007-08-28&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ont.es%2Fprensa%2FNotasDePrensa%2FDonacionOrganosMundo.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrgan+transplantation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.agenciasinc.es/Noticias/Espana-alcanza-un-record-historico-de-trasplantes-en-2011">"España alcanza un récord histórico de trasplantes en 2011 / Noticias / SINC"</a> [Spain achieved a new record of transplants in 2011 / News / SINC]. 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Such was the medicolegal situation at that time that this "informed" consent was not considered in any way inadequate. . . ' </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFReemtsmaMcCrackenSchlegelPearl1964" class="citation journal cs1">Reemtsma, Keith; McCracken, B. H.; Schlegel, J. U.; Pearl, M. A.; Pearce, C. W.; DeWitt, C. W.; Smith, P. E.; Hewitt, R. L.; Flinner, R. L.; Creech, Oscar (September 1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1408776">"Renal Heterotransplantation in Man"</a>. Annals of Surgery. 160 (3): 384–408. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2F00000658-196409000-00006">10.1097/00000658-196409000-00006</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1408776">1408776</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14206847">14206847</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Surgery&rft.atitle=Renal+Heterotransplantation+in+Man&rft.volume=160&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E384-%3C%2Fspan%3E408&rft.date=1964-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1408776%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14206847&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1097%2F00000658-196409000-00006&rft.aulast=Reemtsma&rft.aufirst=Keith&rft.au=McCracken%2C+B.+H.&rft.au=Schlegel%2C+J.+U.&rft.au=Pearl%2C+M.+A.&rft.au=Pearce%2C+C.+W.&rft.au=DeWitt%2C+C.+W.&rft.au=Smith%2C+P.+E.&rft.au=Hewitt%2C+R.+L.&rft.au=Flinner%2C+R.+L.&rft.au=Creech%2C+Oscar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1408776&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrgan+transplantation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Xenotransplantation,_Cooper,_Kemp,_Reemtsma,_White,_1991-134"><a href="#cite_ref-Xenotransplantation,_Cooper,_Kemp,_Reemtsma,_White,_1991_134-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cKn9CAAAQBAJ&q=%22a+23-year-old+school+teacher+was+admitted+in+November+1963%22&pg=PA19">Xenotransplantation: The Transplantation of Organs and Tissues Between Species</a> edited and with chapters by David K.C. 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Transgenic animals: a new era in developmental biology and medicine. Biotechnology (Reading, Mass.), 16, 3–20.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_transplantation&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWorld_Health_Organization2008" class="citation book cs1">World Health Organization (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://apps.who.int/gb/ebwha/pdf_files/A62/A62_15-en.pdf">Human organ and tissue transplantation</a> (PDF). Geneva / New York: <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">WHO</a>. p. 13. Retrieved 24 December 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Human+organ+and+tissue+transplantation&rft.place=Geneva+%2F+New+York&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=WHO&rft.date=2008&rft.au=World+Health+Organization&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fapps.who.int%2Fgb%2Febwha%2Fpdf_files%2FA62%2FA62_15-en.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrgan+transplantation" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_transplantation&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output 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ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Organ_transplantation276" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Organ_transplantation" title="Template:Organ transplantation"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Organ_transplantation" title="Template talk:Organ transplantation"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Organ_transplantation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Organ transplantation"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Organ_transplantation276" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Organ transplantation</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allotransplantation" title="Allotransplantation">Allotransplantation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ABO-incompatible_transplantation" title="ABO-incompatible transplantation">ABOi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autotransplantation" title="Autotransplantation">Autotransplantation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenotransplantation" title="Xenotransplantation">Xenotransplantation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Transplantable_organs_and_tissues" title="Transplantable organs and tissues">Organs and tissues</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bone_grafting" title="Bone grafting">Bone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hematopoietic_stem_cell_transplantation" title="Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation">Bone marrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_transplant" title="Brain transplant">Brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corneal_transplantation" title="Corneal transplantation">Corneal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eye_transplantation" title="Eye transplantation">Eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Face_transplant" title="Face transplant">Face</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_transplantation" title="Hand transplantation">Hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head_transplant" title="Head transplant">Head</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heart_transplantation" title="Heart transplantation">Heart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heart%E2%80%93lung_transplant" title="Heart–lung transplant">Heart–lung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intestine_transplantation" title="Intestine transplantation">Intestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kidney_transplantation" title="Kidney transplantation">Kidney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liver_transplantation" title="Liver transplantation">Liver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lung_transplantation" title="Lung transplantation">Lung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pancreas_transplantation" title="Pancreas transplantation">Pancreas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islet_cell_transplantation" title="Islet cell transplantation">islet cell</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penis_transplantation" title="Penis transplantation">Penis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skin_grafting" title="Skin grafting">Skin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spleen_transplantation" title="Spleen transplantation">Spleen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thymus_transplantation" title="Thymus transplantation">Thymus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uterus_transplantation" title="Uterus transplantation">Uterus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaginal_transplantation" title="Vaginal transplantation">Vagina</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Graft_(surgery)" title="Graft (surgery)">Medical grafting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bone_grafting" title="Bone grafting">Bone grafting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skin_grafting" title="Skin grafting">Skin grafting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_bypass" title="Vascular bypass">Vascular bypass</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Organ_donation" title="Organ donation">Organ donation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Non-heart-beating_donation" title="Non-heart-beating donation">Non-heart-beating donation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organ_procurement" title="Organ procurement">Organ procurement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organ_trade" title="Organ trade">Organ trade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Complications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Graft-versus-host_disease" title="Graft-versus-host disease">Graft-versus-host disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-transplant_lymphoproliferative_disorder" title="Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder">Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transplant_rejection" title="Transplant rejection">Transplant rejection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Transplant networks and government departments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eurotransplant" title="Eurotransplant">Eurotransplant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gift_of_Life_Marrow_Registry" title="Gift of Life Marrow Registry">Gift of Life Marrow Registry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Tissue_Authority" title="Human Tissue Authority">Human Tissue Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LifeSharers" title="LifeSharers">LifeSharers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Marrow_Donor_Program" title="National Marrow Donor Program">National Marrow Donor Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Organization_for_Organ_and_Tissues_Donation_and_Transplantation_(Lebanon)" title="National Organization for Organ and Tissues Donation and Transplantation (Lebanon)">NOD-Lb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Transplant_Organization" title="National Transplant Organization">National Transplant Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NHS_Blood_and_Transplant" title="NHS Blood and Transplant">NHS Blood and Transplant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trillium_Gift_of_Life_Network" title="Trillium Gift of Life Network">Trillium Gift of Life Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Network_for_Organ_Sharing" title="United Network for Organ Sharing">United Network for Organ Sharing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Advocacy organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Nolan" title="Anthony Nolan">Anthony Nolan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_Cancer_UK" title="Blood Cancer UK">Blood Cancer UK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DKMS" title="DKMS">DKMS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halachic_Organ_Donor_Society" title="Halachic Organ Donor Society">Halachic Organ Donor Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kidney_Foundation_of_Canada" title="Kidney Foundation of Canada">Kidney Foundation of Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Kidney_Foundation" title="National Kidney Foundation">National Kidney Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ORGANIZE" title="ORGANIZE">ORGANIZE</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Joint societies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Nephrology" title="American Society of Nephrology">American Society of Nephrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Transplantation" title="American Society of Transplantation">American Society of Transplantation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Society_of_Transplantation" title="Canadian Society of Transplantation">Canadian Society of Transplantation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Countries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organ_transplantation_in_China" title="Organ transplantation in China">Organ transplantation in China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organ_harvesting_from_Falun_Gong_practitioners_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ harvesting from Falun Gong practitioners in China">harvesting from Falun Gong</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organ_donation_in_India" title="Organ donation in India">Organ donation in India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gurgaon_kidney_scandal" title="Gurgaon kidney scandal">Gurgaon kidney scandal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organ_transplantation_in_Israel" title="Organ transplantation in Israel">Organ transplantation in Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organ_transplantation_in_Japan" title="Organ transplantation in Japan">Organ transplantation in Japan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Heart</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Barnard" title="Christiaan Barnard">Christiaan Barnard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hardy_(surgeon)" title="James Hardy (surgeon)"> James D. Hardy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Kantrowitz" title="Adrian Kantrowitz">Adrian Kantrowitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Lower_(surgeon)" title="Richard Lower (surgeon)">Richard Lower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Shumway" title="Norman Shumway">Norman Shumway</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Kidney</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/J._Hartwell_Harrison" title="J. Hartwell Harrison">J. Hartwell Harrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_P._Merrill" title="John P. Merrill">John P. Merrill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Murray" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Murray">Joseph Murray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Ward_(British_campaigner)" title="Elizabeth Ward (British campaigner)">Elizabeth Ward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Woodruff" title="Michael Woodruff">Michael Woodruff</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Liver</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fikri_Alican" title="Fikri Alican">Fikri Alican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hardy_(surgeon)" title="James Hardy (surgeon)"> James D. Hardy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Starzl" title="Thomas Starzl">Thomas Starzl</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lung</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fikri_Alican" title="Fikri Alican">Fikri Alican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joel_D._Cooper" title="Joel D. Cooper">Joel D. Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Demikhov" title="Vladimir Demikhov">Vladimir Demikhov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hardy_(surgeon)" title="James Hardy (surgeon)"> James D. Hardy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pancreas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_C._Lillehei" title="Richard C. Lillehei">Richard C. Lillehei</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Penis</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_van_der_Merwe" title="André van der Merwe">André van der Merwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_Carrel" title="Alexis Carrel">Alexis Carrel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Michel_Dubernard" title="Jean-Michel Dubernard">Jean-Michel Dubernard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donna_Mansell" title="Donna Mansell">Donna Mansell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Reitz" title="Bruce Reitz">Bruce Reitz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_organ_transplant_donors_and_recipients" title="List of organ transplant donors and recipients">List of organ transplant donors and recipients</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomedical_tissue" title="Biomedical tissue">Biomedical tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmonton_protocol" title="Edmonton protocol">Edmonton protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eye_bank" title="Eye bank">Eye bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunosuppressive_drug" title="Immunosuppressive drug">Immunosuppressive drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lung_allocation_score" title="Lung allocation score">Lung allocation score</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_perfusion" title="Machine perfusion">Machine perfusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_body_irradiation" title="Total body irradiation">Total body irradiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankenstein%27s_monster" title="Frankenstein's monster">Frankenstein's monster</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Medicine685" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Medicine" title="Template:Medicine"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Medicine" title="Template talk:Medicine"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Medicine" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Medicine"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Medicine685" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">Medicine</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">Specialties</a> and <a href="/wiki/Subspecialty" title="Subspecialty">subspecialties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Surgery" title="Surgery">Surgery</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardiac_surgery" title="Cardiac surgery">Cardiac surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiothoracic_surgery" title="Cardiothoracic surgery">Cardiothoracic surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_surgery" title="Endocrine surgery">Endocrine surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eye_surgery" title="Eye surgery">Eye surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_surgery" title="General surgery">General surgery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colorectal_surgery" title="Colorectal surgery">Colorectal surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digestive_system_surgery" title="Digestive system surgery">Digestive system surgery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurosurgery" title="Neurosurgery">Neurosurgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_and_maxillofacial_surgery" title="Oral and maxillofacial surgery">Oral and maxillofacial surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthopedic_surgery" title="Orthopedic surgery">Orthopedic surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_surgery" title="Hand surgery">Hand surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otorhinolaryngology" title="Otorhinolaryngology">Otolaryngology</a> <ul><li>ENT</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pediatric_surgery" title="Pediatric surgery">Pediatric surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_surgery" title="Plastic surgery">Plastic surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_surgery" title="Reproductive surgery">Reproductive surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surgical_oncology" title="Surgical oncology">Surgical oncology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Transplant surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trauma_surgery" title="Trauma surgery">Trauma surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urology" title="Urology">Urology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andrology" title="Andrology">Andrology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_surgery" title="Vascular surgery">Vascular surgery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Internal_medicine" title="Internal medicine">Internal medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allergy" title="Allergy">Allergy</a> / <a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angiology" title="Angiology">Angiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiology" title="Cardiology">Cardiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endocrinology" title="Endocrinology">Endocrinology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastroenterology" title="Gastroenterology">Gastroenterology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hepatology" title="Hepatology">Hepatology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geriatrics" title="Geriatrics">Geriatrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hematology" title="Hematology">Hematology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospital_medicine" title="Hospital medicine">Hospital medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infectious_diseases_(medical_specialty)" title="Infectious diseases (medical specialty)">Infectious diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nephrology" title="Nephrology">Nephrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oncology" title="Oncology">Oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulmonology" title="Pulmonology">Pulmonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rheumatology" title="Rheumatology">Rheumatology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Obstetrics_and_gynaecology" title="Obstetrics and gynaecology">Obstetrics and gynaecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gynaecology" title="Gynaecology">Gynaecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynecologic_oncology" title="Gynecologic oncology">Gynecologic oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal%E2%80%93fetal_medicine" title="Maternal–fetal medicine">Maternal–fetal medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetrics" title="Obstetrics">Obstetrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_endocrinology_and_infertility" title="Reproductive endocrinology and infertility">Reproductive endocrinology and infertility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urogynecology" title="Urogynecology">Urogynecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medical_diagnosis" title="Medical diagnosis">Diagnostic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radiology" title="Radiology">Radiology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interventional_radiology" title="Interventional radiology">Interventional radiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroradiology" title="Neuroradiology">Neuroradiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_medicine" title="Nuclear medicine">Nuclear medicine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">Pathology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_pathology" title="Anatomical pathology">Anatomical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_pathology" title="Clinical pathology">Clinical pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_chemistry" title="Clinical chemistry">Clinical chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytopathology" title="Cytopathology">Cytopathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_microbiology" title="Medical microbiology">Medical microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfusion_medicine" title="Transfusion medicine">Transfusion medicine</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Addiction_medicine" title="Addiction medicine">Addiction medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolescent_medicine" title="Adolescent medicine">Adolescent medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anesthesiology" title="Anesthesiology">Anesthesiology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Obstetric_anesthesiology" title="Obstetric anesthesiology">Obstetric anesthesiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurosurgical_anesthesia" title="Neurosurgical anesthesia">Neurosurgical anesthesiology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_medicine" title="Aviation medicine">Aviation medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dermatology" title="Dermatology">Dermatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster_medicine" title="Disaster medicine">Disaster medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_medicine" title="Diving medicine">Diving medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_medicine" title="Emergency medicine">Emergency medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_gathering_medicine" title="Mass gathering medicine">Mass gathering medicine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_medicine" title="Family medicine">Family medicine</a> / <a href="/wiki/General_practice" title="General practice">General practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospital_medicine" title="Hospital medicine">Hospital medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensive_care_medicine" title="Intensive care medicine">Intensive care medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_genetics" title="Medical genetics">Medical genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narcology" title="Narcology">Narcology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurology" title="Neurology">Neurology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_neurophysiology" title="Clinical neurophysiology">Clinical neurophysiology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_medicine" title="Occupational medicine">Occupational medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ophthalmology" title="Ophthalmology">Ophthalmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_medicine" title="Oral medicine">Oral medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_management" title="Pain management">Pain management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palliative_care" title="Palliative care">Palliative care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pediatrics" title="Pediatrics">Pediatrics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neonatology" title="Neonatology">Neonatology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phlebologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Phlebologist">Phlebology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_medicine_and_rehabilitation" title="Physical medicine and rehabilitation">Physical medicine and rehabilitation</a> (PM&R)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preventive_healthcare" title="Preventive healthcare">Preventive medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_healthcare" title="Prison healthcare">Prison healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">Psychiatry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Addiction_psychiatry" title="Addiction psychiatry">Addiction psychiatry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">Radiation oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_medicine" title="Reproductive medicine">Reproductive medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_medicine" title="Sexual medicine">Sexual medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Venereology" title="Venereology">Venereology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sleep_medicine" title="Sleep medicine">Sleep medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_medicine" title="Sports medicine">Sports medicine</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Transplantation medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_medicine" title="Tropical medicine">Tropical medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Travel_medicine" title="Travel medicine">Travel medicine</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medical_education" title="Medical education">Medical education</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_school" title="Medical school">Medical school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Medicine,_Bachelor_of_Surgery" title="Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery">Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Medical_Sciences" title="Bachelor of Medical Sciences">Bachelor of Medical Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_of_Medicine" title="Master of Medicine">Master of Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_of_Surgery" title="Master of Surgery">Master of Surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Medicine" title="Doctor of Medicine">Doctor of Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Osteopathic_Medicine" title="Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine">Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MD%E2%80%93PhD" title="MD–PhD">MD–PhD</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_Scientist_Training_Program" title="Medical Scientist Training Program">Medical Scientist Training Program</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_health_professions" title="Allied health professions">Allied health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_oncology" title="Molecular oncology">Molecular oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanomedicine" title="Nanomedicine">Nanomedicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personalized_medicine" title="Personalized medicine">Personalized medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_health" title="Rural health">Rural health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Therapy" title="Therapy">Therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veterinary_medicine" title="Veterinary medicine">Veterinary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physician" title="Physician">Physician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_physician" title="Chief physician">Chief physician</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">History of medicine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Medicine" title="Category:Medicine">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Medicine" class="extiw" title="commons:Medicine">Commons</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Medicine" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Medicine">Wikiproject</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/20px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/40px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Medicine" title="Portal:Medicine">Portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/20px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/40px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_medicine" title="Outline of medicine">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q105196#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1500" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q105196#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1500" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q105196#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" 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