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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Propfan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.3 Propfan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Propfan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Advanced_technology_engine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Advanced_technology_engine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.4 Advanced technology engine </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Advanced_technology_engine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ram_compression" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ram_compression"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.5 Ram compression </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ram_compression-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-continuous_combustion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-continuous_combustion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.6 Non-continuous combustion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-continuous_combustion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_types_of_jet_propulsion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_types_of_jet_propulsion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Other types of jet propulsion </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Other_types_of_jet_propulsion-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Other types of jet propulsion subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Other_types_of_jet_propulsion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rocket" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rocket"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Rocket </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rocket-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hybrid" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hybrid"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Hybrid </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hybrid-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Water_jet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Water_jet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Water jet </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Water_jet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_physical_principles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_physical_principles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 General physical principles </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-General_physical_principles-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle General physical principles subsection </button> <ul id="toc-General_physical_principles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Propelling_nozzle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Propelling_nozzle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Propelling nozzle </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Propelling_nozzle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thrust" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thrust"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Thrust </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thrust-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Energy_efficiency_relating_to_aircraft_jet_engines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Energy_efficiency_relating_to_aircraft_jet_engines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Energy efficiency relating to aircraft jet engines </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Energy_efficiency_relating_to_aircraft_jet_engines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consumption_of_fuel_or_propellant" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consumption_of_fuel_or_propellant"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Consumption of fuel or propellant </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consumption_of_fuel_or_propellant-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thrust-to-weight_ratio" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thrust-to-weight_ratio"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Thrust-to-weight ratio </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thrust-to-weight_ratio-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparison_of_types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparison_of_types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 Comparison of types </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparison_of_types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Altitude_and_speed" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Altitude_and_speed"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.7 Altitude and speed </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Altitude_and_speed-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Noise" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Noise"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.8 Noise </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Noise-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cooling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cooling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.9 Cooling </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cooling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Operation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Operation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Operation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Operation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Jet engine</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 78 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-78" aria-hidden="true" > 78 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Straalmotor" title="Straalmotor – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Straalmotor" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%83_%D9%86%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%AB" title="محرك نفاث – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="محرك نفاث" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_de_reaici%C3%B3n" title="Motor de reaición – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Motor de reaición" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaktiv_m%C3%BCh%C9%99rrik" title="Reaktiv mühərrik – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Reaktiv mühərrik" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%AA_%D9%85%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1" title="جت موتور – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="جت موتور" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%9F_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%9E%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8" title="জেট ইঞ্জিন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="জেট ইঞ্জিন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB" title="Турбореактивен двигател – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Турбореактивен двигател" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mlazni_motor" title="Mlazni motor – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Mlazni motor" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_de_reacci%C3%B3" title="Motor de reacció – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Motor de reacció" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proudov%C3%BD_motor" title="Proudový motor – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Proudový motor" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jetmotor" title="Jetmotor – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Jetmotor" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbinen-Strahltriebwerk" title="Turbinen-Strahltriebwerk – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Turbinen-Strahltriebwerk" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaktiivmootor" title="Reaktiivmootor – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Reaktiivmootor" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%AE%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%82_%CE%B1%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B9%CF%8E%CE%B8%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%B7%CF%82" title="Κινητήρας αεριώθησης – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κινητήρας αεριώθησης" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_de_reacci%C3%B3n" title="Motor de reacción – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Motor de reacción" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jetmotoro" title="Jetmotoro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Jetmotoro" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erreakzio-motor" title="Erreakzio-motor – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Erreakzio-motor" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%AC%D8%AA" title="موتور جت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="موتور جت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moteur_%C3%A0_r%C3%A9action" title="Moteur à réaction – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Moteur à réaction" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scairdinneall" title="Scairdinneall – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Scairdinneall" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%9C%ED%8A%B8_%EC%97%94%EC%A7%84" title="제트 엔진 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="제트 엔진" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8C%D5%A5%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%BF%D5%AB%D5%BE_%D5%B7%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%AA%D5%AB%D5%B9%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Ռեակտիվ շարժիչներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ռեակտիվ շարժիչներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9F_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%A8" title="जेट इंजन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="जेट इंजन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mlazni_motor" title="Mlazni motor – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Mlazni motor" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprico-motoro" title="Sprico-motoro – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Sprico-motoro" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesin_jet" title="Mesin jet – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Mesin jet" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esoreattore" title="Esoreattore – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Esoreattore" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A2_%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%9F" title="מנוע סילון – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מנוע סילון" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%B0%E1%83%90%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%90%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%AB%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%90" title="ჰაერრეაქტიული ძრავა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ჰაერრეაქტიული ძრავა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%98%D1%83%D0%B5-%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D1%82%D1%96_%D2%9B%D0%BE%D0%B7%D2%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%82%D2%9B%D1%8B%D1%88" title="Әуе-реактивті қозғалтқыш – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Әуе-реактивті қозғалтқыш" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motora_jet" title="Motora jet – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Motora jet" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machina_pyraulocinetica" title="Machina pyraulocinetica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Machina pyraulocinetica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C4%81zes_str%C5%ABklas_dzin%C4%93js" title="Gāzes strūklas dzinējs – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Gāzes strūklas dzinējs" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaktyvinis_variklis" title="Reaktyvinis variklis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Reaktyvinis variklis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sjtraolmotor" title="Sjtraolmotor – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Sjtraolmotor" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sug%C3%A1rhajt%C3%B3m%C5%B1" title="Sugárhajtómű – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Sugárhajtómű" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Млазен мотор – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Млазен мотор" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%8E%E0%B5%BB%E2%80%8C%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%BF%E0%B5%BB" title="ജെറ്റ് എൻ‌ജിൻ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ജെറ്റ് എൻ‌ജിൻ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9F_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8" title="जेट इंजिन – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="जेट इंजिन" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%83_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%AB" title="المحرك النفاث – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="المحرك النفاث" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enjin_jet" title="Enjin jet – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Enjin jet" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masin_jet" title="Masin jet – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Masin jet" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%82%E1%80%BB%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%A1%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%82%E1%80%BB%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA" title="ဂျက်အင်ဂျင် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဂျက်အင်ဂျင်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Straalmotor" title="Straalmotor – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Straalmotor" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9F_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8" title="जेट इन्जिन – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="जेट इन्जिन" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B8%E3%82%A7%E3%83%83%E3%83%88%E3%82%A8%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B8%E3%83%B3" title="ジェットエンジン – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ジェットエンジン" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jetmotor" title="Jetmotor – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Jetmotor" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jetmotor" title="Jetmotor – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Jetmotor" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_de_reaccion" title="Motor de reaccion – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Motor de reaccion" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Havo-reaktiv_dvigatel" title="Havo-reaktiv dvigatel – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Havo-reaktiv dvigatel" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9C%E0%A9%88%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%9F_%E0%A8%87%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%A3" title="ਜੈੱਟ ਇੰਜਣ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਜੈੱਟ ਇੰਜਣ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%8C%D9%B9_%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%86" title="جیٹ انجن – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="جیٹ انجن" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_injin" title="Jet injin – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Jet injin" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silnik_odrzutowy" title="Silnik odrzutowy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Silnik odrzutowy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_a_rea%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Motor a reação – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Motor a reação" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_cu_reac%C8%9Bie" title="Motor cu reacție – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Motor cu reacție" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Реактивный двигатель – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Реактивный двигатель" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motori_reaktiv" title="Motori reaktiv – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Motori reaktiv" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%A2%E0%B7%99%E0%B6%A7%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B6%91%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%A2%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A" title="ජෙට් එන්ජින් – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ජෙට් එන්ජින්" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_engine" title="Jet engine – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Jet engine" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%BAdov%C3%BD_motor" title="Prúdový motor – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Prúdový motor" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaktivni_motor" title="Reaktivni motor – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Reaktivni motor" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B2%D9%88%DB%8E%D9%86%DB%95%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%AC%DB%8E%D8%AA" title="بزوێنەری جێت – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="بزوێنەری جێت" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Млазни мотор – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Млазни мотор" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mlazni_motor" title="Mlazni motor – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Mlazni motor" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suihkumoottori" title="Suihkumoottori – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Suihkumoottori" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jetmotor" title="Jetmotor – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Jetmotor" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF" title="தாரைப் பொறி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="தாரைப் பொறி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%83%D2%B3%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D3%A3" title="Муҳаррики реактивӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Муҳаррики реактивӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8E%A0%E1%8F%AF%E1%8F%84%E1%8E%B5_%E1%8F%A5%E1%8F%B3_%E1%8E%A0%E1%8F%82%E1%8E%A9%E1%8F%8D%E1%8F%97%E1%8F%8D%E1%8E%A9" title="ᎠᏯᏄᎵ ᏥᏳ ᎠᏂᎩᏍᏗᏍᎩ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᎠᏯᏄᎵ ᏥᏳ ᎠᏂᎩᏍᏗᏍᎩ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᏣᎳᎩ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_motoru" title="Jet motoru – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Jet motoru" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B3%D1%83%D0%BD" title="Реактивний двигун – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Реактивний двигун" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%8C%D9%B9_%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%86" title="جیٹ انجن – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="جیٹ انجن" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BB%99ng_c%C6%A1_ph%E1%BA%A3n_l%E1%BB%B1c_kh%C3%B4ng_kh%C3%AD" title="Động cơ phản lực không khí – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Động cơ phản lực không khí" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_engine" title="Jet engine – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Jet engine" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%96%B7%E6%B0%94%E5%8F%91%E5%8A%A8%E6%9C%BA" title="喷气发动机 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="喷气发动机" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%99%B4%E5%B0%84%E5%BC%95%E6%93%8E" title="噴射引擎 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="噴射引擎" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%96%B7%E6%B0%94%E5%8F%91%E5%8A%A8%E6%9C%BA" title="喷气发动机 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="喷气发动机" data-language-autonym="中文" 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produces thrust by emitting a jet of gas</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above">Jet engine</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:F100_F-15_engine.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/F100_F-15_engine.JPG/220px-F100_F-15_engine.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/F100_F-15_engine.JPG/330px-F100_F-15_engine.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/F100_F-15_engine.JPG/440px-F100_F-15_engine.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1275" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">A <a href="/wiki/Pratt_%26_Whitney_F100" title="Pratt & Whitney F100">Pratt & Whitney F100</a> <a href="/wiki/Turbofan" title="Turbofan">turbofan</a> engine for the <a href="/wiki/F-15_Eagle" class="mw-redirect" title="F-15 Eagle">F-15 Eagle</a> being tested in the <a href="/wiki/Hush_house" title="Hush house">hush house</a> at <a href="/wiki/Florida_Air_National_Guard" title="Florida Air National Guard">Florida Air National Guard</a> base</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Classification</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine" title="Internal combustion engine">Internal combustion engine</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Industry</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Aerospace_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerospace industry">Aerospace</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Application</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Aviation" title="Aviation">Aviation</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fuel source</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Jet_fuel" title="Jet fuel">Jet fuel</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Components</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Compressor#Dynamic" title="Compressor">Dynamic compressor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fan_(machine)" title="Fan (machine)">Fan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Combustor" title="Combustor">Combustor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turbine" title="Turbine">Turbine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Propelling_nozzle" title="Propelling nozzle">Propelling nozzle</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Inventor</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/John_Barber_(engineer)" title="John Barber (engineer)">John Barber</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frank_Whittle" title="Frank Whittle">Frank Whittle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hans_von_Ohain" title="Hans von Ohain">Hans von Ohain</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Invented</th><td class="infobox-data">1791, 1928, 1935</td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:20140308-Jet_engine_airflow_during_take-off.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/20140308-Jet_engine_airflow_during_take-off.jpg/220px-20140308-Jet_engine_airflow_during_take-off.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/20140308-Jet_engine_airflow_during_take-off.jpg/330px-20140308-Jet_engine_airflow_during_take-off.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/20140308-Jet_engine_airflow_during_take-off.jpg/440px-20140308-Jet_engine_airflow_during_take-off.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3022" data-file-height="2015" /></a><figcaption>Jet engine during take-off showing visible hot exhaust (<a href="/wiki/Germanwings" title="Germanwings">Germanwings</a> <a href="/wiki/Airbus_A319" title="Airbus A319">Airbus A319</a>)</figcaption></figure> A jet engine is a type of <a href="/wiki/Reaction_engine" title="Reaction engine">reaction engine</a>, discharging a fast-moving <a href="/wiki/Jet_(fluid)" title="Jet (fluid)">jet</a> of heated gas (usually air) that generates <a href="/wiki/Thrust" title="Thrust">thrust</a> by <a href="/wiki/Jet_propulsion" title="Jet propulsion">jet propulsion</a>. While this broad definition may include <a href="/wiki/Rocket_engine" title="Rocket engine">rocket</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pump-jet" title="Pump-jet">water jet</a>, and hybrid propulsion, the term jet engine typically refers to an internal combustion <a href="/wiki/Airbreathing_jet_engine" title="Airbreathing jet engine">air-breathing jet engine</a> such as a <a href="/wiki/Turbojet" title="Turbojet">turbojet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turbofan" title="Turbofan">turbofan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ramjet" title="Ramjet">ramjet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pulse_jet_engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulse jet engine">pulse jet</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Scramjet" title="Scramjet">scramjet</a>. In general, jet engines are <a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine" title="Internal combustion engine">internal combustion engines</a>. Air-breathing jet engines typically feature a <a href="/wiki/Axial_compressor" title="Axial compressor">rotating air compressor</a> powered by a <a href="/wiki/Turbine" title="Turbine">turbine</a>, with the leftover power providing thrust through the <a href="/wiki/Propelling_nozzle" title="Propelling nozzle">propelling nozzle</a>—this process is known as the <a href="/wiki/Brayton_cycle" title="Brayton cycle">Brayton thermodynamic cycle</a>. <a href="/wiki/Jet_aircraft" title="Jet aircraft">Jet aircraft</a> use such engines for long-distance travel. Early jet aircraft used turbojet engines that were relatively inefficient for subsonic flight. Most modern subsonic jet aircraft use more complex <a href="/wiki/High-bypass_turbofan" class="mw-redirect" title="High-bypass turbofan">high-bypass turbofan engines</a>. They give higher speed and greater <a href="/wiki/Fuel_efficiency" title="Fuel efficiency">fuel efficiency</a> than piston and propeller <a href="/wiki/Aeroengine" class="mw-redirect" title="Aeroengine">aeroengines</a> over long distances. A few air-breathing engines made for high-speed applications (ramjets and <a href="/wiki/Scramjet" title="Scramjet">scramjets</a>) use the <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_pressure" title="Dynamic pressure">ram effect</a> of the vehicle's speed instead of a mechanical compressor. The thrust of a typical <a href="/wiki/Jetliner" class="mw-redirect" title="Jetliner">jetliner</a> engine went from 5,000 lbf (22 kN) (<a href="/wiki/De_Havilland_Ghost" title="De Havilland Ghost">de Havilland Ghost</a> turbojet) in the 1950s to 115,000 lbf (510 kN) (<a href="/wiki/General_Electric_GE90" title="General Electric GE90">General Electric GE90</a> turbofan) in the 1990s, and their reliability went from 40 in-flight shutdowns per 100,000 engine flight hours to less than 1 per 100,000 in the late 1990s. This, combined with greatly decreased fuel consumption, permitted routine <a href="/wiki/ETOPS" title="ETOPS">transatlantic flight by twin-engined airliners</a> by the turn of the century, where previously a similar journey would have required multiple fuel stops.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jet_engine&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_jet_engine" title="History of the jet engine">History of the jet engine</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_jet_power" title="Timeline of jet power">Timeline of jet power</a></div> The principle of the jet engine is not new; however, the technical advances necessary to make the idea work did not come to fruition until the 20th century. A rudimentary demonstration of jet power dates back to the <a href="/wiki/Aeolipile" title="Aeolipile">aeolipile</a>, a device described by <a href="/wiki/Hero_of_Alexandria" title="Hero of Alexandria">Hero of Alexandria</a> in <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">1st-century Egypt</a>. This device directed <a href="/wiki/Steam_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Steam power">steam power</a> through two nozzles to cause a sphere to spin rapidly on its axis. It was seen as a curiosity. Meanwhile, practical applications of the <a href="/wiki/Turbine" title="Turbine">turbine</a> can be seen in the <a href="/wiki/Water_wheel" title="Water wheel">water wheel</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Windmill" title="Windmill">windmill</a>. Historians have further traced the theoretical origin of the principles of jet engines to traditional Chinese firework and rocket propulsion systems. Such devices' use for flight is documented in the story of Ottoman soldier <a href="/wiki/Lag%C3%A2ri_Hasan_%C3%87elebi" title="Lagâri Hasan Çelebi">Lagâri Hasan Çelebi</a>, who reportedly achieved flight using a cone-shaped rocket in 1633.<a href="#cite_note-Hendrickson-2">[2]</a> The earliest attempts at airbreathing jet engines were hybrid designs in which an external power source first compressed air, which was then mixed with fuel and burned for jet thrust. The Italian <a href="/wiki/Caproni_Campini_N.1" title="Caproni Campini N.1">Caproni Campini N.1</a>, and the Japanese <a href="/wiki/Tsu-11" class="mw-redirect" title="Tsu-11">Tsu-11</a> engine intended to power <a href="/wiki/Ohka" class="mw-redirect" title="Ohka">Ohka</a> <a href="/wiki/Kamikaze" title="Kamikaze">kamikaze</a> planes towards the end of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> were unsuccessful. Even before the start of World War II, engineers were beginning to realize that engines driving propellers were approaching limits due to issues related to propeller efficiency,<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> which declined as blade tips approached the <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_sound" title="Speed of sound">speed of sound</a>. If aircraft performance were to increase beyond such a barrier, a different propulsion mechanism was necessary. This was the motivation behind the development of the gas turbine engine, the most common form of jet engine. The key to a practical jet engine was the <a href="/wiki/Gas_turbine" title="Gas turbine">gas turbine</a>, extracting power from the engine itself to drive the <a href="/wiki/Gas_compressor" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas compressor">compressor</a>. The gas turbine was not a new idea: the patent for a stationary turbine was granted to <a href="/wiki/John_Barber_(engineer)" title="John Barber (engineer)">John Barber</a> in England in 1791. The first gas turbine to successfully run self-sustaining was built in 1903 by Norwegian engineer <a href="/wiki/%C3%86gidius_Elling" title="Ægidius Elling">Ægidius Elling</a>.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Such engines did not reach manufacture due to issues of safety, reliability, weight and, especially, sustained operation. The first patent for using a gas turbine to power an aircraft was filed in 1921 by <a href="/wiki/Maxime_Guillaume" title="Maxime Guillaume">Maxime Guillaume</a>.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> His engine was an axial-flow turbojet, but was never constructed, as it would have required considerable advances over the state of the art in compressors. <a href="/wiki/Alan_Arnold_Griffith" title="Alan Arnold Griffith">Alan Arnold Griffith</a> published An Aerodynamic Theory of Turbine Design in 1926 leading to experimental work at the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Aircraft_Establishment" title="Royal Aircraft Establishment">RAE</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Whittle_Jet_Engine_W2-700.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Whittle_Jet_Engine_W2-700.JPG/220px-Whittle_Jet_Engine_W2-700.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Whittle_Jet_Engine_W2-700.JPG/330px-Whittle_Jet_Engine_W2-700.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Whittle_Jet_Engine_W2-700.JPG/440px-Whittle_Jet_Engine_W2-700.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1092" data-file-height="938" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Whittle_W.2" class="mw-redirect" title="Whittle W.2">Whittle W.2</a>/700 engine flew in the <a href="/wiki/Gloster_E.28/39" title="Gloster E.28/39">Gloster E.28/39</a>, the first British aircraft to fly with a turbojet engine, and the <a href="/wiki/Gloster_Meteor" title="Gloster Meteor">Gloster Meteor</a></figcaption></figure> In 1928, <a href="/wiki/RAF_College_Cranwell" class="mw-redirect" title="RAF College Cranwell">RAF College Cranwell</a> cadet <a href="/wiki/Frank_Whittle" title="Frank Whittle">Frank Whittle</a> formally submitted his ideas for a turbojet to his superiors.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> In October 1929, he developed his ideas further.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> On 16 January 1930, in England, Whittle submitted his first patent (granted in 1932).<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> The patent showed a two-stage <a href="/wiki/Axial_compressor" title="Axial compressor">axial compressor</a> feeding a single-sided <a href="/wiki/Centrifugal_compressor" title="Centrifugal compressor">centrifugal compressor</a>. Practical axial compressors were made possible by ideas from <a href="/wiki/Alan_Arnold_Griffith" title="Alan Arnold Griffith">A.A.Griffith</a> in a seminal paper in 1926 ("An Aerodynamic Theory of Turbine Design"). Whittle would later concentrate on the simpler centrifugal compressor only. Whittle was unable to interest the government in his invention, and development continued at a slow pace. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ohain_USAF_He_178_page61.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Ohain_USAF_He_178_page61.jpg/220px-Ohain_USAF_He_178_page61.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Ohain_USAF_He_178_page61.jpg/330px-Ohain_USAF_He_178_page61.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Ohain_USAF_He_178_page61.jpg/440px-Ohain_USAF_He_178_page61.jpg 2x" data-file-width="694" data-file-height="317" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Heinkel_He_178" title="Heinkel He 178">Heinkel He 178</a>, the world's first aircraft to fly purely on turbojet power</figcaption></figure> In Spain, pilot and engineer <a href="/wiki/Virgilio_Leret_Ruiz" class="mw-redirect" title="Virgilio Leret Ruiz">Virgilio Leret Ruiz</a> was granted a patent for a jet engine design in March 1935. <a href="/wiki/Second_Spanish_Republic" title="Second Spanish Republic">Republican</a> president <a href="/wiki/Manuel_Aza%C3%B1a" title="Manuel Azaña">Manuel Azaña</a> arranged for initial construction at the <a href="/wiki/Hispano-Suiza" title="Hispano-Suiza">Hispano-Suiza</a> aircraft factory in Madrid in 1936, but Leret was executed months later by <a href="/wiki/Francoist_Spain" title="Francoist Spain">Francoist</a> <a href="/wiki/Spanish_protectorate_in_Morocco" title="Spanish protectorate in Morocco">Moroccan</a> troops after unsuccessfully defending his seaplane base on the first days of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a>. His plans, hidden from Francoists, were secretly given to the British embassy in Madrid a few years later by his wife, <a href="/wiki/Carlota_O%27Neill" title="Carlota O'Neill">Carlota O'Neill</a>, upon her release from prison.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> In 1935, <a href="/wiki/Hans_von_Ohain" title="Hans von Ohain">Hans von Ohain</a> started work on a similar design to Whittle's in Germany, both compressor and turbine being radial, on opposite sides of the same disc, initially unaware of Whittle's work.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> Von Ohain's first device was strictly experimental and could run only under external power, but he was able to demonstrate the basic concept. Ohain was then introduced to <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Heinkel" title="Ernst Heinkel">Ernst Heinkel</a>, one of the larger aircraft industrialists of the day, who immediately saw the promise of the design. Heinkel had recently purchased the Hirth engine company, and Ohain and his master machinist Max Hahn were set up there as a new division of the Hirth company. They had their first <a href="/wiki/Heinkel_HeS_1" title="Heinkel HeS 1">HeS 1</a> centrifugal engine running by September 1937. Unlike Whittle's design, Ohain used <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> as fuel, supplied under external pressure. Their subsequent designs culminated in the <a href="/wiki/Gasoline" title="Gasoline">gasoline</a>-fuelled <a href="/wiki/Heinkel_HeS_3" title="Heinkel HeS 3">HeS 3</a> of 5 kN (1,100 lbf), which was fitted to Heinkel's simple and compact <a href="/wiki/Heinkel_He_178" title="Heinkel He 178">He 178</a> airframe and flown by <a href="/wiki/Erich_Warsitz" title="Erich Warsitz">Erich Warsitz</a> in the early morning of August 27, 1939, from <a href="/wiki/Rostock" title="Rostock">Rostock</a>-Marienehe <a href="/wiki/Aerodrome" title="Aerodrome">aerodrome</a>, an impressively short time for development. The He 178 was the world's first jet plane.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> Heinkel applied for a US patent covering the Aircraft Power Plant by Hans Joachim Pabst von Ohain on May 31, 1939; patent number US2256198, with M Hahn referenced as inventor. Von Ohain's design, an axial-flow engine, as opposed to Whittle's centrifugal flow engine, was eventually adopted by most manufacturers by the 1950s.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Junkers_Jumo_004.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Junkers_Jumo_004.jpg/220px-Junkers_Jumo_004.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Junkers_Jumo_004.jpg/330px-Junkers_Jumo_004.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Junkers_Jumo_004.jpg 2x" data-file-width="436" data-file-height="238" /></a><figcaption>A cutaway of the Junkers Jumo 004 engine</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austrian</a> <a href="/wiki/Anselm_Franz" title="Anselm Franz">Anselm Franz</a> of <a href="/wiki/Junkers_(Aircraft)" class="mw-redirect" title="Junkers (Aircraft)">Junkers</a>' engine division (Junkers Motoren or "Jumo") introduced the <a href="/wiki/Axial-flow_compressor" class="mw-redirect" title="Axial-flow compressor">axial-flow compressor</a> in their jet engine. Jumo was assigned the next engine number in the <a href="/wiki/Reich_Air_Ministry" class="mw-redirect" title="Reich Air Ministry">RLM</a> 109-0xx numbering sequence for gas turbine aircraft powerplants, "004", and the result was the <a href="/wiki/Junkers_Jumo_004" title="Junkers Jumo 004">Jumo 004</a> engine. After many lesser technical difficulties were solved, mass production of this engine started in 1944 as a powerplant for the world's first jet-<a href="/wiki/Fighter_aircraft" title="Fighter aircraft">fighter aircraft</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Messerschmitt_Me_262" title="Messerschmitt Me 262">Messerschmitt Me 262</a> (and later the world's first jet-<a href="/wiki/Bomber" title="Bomber">bomber</a> aircraft, the <a href="/wiki/Arado_Ar_234" class="mw-redirect" title="Arado Ar 234">Arado Ar 234</a>). A variety of reasons conspired to delay the engine's availability, causing the fighter to arrive too late to improve Germany's position in <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, however this was the first jet engine to be used in service. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gloster_Meteor_III_ExCC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Gloster_Meteor_III_ExCC.jpg/220px-Gloster_Meteor_III_ExCC.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Gloster_Meteor_III_ExCC.jpg/330px-Gloster_Meteor_III_ExCC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Gloster_Meteor_III_ExCC.jpg/440px-Gloster_Meteor_III_ExCC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Gloster Meteor F.3s. The <a href="/wiki/Gloster_Meteor" title="Gloster Meteor">Gloster Meteor</a> was the first British jet fighter and the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies'</a> only jet aircraft to achieve combat operations during World War II.</figcaption></figure> Meanwhile, in Britain the <a href="/wiki/Gloster_E28/39" class="mw-redirect" title="Gloster E28/39">Gloster E28/39</a> had its maiden flight on 15 May 1941 and the <a href="/wiki/Gloster_Meteor" title="Gloster Meteor">Gloster Meteor</a> finally entered service with the <a href="/wiki/RAF" class="mw-redirect" title="RAF">RAF</a> in July 1944. These were powered by turbojet engines from Power Jets Ltd., set up by Frank Whittle. The first two operational turbojet aircraft, the Messerschmitt Me 262 and then the Gloster Meteor entered service within three months of each other in 1944; the Me 262 in April and the Gloster Meteor in July. The Meteor only saw around 15 aircraft enter World War II action, while up to 1400 Me 262 were produced, with 300 entering combat, delivering the first ground attacks and air combat victories of jet planes.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> Following the end of the war the German jet aircraft and jet engines were extensively studied by the victorious allies and contributed to work on early <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a> and US jet fighters. The legacy of the axial-flow engine is seen in the fact that practically all jet engines on <a href="/wiki/Fixed-wing_aircraft" title="Fixed-wing aircraft">fixed-wing aircraft</a> have had some inspiration from this design. By the 1950s, the jet engine was almost universal in combat aircraft, with the exception of cargo, liaison and other specialty types. By this point, some of the British designs were already cleared for civilian use, and had appeared on early models like the <a href="/wiki/De_Havilland_Comet" title="De Havilland Comet">de Havilland Comet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Avro_Canada_Jetliner" class="mw-redirect" title="Avro Canada Jetliner">Avro Canada Jetliner</a>. By the 1960s, all large civilian aircraft were also jet powered, leaving the <a href="/wiki/Reciprocating_engine" title="Reciprocating engine">piston engine</a> in low-cost niche roles such as <a href="/wiki/Cargo" title="Cargo">cargo</a> flights. The efficiency of turbojet engines was still rather worse than piston engines, but by the 1970s, with the advent of <a href="/wiki/High-bypass_turbofan_engine" class="mw-redirect" title="High-bypass turbofan engine">high-bypass turbofan jet engines</a> (an innovation not foreseen by the early commentators such as <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Buckingham" title="Edgar Buckingham">Edgar Buckingham</a>, at high speeds and high altitudes that seemed absurd to them), fuel efficiency was about the same as the best piston and propeller engines.<a href="#cite_note-hist8-19">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Uses">Uses</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jet_engine&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Uses">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JT9D_on_747.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/JT9D_on_747.JPG/220px-JT9D_on_747.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/JT9D_on_747.JPG/330px-JT9D_on_747.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/JT9D_on_747.JPG/440px-JT9D_on_747.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2112" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Pratt_%26_Whitney_JT9D" title="Pratt & Whitney JT9D">JT9D</a> turbofan jet engine installed on a <a href="/wiki/Boeing_747" title="Boeing 747">Boeing 747</a> aircraft.</figcaption></figure> Jet engines power <a href="/wiki/Jet_aircraft" title="Jet aircraft">jet aircraft</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cruise_missile" title="Cruise missile">cruise missiles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Unmanned_aerial_vehicle" title="Unmanned aerial vehicle">unmanned aerial vehicles</a>. In the form of <a href="/wiki/Rocket_engine" title="Rocket engine">rocket engines</a> they power <a href="/wiki/Model_rocketry" class="mw-redirect" title="Model rocketry">model rocketry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spaceflight" title="Spaceflight">spaceflight</a>, and military <a href="/wiki/Missile" title="Missile">missiles</a>. Jet engines have propelled high speed cars, particularly <a href="/wiki/Drag_racer" class="mw-redirect" title="Drag racer">drag racers</a>, with the all-time record held by a <a href="/wiki/Rocket_car" title="Rocket car">rocket car</a>. A turbofan powered car, <a href="/wiki/ThrustSSC" title="ThrustSSC">ThrustSSC</a>, currently holds the <a href="/wiki/Land_speed_record" title="Land speed record">land speed record</a>. Jet engine designs are frequently modified for non-aircraft applications, as <a href="/wiki/Gas_turbine" title="Gas turbine">industrial gas turbines</a> or <a href="/wiki/Marine_engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine engine">marine powerplants</a>. These are used in electrical power generation, for powering water, natural gas, or oil pumps, and providing propulsion for ships and locomotives. Industrial gas turbines can create up to 50,000 shaft horsepower. Many of these engines are derived from older military turbojets such as the Pratt & Whitney J57 and J75 models. There is also a derivative of the P&W JT8D low-bypass turbofan that creates up to 35,000 horsepower (HP) . Jet engines are also sometimes developed into, or share certain components such as engine cores, with <a href="/wiki/Turboshaft" title="Turboshaft">turboshaft</a> and <a href="/wiki/Turboprop" title="Turboprop">turboprop</a> engines, which are forms of gas turbine engines that are typically used to power <a href="/wiki/Helicopter" title="Helicopter">helicopters</a> and some propeller-driven aircraft. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_of_jet_engine">Types of jet engine</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jet_engine&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Types of jet engine">edit</a>]</div> There are a large number of different types of jet engines, all of which achieve forward thrust from the principle of jet propulsion. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Airbreathing">Airbreathing</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jet_engine&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Airbreathing">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Airbreathing_jet_engine" title="Airbreathing jet engine">Airbreathing jet engine</a></div> Commonly aircraft are propelled by airbreathing jet engines. Most airbreathing jet engines that are in use are <a href="/wiki/Turbofan" title="Turbofan">turbofan</a> jet engines, which give good efficiency at speeds just below the speed of sound. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Turbojet">Turbojet</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jet_engine&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Turbojet">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Turbojet" title="Turbojet">Turbojet</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jet_engine.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Jet_engine.svg/220px-Jet_engine.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="88" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Jet_engine.svg/330px-Jet_engine.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Jet_engine.svg/440px-Jet_engine.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>Turbojet engine</figcaption></figure> A <a href="/wiki/Turbojet" title="Turbojet">turbojet</a> engine is a <a href="/wiki/Gas_turbine" title="Gas turbine">gas turbine</a> engine that works by compressing air with an inlet and a compressor (<a href="/wiki/Axial_compressor" title="Axial compressor">axial</a>, <a href="/wiki/Centrifugal_compressor" title="Centrifugal compressor">centrifugal</a>, or both), mixing fuel with the compressed air, burning the mixture in the <a href="/wiki/Combustor" title="Combustor">combustor</a>, and then passing the hot, high pressure air through a <a href="/wiki/Turbine" title="Turbine">turbine</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Propelling_nozzle" title="Propelling nozzle">nozzle</a>. The compressor is powered by the turbine, which extracts energy from the expanding gas passing through it. The engine converts internal energy in the fuel to increased momentum of the gas flowing through the engine, producing thrust. All the air entering the compressor is passed through the combustor, and turbine, unlike the <a href="/wiki/Turbofan" title="Turbofan">turbofan</a> engine described below.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Turbofan">Turbofan</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jet_engine&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Turbofan">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Turbofan" title="Turbofan">Turbofan</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Turbofan_operation_lbp.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Turbofan_operation_lbp.svg/220px-Turbofan_operation_lbp.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Turbofan_operation_lbp.svg/330px-Turbofan_operation_lbp.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Turbofan_operation_lbp.svg/440px-Turbofan_operation_lbp.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="872" data-file-height="577" /></a><figcaption>Schematic diagram illustrating the operation of a low-bypass turbofan engine.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Turbofan" title="Turbofan">Turbofans</a> differ from turbojets in that they have an additional fan at the front of the engine, which accelerates air in a duct bypassing the core gas turbine engine. Turbofans are the dominant engine type for medium and long-range <a href="/wiki/Airliner" title="Airliner">airliners</a>. Turbofans are usually more efficient than turbojets at subsonic speeds, but at high speeds their large frontal area generates more <a href="/wiki/Aerodynamic_drag" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerodynamic drag">drag</a>.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Therefore, in supersonic flight, and in military and other aircraft where other considerations have a higher priority than fuel efficiency, fans tend to be smaller or absent. Because of these distinctions, turbofan engine designs are often categorized as <a href="/wiki/Low-bypass_turbofan" class="mw-redirect" title="Low-bypass turbofan">low-bypass</a> or <a href="/wiki/High-bypass_turbofan" class="mw-redirect" title="High-bypass turbofan">high-bypass</a>, depending upon the amount of air which bypasses the core of the engine. Low-bypass turbofans have a <a href="/wiki/Bypass_ratio" title="Bypass ratio">bypass ratio</a> of around 2:1 or less. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Propfan">Propfan</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jet_engine&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Propfan">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Propfan" title="Propfan">Propfan</a></div> A <a href="/wiki/Propfan" title="Propfan">propfan</a> engine is a type of airbreathing jet engine which combines aspects of <a href="/wiki/Turboprop" title="Turboprop">turboprop</a> and <a href="/wiki/Turbofan" title="Turbofan">turbofan</a>. It’s design consists of a central gas turbine which drives open-air <a href="/wiki/Contra-rotating_propellers" title="Contra-rotating propellers">contra-rotating propellers</a>. Unlike turboprop engines, in which the propeller and the engine are considered two separate products, the propfan’s gas generator and its unshrouded propeller module are heavily integrated and are considered to be a single product. [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Additionally, the propfan’s short, heavily twisted <a href="/wiki/Variable-pitch_propeller_(aeronautics)" title="Variable-pitch propeller (aeronautics)">variable pitch</a> blades closely remember the ducted fan blades of turbofan engines. Propfans are designed to offer the speed and performance of turbofan engines with fuel efficiency of turboprops. However, due to low fuel costs and high cabin noise, early propfan projects were abandoned.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Very few aircraft have flown with propfans, with the <a href="/wiki/Antonov_An-70" title="Antonov An-70">Antonov An-70</a> being the first and only aircraft to fly while being powered solely by propfan engines. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Advanced_technology_engine">Advanced technology engine</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jet_engine&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Advanced technology engine">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Advanced_Technology_Engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Advanced Technology Engine">Advanced Technology Engine</a></div> The term Advanced technology engine refers to the modern generation of jet engines.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> The principle is that a turbine engine will function more efficiently if the various sets of turbines can revolve at their individual optimum speeds, instead of at the same speed. The true advanced technology engine has a triple spool, meaning that instead of having a single drive shaft, there are three, in order that the three sets of blades may revolve at different speeds. An interim state is a twin-spool engine, allowing only two different speeds for the turbines. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ram_compression">Ram compression</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jet_engine&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Ram compression">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ramjet" title="Ramjet">Ramjet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scramjet" title="Scramjet">Scramjet</a></div> Ram compression jet engines are airbreathing engines similar to gas turbine engines in so far as they both use the <a href="/wiki/Brayton_cycle" title="Brayton cycle">Brayton cycle</a>. Gas turbine and ram compression engines differ, however, in how they compress the incoming airflow. Whereas gas turbine engines use axial or centrifugal compressors to compress incoming air, ram engines rely only on air compressed in the inlet or diffuser.<a href="#cite_note-m14-24">[24]</a> A ram engine thus requires a substantial initial forward airspeed before it can function. Ramjets are considered the simplest type of air breathing jet engine because they have no moving parts in the engine proper, only in the accessories.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> Scramjets differ mainly in the fact that the air does not slow to subsonic speeds. Rather, they use supersonic combustion. They are efficient at even higher speed. Very few have been built or flown. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Non-continuous_combustion">Non-continuous combustion</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jet_engine&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Non-continuous combustion">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Type </th> <th>Description </th> <th>Advantages </th> <th>Disadvantages </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Motorjet" title="Motorjet">Motorjet</a> </th> <td>Works like a turbojet but a <a href="/wiki/Piston_engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Piston engine">piston engine</a> drives the compressor instead of a turbine. </td> <td>Higher exhaust velocity than a propeller, offering better thrust at high speed </td> <td>Heavy, inefficient and underpowered. Example: <a href="/wiki/Caproni_Campini_N.1" title="Caproni Campini N.1">Caproni Campini N.1</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Pulsejet" title="Pulsejet">Pulsejet</a> </th> <td>Air is compressed and combusted intermittently instead of continuously. Some designs use valves. </td> <td>Very simple design, used for the <a href="/wiki/V-1_flying_bomb" title="V-1 flying bomb">V-1 flying bomb</a> and more recently on model aircraft </td> <td>Noisy, inefficient (low compression ratio), works poorly on a large scale, valves on valved designs wear out quickly </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Pulse_detonation_engine" title="Pulse detonation engine">Pulse detonation engine</a> </th> <td>Similar to a pulsejet, but combustion occurs as a <a href="/wiki/Detonation" title="Detonation">detonation</a> instead of a <a href="/wiki/Deflagration" title="Deflagration">deflagration</a>, may or may not need valves </td> <td>Maximum theoretical engine efficiency </td> <td>Extremely noisy, parts subject to extreme mechanical fatigue, hard to start detonation, not practical for current use </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_types_of_jet_propulsion">Other types of jet propulsion</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jet_engine&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Other types of jet propulsion">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rocket">Rocket</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jet_engine&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Rocket">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rocket_engine" title="Rocket engine">Rocket engine</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rocket_thrust.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Rocket_thrust.svg/220px-Rocket_thrust.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="71" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Rocket_thrust.svg/330px-Rocket_thrust.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Rocket_thrust.svg/440px-Rocket_thrust.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="247" /></a><figcaption>Rocket engine propulsion</figcaption></figure> The rocket engine uses the same basic physical principles of thrust as a form of <a href="/wiki/Reaction_engine" title="Reaction engine">reaction engine</a>,<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> but is distinct from the jet engine in that it does not require atmospheric air to provide oxygen; the rocket carries all components of the reaction mass. However some definitions treat it as a form of <a href="/wiki/Jet_propulsion" title="Jet propulsion">jet propulsion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> Because rockets do not breathe air, this allows them to operate at arbitrary altitudes and in space.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> This type of engine is used for launching satellites, <a href="/wiki/Space_exploration" title="Space exploration">space exploration</a> and crewed access, and permitted <a href="/wiki/Landing_on_the_Moon" class="mw-redirect" title="Landing on the Moon">landing on the Moon</a> in 1969. Rocket engines are used for high altitude flights, or anywhere where very high accelerations are needed since rocket engines themselves have a very high <a href="/wiki/Thrust-to-weight_ratio" title="Thrust-to-weight ratio">thrust-to-weight ratio</a>. However, the high exhaust speed and the heavier, oxidizer-rich propellant results in far more propellant use than turbofans. Even so, at extremely high speeds they become energy-efficient. An approximate equation for the net thrust of a rocket engine is: <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle F_{N}={\dot {m}}\,g_{0}\,I_{\text{sp,vac}}-A_{e}\,p\;}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>F</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>N</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>m</mi> <mo>˙</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <msub> <mi>g</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <msub> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>sp,vac</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>A</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>e</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>p</mi> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle F_{N}={\dot {m}}\,g_{0}\,I_{\text{sp,vac}}-A_{e}\,p\;}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9f037317c220a287e1b1940ceade81dec65ede05" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:24.741ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle F_{N}={\dot {m}}\,g_{0}\,I_{\text{sp,vac}}-A_{e}\,p\;}"></dd></dl> Where <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle F_{N}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>F</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>N</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle F_{N}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/959e74712cc90af2609757b96e01231f42a28aa3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.186ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle F_{N}}"> is the net thrust, <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I_{\text{sp,vac}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>sp,vac</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I_{\text{sp,vac}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/822eafe4085c3a2a88f0011ae02c2dea171e9d21" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:5.695ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I_{\text{sp,vac}}}"> is the <a href="/wiki/Specific_impulse" title="Specific impulse">specific impulse</a>, <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle g_{0}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>g</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle g_{0}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/32d13273b9af4564fa2c421c96d039c414db8628" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.163ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle g_{0}}"> is a <a href="/wiki/Standard_gravity" title="Standard gravity">standard gravity</a>, <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\dot {m}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>m</mi> <mo>˙</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\dot {m}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ad59b9876301e8fb75b9ddbf08de594b87251d3b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.04ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\dot {m}}}"> is the propellant flow in kg/s, <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A_{e}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>A</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>e</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A_{e}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/abcfbb3d2f9f962e32527c7037cdfa6e7da0e887" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.742ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A_{e}}"> is the cross-sectional area at the exit of the exhaust nozzle, and <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>p</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/81eac1e205430d1f40810df36a0edffdc367af36" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:1.259ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p}"> is the atmospheric pressure. <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Type </th> <th>Description </th> <th>Advantages </th> <th>Disadvantages </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Rocket" title="Rocket">Rocket</a> </th> <td>Carries all propellants and oxidants on board, emits jet for propulsion<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> </td> <td>Very few moving parts. Mach 0 to Mach 25+; efficient at very high speed (> Mach 5.0 or so). Thrust/weight ratio over 100. No complex air inlet. High compression ratio. Very high-speed (<a href="/wiki/Hypersonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypersonic">hypersonic</a>) exhaust. Good cost/thrust ratio. Fairly easy to test. Works in a vacuum; indeed, works best outside the atmosphere, which is kinder on vehicle structure at high speed. Fairly small surface area to keep cool, and no turbine in hot exhaust stream. Very high-temperature combustion and high expansion-ratio nozzle gives very high efficiency, at very high speeds. </td> <td>Needs lots of propellant. Very low <a href="/wiki/Specific_impulse" title="Specific impulse">specific impulse</a> – typically 100–450 seconds. Extreme thermal stresses of combustion chamber can make reuse harder. Typically requires carrying oxidizer on-board which increases risks. Extraordinarily noisy. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hybrid">Hybrid</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jet_engine&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Hybrid">edit</a>]</div> Combined-cycle engines simultaneously use two or more different principles of jet propulsion. <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Type </th> <th>Description </th> <th>Advantages </th> <th>Disadvantages </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Air_turborocket" title="Air turborocket">Turborocket</a> </th> <td>A turbojet where an additional <a href="/wiki/Oxidizer" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidizer">oxidizer</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> is added to the airstream to increase maximum altitude </td> <td>Very close to existing designs, operates in very high altitude, wide range of altitude and airspeed </td> <td>Airspeed limited to same range as turbojet engine, carrying oxidizer like <a href="/wiki/LOX" class="mw-redirect" title="LOX">LOX</a> can be dangerous. Much heavier than simple rockets. </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Air-augmented_rocket" title="Air-augmented rocket">Air-augmented rocket</a> </th> <td>Essentially a ramjet where intake air is compressed and burnt with the exhaust from a rocket </td> <td>Mach 0 to Mach 4.5+ (can also run exoatmospheric), good efficiency at Mach 2 to 4 </td> <td>Similar efficiency to rockets at low speed or exoatmospheric, inlet difficulties, a relatively undeveloped and unexplored type, cooling difficulties, very noisy, thrust/weight ratio is similar to ramjets. </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Precooled_jet_engine" title="Precooled jet engine">Precooled jets</a> / <a href="/wiki/Liquid_air_cycle_engine" title="Liquid air cycle engine">LACE</a> </th> <td>Intake air is chilled to very low temperatures at inlet in a heat exchanger before passing through a ramjet and/or turbojet and/or rocket engine. </td> <td>Easily tested on ground. Very high thrust/weight ratios are possible (~14) together with good fuel efficiency over a wide range of airspeeds, Mach 0–5.5+; this combination of efficiencies may permit launching to orbit, single stage, or very rapid, very long distance intercontinental travel. </td> <td>Exists only at the lab prototyping stage. Examples include <a href="/wiki/RB545" class="mw-redirect" title="RB545">RB545</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reaction_Engines_SABRE" class="mw-redirect" title="Reaction Engines SABRE">Reaction Engines SABRE</a>, <a href="/wiki/ATREX" title="ATREX">ATREX</a>. Requires liquid hydrogen fuel which has very low density and requires heavily insulated tankage. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Water_jet">Water jet</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jet_engine&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Water jet">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pump-jet" title="Pump-jet">Pump-jet</a></div> A water jet, or pump-jet, is a marine propulsion system that uses a jet of water. The mechanical arrangement may be a <a href="/wiki/Ducted_propeller" title="Ducted propeller">ducted propeller</a> with nozzle, or a <a href="/wiki/Centrifugal_compressor" title="Centrifugal compressor">centrifugal compressor</a> and nozzle. The pump-jet must be driven by a separate engine such as a <a href="/wiki/Diesel_engine" title="Diesel engine">Diesel</a> or <a href="/wiki/Gas_turbine" title="Gas turbine">gas turbine</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pump_jet.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Pump_jet.PNG/220px-Pump_jet.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Pump_jet.PNG/330px-Pump_jet.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Pump_jet.PNG/440px-Pump_jet.PNG 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="410" /></a><figcaption>A pump jet schematic.</figcaption></figure> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Type </th> <th>Description </th> <th>Advantages </th> <th>Disadvantages </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Pump-jet" title="Pump-jet">Water jet</a> </th> <td>For propelling <a href="/wiki/Water_rocket" title="Water rocket">water rockets</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jetboat" title="Jetboat">jetboats</a>; squirts water out the back through a nozzle </td> <td>In boats, can run in shallow water, high acceleration, no risk of engine overload (unlike propellers), less noise and vibration, highly maneuverable at all boat speeds, high speed efficiency, less vulnerable to damage from debris, very reliable, more load flexibility, less harmful to wildlife </td> <td>Can be less efficient than a propeller at low speed, more expensive, higher weight in boat due to entrained water, will not perform well if boat is heavier than the jet is sized for </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="General_physical_principles">General physical principles</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jet_engine&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: General physical principles">edit</a>]</div> All jet engines are reaction engines that generate thrust by emitting a <a href="/wiki/Jet_(fluid)" title="Jet (fluid)">jet</a> of fluid rearwards at relatively high speed. The forces on the inside of the engine needed to create this jet give a strong thrust on the engine which pushes the craft forwards. Jet engines make their jet from propellant stored in tanks that are attached to the engine (as in a 'rocket') as well as in duct engines (those commonly used on aircraft) by ingesting an external fluid (very typically air) and expelling it at higher speed. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Propelling_nozzle">Propelling nozzle</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jet_engine&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Propelling nozzle">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Propelling_nozzle" title="Propelling nozzle">Propelling nozzle</a></div> A propelling nozzle produces a high velocity exhaust <a href="/wiki/Jet_(fluid)" title="Jet (fluid)">jet</a>. Propelling nozzles turn internal and pressure energy into high velocity kinetic energy.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> The total pressure and temperature don't change through the nozzle but their static values drop as the gas speeds up. The velocity of the air entering the nozzle is low, about Mach 0.4, a prerequisite for minimizing pressure losses in the duct leading to the nozzle. The temperature entering the nozzle may be as low as sea level ambient for a fan nozzle in the cold air at cruise altitudes. It may be as high as the 1000 <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">Kelvin</a> exhaust gas temperature for a supersonic afterburning engine or 2200 K with <a href="/wiki/Afterburner" title="Afterburner">afterburner</a> lit.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> The pressure entering the nozzle may vary from 1.5 times the pressure outside the nozzle, for a single stage fan, to 30 times for the fastest manned aircraft at Mach 3+.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> Convergent nozzles are only able to accelerate the gas up to local sonic (Mach 1) conditions. To reach high flight speeds, even greater exhaust velocities are required, and so a <a href="/wiki/Convergent-divergent_nozzle" class="mw-redirect" title="Convergent-divergent nozzle">convergent-divergent nozzle</a> is needed on high-speed aircraft.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> The engine thrust is highest if the static pressure of the gas reaches the ambient value as it leaves the nozzle. This only happens if the nozzle exit area is the correct value for the nozzle pressure ratio (npr). Since the npr changes with engine thrust setting and flight speed this is seldom the case. Also at supersonic speeds the divergent area is less than required to give complete internal expansion to ambient pressure as a trade-off with external body drag. Whitford<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> gives the F-16 as an example. Other underexpanded examples were the XB-70 and SR-71. The nozzle size, together with the area of the turbine nozzles, determines the operating pressure of the compressor.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thrust">Thrust</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jet_engine&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Thrust">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jet_engine_thrust" class="mw-redirect" title="Jet engine thrust">Jet engine thrust</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Energy_efficiency_relating_to_aircraft_jet_engines">Energy efficiency relating to aircraft jet engines</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jet_engine&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Energy efficiency relating to aircraft jet engines">edit</a>]</div> This overview highlights where energy losses occur in complete jet aircraft powerplants or engine installations. A jet engine at rest, as on a test stand, sucks in fuel and generates thrust. How well it does this is judged by how much fuel it uses and what force is required to restrain it. This is a measure of its efficiency. If something deteriorates inside the engine (known as performance deterioration<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a>) it will be less efficient and this will show when the fuel produces less thrust. If a change is made to an internal part which allows the air/combustion gases to flow more smoothly the engine will be more efficient and use less fuel. A standard definition is used to assess how different things change engine efficiency and also to allow comparisons to be made between different engines. This definition is called <a href="/wiki/Thrust_specific_fuel_consumption" class="mw-redirect" title="Thrust specific fuel consumption">specific fuel consumption</a>, or how much fuel is needed to produce one unit of thrust. For example, it will be known for a particular engine design that if some bumps in a bypass duct are smoothed out the air will flow more smoothly giving a pressure loss reduction of x% and y% less fuel will be needed to get the take-off thrust, for example. This understanding comes under the engineering discipline <a href="/wiki/Jet_engine_performance" title="Jet engine performance">Jet engine performance</a>. How efficiency is affected by forward speed and by supplying energy to aircraft systems is mentioned later. The efficiency of the engine is controlled primarily by the operating conditions inside the engine which are the pressure produced by the compressor and the temperature of the combustion gases at the first set of rotating turbine blades. The pressure is the highest air pressure in the engine. The turbine rotor temperature is not the highest in the engine but is the highest at which energy transfer takes place ( higher temperatures occur in the combustor). The above pressure and temperature are shown on a <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_cycle" title="Thermodynamic cycle">Thermodynamic cycle</a> diagram. The efficiency is further modified by how smoothly the air and the combustion gases flow through the engine, how well the flow is aligned (known as incidence angle) with the moving and stationary passages in the compressors and turbines.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> Non-optimum angles, as well as non-optimum passage and blade shapes can cause thickening and separation of <a href="/wiki/Boundary_layers" class="mw-redirect" title="Boundary layers">Boundary layers</a> and formation of <a href="/wiki/Shock_waves" class="mw-redirect" title="Shock waves">Shock waves</a>. It is important to slow the flow (lower speed means less pressure losses or <a href="/wiki/Pressure_drop" title="Pressure drop">Pressure drop</a>) when it travels through ducts connecting the different parts. How well the individual components contribute to turning fuel into thrust is quantified by measures like efficiencies for the compressors, turbines and combustor and pressure losses for the ducts. These are shown as lines on a <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_cycle" title="Thermodynamic cycle">Thermodynamic cycle</a> diagram. The engine efficiency, or <a href="/wiki/Thermal_efficiency" title="Thermal efficiency">thermal efficiency</a>,<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> known as <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \eta _{th}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>η</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>t</mi> <mi>h</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \eta _{th}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a7f49a8790992ff5da3e0f4766b1722301f0fce1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:2.928ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \eta _{th}}">. is dependent on the Thermodynamic cycle parameters, maximum pressure and temperature, and on component efficiencies, <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \eta _{compressor}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>η</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>c</mi> <mi>o</mi> <mi>m</mi> <mi>p</mi> <mi>r</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>s</mi> <mi>s</mi> <mi>o</mi> <mi>r</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \eta _{compressor}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d3947c33a051de1cb787ea394a30fe8e87cd0200" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:9.755ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \eta _{compressor}}">, <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \eta _{combustion}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>η</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>c</mi> <mi>o</mi> <mi>m</mi> <mi>b</mi> <mi>u</mi> <mi>s</mi> <mi>t</mi> <mi>i</mi> <mi>o</mi> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \eta _{combustion}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/361bdaf8e134b19aafee6888155f99ab20a556eb" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:9.701ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \eta _{combustion}}"> and <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \eta _{turbine}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>η</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>t</mi> <mi>u</mi> <mi>r</mi> <mi>b</mi> <mi>i</mi> <mi>n</mi> <mi>e</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \eta _{turbine}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5e90da47cac5c00e217b98d522a41bab847429b6" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.688ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \eta _{turbine}}"> and duct pressure losses. The engine needs compressed air for itself just to run successfully. This air comes from its own compressor and is called secondary air. It does not contribute to making thrust so makes the engine less efficient. It is used to preserve the mechanical integrity of the engine, to stop parts overheating and to prevent oil escaping from bearings for example. Only some of this air taken from the compressors returns to the turbine flow to contribute to thrust production. Any reduction in the amount needed improves the engine efficiency. Again, it will be known for a particular engine design that a reduced requirement for cooling flow of x% will reduce the <a href="/wiki/Thrust_specific_fuel_consumption" class="mw-redirect" title="Thrust specific fuel consumption">specific fuel consumption</a> by y%. In other words, less fuel will be required to give take-off thrust, for example. The engine is more efficient. All of the above considerations are basic to the engine running on its own and, at the same time, doing nothing useful, i.e. it is not moving an aircraft or supplying energy for the aircraft's electrical, hydraulic and air systems. In the aircraft the engine gives away some of its thrust-producing potential, or fuel, to power these systems. These requirements, which cause installation losses,<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> reduce its efficiency. It is using some fuel that does not contribute to the engine's thrust. Finally, when the aircraft is flying the propelling jet itself contains wasted kinetic energy after it has left the engine. This is quantified by the term propulsive, or Froude, efficiency <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \eta _{p}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>η</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \eta _{p}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5fa9e6a31c6475e4434cee3491e52b788a9e4895" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:2.215ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \eta _{p}}"> and may be reduced by redesigning the engine to give it bypass flow and a lower speed for the propelling jet, for example as a turboprop or turbofan engine. At the same time forward speed increases the <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \eta _{th}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>η</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>t</mi> <mi>h</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \eta _{th}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a7f49a8790992ff5da3e0f4766b1722301f0fce1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:2.928ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \eta _{th}}"> by increasing the <a href="/wiki/Overall_pressure_ratio" title="Overall pressure ratio">Overall pressure ratio</a>. The overall efficiency of the engine at flight speed is defined as <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \eta _{o}=\eta _{p}\eta _{th}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>η</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>o</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>η</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>η</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>t</mi> <mi>h</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \eta _{o}=\eta _{p}\eta _{th}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0e6fa524409fc4d130955e516b3f1e5a6becd67d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:10.426ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \eta _{o}=\eta _{p}\eta _{th}}">.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> The <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \eta _{o}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>η</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>o</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \eta _{o}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/469f5091b9c8b017ac83e8da7b038cc1e9a3d51a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:2.185ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \eta _{o}}"> at flight speed depends on how well the intake compresses the air before it is handed over to the engine compressors. The intake compression ratio, which can be as high as 32:1 at Mach 3, adds to that of the engine compressor to give the <a href="/wiki/Overall_pressure_ratio" title="Overall pressure ratio">Overall pressure ratio</a> and <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \eta _{th}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>η</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>t</mi> <mi>h</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \eta _{th}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a7f49a8790992ff5da3e0f4766b1722301f0fce1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:2.928ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \eta _{th}}"> for the Thermodynamic cycle. How well it does this is defined by its pressure recovery or measure of the losses in the intake. Mach 3 manned flight has provided an interesting illustration of how these losses can increase dramatically in an instant. The <a href="/wiki/North_American_XB-70_Valkyrie" title="North American XB-70 Valkyrie">North American XB-70 Valkyrie</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lockheed_SR-71_Blackbird" title="Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird">Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird</a> at Mach 3 each had pressure recoveries of about 0.8,<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> due to relatively low losses during the compression process, i.e. through systems of multiple shocks. During an 'unstart' the efficient shock system would be replaced by a very inefficient single shock beyond the inlet and an intake pressure recovery of about 0.3 and a correspondingly low pressure ratio. The propelling nozzle at speeds above about Mach 2 usually has extra internal thrust losses because the exit area is not big enough as a trade-off with external afterbody drag.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> Although a bypass engine improves propulsive efficiency it incurs losses of its own inside the engine itself. Machinery has to be added to transfer energy from the gas generator to a bypass airflow. The low loss from the propelling nozzle of a turbojet is added to with extra losses due to inefficiencies in the added turbine and fan.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> These may be included in a transmission, or transfer, efficiency <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \eta _{T}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>η</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \eta _{T}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/fbc25b00634fd51e33a1e2a01f72d1f18e700d3e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:2.545ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \eta _{T}}">. However, these losses are more than made up<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> by the improvement in propulsive efficiency.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> There are also extra pressure losses in the bypass duct and an extra propelling nozzle. With the advent of turbofans with their loss-making machinery what goes on inside the engine has been separated by Bennett,<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> for example, between gas generator and transfer machinery giving <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \eta _{o}=\eta _{p}\eta _{th}\eta _{T}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>η</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>o</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>η</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>η</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>t</mi> <mi>h</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>η</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \eta _{o}=\eta _{p}\eta _{th}\eta _{T}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/36be9bbb090d6e08662f9de6e111ec619fc2327d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:12.971ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \eta _{o}=\eta _{p}\eta _{th}\eta _{T}}">. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Propulsive_efficiency.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Propulsive_efficiency.png/260px-Propulsive_efficiency.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Propulsive_efficiency.png/390px-Propulsive_efficiency.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Propulsive_efficiency.png 2x" data-file-width="454" data-file-height="285" /></a><figcaption>Dependence of propulsion efficiency (η) upon the vehicle speed/exhaust velocity ratio (v/ve) for air-breathing jet and rocket engines.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Energy_efficiency_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy efficiency (physics)">energy efficiency</a> (<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \eta _{o}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>η</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>o</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \eta _{o}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/469f5091b9c8b017ac83e8da7b038cc1e9a3d51a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:2.185ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \eta _{o}}">) of jet engines installed in vehicles has two main components: <ul><li>propulsive efficiency (<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \eta _{p}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>η</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \eta _{p}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5fa9e6a31c6475e4434cee3491e52b788a9e4895" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:2.215ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \eta _{p}}">): how much of the energy of the jet ends up in the vehicle body rather than being carried away as <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">kinetic energy</a> of the jet.</li> <li>cycle efficiency (<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \eta _{th}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>η</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>t</mi> <mi>h</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \eta _{th}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a7f49a8790992ff5da3e0f4766b1722301f0fce1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:2.928ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \eta _{th}}">): how efficiently the engine can accelerate the jet</li></ul> Even though overall energy efficiency <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \eta _{o}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>η</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>o</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \eta _{o}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/469f5091b9c8b017ac83e8da7b038cc1e9a3d51a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:2.185ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \eta _{o}}"> is: <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \eta _{o}=\eta _{p}\eta _{th}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>η</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>o</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>η</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>η</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>t</mi> <mi>h</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \eta _{o}=\eta _{p}\eta _{th}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0e6fa524409fc4d130955e516b3f1e5a6becd67d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:10.426ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \eta _{o}=\eta _{p}\eta _{th}}"></dd></dl> for all jet engines the propulsive efficiency is highest as the exhaust jet velocity gets closer to the vehicle speed as this gives the smallest residual kinetic energy.<a href="#cite_note-48">[a]</a> For an airbreathing engine an exhaust velocity equal to the vehicle velocity, or a <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \eta _{p}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>η</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \eta _{p}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5fa9e6a31c6475e4434cee3491e52b788a9e4895" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:2.215ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \eta _{p}}"> equal to one, gives zero thrust with no net momentum change.<a href="#cite_note-49">[48]</a> The formula for air-breathing engines moving at speed <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle v}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>v</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle v}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e07b00e7fc0847fbd16391c778d65bc25c452597" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.128ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle v}"> with an exhaust velocity <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle v_{e}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>v</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>e</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle v_{e}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3271a14c35fc1b6cb549d4d462e8d3255185cc9d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.126ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle v_{e}}">, and neglecting fuel flow, is:<a href="#cite_note-50">[49]</a> <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \eta _{p}={\frac {2}{1+{\frac {v_{e}}{v}}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>η</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>2</mn> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>v</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>e</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mi>v</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \eta _{p}={\frac {2}{1+{\frac {v_{e}}{v}}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a1759463476654a4e85372ca461cdaf3237fcfe3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.171ex; width:12.572ex; height:6.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \eta _{p}={\frac {2}{1+{\frac {v_{e}}{v}}}}}"></dd></dl> And for a rocket:<a href="#cite_note-RPE-51">[50]</a> <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \eta _{p}={\frac {2\,({\frac {v}{v_{e}}})}{1+({\frac {v}{v_{e}}})^{2}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>η</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>v</mi> <msub> <mi>v</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>e</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>v</mi> <msub> <mi>v</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>e</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \eta _{p}={\frac {2\,({\frac {v}{v_{e}}})}{1+({\frac {v}{v_{e}}})^{2}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f53e8c89a2956315f2b7cadc7ec85b2a1f226956" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.171ex; width:15.435ex; height:7.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \eta _{p}={\frac {2\,({\frac {v}{v_{e}}})}{1+({\frac {v}{v_{e}}})^{2}}}}"></dd></dl> In addition to propulsive efficiency, another factor is cycle efficiency; a jet engine is a form of heat engine. <a href="/wiki/Carnot_efficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Carnot efficiency">Heat engine efficiency</a> is determined by the ratio of temperatures reached in the engine to that exhausted at the nozzle. This has improved constantly over time as new materials have been introduced to allow higher maximum cycle temperatures. For example, composite materials, combining metals with ceramics, have been developed for HP turbine blades, which run at the maximum cycle temperature.<a href="#cite_note-52">[51]</a> The efficiency is also limited by the overall pressure ratio that can be achieved. Cycle efficiency is highest in rocket engines (~60+%), as they can achieve extremely high combustion temperatures. Cycle efficiency in turbojet and similar is nearer to 30%, due to much lower peak cycle temperatures. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Combustion_efficiency_of_aircraft_gas_turbines.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Combustion_efficiency_of_aircraft_gas_turbines.svg/220px-Combustion_efficiency_of_aircraft_gas_turbines.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Combustion_efficiency_of_aircraft_gas_turbines.svg/330px-Combustion_efficiency_of_aircraft_gas_turbines.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Combustion_efficiency_of_aircraft_gas_turbines.svg/440px-Combustion_efficiency_of_aircraft_gas_turbines.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="472" data-file-height="405" /></a><figcaption>Typical combustion efficiency of an aircraft gas turbine over the operational range.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Combustion_stability_limits_of_aircraft_gas_turbine.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Combustion_stability_limits_of_aircraft_gas_turbine.svg/220px-Combustion_stability_limits_of_aircraft_gas_turbine.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Combustion_stability_limits_of_aircraft_gas_turbine.svg/330px-Combustion_stability_limits_of_aircraft_gas_turbine.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Combustion_stability_limits_of_aircraft_gas_turbine.svg/440px-Combustion_stability_limits_of_aircraft_gas_turbine.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="356" data-file-height="281" /></a><figcaption>Typical combustion stability limits of an aircraft gas turbine.</figcaption></figure> The combustion efficiency of most aircraft gas turbine engines at sea level takeoff conditions is almost 100%. It decreases nonlinearly to 98% at altitude cruise conditions. Air-fuel ratio ranges from 50:1 to 130:1. For any type of combustion chamber there is a rich and weak limit to the air-fuel ratio, beyond which the flame is extinguished. The range of air-fuel ratio between the rich and weak limits is reduced with an increase of air velocity. If the increasing air mass flow reduces the fuel ratio below certain value, flame extinction occurs.<a href="#cite_note-53">[52]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Specific-impulse-kk-20090105.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Specific-impulse-kk-20090105.png/290px-Specific-impulse-kk-20090105.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Specific-impulse-kk-20090105.png/435px-Specific-impulse-kk-20090105.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Specific-impulse-kk-20090105.png/580px-Specific-impulse-kk-20090105.png 2x" data-file-width="1148" data-file-height="798" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Specific_impulse" title="Specific impulse">Specific impulse</a> as a function of speed for different jet types with kerosene fuel (hydrogen Isp would be about twice as high). Although efficiency plummets with speed, greater distances are covered. Efficiency per unit distance (per km or mile) is roughly independent of speed for jet engines as a group; however, airframes become inefficient at supersonic speeds.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consumption_of_fuel_or_propellant">Consumption of fuel or propellant</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jet_engine&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Consumption of fuel or propellant">edit</a>]</div> A closely related (but different) concept to energy efficiency is the rate of consumption of propellant mass. Propellant consumption in jet engines is measured by <a href="/wiki/Thrust_specific_fuel_consumption" class="mw-redirect" title="Thrust specific fuel consumption">specific fuel consumption</a>, <a href="/wiki/Specific_impulse" title="Specific impulse">specific impulse</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Effective_exhaust_velocity" class="mw-redirect" title="Effective exhaust velocity">effective exhaust velocity</a>. They all measure the same thing. Specific impulse and effective exhaust velocity are strictly proportional, whereas specific fuel consumption is inversely proportional to the others. For air-breathing engines such as turbojets, energy efficiency and propellant (fuel) efficiency are much the same thing, since the propellant is a fuel and the source of energy. In rocketry, the propellant is also the exhaust, and this means that a high energy propellant gives better propellant efficiency but can in some cases actually give lower energy efficiency. It can be seen in the table (just below) that the subsonic turbofans such as General Electric's CF6 turbofan use a lot less fuel to generate thrust for a second than did the <a href="/wiki/Concorde" title="Concorde">Concorde</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Rolls-Royce/Snecma_Olympus_593" title="Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593">Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593</a> turbojet. However, since energy is force times distance and the distance per second was greater for the Concorde, the actual power generated by the engine for the same amount of fuel was higher for the Concorde at Mach 2 than the CF6. Thus, the Concorde's engines were more efficient in terms of energy per distance traveled. <table class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="8"><a href="/wiki/Rocket_engines" class="mw-redirect" title="Rocket engines">Rocket engines</a> in <a href="/wiki/Vacuum" title="Vacuum">vacuum</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Model </th> <th rowspan="2">Type </th> <th rowspan="2">First run </th> <th rowspan="2">Application </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Specific_fuel_consumption_(thrust)" class="mw-redirect" title="Specific fuel consumption (thrust)">TSFC</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Specific_Impulse" class="mw-redirect" title="Specific Impulse">Isp</a> (by weight) </th> <th>Isp (by mass) </th></tr> <tr> <th>lb/lbf·h </th> <th>g/kN·s </th> <th>s </th> <th>m/s </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/P80_(rocket_stage)" title="P80 (rocket stage)">Avio P80</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Solid-propellant_rocket" title="Solid-propellant rocket">solid fuel</a></td> <td>2006</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Vega_(rocket)" title="Vega (rocket)">Vega</a> stage 1 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>360 </td> <td>280 </td> <td>2700 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Zefiro_(rocket_stage)" title="Zefiro (rocket stage)">Avio Zefiro 23</a></td> <td>solid fuel</td> <td>2006</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Vega_(rocket)" title="Vega (rocket)">Vega</a> stage 2 </td> <td>12.52 </td> <td>354.7 </td> <td>287.5 </td> <td>2819 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Zefiro_(rocket_stage)" title="Zefiro (rocket stage)">Avio Zefiro 9A</a></td> <td>solid fuel</td> <td>2008</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Vega_(rocket)" title="Vega (rocket)">Vega</a> stage 3 </td> <td>12.20 </td> <td>345.4 </td> <td>295.2 </td> <td>2895 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/SpaceX_Merlin" title="SpaceX Merlin">Merlin 1D</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Liquid-propellant_rocket" title="Liquid-propellant rocket">liquid fuel</a></td> <td>2013</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Falcon_9_Block_5" title="Falcon 9 Block 5">Falcon 9</a> </td> <td>12 </td> <td>330 </td> <td>310 </td> <td>3000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/RD-843" title="RD-843">RD-843</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Liquid-propellant_rocket" title="Liquid-propellant rocket">liquid fuel</a></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Vega_(rocket)" title="Vega (rocket)">Vega</a> upper stage </td> <td>11.41 </td> <td>323.2 </td> <td>315.5 </td> <td>3094 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/NK-33" title="NK-33">Kuznetsov NK-33</a></td> <td>liquid fuel</td> <td>1970s</td> <td><a href="/wiki/N1_(rocket)" title="N1 (rocket)">N-1F</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soyuz-2-1v" class="mw-redirect" title="Soyuz-2-1v">Soyuz-2-1v</a> stage 1 </td> <td>10.9 </td> <td>308 </td> <td>331<a href="#cite_note-54">[53]</a> </td> <td>3250 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/RD-170" title="RD-170">NPO Energomash RD-171M</a></td> <td>liquid fuel</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Zenit-2M" title="Zenit-2M">Zenit-2M</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zenit-3SL" title="Zenit-3SL">-3SL</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zenit-3SLB" title="Zenit-3SLB">-3SLB</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zenit-3F" title="Zenit-3F">-3F</a> stage 1 </td> <td>10.7 </td> <td>303 </td> <td>337 </td> <td>3300 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/LE-7" title="LE-7">LE-7A</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_rocket_engine" title="Cryogenic rocket engine">cryogenic</a></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/H-IIA" title="H-IIA">H-IIA</a>, <a href="/wiki/H-IIB" title="H-IIB">H-IIB</a> stage 1 </td> <td>8.22 </td> <td>233 </td> <td>438 </td> <td>4300 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/HM7B" title="HM7B">Snecma HM-7B</a></td> <td>cryogenic</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ariane_2" title="Ariane 2">Ariane 2</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ariane_3" title="Ariane 3">3</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ariane_4" title="Ariane 4">4</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ariane_5" title="Ariane 5">5</a> ECA upper stage </td> <td>8.097 </td> <td>229.4 </td> <td>444.6 </td> <td>4360 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/LE-5" title="LE-5">LE-5B-2</a></td> <td>cryogenic</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/H-IIA" title="H-IIA">H-IIA</a>, <a href="/wiki/H-IIB" title="H-IIB">H-IIB</a> upper stage </td> <td>8.05 </td> <td>228 </td> <td>447 </td> <td>4380 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/RS-25" title="RS-25">Aerojet Rocketdyne RS-25</a></td> <td>cryogenic</td> <td>1981</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">Space Shuttle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Space_Launch_System" title="Space Launch System">SLS</a> stage 1 </td> <td>7.95 </td> <td>225 </td> <td>453<a href="#cite_note-55">[54]</a> </td> <td>4440 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/RL10" title="RL10">Aerojet Rocketdyne RL-10B-2</a></td> <td>cryogenic</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Delta_III" title="Delta III">Delta III</a>, <a href="/wiki/Delta_IV" title="Delta IV">Delta IV</a>, <a href="/wiki/Space_Launch_System" title="Space Launch System">SLS</a> upper stage </td> <td>7.734 </td> <td>219.1 </td> <td>465.5 </td> <td>4565 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/NERVA#NERVA_NRX" title="NERVA">NERVA NRX A6</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_thermal_rocket" title="Nuclear thermal rocket">nuclear</a> </td> <td>1967 </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>869 </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="8"><a href="/wiki/Jet_engines" class="mw-redirect" title="Jet engines">Jet engines</a> with <a href="/wiki/Afterburner" title="Afterburner">Reheat</a>, static, <a href="/wiki/Sea_level" title="Sea level">sea level</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Model </th> <th rowspan="2">Type </th> <th rowspan="2">First run </th> <th rowspan="2">Application </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Specific_fuel_consumption_(thrust)" class="mw-redirect" title="Specific fuel consumption (thrust)">TSFC</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Specific_Impulse" class="mw-redirect" title="Specific Impulse">Isp</a> (by weight) </th> <th>Isp (by mass) </th></tr> <tr> <th>lb/lbf·h </th> <th>g/kN·s </th> <th>s </th> <th>m/s </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Turbo-Union_RB199" title="Turbo-Union RB199">Turbo-Union RB.199</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Turbofan" title="Turbofan">turbofan</a></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Panavia_Tornado" title="Panavia Tornado">Tornado</a> </td> <td>2.5<a href="#cite_note-jetenginenet-56">[55]</a> </td> <td>70.8 </td> <td>1440 </td> <td>14120 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/General_Electric_F101" title="General Electric F101">GE F101-GE-102</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td>1970s</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Rockwell_B-1_Lancer" title="Rockwell B-1 Lancer">B-1B</a> </td> <td>2.46 </td> <td>70 </td> <td>1460 </td> <td>14400 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tumansky_R-25" title="Tumansky R-25">Tumansky R-25-300</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Turbojet" title="Turbojet">turbojet</a></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mikoyan-Gurevich_MiG-21" title="Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21">MIG-21bis</a> </td> <td>2.206<a href="#cite_note-jetenginenet-56">[55]</a> </td> <td>62.5 </td> <td>1632 </td> <td>16000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/General_Electric_J85" title="General Electric J85">GE J85-GE-21</a></td> <td>turbojet</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Northrop_F-5" title="Northrop F-5">F-5E/F</a> </td> <td>2.13<a href="#cite_note-jetenginenet-56">[55]</a> </td> <td>60.3 </td> <td>1690 </td> <td>16570 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/General_Electric_F110" title="General Electric F110">GE F110-GE-132</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/General_Dynamics_F-16_Fighting_Falcon" title="General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon">F-16</a>E/F </td> <td>2.09<a href="#cite_note-jetenginenet-56">[55]</a> </td> <td>59.2 </td> <td>1722 </td> <td>16890 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Honeywell/ITEC_F124" title="Honeywell/ITEC F124">Honeywell/ITEC F125</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/AIDC_F-CK-1_Ching-kuo" title="AIDC F-CK-1 Ching-kuo">F-CK-1</a> </td> <td>2.06<a href="#cite_note-jetenginenet-56">[55]</a> </td> <td>58.4 </td> <td>1748 </td> <td>17140 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Snecma_M53" title="Snecma M53">Snecma M53-P2</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dassault_Mirage_2000" title="Dassault Mirage 2000">Mirage 2000</a>C/D/N </td> <td>2.05<a href="#cite_note-jetenginenet-56">[55]</a> </td> <td>58.1 </td> <td>1756 </td> <td>17220 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Snecma_Atar" title="Snecma Atar">Snecma Atar 09C</a></td> <td>turbojet</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dassault_Mirage_III" title="Dassault Mirage III">Mirage III</a> </td> <td>2.03<a href="#cite_note-jetenginenet-56">[55]</a> </td> <td>57.5 </td> <td>1770 </td> <td>17400 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Snecma_Atar" title="Snecma Atar">Snecma Atar 09K-50</a></td> <td>turbojet</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dassault_Mirage_IV" title="Dassault Mirage IV">Mirage IV</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dassault_Mirage_5" title="Dassault Mirage 5">50</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dassault_Mirage_F1" title="Dassault Mirage F1">F1</a> </td> <td>1.991<a href="#cite_note-jetenginenet-56">[55]</a> </td> <td>56.4 </td> <td>1808 </td> <td>17730 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/General_Electric_J79" title="General Electric J79">GE J79-GE-15</a></td> <td>turbojet</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_F-4_Phantom_II" title="McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II">F-4E/EJ/F/G</a>, <a href="/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_F-4_Phantom_II" title="McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II">RF-4E</a> </td> <td>1.965 </td> <td>55.7 </td> <td>1832 </td> <td>17970 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Saturn_AL-31" title="Saturn AL-31">Saturn AL-31F</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sukhoi_Su-27" title="Sukhoi Su-27">Su-27/P/K</a> </td> <td>1.96<a href="#cite_note-flanker-57">[56]</a> </td> <td>55.5 </td> <td>1837 </td> <td>18010 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/General_Electric_F110" title="General Electric F110">GE F110-GE-129</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/General_Dynamics_F-16_Fighting_Falcon" title="General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon">F-16</a>C/D, <a href="/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_F-15E_Strike_Eagle" title="McDonnell Douglas F-15E Strike Eagle">F-15</a>EX </td> <td>1.9<a href="#cite_note-jetenginenet-56">[55]</a> </td> <td>53.8 </td> <td>1895 </td> <td>18580 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Soloviev_D-30" title="Soloviev D-30">Soloviev D-30F6</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mikoyan_MiG-31" title="Mikoyan MiG-31">MiG-31</a>, S-37/<a href="/wiki/Sukhoi_Su-47" title="Sukhoi Su-47">Su-47</a> </td> <td>1.863<a href="#cite_note-jetenginenet-56">[55]</a> </td> <td>52.8 </td> <td>1932 </td> <td>18950 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lyulka_AL-21" title="Lyulka AL-21">Lyulka AL-21F-3</a></td> <td>turbojet</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sukhoi_Su-17" title="Sukhoi Su-17">Su-17</a>, Su-22 </td> <td>1.86<a href="#cite_note-jetenginenet-56">[55]</a> </td> <td>52.7 </td> <td>1935 </td> <td>18980 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Klimov_RD-33" title="Klimov RD-33">Klimov RD-33</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td>1974</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mikoyan_MiG-29" title="Mikoyan MiG-29">MiG-29</a> </td> <td>1.85 </td> <td>52.4 </td> <td>1946 </td> <td>19080 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Saturn_AL-31" title="Saturn AL-31">Saturn AL-41F-1S</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sukhoi_Su-35" title="Sukhoi Su-35">Su-35S/T-10BM</a> </td> <td>1.819 </td> <td>51.5 </td> <td>1979 </td> <td>19410 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Volvo_RM12" title="Volvo RM12">Volvo RM12</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td>1978</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Saab_JAS_39_Gripen" title="Saab JAS 39 Gripen">Gripen A/B/C/D</a> </td> <td>1.78<a href="#cite_note-jetenginenet-56">[55]</a> </td> <td>50.4 </td> <td>2022 </td> <td>19830 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/General_Electric_F404" title="General Electric F404">GE F404-GE-402</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_F/A-18_Hornet" title="McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet">F/A-18C/D</a> </td> <td>1.74<a href="#cite_note-jetenginenet-56">[55]</a> </td> <td>49 </td> <td>2070 </td> <td>20300 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Kuznetsov_NK-32" title="Kuznetsov NK-32">Kuznetsov NK-32</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td>1980</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tupolev_Tu-144" title="Tupolev Tu-144">Tu-144LL</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tupolev_Tu-160" title="Tupolev Tu-160">Tu-160</a> </td> <td>1.7 </td> <td>48 </td> <td>2100 </td> <td>21000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Snecma_M88" title="Snecma M88">Snecma M88-2</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td>1989</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dassault_Rafale" title="Dassault Rafale">Rafale</a> </td> <td>1.663 </td> <td>47.11 </td> <td>2165 </td> <td>21230 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Eurojet_EJ200" title="Eurojet EJ200">Eurojet EJ200</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td>1991</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Eurofighter_Typhoon" title="Eurofighter Typhoon">Eurofighter</a> </td> <td>1.66–1.73 </td> <td>47–49<a href="#cite_note-mtu-58">[57]</a> </td> <td>2080–2170 </td> <td>20400–21300 </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="8">Dry <a class="mw-selflink selflink">jet engines</a>, static, sea level </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Model </th> <th rowspan="2">Type </th> <th rowspan="2">First run </th> <th rowspan="2">Application </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Specific_fuel_consumption_(thrust)" class="mw-redirect" title="Specific fuel consumption (thrust)">TSFC</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Specific_Impulse" class="mw-redirect" title="Specific Impulse">Isp</a> (by weight) </th> <th>Isp (by mass) </th></tr> <tr> <th>lb/lbf·h </th> <th>g/kN·s </th> <th>s </th> <th>m/s </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/General_Electric_J85" title="General Electric J85">GE J85-GE-21</a></td> <td>turbojet</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Northrop_F-5" title="Northrop F-5">F-5E/F</a> </td> <td>1.24<a href="#cite_note-jetenginenet-56">[55]</a> </td> <td>35.1 </td> <td>2900 </td> <td>28500 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Snecma_Atar" title="Snecma Atar">Snecma Atar 09C</a></td> <td>turbojet</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dassault_Mirage_III" title="Dassault Mirage III">Mirage III</a> </td> <td>1.01<a href="#cite_note-jetenginenet-56">[55]</a> </td> <td>28.6 </td> <td>3560 </td> <td>35000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Snecma_Atar" title="Snecma Atar">Snecma Atar 09K-50</a></td> <td>turbojet</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dassault_Mirage_IV" title="Dassault Mirage IV">Mirage IV</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dassault_Mirage_5" title="Dassault Mirage 5">50</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dassault_Mirage_F1" title="Dassault Mirage F1">F1</a> </td> <td>0.981<a href="#cite_note-jetenginenet-56">[55]</a> </td> <td>27.8 </td> <td>3670 </td> <td>36000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Snecma_Atar" title="Snecma Atar">Snecma Atar 08K-50</a></td> <td>turbojet</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dassault-Breguet_Super_%C3%89tendard" title="Dassault-Breguet Super Étendard">Super Étendard</a> </td> <td>0.971<a href="#cite_note-jetenginenet-56">[55]</a> </td> <td>27.5 </td> <td>3710 </td> <td>36400 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tumansky_R-25" title="Tumansky R-25">Tumansky R-25-300</a></td> <td>turbojet</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mikoyan-Gurevich_MiG-21" title="Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21">MIG-21bis</a> </td> <td>0.961<a href="#cite_note-jetenginenet-56">[55]</a> </td> <td>27.2 </td> <td>3750 </td> <td>36700 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lyulka_AL-21" title="Lyulka AL-21">Lyulka AL-21F-3</a></td> <td>turbojet</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sukhoi_Su-17" title="Sukhoi Su-17">Su-17</a>, Su-22 </td> <td>0.86 </td> <td>24.4 </td> <td>4190 </td> <td>41100 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/General_Electric_J79" title="General Electric J79">GE J79-GE-15</a></td> <td>turbojet</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_F-4_Phantom_II" title="McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II">F-4E/EJ/F/G</a>, <a href="/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_F-4_Phantom_II" title="McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II">RF-4E</a> </td> <td>0.85 </td> <td>24.1 </td> <td>4240 </td> <td>41500 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Snecma_M53" title="Snecma M53">Snecma M53-P2</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dassault_Mirage_2000" title="Dassault Mirage 2000">Mirage 2000</a>C/D/N </td> <td>0.85<a href="#cite_note-jetenginenet-56">[55]</a> </td> <td>24.1 </td> <td>4240 </td> <td>41500 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Volvo_RM12" title="Volvo RM12">Volvo RM12</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td>1978</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Saab_JAS_39_Gripen" title="Saab JAS 39 Gripen">Gripen A/B/C/D</a> </td> <td>0.824<a href="#cite_note-jetenginenet-56">[55]</a> </td> <td>23.3 </td> <td>4370 </td> <td>42800 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rolls-Royce_Turbomeca_Adour" title="Rolls-Royce Turbomeca Adour">RR Turbomeca Adour</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td>1999</td> <td><a href="/wiki/SEPECAT_Jaguar" title="SEPECAT Jaguar">Jaguar</a> <a href="/wiki/Retrofitting" title="Retrofitting">retrofit</a> </td> <td>0.81 </td> <td>23 </td> <td>4400 </td> <td>44000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Honeywell/ITEC_F124" title="Honeywell/ITEC F124">Honeywell/ITEC F124</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td>1979</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aero_L-159_Alca" class="mw-redirect" title="Aero L-159 Alca">L-159</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boeing_X-45" title="Boeing X-45">X-45</a> </td> <td>0.81<a href="#cite_note-jetenginenet-56">[55]</a> </td> <td>22.9 </td> <td>4440 </td> <td>43600 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Honeywell/ITEC_F124" title="Honeywell/ITEC F124">Honeywell/ITEC F125</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/AIDC_F-CK-1_Ching-kuo" title="AIDC F-CK-1 Ching-kuo">F-CK-1</a> </td> <td>0.8<a href="#cite_note-jetenginenet-56">[55]</a> </td> <td>22.7 </td> <td>4500 </td> <td>44100 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pratt_%26_Whitney_J52" title="Pratt & Whitney J52">PW J52-P-408</a></td> <td>turbojet</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Douglas_A-4_Skyhawk" title="Douglas A-4 Skyhawk">A-4M/N</a>, <a href="/wiki/Douglas_A-4_Skyhawk" title="Douglas A-4 Skyhawk">TA-4KU</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northrop_Grumman_EA-6B_Prowler" class="mw-redirect" title="Northrop Grumman EA-6B Prowler">EA-6B</a> </td> <td>0.79 </td> <td>22.4 </td> <td>4560 </td> <td>44700 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Saturn_AL-31" title="Saturn AL-31">Saturn AL-41F-1S</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sukhoi_Su-35" title="Sukhoi Su-35">Su-35S/T-10BM</a> </td> <td>0.79 </td> <td>22.4 </td> <td>4560 </td> <td>44700 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Snecma_M88" title="Snecma M88">Snecma M88-2</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td>1989</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dassault_Rafale" title="Dassault Rafale">Rafale</a> </td> <td>0.782 </td> <td>22.14 </td> <td>4600 </td> <td>45100 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Klimov_RD-33" title="Klimov RD-33">Klimov RD-33</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td>1974</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mikoyan_MiG-29" title="Mikoyan MiG-29">MiG-29</a> </td> <td>0.77 </td> <td>21.8 </td> <td>4680 </td> <td>45800 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rolls-Royce_Pegasus" title="Rolls-Royce Pegasus">RR Pegasus 11-61</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_AV-8B_Harrier_II" title="McDonnell Douglas AV-8B Harrier II">AV-8B+</a> </td> <td>0.76 </td> <td>21.5 </td> <td>4740 </td> <td>46500 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Eurojet_EJ200" title="Eurojet EJ200">Eurojet EJ200</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td>1991</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Eurofighter_Typhoon" title="Eurofighter Typhoon">Eurofighter</a> </td> <td>0.74–0.81 </td> <td>21–23<a href="#cite_note-mtu-58">[57]</a> </td> <td>4400–4900 </td> <td>44000–48000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/General_Electric_F414" title="General Electric F414">GE F414-GE-400</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td>1993</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Boeing_F/A-18E/F_Super_Hornet" title="Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet">F/A-18E/F</a> </td> <td>0.724<a href="#cite_note-uomgr-59">[58]</a> </td> <td>20.5 </td> <td>4970 </td> <td>48800 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Kuznetsov_NK-32" title="Kuznetsov NK-32">Kuznetsov NK-32</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td>1980</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tupolev_Tu-144" title="Tupolev Tu-144">Tu-144LL</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tu-160" class="mw-redirect" title="Tu-160">Tu-160</a> </td> <td>0.72-0.73 </td> <td>20–21 </td> <td>4900–5000 </td> <td>48000–49000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Soloviev_D-30" title="Soloviev D-30">Soloviev D-30F6</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mikoyan_MiG-31" title="Mikoyan MiG-31">MiG-31</a>, S-37/<a href="/wiki/Sukhoi_Su-47" title="Sukhoi Su-47">Su-47</a> </td> <td>0.716<a href="#cite_note-jetenginenet-56">[55]</a> </td> <td>20.3 </td> <td>5030 </td> <td>49300 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/SNECMA_Turbomeca_Larzac" title="SNECMA Turbomeca Larzac">Snecma Larzac</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td>1972</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dassault/Dornier_Alpha_Jet" title="Dassault/Dornier Alpha Jet">Alpha Jet</a> </td> <td>0.716 </td> <td>20.3 </td> <td>5030 </td> <td>49300 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ishikawajima-Harima_F3" title="Ishikawajima-Harima F3">IHI F3</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td>1981</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kawasaki_T-4" title="Kawasaki T-4">Kawasaki T-4</a> </td> <td>0.7 </td> <td>19.8 </td> <td>5140 </td> <td>50400 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Saturn_AL-31" title="Saturn AL-31">Saturn AL-31F</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sukhoi_Su-27" title="Sukhoi Su-27">Su-27</a> /P/K </td> <td>0.666-0.78<a href="#cite_note-flanker-57">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-uomgr-59">[58]</a> </td> <td>18.9–22.1 </td> <td>4620–5410 </td> <td>45300–53000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rolls-Royce_Spey" title="Rolls-Royce Spey">RR Spey RB.168</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/AMX_International_AMX" title="AMX International AMX">AMX</a> </td> <td>0.66<a href="#cite_note-jetenginenet-56">[55]</a> </td> <td>18.7 </td> <td>5450 </td> <td>53500 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/General_Electric_F110" title="General Electric F110">GE F110-GE-129</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/General_Dynamics_F-16_Fighting_Falcon" title="General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon">F-16</a>C/D, <a href="/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_F-15E_Strike_Eagle" title="McDonnell Douglas F-15E Strike Eagle">F-15</a> </td> <td>0.64<a href="#cite_note-uomgr-59">[58]</a> </td> <td>18 </td> <td>5600 </td> <td>55000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/General_Electric_F110" title="General Electric F110">GE F110-GE-132</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/General_Dynamics_F-16_Fighting_Falcon" title="General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon">F-16</a>E/F </td> <td>0.64<a href="#cite_note-uomgr-59">[58]</a> </td> <td>18 </td> <td>5600 </td> <td>55000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Turbo-Union_RB199" title="Turbo-Union RB199">Turbo-Union RB.199</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Panavia_Tornado" title="Panavia Tornado">Tornado ECR</a> </td> <td>0.637<a href="#cite_note-jetenginenet-56">[55]</a> </td> <td>18.0 </td> <td>5650 </td> <td>55400 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pratt_%26_Whitney_F119" title="Pratt & Whitney F119">PW F119-PW-100</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td>1992</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lockheed_Martin_F-22_Raptor" title="Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor">F-22</a> </td> <td>0.61<a href="#cite_note-uomgr-59">[58]</a> </td> <td>17.3 </td> <td>5900 </td> <td>57900 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Turbo-Union_RB199" title="Turbo-Union RB199">Turbo-Union RB.199</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Panavia_Tornado" title="Panavia Tornado">Tornado</a> </td> <td>0.598<a href="#cite_note-jetenginenet-56">[55]</a> </td> <td>16.9 </td> <td>6020 </td> <td>59000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/General_Electric_F101" title="General Electric F101">GE F101-GE-102</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td>1970s</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Rockwell_B-1_Lancer" title="Rockwell B-1 Lancer">B-1B</a> </td> <td>0.562 </td> <td>15.9 </td> <td>6410 </td> <td>62800 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pratt_%26_Whitney_JT3D" title="Pratt & Whitney JT3D">PW TF33-P-3</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Boeing_B-52_Stratofortress" title="Boeing B-52 Stratofortress">B-52H, NB-52H</a> </td> <td>0.52<a href="#cite_note-jetenginenet-56">[55]</a> </td> <td>14.7 </td> <td>6920 </td> <td>67900 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rolls-Royce_AE_3007" title="Rolls-Royce AE 3007">RR AE 3007H</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Northrop_Grumman_RQ-4_Global_Hawk" title="Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk">RQ-4</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northrop_Grumman_MQ-4C_Triton" title="Northrop Grumman MQ-4C Triton">MQ-4C</a> </td> <td>0.39<a href="#cite_note-jetenginenet-56">[55]</a> </td> <td>11.0 </td> <td>9200 </td> <td>91000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/General_Electric_F118" title="General Electric F118">GE F118-GE-100</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td>1980s</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Northrop_Grumman_B-2_Spirit" class="mw-redirect" title="Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit">B-2</a> </td> <td>0.375<a href="#cite_note-jetenginenet-56">[55]</a> </td> <td>10.6 </td> <td>9600 </td> <td>94000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/General_Electric_F118" title="General Electric F118">GE F118-GE-101</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td>1980s</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lockheed_U-2" title="Lockheed U-2">U-2S</a> </td> <td>0.375<a href="#cite_note-jetenginenet-56">[55]</a> </td> <td>10.6 </td> <td>9600 </td> <td>94000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/General_Electric_CF6" title="General Electric CF6">General Electric CF6-50C2</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Airbus_A300" title="Airbus A300">A300</a>, <a href="/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_DC-10" title="McDonnell Douglas DC-10">DC-10</a>-30 </td> <td>0.371<a href="#cite_note-jetenginenet-56">[55]</a> </td> <td>10.5 </td> <td>9700 </td> <td>95000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/General_Electric_TF34" title="General Electric TF34">GE TF34-GE-100</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Fairchild_Republic_A-10_Thunderbolt_II" title="Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II">A-10</a> </td> <td>0.37<a href="#cite_note-jetenginenet-56">[55]</a> </td> <td>10.5 </td> <td>9700 </td> <td>95000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/CFM_International_CFM56" title="CFM International CFM56">CFM CFM56-2B1</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Boeing_C-135_Stratolifter" title="Boeing C-135 Stratolifter">C-135</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boeing_RC-135" title="Boeing RC-135">RC-135</a> </td> <td>0.36<a href="#cite_note-cfm562-60">[59]</a> </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10000 </td> <td>98000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Progress_D-18T" title="Progress D-18T">Progress D-18T</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td>1980</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Antonov_An-124_Ruslan" title="Antonov An-124 Ruslan">An-124</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antonov_An-225_Mriya" title="Antonov An-225 Mriya">An-225</a> </td> <td>0.345 </td> <td>9.8 </td> <td>10400 </td> <td>102000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pratt_%26_Whitney_PW2000" title="Pratt & Whitney PW2000">PW F117-PW-100</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Boeing_C-17_Globemaster_III" title="Boeing C-17 Globemaster III">C-17</a> </td> <td>0.34<a href="#cite_note-civjetenginenet-61">[60]</a> </td> <td>9.6 </td> <td>10600 </td> <td>104000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pratt_%26_Whitney_PW2000" title="Pratt & Whitney PW2000">PW PW2040</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Boeing_757" title="Boeing 757">Boeing 757</a> </td> <td>0.33<a href="#cite_note-civjetenginenet-61">[60]</a> </td> <td>9.3 </td> <td>10900 </td> <td>107000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/CFM_International_CFM56" title="CFM International CFM56">CFM CFM56-3C1</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Boeing_737_Classic" title="Boeing 737 Classic">737 Classic</a> </td> <td>0.33 </td> <td>9.3 </td> <td>11000 </td> <td>110000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/General_Electric_CF6" title="General Electric CF6">GE CF6-80C2</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Boeing_747-400" title="Boeing 747-400">744</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boeing_767" title="Boeing 767">767</a>, <a href="/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_MD-11" title="McDonnell Douglas MD-11">MD-11</a>, <a href="/wiki/Airbus_A300" title="Airbus A300">A300</a>/<a href="/wiki/Airbus_A310" title="Airbus A310">310</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lockheed_C-5_Galaxy" title="Lockheed C-5 Galaxy">C-5M</a> </td> <td>0.307-0.344 </td> <td>8.7–9.7 </td> <td>10500–11700 </td> <td>103000–115000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Engine_Alliance_GP7000" title="Engine Alliance GP7000">EA GP7270</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Airbus_A380" title="Airbus A380">A380</a>-861 </td> <td>0.299<a href="#cite_note-uomgr-59">[58]</a> </td> <td>8.5 </td> <td>12000 </td> <td>118000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/General_Electric_GE90" title="General Electric GE90">GE GE90-85B</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Boeing_777" title="Boeing 777">777</a>-200/200ER/300 </td> <td>0.298<a href="#cite_note-uomgr-59">[58]</a> </td> <td>8.44 </td> <td>12080 </td> <td>118500 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/General_Electric_GE90" title="General Electric GE90">GE GE90-94B</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Boeing_777" title="Boeing 777">777</a>-200/200ER/300 </td> <td>0.2974<a href="#cite_note-uomgr-59">[58]</a> </td> <td>8.42 </td> <td>12100 </td> <td>118700 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rolls-Royce_Trent_900" title="Rolls-Royce Trent 900">RR Trent 970-84</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td>2003</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Airbus_A380" title="Airbus A380">A380</a>-841 </td> <td>0.295<a href="#cite_note-uomgr-59">[58]</a> </td> <td>8.36 </td> <td>12200 </td> <td>119700 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/General_Electric_GEnx" title="General Electric GEnx">GE GEnx-1B70</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Boeing_787_Dreamliner" title="Boeing 787 Dreamliner">787-8</a> </td> <td>0.2845<a href="#cite_note-uomgr-59">[58]</a> </td> <td>8.06 </td> <td>12650 </td> <td>124100 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rolls-Royce_Trent_1000" title="Rolls-Royce Trent 1000">RR Trent 1000C</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td>2006</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Boeing_787_Dreamliner" title="Boeing 787 Dreamliner">787-9</a> </td> <td>0.273<a href="#cite_note-uomgr-59">[58]</a> </td> <td>7.7 </td> <td>13200 </td> <td>129000 </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="8"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jet engines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cruise_(aeronautics)" title="Cruise (aeronautics)">cruise</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Model </th> <th rowspan="2">Type </th> <th rowspan="2">First run </th> <th rowspan="2">Application </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Specific_fuel_consumption_(thrust)" class="mw-redirect" title="Specific fuel consumption (thrust)">TSFC</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Specific_Impulse" class="mw-redirect" title="Specific Impulse">Isp</a> (by weight) </th> <th>Isp (by mass) </th></tr> <tr> <th>lb/lbf·h </th> <th>g/kN·s </th> <th>s </th> <th>m/s </th></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ramjet" title="Ramjet">Ramjet</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mach_number" title="Mach number">Mach</a> 1 </td> <td>4.5 </td> <td>130 </td> <td>800 </td> <td>7800 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/J-58" class="mw-redirect" title="J-58">J-58</a></td> <td>turbojet</td> <td>1958</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lockheed_SR-71_Blackbird" title="Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird">SR-71</a> at Mach 3.2 (Reheat) </td> <td>1.9<a href="#cite_note-jetenginenet-56">[55]</a> </td> <td>53.8 </td> <td>1895 </td> <td>18580 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rolls-Royce/Snecma_Olympus_593" title="Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593">RR/Snecma Olympus</a></td> <td>turbojet</td> <td>1966</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Concorde" title="Concorde">Concorde</a> at Mach 2 </td> <td>1.195<a href="#cite_note-Large_Turbofan_Engines-62">[61]</a> </td> <td>33.8 </td> <td>3010 </td> <td>29500 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pratt_%26_Whitney_JT8D" title="Pratt & Whitney JT8D">PW JT8D-9</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Boeing_737" title="Boeing 737">737 Original</a> </td> <td>0.8<a href="#cite_note-tumde-63">[62]</a> </td> <td>22.7 </td> <td>4500 </td> <td>44100 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lycoming_ALF_502" title="Lycoming ALF 502">Honeywell ALF502R-5</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Geared_turbofan" title="Geared turbofan">GTF</a></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/British_Aerospace_146" title="British Aerospace 146">BAe 146</a> </td> <td>0.72<a href="#cite_note-civjetenginenet-61">[60]</a> </td> <td>20.4 </td> <td>5000 </td> <td>49000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Soloviev_D-30" title="Soloviev D-30">Soloviev D-30KP-2</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ilyushin_Il-76" title="Ilyushin Il-76">Il-76</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ilyushin_Il-78" title="Ilyushin Il-78">Il-78</a> </td> <td>0.715 </td> <td>20.3 </td> <td>5030 </td> <td>49400 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Soloviev_D-30" title="Soloviev D-30">Soloviev D-30KU-154</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tupolev_Tu-154" title="Tupolev Tu-154">Tu-154M</a> </td> <td>0.705 </td> <td>20.0 </td> <td>5110 </td> <td>50100 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rolls-Royce_RB.183_Tay" title="Rolls-Royce RB.183 Tay">RR Tay RB.183</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td>1984</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Fokker_70" title="Fokker 70">Fokker 70</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fokker_100" title="Fokker 100">Fokker 100</a> </td> <td>0.69 </td> <td>19.5 </td> <td>5220 </td> <td>51200 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/General_Electric_CF34" title="General Electric CF34">GE CF34-3</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td>1982</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bombardier_Challenger_600_series" title="Bombardier Challenger 600 series">Challenger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bombardier_CRJ100/200" title="Bombardier CRJ100/200">CRJ100/200</a> </td> <td>0.69 </td> <td>19.5 </td> <td>5220 </td> <td>51200 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/General_Electric_CF34" title="General Electric CF34">GE CF34-8E</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Embraer_E-Jet_family" title="Embraer E-Jet family">E170/175</a> </td> <td>0.68 </td> <td>19.3 </td> <td>5290 </td> <td>51900 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Garrett_TFE731" title="Garrett TFE731">Honeywell TFE731-60</a></td> <td>GTF</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dassault_Falcon_900" title="Dassault Falcon 900">Falcon 900</a> </td> <td>0.679<a href="#cite_note-tfe731-64">[63]</a> </td> <td>19.2 </td> <td>5300 </td> <td>52000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/CFM_International_CFM56" title="CFM International CFM56">CFM CFM56-2C1</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Douglas_DC-8" title="Douglas DC-8">DC-8 Super 70</a> </td> <td>0.671<a href="#cite_note-civjetenginenet-61">[60]</a> </td> <td>19.0 </td> <td>5370 </td> <td>52600 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/General_Electric_CF34" title="General Electric CF34">GE CF34-8C</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bombardier_CRJ700_series" title="Bombardier CRJ700 series">CRJ700/900/1000</a> </td> <td>0.67-0.68 </td> <td>19–19 </td> <td>5300–5400 </td> <td>52000–53000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/CFM_International_CFM56" title="CFM International CFM56">CFM CFM56-3C1</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Boeing_737_Classic" title="Boeing 737 Classic">737 Classic</a> </td> <td>0.667 </td> <td>18.9 </td> <td>5400 </td> <td>52900 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/CFM_International_CFM56" title="CFM International CFM56">CFM CFM56-2A2</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td>1974</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Boeing_E-3_Sentry" title="Boeing E-3 Sentry">E-3</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boeing_E-6_Mercury" title="Boeing E-6 Mercury">E-6</a> </td> <td>0.66<a href="#cite_note-cfm562-60">[59]</a> </td> <td>18.7 </td> <td>5450 </td> <td>53500 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rolls-Royce_BR700" title="Rolls-Royce BR700">RR BR725</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td>2008</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gulfstream_G650" class="mw-redirect" title="Gulfstream G650">G650/ER</a> </td> <td>0.657 </td> <td>18.6 </td> <td>5480 </td> <td>53700 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/CFM_International_CFM56" title="CFM International CFM56">CFM CFM56-2B1</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Boeing_C-135_Stratolifter" title="Boeing C-135 Stratolifter">C-135</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boeing_RC-135" title="Boeing RC-135">RC-135</a> </td> <td>0.65<a href="#cite_note-cfm562-60">[59]</a> </td> <td>18.4 </td> <td>5540 </td> <td>54300 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/General_Electric_CF34" title="General Electric CF34">GE CF34-10A</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Comac_ARJ21" class="mw-redirect" title="Comac ARJ21">ARJ21</a> </td> <td>0.65 </td> <td>18.4 </td> <td>5540 </td> <td>54300 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/CFE_CFE738" title="CFE CFE738">CFE CFE738-1-1B</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td>1990</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dassault_Falcon_2000" title="Dassault Falcon 2000">Falcon 2000</a> </td> <td>0.645<a href="#cite_note-civjetenginenet-61">[60]</a> </td> <td>18.3 </td> <td>5580 </td> <td>54700 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rolls-Royce_BR700" title="Rolls-Royce BR700">RR BR710</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td>1995</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gulfstream_V" title="Gulfstream V">G. V</a>/<a href="/wiki/Gulfstream_G550" title="Gulfstream G550">G550</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bombardier_Global_Express" title="Bombardier Global Express">Global Express</a> </td> <td>0.64 </td> <td>18 </td> <td>5600 </td> <td>55000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/General_Electric_CF34" title="General Electric CF34">GE CF34-10E</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Embraer_E-Jet_family" title="Embraer E-Jet family">E190/195</a> </td> <td>0.64 </td> <td>18 </td> <td>5600 </td> <td>55000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/General_Electric_CF6" title="General Electric CF6">General Electric CF6-50C2</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Airbus_A300" title="Airbus A300">A300</a>B2/B4/C4/F4, <a href="/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_DC-10" title="McDonnell Douglas DC-10">DC-10</a>-30 </td> <td>0.63<a href="#cite_note-civjetenginenet-61">[60]</a> </td> <td>17.8 </td> <td>5710 </td> <td>56000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/PowerJet_SaM146" title="PowerJet SaM146">PowerJet SaM146</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sukhoi_Superjet_100" title="Sukhoi Superjet 100">Superjet LR</a> </td> <td>0.629 </td> <td>17.8 </td> <td>5720 </td> <td>56100 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/CFM_International_CFM56" title="CFM International CFM56">CFM CFM56-7B24</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Boeing_737_Next_Generation" title="Boeing 737 Next Generation">737 NG</a> </td> <td>0.627<a href="#cite_note-civjetenginenet-61">[60]</a> </td> <td>17.8 </td> <td>5740 </td> <td>56300 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rolls-Royce_BR700" title="Rolls-Royce BR700">RR BR715</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td>1997</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Boeing_717" title="Boeing 717">717</a> </td> <td>0.62 </td> <td>17.6 </td> <td>5810 </td> <td>56900 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/General_Electric_CF6" title="General Electric CF6">GE CF6-80C2-B1F</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Boeing_747-400" title="Boeing 747-400">747-400</a> </td> <td>0.605<a href="#cite_note-Large_Turbofan_Engines-62">[61]</a> </td> <td>17.1 </td> <td>5950 </td> <td>58400 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/CFM_International_CFM56" title="CFM International CFM56">CFM CFM56-5A1</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Airbus_A320_family" title="Airbus A320 family">A320</a> </td> <td>0.596 </td> <td>16.9 </td> <td>6040 </td> <td>59200 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Aviadvigatel_PS-90" title="Aviadvigatel PS-90">Aviadvigatel PS-90A1</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ilyushin_Il-96" title="Ilyushin Il-96">Il-96</a>-400 </td> <td>0.595 </td> <td>16.9 </td> <td>6050 </td> <td>59300 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pratt_%26_Whitney_PW2000" title="Pratt & Whitney PW2000">PW PW2040</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Boeing_757" title="Boeing 757">757</a>-200 </td> <td>0.582<a href="#cite_note-civjetenginenet-61">[60]</a> </td> <td>16.5 </td> <td>6190 </td> <td>60700 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pratt_%26_Whitney_PW4000" title="Pratt & Whitney PW4000">PW PW4098</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Boeing_777" title="Boeing 777">777-300</a> </td> <td>0.581<a href="#cite_note-civjetenginenet-61">[60]</a> </td> <td>16.5 </td> <td>6200 </td> <td>60800 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/General_Electric_CF6" title="General Electric CF6">GE CF6-80C2-B2</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Boeing_767" title="Boeing 767">767</a> </td> <td>0.576<a href="#cite_note-civjetenginenet-61">[60]</a> </td> <td>16.3 </td> <td>6250 </td> <td>61300 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/IAE_V2500" title="IAE V2500">IAE V2525-D5</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_MD-90" title="McDonnell Douglas MD-90">MD-90</a> </td> <td>0.574<a href="#cite_note-jenkinson-65">[64]</a> </td> <td>16.3 </td> <td>6270 </td> <td>61500 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/IAE_V2500" title="IAE V2500">IAE V2533-A5</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Airbus_A320_family" title="Airbus A320 family">A321-231</a> </td> <td>0.574<a href="#cite_note-jenkinson-65">[64]</a> </td> <td>16.3 </td> <td>6270 </td> <td>61500 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rolls-Royce_Trent_700" title="Rolls-Royce Trent 700">RR Trent 700</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td>1992</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Airbus_A330" title="Airbus A330">A330</a> </td> <td>0.562<a href="#cite_note-AvWeek28jan2008-66">[65]</a> </td> <td>15.9 </td> <td>6410 </td> <td>62800 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rolls-Royce_Trent_800" title="Rolls-Royce Trent 800">RR Trent 800</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td>1993</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Boeing_777" title="Boeing 777">777-200/200ER/300</a> </td> <td>0.560<a href="#cite_note-AvWeek28jan2008-66">[65]</a> </td> <td>15.9 </td> <td>6430 </td> <td>63000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Progress_D-18T" title="Progress D-18T">Progress D-18T</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td>1980</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Antonov_An-124_Ruslan" title="Antonov An-124 Ruslan">An-124</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antonov_An-225_Mriya" title="Antonov An-225 Mriya">An-225</a> </td> <td>0.546 </td> <td>15.5 </td> <td>6590 </td> <td>64700 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/CFM_International_CFM56" title="CFM International CFM56">CFM CFM56-5B4</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Airbus_A320_family" title="Airbus A320 family">A320-214</a> </td> <td>0.545 </td> <td>15.4 </td> <td>6610 </td> <td>64800 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/CFM_International_CFM56" title="CFM International CFM56">CFM CFM56-5C2</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Airbus_A340" title="Airbus A340">A340-211</a> </td> <td>0.545 </td> <td>15.4 </td> <td>6610 </td> <td>64800 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rolls-Royce_Trent_500" title="Rolls-Royce Trent 500">RR Trent 500</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td>1999</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Airbus_A340" title="Airbus A340">A340-500/600</a> </td> <td>0.542<a href="#cite_note-AvWeek28jan2008-66">[65]</a> </td> <td>15.4 </td> <td>6640 </td> <td>65100 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/CFM_International_LEAP" title="CFM International LEAP">CFM LEAP-1B</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td>2014</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Boeing_737_MAX" title="Boeing 737 MAX">737 MAX</a> </td> <td>0.53-0.56 </td> <td>15–16 </td> <td>6400–6800 </td> <td>63000–67000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Aviadvigatel_PD-14" title="Aviadvigatel PD-14">Aviadvigatel PD-14</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td>2014</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Irkut_MC-21" class="mw-redirect" title="Irkut MC-21">MC-21-310</a> </td> <td>0.526 </td> <td>14.9 </td> <td>6840 </td> <td>67100 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rolls-Royce_Trent_900" title="Rolls-Royce Trent 900">RR Trent 900</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td>2003</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Airbus_A380" title="Airbus A380">A380</a> </td> <td>0.522<a href="#cite_note-AvWeek28jan2008-66">[65]</a> </td> <td>14.8 </td> <td>6900 </td> <td>67600 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/General_Electric_GE90" title="General Electric GE90">GE GE90-85B</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Boeing_777" title="Boeing 777">777-200/200ER</a> </td> <td>0.52<a href="#cite_note-civjetenginenet-61">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-elodieroux-67">[66]</a> </td> <td>14.7 </td> <td>6920 </td> <td>67900 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/General_Electric_GEnx" title="General Electric GEnx">GE GEnx-1B76</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td>2006</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Boeing_787_Dreamliner" title="Boeing 787 Dreamliner">787-10</a> </td> <td>0.512<a href="#cite_note-tumde-63">[62]</a> </td> <td>14.5 </td> <td>7030 </td> <td>69000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pratt_%26_Whitney_PW1000G" title="Pratt & Whitney PW1000G">PW PW1400G</a></td> <td>GTF</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Irkut_MC-21" class="mw-redirect" title="Irkut MC-21">MC-21</a> </td> <td>0.51<a href="#cite_note-AIN19aug2019-68">[67]</a> </td> <td>14.4 </td> <td>7100 </td> <td>69000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/CFM_International_LEAP" title="CFM International LEAP">CFM LEAP-1C</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td>2013</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Comac_C919" title="Comac C919">C919</a> </td> <td>0.51 </td> <td>14.4 </td> <td>7100 </td> <td>69000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/CFM_International_LEAP" title="CFM International LEAP">CFM LEAP-1A</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td>2013</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Airbus_A320neo_family" title="Airbus A320neo family">A320neo family</a> </td> <td>0.51<a href="#cite_note-AIN19aug2019-68">[67]</a> </td> <td>14.4 </td> <td>7100 </td> <td>69000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rolls-Royce_Trent_7000" title="Rolls-Royce Trent 7000">RR Trent 7000</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td>2015</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Airbus_A330neo" title="Airbus A330neo">A330neo</a> </td> <td>0.506<a href="#cite_note-69">[b]</a> </td> <td>14.3 </td> <td>7110 </td> <td>69800 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rolls-Royce_Trent_1000" title="Rolls-Royce Trent 1000">RR Trent 1000</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td>2006</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Boeing_787_Dreamliner" title="Boeing 787 Dreamliner">787</a> </td> <td>0.506<a href="#cite_note-70">[c]</a> </td> <td>14.3 </td> <td>7110 </td> <td>69800 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rolls-Royce_Trent_XWB" title="Rolls-Royce Trent XWB">RR Trent XWB-97</a></td> <td>turbofan</td> <td>2014</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Airbus_A350" title="Airbus A350">A350-1000</a> </td> <td>0.478<a href="#cite_note-71">[d]</a> </td> <td>13.5 </td> <td>7530 </td> <td>73900 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pratt_%26_Whitney_PW1000G" title="Pratt & Whitney PW1000G">PW 1127G</a></td> <td>GTF</td> <td>2012</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Airbus_A320neo_family" title="Airbus A320neo family">A320neo</a> </td> <td>0.463<a href="#cite_note-tumde-63">[62]</a> </td> <td>13.1 </td> <td>7780 </td> <td>76300 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thrust-to-weight_ratio">Thrust-to-weight ratio</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jet_engine&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Thrust-to-weight ratio">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Thrust-to-weight_ratio" title="Thrust-to-weight ratio">Thrust-to-weight ratio</a></div> The thrust-to-weight ratio of jet engines with similar configurations varies with scale, but is mostly a function of engine construction technology. For a given engine, the lighter the engine, the better the thrust-to-weight is, the less fuel is used to compensate for drag due to the lift needed to carry the engine weight, or to accelerate the mass of the engine. As can be seen in the following table, rocket engines generally achieve much higher thrust-to-weight ratios than <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/duct_engine" class="extiw" title="wikt:duct engine">duct engines</a> such as turbojet and turbofan engines. This is primarily because rockets almost universally use dense liquid or solid reaction mass which gives a much smaller volume and hence the pressurization system that supplies the nozzle is much smaller and lighter for the same performance. Duct engines have to deal with air which is two to three orders of magnitude less dense and this gives pressures over much larger areas, which in turn results in more engineering materials being needed to hold the engine together and for the air compressor. <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jet</a> or <a href="/wiki/Rocket_engine" title="Rocket engine">rocket engine</a> </th> <th colspan="2">Mass </th> <th colspan="2">Thrust </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Thrust-to-weight_ratio" title="Thrust-to-weight ratio">Thrust-to- weight ratio</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>(kg) </th> <th>(lb) </th> <th>(kN) </th> <th>(lbf) </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/RD-0410" title="RD-0410">RD-0410</a> nuclear rocket engine<a href="#cite_note-astronautix1-72">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-KBKhA-RD0410-73">[69]</a> </td> <td align="right">2,000 </td> <td align="right">4,400 </td> <td align="right">35.2 </td> <td align="right">7,900 </td> <td align="right">1.8 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pratt_%26_Whitney_J58" title="Pratt & Whitney J58">J58</a> jet engine (<a href="/wiki/Lockheed_SR-71_Blackbird" title="Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird">SR-71 Blackbird</a>)<a href="#cite_note-74">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[71]</a> </td> <td align="right">2,722 </td> <td align="right">6,001 </td> <td align="right">150 </td> <td align="right">34,000 </td> <td align="right">5.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rolls-Royce/Snecma_Olympus_593" title="Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593">Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593</a> <a href="/wiki/Turbojet" title="Turbojet">turbojet</a> with reheat (<a href="/wiki/Concorde" title="Concorde">Concorde</a>)<a href="#cite_note-76">[72]</a> </td> <td align="right">3,175 </td> <td align="right">7,000 </td> <td align="right">169.2 </td> <td align="right">38,000 </td> <td align="right">5.4 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pratt_%26_Whitney_F119" title="Pratt & Whitney F119">Pratt & Whitney F119</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[73]</a> </td> <td align="right">1,800 </td> <td align="right">3,900 </td> <td align="right">91 </td> <td align="right">20,500 </td> <td align="right">7.95 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=RD-0750&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="RD-0750 (page does not exist)">RD-0750</a> rocket engine, three-propellant mode<a href="#cite_note-KBKhA-RD0750-78">[74]</a> </td> <td align="right">4,621 </td> <td align="right">10,188 </td> <td align="right">1,413 </td> <td align="right">318,000 </td> <td align="right">31.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/RD-0146" title="RD-0146">RD-0146</a> rocket engine<a href="#cite_note-astronautix2-79">[75]</a> </td> <td align="right">260 </td> <td align="right">570 </td> <td align="right">98 </td> <td align="right">22,000 </td> <td align="right">38.4 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Aerojet_Rocketdyne" title="Aerojet Rocketdyne">Rocketdyne</a> <a href="/wiki/RS-25" title="RS-25">RS-25</a> rocket engine<a href="#cite_note-80">[76]</a> </td> <td align="right">3,177 </td> <td align="right">7,004 </td> <td align="right">2,278 </td> <td align="right">512,000 </td> <td align="right">73.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/RD-180" title="RD-180">RD-180</a> rocket engine<a href="#cite_note-81">[77]</a> </td> <td align="right">5,393 </td> <td align="right">11,890 </td> <td align="right">4,152 </td> <td align="right">933,000 </td> <td align="right">78.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/RD-170" title="RD-170">RD-170</a> rocket engine </td> <td align="right">9,750 </td> <td align="right">21,500 </td> <td align="right">7,887 </td> <td align="right">1,773,000 </td> <td align="right">82.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/F-1_(rocket_engine)" class="mw-redirect" title="F-1 (rocket engine)">F-1</a> (<a href="/wiki/Saturn_V" title="Saturn V">Saturn V</a> first stage)<a href="#cite_note-82">[78]</a> </td> <td align="right">8,391 </td> <td align="right">18,499 </td> <td align="right">7,740.5 </td> <td align="right">1,740,100 </td> <td align="right">94.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/NK-33" title="NK-33">NK-33</a> rocket engine<a href="#cite_note-NK33-83">[79]</a> </td> <td align="right">1,222 </td> <td align="right">2,694 </td> <td align="right">1,638 </td> <td align="right">368,000 </td> <td align="right">136.7 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Merlin_1D" class="mw-redirect" title="Merlin 1D">Merlin 1D</a> rocket engine, full-thrust version </td> <td align="right">467 </td> <td align="right">1,030 </td> <td align="right">825 </td> <td align="right">185,000 </td> <td align="right">180.1 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Comparison_of_types">Comparison of types</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jet_engine&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Comparison of types">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gas_turbine_efficiency.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Gas_turbine_efficiency.png/220px-Gas_turbine_efficiency.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Gas_turbine_efficiency.png/330px-Gas_turbine_efficiency.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Gas_turbine_efficiency.png/440px-Gas_turbine_efficiency.png 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>Propulsive efficiency comparison for various gas turbine engine configurations</figcaption></figure> Propeller engines handle larger air mass flows, and give them smaller acceleration, than jet engines. Since the increase in air speed is small, at high flight speeds the thrust available to propeller-driven aeroplanes is small. However, at low speeds, these engines benefit from relatively high <a href="/wiki/Propulsive_efficiency" title="Propulsive efficiency">propulsive efficiency</a>. On the other hand, turbojets accelerate a much smaller mass flow of intake air and burned fuel, but they then reject it at very high speed. When a <a href="/wiki/De_Laval_nozzle" title="De Laval nozzle">de Laval nozzle</a> is used to accelerate a hot engine exhaust, the outlet velocity may be locally <a href="/wiki/Supersonic_speed" title="Supersonic speed">supersonic</a>. Turbojets are particularly suitable for aircraft travelling at very high speeds. Turbofans have a mixed exhaust consisting of the bypass air and the hot combustion product gas from the core engine. The amount of air that bypasses the core engine compared to the amount flowing into the engine determines what is called a turbofan's bypass ratio (BPR). While a turbojet engine uses all of the engine's output to produce thrust in the form of a hot high-velocity exhaust gas jet, a turbofan's cool low-velocity bypass air yields between 30% and 70% of the total thrust produced by a turbofan system.<a href="#cite_note-84">[80]</a> The net thrust (FN) generated by a turbofan can also be expanded as:<a href="#cite_note-85">[81]</a> <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle F_{N}={\dot {m}}_{e}v_{he}-{\dot {m}}_{o}v_{o}+BPR\,({\dot {m}}_{c}v_{f})}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>F</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>N</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>m</mi> <mo>˙</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>e</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>v</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>h</mi> <mi>e</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>m</mi> <mo>˙</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>o</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>v</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>o</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <mi>B</mi> <mi>P</mi> <mi>R</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>m</mi> <mo>˙</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>v</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>f</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle F_{N}={\dot {m}}_{e}v_{he}-{\dot {m}}_{o}v_{o}+BPR\,({\dot {m}}_{c}v_{f})}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c13b523ebe8082552422c0b5b17383a2673afe7e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:36.023ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle F_{N}={\dot {m}}_{e}v_{he}-{\dot {m}}_{o}v_{o}+BPR\,({\dot {m}}_{c}v_{f})}"></dd></dl> where: <table border="0" cellpadding="2"> <tbody><tr> <td align="right">ṁ e </td> <td align="left">= the mass rate of hot combustion exhaust flow from the core engine </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right">ṁo </td> <td align="left">= the mass rate of total air flow entering the turbofan = ṁc + ṁf </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right">ṁc </td> <td align="left">= the mass rate of intake air that flows to the core engine </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right">ṁf </td> <td align="left">= the mass rate of intake air that bypasses the core engine </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right">vf </td> <td align="left">= the velocity of the air flow bypassed around the core engine </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right">vhe </td> <td align="left">= the velocity of the hot exhaust gas from the core engine </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right">vo </td> <td align="left">= the velocity of the total air intake = the true airspeed of the aircraft </td></tr> <tr> <td align="left">BPR </td> <td>= Bypass Ratio </td></tr></tbody></table> <a href="/wiki/Rocket_engine" title="Rocket engine">Rocket engines</a> have extremely high exhaust velocity and thus are best suited for high speeds (<a href="/wiki/Hypersonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypersonic">hypersonic</a>) and great altitudes. At any given throttle, the thrust and efficiency of a rocket motor improves slightly with increasing altitude (because the back-pressure falls thus increasing net thrust at the nozzle exit plane), whereas with a turbojet (or turbofan) the falling density of the air entering the intake (and the hot gases leaving the nozzle) causes the net thrust to decrease with increasing altitude. Rocket engines are more efficient than even scramjets above roughly Mach 15.<a href="#cite_note-86">[82]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Altitude_and_speed">Altitude and speed</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jet_engine&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Altitude and speed">edit</a>]</div> With the exception of <a href="/wiki/Scramjet" title="Scramjet">scramjets</a>, jet engines, deprived of their inlet systems can only accept air at around half the speed of sound. The inlet system's job for transonic and supersonic aircraft is to slow the air and perform some of the compression. The limit on maximum altitude for engines is set by flammability – at very high altitudes the air becomes too thin to burn, or after compression, too hot. For turbojet engines altitudes of about 40 km appear to be possible, whereas for ramjet engines 55 km may be achievable. Scramjets may theoretically manage 75 km.<a href="#cite_note-87">[83]</a> Rocket engines of course have no upper limit. At more modest altitudes, flying faster <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_pressure" title="Dynamic pressure">compresses the air at the front of the engine</a>, and this greatly heats the air. The upper limit is usually thought to be about Mach 5–8, as above about Mach 5.5, the atmospheric nitrogen tends to react due to the high temperatures at the inlet and this consumes significant energy. The exception to this is scramjets which may be able to achieve about Mach 15 or more,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] as they avoid slowing the air, and rockets again have no particular speed limit. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Noise">Noise</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jet_engine&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Noise">edit</a>]</div> The noise emitted by a jet engine has many sources. These include, in the case of gas turbine engines, the fan, compressor, combustor, turbine and propelling jet/s.<a href="#cite_note-88">[84]</a> The propelling jet produces jet noise which is caused by the violent mixing action of the high speed jet with the surrounding air. In the subsonic case the noise is produced by eddies and in the supersonic case by <a href="/wiki/Mach_wave" title="Mach wave">Mach waves</a>.<a href="#cite_note-89">[85]</a> The sound power radiated from a jet varies with the jet velocity raised to the eighth power for velocities up to 600 m/s (2,000 ft/s) and varies with the velocity cubed above 600 m/s (2,000 ft/s).<a href="#cite_note-90">[86]</a> Thus, the lower speed exhaust jets emitted from engines such as high bypass turbofans are the quietest, whereas the fastest jets, such as rockets, turbojets, and ramjets, are the loudest. For commercial jet aircraft the jet noise has reduced from the turbojet through bypass engines to turbofans as a result of a progressive reduction in propelling jet velocities. For example, the JT8D, a bypass engine, has a jet velocity of 400 m/s (1,450 ft/s) whereas the JT9D, a turbofan, has jet velocities of 300 m/s (885 ft/s) (cold) and 400 m/s (1,190 ft/s)(hot).<a href="#cite_note-91">[87]</a> The advent of the turbofan replaced the very distinctive jet noise with another sound known as "buzz saw" noise. The origin is the shockwaves originating at the supersonic fan blade tip at takeoff thrust.<a href="#cite_note-92">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cooling">Cooling</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jet_engine&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Cooling">edit</a>]</div> Adequate heat transfer away from the working parts of the jet engine is critical to maintaining strength of engine materials and ensuring long life for the engine. After 2016, research is ongoing in the development of <a href="/wiki/Transpiration_cooling" title="Transpiration cooling">transpiration cooling</a> techniques to jet engine components.<a href="#cite_note-ireland2016-93">[89]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Operation">Operation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jet_engine&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Operation">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ECAM.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/ECAM.jpg/220px-ECAM.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/ECAM.jpg/330px-ECAM.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/ECAM.jpg/440px-ECAM.jpg 2x" data-file-width="557" data-file-height="415" /></a><figcaption>Airbus A340-300 <a href="/wiki/Electronic_centralised_aircraft_monitor" title="Electronic centralised aircraft monitor">Electronic centralised aircraft monitor (ECAM)</a> Display</figcaption></figure> In a jet engine, each major rotating section usually has a separate gauge devoted to monitoring its speed of rotation. Depending on the make and model, a jet engine may have an N1 gauge that monitors the low-pressure compressor section and/or fan speed in turbofan engines. The gas generator section may be monitored by an N2 gauge, while triple spool engines may have an N3 gauge as well. Each engine section rotates at many thousands RPM. Their gauges therefore are calibrated in percent of a nominal speed rather than actual RPM, for ease of display and interpretation.<a href="#cite_note-94">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jet_engine&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_turboramjet" class="mw-redirect" title="Air turboramjet">Air turboramjet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balancing_machine" title="Balancing machine">Balancing machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Components_of_jet_engines" title="Components of jet engines">Components of jet engines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intake_momentum_drag" title="Intake momentum drag">Intake momentum drag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocket_engine_nozzle" title="Rocket engine nozzle">Rocket engine nozzle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocket_turbine_engine" title="Rocket turbine engine">Rocket turbine engine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spacecraft_propulsion" title="Spacecraft propulsion">Spacecraft propulsion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrust_reversal" title="Thrust reversal">Thrust reversal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turbojet_development_at_the_RAE" title="Turbojet development at the RAE">Turbojet development at the RAE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_cycle_engine" title="Variable cycle engine">Variable cycle engine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_injection_(engine)" title="Water injection (engine)">Water injection (engine)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jet_engine&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> Note: In Newtonian mechanics kinetic energy is frame dependent. The kinetic energy is easiest to calculate when the speed is measured in the center of mass frame of the vehicle and (less obviously) its reaction mass / air (i.e., the stationary frame before takeoff begins. </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> 10% better than Trent 700 </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> 10% better than Trent 700 </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> 15 per cent fuel consumption advantage over the original Trent engine </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jet_engine&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161022181226/http://www.airbus.com/fileadmin/media_gallery/files/safety_library_items/AirbusSafetyLib_-FLT_OPS-SUPP_TECH-SEQ07.pdf">"Flight Operations Briefing Notes – Supplementary Techniques : Handling Engine Malfunctions"</a> (PDF). Airbus. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.airbus.com/fileadmin/media_gallery/files/safety_library_items/AirbusSafetyLib_-FLT_OPS-SUPP_TECH-SEQ07.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2016-10-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Flight+Operations+Briefing+Notes+%E2%80%93+Supplementary+Techniques+%3A+Handling+Engine+Malfunctions&rft.pub=Airbus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.airbus.com%2Ffileadmin%2Fmedia_gallery%2Ffiles%2Fsafety_library_items%2FAirbusSafetyLib_-FLT_OPS-SUPP_TECH-SEQ07.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJet+engine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hendrickson-2"><a href="#cite_ref-Hendrickson_2-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHendrickson2014" class="citation book cs1">Hendrickson, Kenneth E. 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Rowman & Littlefield. p. 488. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780810888883" title="Special:BookSources/9780810888883"><bdi>9780810888883</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+the+Industrial+Revolution+in+World+History&rft.pages=488&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9780810888883&rft.aulast=Hendrickson&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEdwsCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA488&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJet+engine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://selair.selkirk.bc.ca/aerodynamics1/Performance/Page8.html">propeller efficiency</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080525093007/http://selair.selkirk.bc.ca/aerodynamics1/Performance/Page8.html">Archived</a> May 25, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBakkenJordalSyverudVeer2004" class="citation book cs1">Bakken, Lars E.; Jordal, Kristin; Syverud, Elisabet; Veer, Timot (14 June 2004). 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://worldwide.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB&NR=347206&KC=&FT=E">the original</a> on 2022-06-21. Retrieved 2020-05-30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Espacenet+%E2%80%93+patent+search&rft.atitle=Improvements+relating+to+the+propulsion+of+aircraft+and+other+vehicles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fworldwide.espacenet.com%2FpublicationDetails%2ForiginalDocument%3FCC%3DGB%26NR%3D347206%26KC%3D%26FT%3DE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJet+engine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJunquera2014" class="citation web cs1">Junquera, Natalia (29 May 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://english.elpais.com/elpais/2014/05/27/inenglish/1401200493_016805.html">"Spain's forgotten jet-engine genius"</a>. EL PAÍS English. Retrieved 2 September 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=EL+PA%C3%8DS+English&rft.atitle=Spain%27s+forgotten+jet-engine+genius&rft.date=2014-05-29&rft.aulast=Junquera&rft.aufirst=Natalia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fenglish.elpais.com%2Felpais%2F2014%2F05%2F27%2Finenglish%2F1401200493_016805.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJet+engine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aerotendencias.com/cultura-aviacion/23225-el-museo-del-aire-acoge-una-replica-del-motor-a-reaccion-que-diseno-virgilio-leret/">"El Museo del Aire acoge una réplica del motor a reacción que diseñó Virgilio Leret"</a>. Aerotendencias. 9 June 2014. Retrieved 2 September 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Aerotendencias&rft.atitle=El+Museo+del+Aire+acoge+una+r%C3%A9plica+del+motor+a+reacci%C3%B3n+que+dise%C3%B1%C3%B3+Virgilio+Leret&rft.date=2014-06-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aerotendencias.com%2Fcultura-aviacion%2F23225-el-museo-del-aire-acoge-una-replica-del-motor-a-reaccion-que-diseno-virgilio-leret%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJet+engine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120709114709/http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/bljetengine.htm">The History of the Jet Engine – Sir Frank Whittle – Hans Von Ohain</a> Ohain said that he had not read Whittle's patent and Whittle believed him. (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.solarnavigator.net/inventors/frank_whittle.htm">Frank Whittle 1907–1996</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> Warsitz, Lutz: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pen-and-sword.co.uk/?product_id=1762">The First Jet Pilot – The Story of German Test Pilot Erich Warsitz (p. 125), Pen and Sword Books Ltd., England, 2009</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131202223101/http://www.pen-and-sword.co.uk/?product_id=1762">Archived</a> 2013-12-02 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> Experimental & Prototype US Air Force Jet Fighters, Jenkins & Landis, 2008 </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoderaro1996" class="citation news cs1">Foderaro, Lisa W. (10 August 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1996/08/10/world/frank-whittle-89-dies-his-jet-engine-propelled-progress.html">"Frank Whittle, 89, Dies; His Jet Engine Propelled Progress"</a>. The New York Times.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Frank+Whittle%2C+89%2C+Dies%3B+His+Jet+Engine+Propelled+Progress&rft.date=1996-08-10&rft.aulast=Foderaro&rft.aufirst=Lisa+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1996%2F08%2F10%2Fworld%2Ffrank-whittle-89-dies-his-jet-engine-propelled-progress.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJet+engine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeatonLewisTillman2012" class="citation book cs1">Heaton, Colin D.; Lewis, Anne-Marien; Tillman, Barrett (15 May 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=449Ob41RgZMC&pg=PT103">The Me 262 Stormbird: From the Pilots Who Flew, Fought, and Survived It</a>. Voyageur Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61058434-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61058434-0"><bdi>978-1-61058434-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Me+262+Stormbird%3A+From+the+Pilots+Who+Flew%2C+Fought%2C+and+Survived+It&rft.pub=Voyageur+Press&rft.date=2012-05-15&rft.isbn=978-1-61058434-0&rft.aulast=Heaton&rft.aufirst=Colin+D.&rft.au=Lewis%2C+Anne-Marien&rft.au=Tillman%2C+Barrett&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D449Ob41RgZMC%26pg%3DPT103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJet+engine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFListemann2016" class="citation book cs1">Listemann, Phil H. (6 September 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DgakDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA5">The Gloster Meteor F.I & F.III</a>. Philedition. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-918590-95-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-918590-95-8"><bdi>978-2-918590-95-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Gloster+Meteor+F.I+%26+F.III&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Philedition&rft.date=2016-09-06&rft.isbn=978-2-918590-95-8&rft.aulast=Listemann&rft.aufirst=Phil+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDgakDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJet+engine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/day-germanys-first-jet-fighter-soared-history-180978152/">"The Day Germany's First Jet Fighter Soared into History"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Day+Germany%27s+First+Jet+Fighter+Soared+into+History&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.smithsonianmag.com%2Fsmithsonian-institution%2Fday-germanys-first-jet-fighter-soared-history-180978152%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJet+engine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-hist8-19"><a href="#cite_ref-hist8_19-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100914184628/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/pao/History/SP-468/ch10-3.htm">"ch. 10-3"</a>. Hq.nasa.gov. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hq.nasa.gov/pao/History/SP-468/ch10-3.htm">the original</a> on 2010-09-14. Retrieved 2010-03-26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ch.+10-3&rft.pub=Hq.nasa.gov&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hq.nasa.gov%2Fpao%2FHistory%2FSP-468%2Fch10-3.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJet+engine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMattingly2006" class="citation book cs1">Mattingly, Jack D. (2006). Elements of Propulsion: Gas Turbines and Rockets. AIAA Education Series. Reston, VA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. p. 6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56347-779-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56347-779-9"><bdi>978-1-56347-779-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Elements+of+Propulsion%3A+Gas+Turbines+and+Rockets&rft.place=Reston%2C+VA&rft.series=AIAA+Education+Series&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=American+Institute+of+Aeronautics+and+Astronautics&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-56347-779-9&rft.aulast=Mattingly&rft.aufirst=Jack+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJet+engine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> Mattingly, pp. 9–11 </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlight_International_(2007-07-12)." class="citation web cs1">Flight International (2007-07-12). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.flightglobal.com/whatever-happened-to-propfans/74180.article">"Whatever happened to propfans?"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071020123934/http://flightglobal.com/articles/2007/06/12/214520/whatever-happened-to-propfans.html">Archived</a> from the original on October 20, 2007. Retrieved 2024-11-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Whatever+happened+to+propfans%3F&rft.au=Flight+International+%282007-07-12%29.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.flightglobal.com%2Fwhatever-happened-to-propfans%2F74180.article&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJet+engine" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWragg1973" class="citation book cs1">Wragg, David W. (1973). A Dictionary of Aviation (first ed.). Osprey. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780850451634" title="Special:BookSources/9780850451634"><bdi>9780850451634</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Aviation&rft.pages=4&rft.edition=first&rft.pub=Osprey&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=9780850451634&rft.aulast=Wragg&rft.aufirst=David+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJet+engine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-m14-24"><a href="#cite_ref-m14_24-0">^</a> Mattingly, p. 14 </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlack2005" class="citation book cs1">Flack, Ronald D. (2005). Fundamentals of Jet Propulsion with Applications. Cambridge Aerospace Series. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-81983-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-81983-1"><bdi>978-0-521-81983-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Jet+Propulsion+with+Applications&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Cambridge+Aerospace+Series&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-521-81983-1&rft.aulast=Flack&rft.aufirst=Ronald+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJet+engine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/reaction-engine">Reaction engine</a> definition, Collins online dictionary: "an engine, such as a jet or rocket engine, that ejects gas at high velocity and develops its thrust from the ensuing reaction" (UK), or "an engine, as a jet or rocket engine, that generates thrust by the reaction to an ejected stream of hot <a href="/wiki/Exhaust_gas" title="Exhaust gas">exhaust gases</a>, ions, etc." (US) (retrieved 28 June 2018) </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/jet-propulsion">Jet propulsion</a>, Collins online dictionary definition. (retrieved 1 July 2018) </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> AC Kermode; Mechanics of Flight, 8th Edition, Pitman 1972, pp. 128–31. </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/rockth.html">"Rocket Thrust Equation"</a>. Grc.nasa.gov. 2008-07-11. Retrieved 2010-03-26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rocket+Thrust+Equation&rft.pub=Grc.nasa.gov&rft.date=2008-07-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.grc.nasa.gov%2FWWW%2FK-12%2Fairplane%2Frockth.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJet+engine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> Jet Propulsion for Aerospace Applications Second Edition 1964, Hesse and Mumford, Pitman Publishing Corporation, <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/item/64018757">64-18757</a>, p. 48 </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> "Jet Propulsion" Nicholas Cumpsty 1997, Cambridge University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-59674-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-59674-2">0-521-59674-2</a>, p. 197 </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.enginehistory.org/Convention/convention1.shtml">"AEHS Conventions 1"</a>. www.enginehistory.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.enginehistory.org&rft.atitle=AEHS+Conventions+1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.enginehistory.org%2FConvention%2Fconvention1.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJet+engine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGambleTerrellDeFrancesco2004" class="citation book cs1">Gamble, Eric; Terrell, Dwain; DeFrancesco, Richard (2004). 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American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2514%2F6.2004-3923">10.2514/6.2004-3923</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-62410-037-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-62410-037-6"><bdi>978-1-62410-037-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Nozzle+Selection+and+Design+Criteria&rft.btitle=40th+AIAA%2FASME%2FSAE%2FASEE+Joint+Propulsion+Conference+and+Exhibit&rft.pub=American+Institute+of+Aeronautics+and+Astronautics&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2514%2F6.2004-3923&rft.isbn=978-1-62410-037-6&rft.aulast=Gamble&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft.au=Terrell%2C+Dwain&rft.au=DeFrancesco%2C+Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farc.aiaa.org%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.2514%2F6.2004-3923&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJet+engine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> Design For Air Combat" Ray Whitford Jane's Publishing Company Ltd. 1987, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7106-0426-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-7106-0426-2">0-7106-0426-2</a>, p. 203 </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> "Jet Propulsion" Nicholas Cumpsty 1997, Cambridge University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-59674-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-59674-2">0-521-59674-2</a>, p. 141 </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> Gas Turbine Performance Deterioration, Meher-Homji, Chaker and Motiwala, Proceedings Of The 30th Turbomachinery Symposium, ASME, pp. 139–175 </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> "Jet Propulsion' Nicholas Cumpsty, Cambridge University Press 2001, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-59674-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-59674-2">0-521-59674-2</a>, Figure 9.1 shows losses with incidence </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> "Jet Propulsion' Nicholas Cumpsty, Cambridge University Press 2001, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-59674-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-59674-2">0-521-59674-2</a>, p. 35 </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> Gas Turbine Performance' Second Edition, Walsh and Fletcher, Blackwell Science Ltd., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-632-06434-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-632-06434-X">0-632-06434-X</a>, p. 64 </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> "Jet Propulsion' Nicholas Cumpsty, Cambridge University Press 2001, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-59674-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-59674-2">0-521-59674-2</a>, p. 26 </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160509025601/http://www.enginehistory.org/Convention/2013/HowInletsWork8-19-13.pdf">"Archived copy"</a> (PDF). 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Afterburner ... 169.2 kN</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rolls-Royce+SNECMA+Olympus+-+Jane%27s+Transport+News&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.janes.com%2Ftransport%2Fnews%2Fjae%2Fjae000725_1_n.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJet+engine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rand.org/pubs/monograph_reports/2005/MR1596.pdf">Military Jet Engine Acquisition</a>, RAND, 2002. </li> <li id="cite_note-KBKhA-RD0750-78"><a href="#cite_ref-KBKhA-RD0750_78-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110726074426/http://www.kbkha.ru/?p=8&cat=11&prod=57"><bdi lang="ru">"Конструкторское бюро химавтоматики" - Научно-исследовательский комплекс / РД0750.</bdi></a> [«Konstruktorskoe Buro Khimavtomatiky» - Scientific-Research Complex / RD0750.]. 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Federal Aviation Administration. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.faa.gov/library/manuals/aircraft/airplane_handbook/media/FAA-H-8083-3B.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2012-09-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=FAA-H-8083-3B+Airplane+Flying+Handbook+Handbook&rft.pub=Federal+Aviation+Administration&rft.date=2004&rft.au=Federal+Aviation+Administration+%28FAA%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.faa.gov%2Flibrary%2Fmanuals%2Faircraft%2Fairplane_handbook%2Fmedia%2FFAA-H-8083-3B.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJet+engine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101204031217/http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/turbfan.html">"Turbofan Thrust"</a>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.energy.kth.se/courses/4A1346/2ndLecture/KTH%20High%20Speed.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2009-09-29. Retrieved 2010-03-26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Microsoft+PowerPoint+%E2%80%93+KTHhigspeed08.ppt&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.energy.kth.se%2Fcourses%2F4A1346%2F2ndLecture%2FKTH%2520High%2520Speed.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJet+engine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160212164212/http://www.orbitalvector.com/Orbital%20Travel/Scramjets/Scramjets.htm">"Scramjet"</a>. Orbitalvector.com. 2002-07-30. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.orbitalvector.com/Orbital%20Travel/Scramjets/Scramjets.htm">the original</a> on 2016-02-12. Retrieved 2010-03-26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Scramjet&rft.pub=Orbitalvector.com&rft.date=2002-07-30&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.orbitalvector.com%2FOrbital%2520Travel%2FScramjets%2FScramjets.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJet+engine" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> "Softly, softly towards the quiet jet" Michael J. T. Smith New Scientist 19 February 1970 p. 350 </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> "Silencing the sources of jet noise" Dr David Crighton New Scientist 27 July 1972 p. 185 </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> "Noise" I.C. Cheeseman Flight International 16 April 1970 p. 639 </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> "The Aircraft Gas Turbine Engine and its operation" United Technologies Pratt & Whitney Part No. P&W 182408 December 1982 Sea level static internal pressures and temperatures pp. 219–220 </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> 'Quietening a Quiet Engine – The RB211 Demonstrator Programme" M.J.T. Smith SAE paper 760897 "Intake Noise Suppression" p. 5 </li> <li id="cite_note-ireland2016-93"><a href="#cite_ref-ireland2016_93-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gow.epsrc.ukri.org/NGBOViewGrant.aspx?GrantRef=EP/P000878/1">Transpiration Cooling Systems for Jet Engine Turbines and Hypersonic Flight</a>, accessed 30 January 2019. </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">"15 - Operating the Jet Engine". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/handbooks_manuals/aviation/airplane_handbook/media/17_afh_ch15.pdf">Airplane flying handbook</a> (PDF). FAA. 25 July 2017. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781510712843" title="Special:BookSources/9781510712843"><bdi>9781510712843</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/992171581">992171581</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=15+-+Operating+the+Jet+Engine&rft.btitle=Airplane+flying+handbook&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=FAA&rft.date=2017-07-25&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F992171581&rft.isbn=9781510712843&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.faa.gov%2Fregulations_policies%2Fhandbooks_manuals%2Faviation%2Fairplane_handbook%2Fmedia%2F17_afh_ch15.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJet+engine" class="Z3988"><img alt="Public Domain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /> This article incorporates <a href="/wiki/Copyright_status_of_works_by_the_federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Copyright status of works by the federal government of the United States">public domain material</a> from websites or documents of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Aviation_Administration" title="Federal Aviation Administration">Federal Aviation Administration</a>. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jet_engine&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrooks1997" class="citation book cs1">Brooks, David S. (1997). Vikings at Waterloo: Wartime Work on the Whittle Jet Engine by the Rover Company. Rolls-Royce Heritage Trust. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-872922-08-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-872922-08-9"><bdi>978-1-872922-08-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vikings+at+Waterloo%3A+Wartime+Work+on+the+Whittle+Jet+Engine+by+the+Rover+Company&rft.pub=Rolls-Royce+Heritage+Trust&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-1-872922-08-9&rft.aulast=Brooks&rft.aufirst=David+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJet+engine" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGolley1997" class="citation book cs1">Golley, John (1997). Genesis of the Jet: Frank Whittle and the Invention of the Jet Engine. Crowood Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85310-860-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85310-860-0"><bdi>978-1-85310-860-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genesis+of+the+Jet%3A+Frank+Whittle+and+the+Invention+of+the+Jet+Engine&rft.pub=Crowood+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-1-85310-860-0&rft.aulast=Golley&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJet+engine" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHillPeterson1992" class="citation cs2">Hill, Philip; Peterson, Carl (1992), Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Propulsion (2nd ed.), New York: Addison-Wesley, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-201-14659-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-201-14659-2"><bdi>978-0-201-14659-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mechanics+and+Thermodynamics+of+Propulsion&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-201-14659-2&rft.aulast=Hill&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft.au=Peterson%2C+Carl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJet+engine" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKerrebrock1992" class="citation book cs1">Kerrebrock, Jack L. (1992). Aircraft Engines and Gas Turbines (2nd ed.). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-11162-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-11162-1"><bdi>978-0-262-11162-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aircraft+Engines+and+Gas+Turbines&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=The+MIT+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-262-11162-1&rft.aulast=Kerrebrock&rft.aufirst=Jack+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJet+engine" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Jet_engine&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Jet_engines" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Jet engines">Jet engines</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/16px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/24px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/32px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a> The dictionary definition of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/jet_engine" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:jet engine">jet engine</a> at Wiktionary</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130111072402/http://www.rolls-royce.com/about/education/">Media about jet engines from Rolls-Royce</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080616043527/http://travel.howstuffworks.com/turbine.htm">How Stuff Works article on how a Gas Turbine Engine works</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.generalatomic.com/jetmakers/chapter15.html">Influence of the Jet Engine on the Aerospace Industry</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rand.org/publications/MR/MR1596/MR1596.appb.pdf">An Overview of Military Jet Engine History</a>, Appendix B, pp. 97–120, in Military Jet Engine Acquisition (Rand Corp., 24 pp, PDF)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060516151158/http://www.geae.com/education/engines101/">Basic jet engine tutorial (QuickTime Video)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.zmescience.com/science/types-of-engines/#Reaction_engines">An article on how reaction engine works</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/the_aircraft_gas_turbine_engine_and_its_operation_installation_engineering">The Aircraft Gas Turbine Engine and Its Operation: Installation Engineering</a>. East Hartford, Connecticut: United Aircraft Corporation. February 1958. Retrieved 29 September 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Aircraft+Gas+Turbine+Engine+and+Its+Operation%3A+Installation+Engineering&rft.place=East+Hartford%2C+Connecticut&rft.pub=United+Aircraft+Corporation&rft.date=1958-02&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fthe_aircraft_gas_turbine_engine_and_its_operation_installation_engineering&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJet+engine" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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.navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Jet_engines_and_aircraft_gas_turbines" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Aircraft_gas_turbine_engine_components" title="Template:Aircraft gas turbine engine components"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Aircraft_gas_turbine_engine_components" title="Template talk:Aircraft gas turbine engine components"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Aircraft_gas_turbine_engine_components" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Aircraft gas turbine engine components"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Jet_engines_and_aircraft_gas_turbines" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jet engines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_engine" title="Aircraft engine">aircraft</a> <a href="/wiki/Gas_turbine" title="Gas turbine">gas turbines</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gas_turbine" title="Gas turbine">Gas turbines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jet_propulsion" title="Jet propulsion">jet propulsion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_turborocket" title="Air turborocket">Air turborocket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulsejet" title="Pulsejet">Pulsejet</a>/<a href="/wiki/Valveless_pulsejet" title="Valveless pulsejet">Valveless pulsejet</a>/<a href="/wiki/Gluhareff_Pressure_Jet" title="Gluhareff Pressure Jet">Gluhareff Pressure Jet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulse_detonation_engine" title="Pulse detonation engine">Pulse detonation engine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propfan" title="Propfan">Propfan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turbofan" title="Turbofan">Turbofan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turbojet" title="Turbojet">Turbojet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turboprop" title="Turboprop">Turboprop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turboshaft" title="Turboshaft">Turboshaft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramjet" title="Ramjet">Ramjet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scramjet" title="Scramjet">Scramjet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shcramjet" title="Shcramjet">Shcramjet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocket_engine" title="Rocket engine">Rocket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotating_detonation_engine" title="Rotating detonation engine">Rotating detonation engine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mechanical components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accessory_drive" title="Accessory drive">Accessory drive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Components_of_jet_engines#Air_intakes" title="Components of jet engines">Air intake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afterburner" title="Afterburner">Afterburner (reheat)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axial_compressor" title="Axial compressor">Axial compressor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrifugal_compressor" title="Centrifugal compressor">Centrifugal compressor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combustor" title="Combustor">Combustor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constant_speed_drive" title="Constant speed drive">Constant speed drive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impeller" title="Impeller">Impeller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nose_bullet" title="Nose bullet">Nose bullet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propelling_nozzle" title="Propelling nozzle">Propelling nozzle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turbine_blade" title="Turbine blade">Turbine blade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Principles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_engine_starting" title="Aircraft engine starting">Aircraft engine starting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bleed_air" title="Bleed air">Bleed air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brayton_cycle" title="Brayton cycle">Brayton cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bypass_ratio" title="Bypass ratio">Bypass ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compressor_stall" title="Compressor stall">Compressor stall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engine_pressure_ratio" title="Engine pressure ratio">Engine pressure ratio (EPR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flameout" title="Flameout">Flameout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jet_engine_performance" title="Jet engine performance">Jet engine performance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overall_pressure_ratio" title="Overall pressure ratio">Overall pressure ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propulsive_efficiency" title="Propulsive efficiency">Propulsive efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specific_impulse" title="Specific impulse">Specific impulse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrust" title="Thrust">Thrust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrust_lapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Thrust lapse">Thrust lapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrust_specific_fuel_consumption" class="mw-redirect" title="Thrust specific fuel consumption">Thrust specific fuel consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrust_to_weight_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Thrust to weight ratio">Thrust to weight ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_cycle_engine" title="Variable cycle engine">Variable cycle engine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windmill_restart" class="mw-redirect" title="Windmill restart">Windmill restart</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Propeller_(aeronautics)" title="Propeller (aeronautics)">Propellers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Propeller_governor" class="mw-redirect" title="Propeller governor">Propeller governor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propeller_speed_reduction_unit" title="Propeller speed reduction unit">Propeller speed reduction unit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Principles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autofeather" title="Autofeather">Autofeather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blade_pitch" title="Blade pitch">Blade pitch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constant-speed_propeller" class="mw-redirect" title="Constant-speed propeller">Constant-speed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contra-rotating_propellers" title="Contra-rotating propellers">Contra-rotating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-rotating_propellers" title="Counter-rotating propellers">Counter-rotating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proprotor" title="Proprotor">Proprotor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scimitar_propeller" title="Scimitar propeller">Scimitar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable-pitch_propeller_(aeronautics)" title="Variable-pitch propeller (aeronautics)">Variable-pitch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Engine instruments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Annunciator_panel" title="Annunciator panel">Annunciator panel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_centralised_aircraft_monitor" title="Electronic centralised aircraft monitor">Electronic centralised aircraft monitor (ECAM)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_flight_instrument_system" title="Electronic flight instrument system">Electronic flight instrument system (EFIS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engine-indicating_and_crew-alerting_system" title="Engine-indicating and crew-alerting system">Engine-indicating and crew-alerting system (EICAS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_data_recorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Flight data recorder">Flight data recorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_cockpit" title="Glass cockpit">Glass cockpit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_engine_controls" title="Aircraft engine controls">Engine controls</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autothrottle" title="Autothrottle">Autothrottle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FADEC" title="FADEC">Full Authority Digital Engine/Electronics (FADEC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrust_lever" title="Thrust lever">Thrust lever</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrust_reversal" title="Thrust reversal">Thrust reversal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_fuel_system" title="Aircraft fuel system">Fuel</a> and induction systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flame_holder" title="Flame holder">Flame holder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jet_fuel" title="Jet fuel">Jet fuel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air-start_system" title="Air-start system">Air-start system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_power_unit" title="Auxiliary power unit">Auxiliary power unit (APU)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bleed_air" title="Bleed air">Bleed air system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_fluid#Aircraft_hydraulic_systems" title="Hydraulic fluid">Hydraulic system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_protection_system" title="Ice protection system">Ice protection system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Heat_engines" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#F0DC82;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist 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