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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Requirements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Requirements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Requirements </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Requirements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Artificial_fusion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Artificial_fusion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Artificial fusion </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Artificial_fusion-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Artificial fusion subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Artificial_fusion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Thermonuclear_fusion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thermonuclear_fusion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Thermonuclear fusion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thermonuclear_fusion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Beam–beam_or_beam–target_fusion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beam–beam_or_beam–target_fusion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Beam–beam or beam–target fusion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Beam–beam_or_beam–target_fusion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Muon-catalyzed_fusion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Muon-catalyzed_fusion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Muon-catalyzed fusion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Muon-catalyzed_fusion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_principles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_principles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Other principles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_principles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Confinement_in_thermonuclear_fusion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Confinement_in_thermonuclear_fusion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Confinement in thermonuclear fusion </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Confinement_in_thermonuclear_fusion-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Confinement in thermonuclear fusion subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Confinement_in_thermonuclear_fusion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gravitational_confinement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gravitational_confinement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Gravitational confinement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gravitational_confinement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Magnetic_confinement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Magnetic_confinement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Magnetic confinement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Magnetic_confinement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Inertial_confinement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inertial_confinement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Inertial confinement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inertial_confinement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electrostatic_confinement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electrostatic_confinement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Electrostatic confinement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electrostatic_confinement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Important_reactions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Important_reactions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Important reactions </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Important_reactions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Important reactions subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Important_reactions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Stellar_reaction_chains" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stellar_reaction_chains"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Stellar reaction chains </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stellar_reaction_chains-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criteria_and_candidates_for_terrestrial_reactions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criteria_and_candidates_for_terrestrial_reactions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Criteria and candidates for terrestrial reactions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criteria_and_candidates_for_terrestrial_reactions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abundance_of_the_nuclear_fusion_fuels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abundance_of_the_nuclear_fusion_fuels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Abundance of the nuclear fusion fuels </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abundance_of_the_nuclear_fusion_fuels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neutronicity,_confinement_requirement,_and_power_density" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neutronicity,_confinement_requirement,_and_power_density"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Neutronicity, confinement requirement, and power density </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neutronicity,_confinement_requirement,_and_power_density-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bremsstrahlung_losses_in_quasineutral,_isotropic_plasmas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bremsstrahlung_losses_in_quasineutral,_isotropic_plasmas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 Bremsstrahlung losses in quasineutral, isotropic plasmas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bremsstrahlung_losses_in_quasineutral,_isotropic_plasmas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mathematical_description_of_cross_section" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mathematical_description_of_cross_section"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Mathematical description of cross section </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Mathematical_description_of_cross_section-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Mathematical description of cross section subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Mathematical_description_of_cross_section-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fusion_under_classical_physics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fusion_under_classical_physics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Fusion under classical physics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fusion_under_classical_physics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Parameterization_of_cross_section" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Parameterization_of_cross_section"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Parameterization of cross section </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Parameterization_of_cross_section-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Formulas_of_fusion_cross_sections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formulas_of_fusion_cross_sections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Formulas of fusion cross sections </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formulas_of_fusion_cross_sections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Maxwell-averaged_nuclear_cross_sections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maxwell-averaged_nuclear_cross_sections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 Maxwell-averaged nuclear cross sections </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maxwell-averaged_nuclear_cross_sections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Nuclear fusion</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 98 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-98" aria-hidden="true" > 98 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernfusie" title="Kernfusie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Kernfusie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-smn mw-list-item"><a href="https://smn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuusioreaktio" title="Fuusioreaktio – Inari Sami" lang="smn" hreflang="smn" data-title="Fuusioreaktio" data-language-autonym="Anarâškielâ" data-language-local-name="Inari Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target">Anarâškielâ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AC_%D9%86%D9%88%D9%88%D9%8A" title="اندماج نووي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="اندماج نووي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusi%C3%B3n_nucleyar" title="Fusión nucleyar – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Fusión nucleyar" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusi%C3%B3n_nuclear" title="Fusión nuclear – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Fusión nuclear" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jehe%27a_mbytegua" title="Jehe'a mbytegua – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Jehe'a mbytegua" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Termon%C3%BCv%C9%99_reaksiyas%C4%B1" title="Termonüvə reaksiyası – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Termonüvə reaksiyası" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%88%D8%B2%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86" title="فوزیون – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="فوزیون" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A3_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%A8" title="কেন্দ্রীণ সংযোজন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="কেন্দ্রীণ সংযোজন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hu%CC%8Dt-ch%C3%BA_i%C3%B4ng-ha%CC%8Dp" title="Hu̍t-chú iông-ha̍p – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hu̍t-chú iông-ha̍p" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%8F%D0%B4%D0%B7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Тэрмаядзерная рэакцыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Тэрмаядзерная рэакцыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%8F%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B7" title="Термоядрен синтез – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Термоядрен синтез" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuklearna_fuzija" title="Nuklearna fuzija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Nuklearna fuzija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusi%C3%B3_nuclear" title="Fusió nuclear – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Fusió nuclear" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Термонуклонсарла реакци – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Термонуклонсарла реакци" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jadern%C3%A1_f%C3%BAze" title="Jaderná fúze – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Jaderná fúze" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runyengutsa_Shomwe" title="Runyengutsa Shomwe – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Runyengutsa Shomwe" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ymasiad_niwclear" title="Ymasiad niwclear – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ymasiad niwclear" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernefusion" title="Kernefusion – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kernefusion" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%AF%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AC_%D9%86%D9%88%D9%88%D9%8A" title="تدماج نووي – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="تدماج نووي" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernfusion" title="Kernfusion – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kernfusion" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuumas%C3%BCntees" title="Tuumasüntees – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Tuumasüntees" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%85%CF%81%CE%B7%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CF%83%CF%8D%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B7%CE%BE%CE%B7" title="Πυρηνική σύντηξη – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πυρηνική σύντηξη" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusi%C3%B3n_nuclear" title="Fusión nuclear – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Fusión nuclear" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuklea_fuzio" title="Nuklea fuzio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Nuklea fuzio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusio_nuklear" title="Fusio nuklear – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Fusio nuklear" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%85%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%B4%DB%8C_%D9%87%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C" title="همجوشی هسته‌ای – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="همجوشی هسته‌ای" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusion_nucl%C3%A9aire" title="Fusion nucléaire – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Fusion nucléaire" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kearnf%C3%BAzje" title="Kearnfúzje – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Kearnfúzje" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comhle%C3%A1_n%C3%BAicl%C3%A9ach" title="Comhleá núicléach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Comhleá núicléach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusi%C3%B3n_nuclear" title="Fusión nuclear – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Fusión nuclear" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%B5%EC%9C%B5%ED%95%A9" title="핵융합 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="핵융합" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8B%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%AB%D5%BB%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%BC%D5%A5%D5%A1%D5%AF%D6%81%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Ջերմամիջուկային ռեակցիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ջերմամիջուկային ռեակցիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8" title="नाभिकीय संलयन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="नाभिकीय संलयन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuklearna_fuzija" title="Nuklearna fuzija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Nuklearna fuzija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusi_nuklir" title="Fusi nuklir – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Fusi nuklir" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kjarnasamruni" title="Kjarnasamruni – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Kjarnasamruni" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusione_nucleare" title="Fusione nucleare – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Fusione nucleare" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%99%D7%AA%D7%95%D7%9A_%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99" title="היתוך גרעיני – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="היתוך גרעיני" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusi_nuklir" title="Fusi nuklir – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Fusi nuklir" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AC%E0%B3%88%E0%B2%9C%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95_%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%A8" title="ಬೈಜಿಕ ಸಂಲಯನ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಬೈಜಿಕ ಸಂಲಯನ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%97%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%97%E1%83%95%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%90%E1%83%A5%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="თერმობირთვული რეაქცია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="თერმობირთვული რეაქცია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%8F%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Термоядролық реакциялар – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Термоядролық реакциялар" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myeyungano_wa_kinyuklia" title="Myeyungano wa kinyuklia – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Myeyungano wa kinyuklia" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizyon" title="Fizyon – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Fizyon" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusio_nuclearis" title="Fusio nuclearis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Fusio nuclearis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodolsint%C4%93ze" title="Kodolsintēze – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Kodolsintēze" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branduoli%C5%B3_s%C4%85laja" title="Branduolių sąlaja – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Branduolių sąlaja" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernfusie" title="Kernfusie – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Kernfusie" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magf%C3%BAzi%C3%B3" title="Magfúzió – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Magfúzió" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%88%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B5" title="Јадрено соединување – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Јадрено соединување" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%A3%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%82" title="അണുസംയോജനം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അണുസംയോജനം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakuran_nuklear" title="Lakuran nuklear – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Lakuran nuklear" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%94%E1%80%BB%E1%80%B0%E1%80%80%E1%80%9C%E1%80%AE%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9A%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8_%E1%80%95%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AB%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%85%E1%80%8A%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%99%E1%80%BE%E1%80%AF" title="နျူကလီးယား ပေါင်းစည်းမှု – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="နျူကလီးယား ပေါင်းစည်းမှု" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernfusie" title="Kernfusie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Kernfusie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8" title="नाभिकीय संलयन – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="नाभिकीय संलयन" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A0%B8%E8%9E%8D%E5%90%88%E5%8F%8D%E5%BF%9C" title="核融合反応 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="核融合反応" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kjernefysisk_fusjon" title="Kjernefysisk fusjon – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kjernefysisk fusjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kjernefusjon" title="Kjernefusjon – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Kjernefusjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusion_nucleara" title="Fusion nucleara – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Fusion nucleara" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makama_niwukilaara" title="Makama niwukilaara – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Makama niwukilaara" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Termoyadroviy_reaksiya" title="Termoyadroviy reaksiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Termoyadroviy reaksiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%8A%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%B2" title="ਨਿਊਕਲੀ ਮੇਲ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਨਿਊਕਲੀ ਮੇਲ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%B9%D9%85%DB%8C_%D9%81%DB%8C%D9%88%DA%98%D9%86" title="ایٹمی فیوژن – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ایٹمی فیوژن" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%8A_%D8%AA%D8%B1%DA%A9%DB%8C%D8%A8" title="هستوي ترکیب – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="هستوي ترکیب" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusion_nuclear" title="Fusion nuclear – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Fusion nuclear" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reakcja_termoj%C4%85drowa" title="Reakcja termojądrowa – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Reakcja termojądrowa" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fus%C3%A3o_nuclear" title="Fusão nuclear – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Fusão nuclear" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuziune_nuclear%C4%83" title="Fuziune nucleară – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Fuziune nucleară" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%8F%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Термоядерная реакция – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Термоядерная реакция" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Nuclear fusion" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A4%C3%A4denfusion" title="Käädenfusion – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Käädenfusion" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusioni_nucliari" title="Fusioni nucliari – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Fusioni nucliari" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%82%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%A7%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9A_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BD%E0%B6%BA%E0%B6%B1%E0%B6%BA" title="න්‍යෂ්ටික විලයනය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="න්‍යෂ්ටික විලයනය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Nuclear fusion" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jadrov%C3%A1_synt%C3%A9za" title="Jadrová syntéza – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Jadrová syntéza" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jedrsko_zlivanje" title="Jedrsko zlivanje – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Jedrsko zlivanje" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%88%DA%A9%DB%95%DB%8C%DB%95%DA%A9%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%AA%D9%86" title="ناوکەیەکگرتن – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ناوکەیەکگرتن" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuklearna_fuzija" title="Nuklearna fuzija – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Nuklearna fuzija" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuklearna_fuzija" title="Nuklearna fuzija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Nuklearna fuzija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusi_nuklir" title="Fusi nuklir – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Fusi nuklir" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuusioreaktio" title="Fuusioreaktio – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Fuusioreaktio" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A4rnfusion" title="Kärnfusion – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kärnfusion" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%81" title="அணுக்கரு இணைவு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அணுக்கரு இணைவு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azday_a%C9%A3isan" title="Azday aɣisan – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Azday aɣisan" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_Fusion&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear Fusion">Nuclear Fusion</a>)</div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Process of combining atomic nuclei</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the nuclear reaction. For its use in producing energy, see <a href="/wiki/Fusion_power" title="Fusion power">Fusion power</a>. For the journal, see <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Fusion_(journal)" title="Nuclear Fusion (journal)">Nuclear Fusion (journal)</a>. For the song, see <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Fusion_(song)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear Fusion (song)">Nuclear Fusion (song)</a>. Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">Nuclear fission</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Sun_in_white_light.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/The_Sun_in_white_light.jpg/200px-The_Sun_in_white_light.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/The_Sun_in_white_light.jpg/300px-The_Sun_in_white_light.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/The_Sun_in_white_light.jpg/400px-The_Sun_in_white_light.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3379" data-file-height="3379" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">The <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Main-sequence_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Main-sequence star">main-sequence star</a>, and thus releases its <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a> by nuclear fusion of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> nuclei into <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a>. In its core, the Sun fuses about 600 billion kilograms of hydrogen each second.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:ITER_Tokamak_and_Plant_Systems_(2016)_(41783636452).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/ITER_Tokamak_and_Plant_Systems_%282016%29_%2841783636452%29.jpg/200px-ITER_Tokamak_and_Plant_Systems_%282016%29_%2841783636452%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="98" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/ITER_Tokamak_and_Plant_Systems_%282016%29_%2841783636452%29.jpg/300px-ITER_Tokamak_and_Plant_Systems_%282016%29_%2841783636452%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/ITER_Tokamak_and_Plant_Systems_%282016%29_%2841783636452%29.jpg/400px-ITER_Tokamak_and_Plant_Systems_%282016%29_%2841783636452%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1468" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/ITER" title="ITER">ITER</a> is a collaboration of 33 countries researching fusion for eventual electricity generation. It is expected to complete assembly in 2033.</div></div></div></div></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Binding_energy_curve_-_common_isotopes.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Binding_energy_curve_-_common_isotopes.svg/400px-Binding_energy_curve_-_common_isotopes.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Binding_energy_curve_-_common_isotopes.svg/600px-Binding_energy_curve_-_common_isotopes.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Binding_energy_curve_-_common_isotopes.svg/800px-Binding_energy_curve_-_common_isotopes.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="671" data-file-height="441" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_binding_energy" title="Nuclear binding energy">nuclear binding energy</a> curve. The formation of nuclei with masses up to <a href="/wiki/Iron-56" title="Iron-56">iron-56</a> releases energy, as illustrated above. </figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Nuclear physics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:NuclearReaction.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/NuclearReaction.svg/200px-NuclearReaction.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/NuclearReaction.svg/300px-NuclearReaction.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/NuclearReaction.svg/400px-NuclearReaction.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="350" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">Nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleon" title="Nucleon">Nucleons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">p</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">n</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_matter" title="Nuclear matter">Nuclear matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_force" title="Nuclear force">Nuclear force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_structure" title="Nuclear structure">Nuclear structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reaction" title="Nuclear reaction">Nuclear reaction</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear model">Models of the nucleus</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semi-empirical_mass_formula" title="Semi-empirical mass formula">Liquid drop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_shell_model" title="Nuclear shell model">Nuclear shell model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interacting_boson_model" title="Interacting boson model">Interacting boson model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ab_initio_methods_(nuclear_physics)" title="Ab initio methods (nuclear physics)">Ab initio</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Nuclide" title="Nuclide">Nuclides</a>' classification</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">Isotopes</a> – equal <a href="/wiki/Atomic_number" title="Atomic number">Z</a> </li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isobar_(nuclide)" title="Isobar (nuclide)">Isobars</a> – equal <a href="/wiki/Mass_number" title="Mass number">A</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isotone" title="Isotone">Isotones</a> – equal <a href="/wiki/Neutron_number" title="Neutron number">N</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isodiapher" class="mw-redirect" title="Isodiapher">Isodiaphers</a> – equal <a href="/wiki/Neutron_excess" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutron excess">N − Z</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_isomer" title="Nuclear isomer">Isomers</a> – equal all the above</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mirror_nuclei" title="Mirror nuclei">Mirror nuclei</a> – Z ↔ N</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stable_isotope" class="mw-redirect" title="Stable isotope">Stable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_number_(physics)" title="Magic number (physics)">Magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Even_and_odd_atomic_nuclei" title="Even and odd atomic nuclei">Even/odd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halo_nucleus" title="Halo nucleus">Halo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Borromean_nucleus" title="Borromean nucleus">Borromean</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Nuclear stability</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_binding_energy" title="Nuclear binding energy">Binding energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton%E2%80%93neutron_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Proton–neutron ratio">p–n ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_drip_line" title="Nuclear drip line">Drip line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Island_of_stability" title="Island of stability">Island of stability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valley_of_stability" title="Valley of stability">Valley of stability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stable_nuclide" title="Stable nuclide">Stable nuclide</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">Radioactive decay</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_decay" title="Alpha decay">Alpha α</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">Beta β</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Double_beta_decay" title="Double beta decay">2β</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neutrinoless_double_beta_decay" title="Neutrinoless double beta decay">0v</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positron_emission" title="Positron emission">β+</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_capture" title="Electron capture">K/L capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isomeric_transition" class="mw-redirect" title="Isomeric transition">Isomeric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">Gamma γ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_conversion" title="Internal conversion">Internal conversion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_fission" title="Spontaneous fission">Spontaneous fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_decay" title="Cluster decay">Cluster decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_emission" title="Neutron emission">Neutron emission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton_emission" title="Proton emission">Proton emission</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decay_energy" title="Decay energy">Decay energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decay_chain" title="Decay chain">Decay chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decay_product" title="Decay product">Decay product</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiogenic_nuclide" title="Radiogenic nuclide">Radiogenic nuclide</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">Nuclear fission</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_fission" title="Spontaneous fission">Spontaneous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission_product" title="Nuclear fission product">Products</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nucleon_pair_breaking_in_fission" title="Nucleon pair breaking in fission">pair breaking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photofission" title="Photofission">Photofission</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Capturing processes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electron_capture" title="Electron capture">electron</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Double_electron_capture" title="Double electron capture">2×</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture" title="Neutron capture">neutron</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/S-process" title="S-process">s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R-process" title="R-process">r</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton_capture" title="Proton capture">proton</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/P-process" title="P-process">p</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rp-process" title="Rp-process">rp</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">High-energy processes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spallation" title="Spallation">Spallation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray_spallation" title="Cosmic ray spallation">by cosmic ray</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photodisintegration" title="Photodisintegration">Photodisintegration</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Nucleosynthesis" title="Nucleosynthesis">Nucleosynthesis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_astrophysics" title="Nuclear astrophysics">nuclear astrophysics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nuclear fusion</a></li></ul> <ul><li>Processes: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_nucleosynthesis" title="Stellar nucleosynthesis">Stellar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis" title="Big Bang nucleosynthesis">Big Bang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernova_nucleosynthesis" title="Supernova nucleosynthesis">Supernova</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>Nuclides: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primordial_nuclide" title="Primordial nuclide">Primordial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmogenic_nuclide" title="Cosmogenic nuclide">Cosmogenic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_element" title="Synthetic element">Artificial</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/High-energy_nuclear_physics" title="High-energy nuclear physics">High-energy nuclear physics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quark%E2%80%93gluon_plasma" title="Quark–gluon plasma">Quark–gluon plasma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativistic_Heavy_Ion_Collider" title="Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider">RHIC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider" title="Large Hadron Collider">LHC</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Nuclear_physicists" title="Category:Nuclear physicists">Scientists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Alvarez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Becquerel" title="Henri Becquerel">Becquerel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Bethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aage_Bohr" title="Aage Bohr">A. Bohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">N. Bohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">Chadwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Cockcroft" title="John Cockcroft">Cockcroft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ir%C3%A8ne_Joliot-Curie" title="Irène Joliot-Curie">Ir. Curie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Joliot-Curie" title="Frédéric Joliot-Curie">Fr. Curie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Curie" title="Pierre Curie">Pi. Curie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Skłodowska-Curie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinton_Davisson" title="Clinton Davisson">Davisson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Fermi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn" title="Otto Hahn">Hahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Hans_D._Jensen" title="J. Hans D. Jensen">Jensen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence">Lawrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Goeppert-Mayer" class="mw-redirect" title="Maria Goeppert-Mayer">Mayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lise_Meitner" title="Lise Meitner">Meitner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Oliphant" title="Mark Oliphant">Oliphant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">Oppenheimer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandru_Proca" title="Alexandru Proca">Proca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Mills_Purcell" title="Edward Mills Purcell">Purcell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi">Rabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Rutherford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Soddy" title="Frederick Soddy">Soddy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Strassmann" title="Fritz Strassmann">Strassmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_%C5%9Awi%C4%85tecki_(physicist)" title="Władysław Świątecki (physicist)">Świątecki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd" class="mw-redirect" title="Leó Szilárd">Szilárd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Teller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">Thomson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Walton" title="Ernest Walton">Walton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Wigner</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="background-color: transparent; border-color: #A2B8BF"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/14px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/21px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/28px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Physics" title="Portal:Physics">Physics portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Nuclear_physics" title="Category:Nuclear physics">Category</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nuclear_physics" title="Template:Nuclear physics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nuclear_physics" title="Template talk:Nuclear physics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear_physics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear physics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Nuclear fusion is a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reaction" title="Nuclear reaction">reaction</a> in which two or more <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nuclei" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic nuclei">atomic nuclei</a>, usually <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">tritium</a> (hydrogen <a href="/wiki/Isotopes" class="mw-redirect" title="Isotopes">isotopes</a>), combine to form one or more different atomic nuclei and <a href="/wiki/Subatomic_particles" class="mw-redirect" title="Subatomic particles">subatomic particles</a> (<a href="/wiki/Neutrons" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutrons">neutrons</a> or <a href="/wiki/Protons" class="mw-redirect" title="Protons">protons</a>). The difference in mass between the reactants and products is manifested as either the release or <a href="/wiki/Absorption_(electromagnetic_radiation)" title="Absorption (electromagnetic radiation)">absorption</a> of <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a>. This difference in mass arises due to the difference in <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_binding_energy" title="Nuclear binding energy">nuclear binding energy</a> between the atomic nuclei before and after the reaction. Nuclear fusion is the process that powers active or <a href="/wiki/Main-sequence_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Main-sequence star">main-sequence stars</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Absolute_magnitude" title="Absolute magnitude">high-magnitude</a> stars, where <a href="/wiki/Proton%E2%80%93proton_chain_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Proton–proton chain reaction">large amounts of energy are released</a>. A nuclear fusion process that produces atomic nuclei lighter than <a href="/wiki/Iron-56" title="Iron-56">iron-56</a> or <a href="/wiki/Nickel-62" title="Nickel-62">nickel-62</a> will generally release energy. These elements have a relatively small mass and a relatively large <a href="/wiki/Binding_energy" title="Binding energy">binding energy</a> per <a href="/wiki/Nucleon" title="Nucleon">nucleon</a>. Fusion of nuclei lighter than these releases energy (an <a href="/wiki/Exothermic" class="mw-redirect" title="Exothermic">exothermic</a> process), while the fusion of heavier nuclei results in energy retained by the product nucleons, and the resulting reaction is <a href="/wiki/Endothermic" class="mw-redirect" title="Endothermic">endothermic</a>. The opposite is true for the reverse process, called <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a>. Nuclear fusion uses lighter elements, such as hydrogen and <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a>, which are in general more fusible; while the heavier elements, such as <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">thorium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a>, are more fissionable. The extreme <a href="/wiki/Astrophysical" class="mw-redirect" title="Astrophysical">astrophysical</a> event of a <a href="/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova">supernova</a> can produce enough energy to fuse nuclei into <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">elements</a> heavier than iron. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fusion&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_fusion" title="Timeline of nuclear fusion">Timeline of nuclear fusion</a></div> American chemist <a href="/wiki/William_Draper_Harkins" title="William Draper Harkins">William Draper Harkins</a> was the first to propose the concept of nuclear fusion in 1915.<a href="#cite_note-:0-2">[2]</a> Then in 1921, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Eddington" title="Arthur Eddington">Arthur Eddington</a> suggested <a href="/wiki/Proton%E2%80%93proton_chain" title="Proton–proton chain">hydrogen–helium fusion</a> could be the primary source of stellar energy.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> <a href="/wiki/Quantum_tunneling" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum tunneling">Quantum tunneling</a> was discovered by <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hund" title="Friedrich Hund">Friedrich Hund</a> in 1927,<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> and shortly afterwards <a href="/wiki/Robert_d%27Escourt_Atkinson" title="Robert d'Escourt Atkinson">Robert Atkinson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Houtermans" title="Fritz Houtermans">Fritz Houtermans</a> used the measured <a href="/wiki/Atomic_mass" title="Atomic mass">masses</a> of light elements to demonstrate that large amounts of energy could be released by fusing small nuclei.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Building on the early experiments in artificial <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation" title="Nuclear transmutation">nuclear transmutation</a> by <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Blackett" title="Patrick Blackett">Patrick Blackett</a>, laboratory fusion of <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_hydrogen" title="Isotopes of hydrogen">hydrogen isotopes</a> was accomplished by <a href="/wiki/Mark_Oliphant" title="Mark Oliphant">Mark Oliphant</a> in 1932.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> In the remainder of that decade, the theory of the main cycle of nuclear fusion in stars was worked out by <a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Hans Bethe</a>. Research into <a href="/wiki/Thermonuclear_weapon" title="Thermonuclear weapon">fusion for military purposes</a> began in the early 1940s as part of the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a>. The first artificial thermonuclear fusion reaction occurred during the 1951 <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_Item" title="Greenhouse Item">Greenhouse Item</a> test of the first <a href="/wiki/Boosted_fission_weapon" title="Boosted fission weapon">boosted fission weapon</a>, which uses a small amount of <a href="/wiki/Deuterium%E2%80%93tritium_fusion" title="Deuterium–tritium fusion">deuterium–tritium</a> gas to enhance the fission yield. The first <a href="/wiki/Thermonuclear_weapon" title="Thermonuclear weapon">thermonuclear weapon</a> detonation, where the vast majority of the yield comes from fusion, was the 1952 <a href="/wiki/Ivy_Mike" title="Ivy Mike">Ivy Mike</a> test of a <a href="/wiki/Liquid_hydrogen" title="Liquid hydrogen">liquid</a> <a href="/wiki/Deuterium_fusion" title="Deuterium fusion">deuterium-fusing</a> device. While fusion bomb detonations were <a href="/wiki/Project_PACER#Development" title="Project PACER">loosely considered for energy production</a>, the possibility of controlled and sustained reactions remained the scientific focus for peaceful fusion power. Research into developing controlled fusion inside <a href="/wiki/Fusion_reactors" class="mw-redirect" title="Fusion reactors">fusion reactors</a> has been ongoing since the 1930s, with <a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_National_Laboratory" title="Los Alamos National Laboratory">Los Alamos National Laboratory</a>'s Scylla I device producing the first laboratory thermonuclear fusion in 1958, but the technology is still in its developmental phase.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> The US <a href="/wiki/National_Ignition_Facility" title="National Ignition Facility">National Ignition Facility</a>, which uses laser-driven <a href="/wiki/Inertial_confinement_fusion" title="Inertial confinement fusion">inertial confinement fusion</a>, was designed with a goal of <a href="/wiki/Break-even" title="Break-even">break-even</a> fusion; the first large-scale laser target experiments were performed in June 2009 and ignition experiments began in early 2011.<a href="#cite_note-programsNIF-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> On 13 December 2022, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy" title="United States Department of Energy">United States Department of Energy</a> announced that on 5 December 2022, they had successfully accomplished break-even fusion, "delivering 2.05 megajoules (MJ) of energy to the target, resulting in 3.15 MJ of fusion energy output."<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Prior to this breakthrough, controlled fusion reactions had been unable to produce break-even (self-sustaining) controlled fusion.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> The two most advanced approaches for it are <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_confinement_fusion" title="Magnetic confinement fusion">magnetic confinement</a> (toroid designs) and inertial confinement (laser designs). Workable designs for a toroidal reactor that theoretically will deliver ten times more fusion energy than the amount needed to heat plasma to the required temperatures are in development (see <a href="/wiki/ITER" title="ITER">ITER</a>). The ITER facility is expected to finish its construction phase in 2025. It will start commissioning the reactor that same year and initiate plasma experiments in 2025, but is not expected to begin full deuterium–tritium fusion until 2035.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> Private companies pursuing the commercialization of nuclear fusion received $2.6 billion in private funding in 2021 alone, going to many notable startups including but not limited to <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Fusion_Systems" title="Commonwealth Fusion Systems">Commonwealth Fusion Systems</a>, <a href="/wiki/Helion_Energy" title="Helion Energy">Helion Energy Inc</a>., <a href="/wiki/General_Fusion" title="General Fusion">General Fusion</a>, <a href="/wiki/TAE_Technologies" title="TAE Technologies">TAE Technologies</a> Inc. and <a href="/wiki/Zap_Energy" title="Zap Energy">Zap Energy</a> Inc.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> One of the most recent breakthroughs to date in maintaining a sustained fusion reaction occurred in France's WEST fusion reactor. It maintained a 90 million degree plasma for a record time of six minutes. This is a tokamak style reactor which is the same style as the upcoming ITER reactor.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Process">Process</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fusion&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Process">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Deuterium-tritium_fusion.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Deuterium-tritium_fusion.svg/220px-Deuterium-tritium_fusion.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Deuterium-tritium_fusion.svg/330px-Deuterium-tritium_fusion.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Deuterium-tritium_fusion.svg/440px-Deuterium-tritium_fusion.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Fusion of <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a> with <a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">tritium</a> creating <a href="/wiki/Helium-4" title="Helium-4">helium-4</a>, freeing a neutron, and releasing 17.59 <a href="/wiki/Electronvolt" title="Electronvolt">MeV</a> as <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">kinetic energy</a> of the products while a corresponding amount of <a href="/wiki/Mass%E2%80%93energy_equivalence" title="Mass–energy equivalence">mass disappears</a>, in agreement with kinetic E = ∆mc2, where Δm is the decrease in the total rest mass of particles<a href="#cite_note-Shultis-16">[16]</a></figcaption></figure> The release of energy with the fusion of light elements is due to the interplay of two opposing forces: the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_force" title="Nuclear force">nuclear force</a>, a manifestation of the <a href="/wiki/Strong_interaction" title="Strong interaction">strong interaction</a>, which holds protons and neutrons tightly together in the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">atomic nucleus</a>; and the <a href="/wiki/Coulomb%27s_law" title="Coulomb's law">Coulomb force</a>, which causes positively <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">charged</a> <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a> in the nucleus to repel each other.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> Lighter nuclei (nuclei smaller than iron and nickel) are sufficiently small and proton-poor to allow the nuclear force to overcome the Coulomb force. This is because the nucleus is sufficiently small that all nucleons feel the short-range attractive force at least as strongly as they feel the infinite-range Coulomb repulsion. Building up nuclei from lighter nuclei by fusion releases the extra energy from the net attraction of particles. <a href="/wiki/Iron_peak" title="Iron peak">For larger nuclei</a>, however, no energy is released, because the nuclear force is short-range and cannot act across larger nuclei. Fusion powers <a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">stars</a> and produces virtually all elements in a process called <a href="/wiki/Nucleosynthesis" title="Nucleosynthesis">nucleosynthesis</a>. The Sun is a main-sequence star, and, as such, generates its energy by nuclear fusion of hydrogen nuclei into helium. In its core, the Sun fuses 620 million metric tons of hydrogen and makes 616 million metric tons of helium each second. The fusion of lighter elements in stars releases energy and the mass that always accompanies it. For example, in the fusion of two hydrogen nuclei to form helium, 0.645% of the mass is carried away in the form of kinetic energy of an <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">alpha particle</a> or other forms of energy, such as electromagnetic radiation.<a href="#cite_note-bulletin1950-18">[18]</a> It takes considerable energy to force nuclei to fuse, even those of the lightest element, <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>. When accelerated to high enough speeds, nuclei can overcome this electrostatic repulsion and be brought close enough such that the attractive <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_force" title="Nuclear force">nuclear force</a> is greater than the repulsive Coulomb force. The <a href="/wiki/Strong_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Strong force">strong force</a> grows rapidly once the nuclei are close enough, and the fusing nucleons can essentially "fall" into each other and the result is fusion; this is an <a href="/wiki/Exothermic_reaction" title="Exothermic reaction">exothermic process</a>.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> Energy released in most <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reaction" title="Nuclear reaction">nuclear reactions</a> is much larger than in <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">chemical reactions</a>, because the <a href="/wiki/Binding_energy" title="Binding energy">binding energy</a> that holds a nucleus together is greater than the energy that holds <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> to a nucleus. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Ionization_energy" title="Ionization energy">ionization energy</a> gained by adding an electron to a hydrogen nucleus is 13.6 <a href="/wiki/Electronvolt" title="Electronvolt">eV</a>—less than one-millionth of the 17.6 <a href="/wiki/Electronvolt" title="Electronvolt">MeV</a> released in the <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a>–<a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">tritium</a> (D–T) reaction shown in the adjacent diagram. Fusion reactions have an <a href="/wiki/Energy_density" title="Energy density">energy density</a> many times greater than <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a>; the reactions produce far greater energy per unit of mass even though individual fission reactions are generally much more energetic than individual fusion ones, which are themselves millions of times more energetic than chemical reactions. Only direct conversion of <a href="/wiki/Mass%E2%80%93energy_equivalence" title="Mass–energy equivalence">mass into energy</a>, such as that caused by the <a href="/wiki/Annihilation" title="Annihilation">annihilatory</a> collision of <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antimatter" title="Antimatter">antimatter</a>, is more energetic per unit of mass than nuclear fusion. (The complete conversion of one gram of matter would release 9×1013 joules of energy.) <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_stars">In stars</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fusion&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: In stars">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fusion_in_the_Sun.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Fusion_in_the_Sun.svg/250px-Fusion_in_the_Sun.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="357" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Fusion_in_the_Sun.svg/375px-Fusion_in_the_Sun.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Fusion_in_the_Sun.svg/500px-Fusion_in_the_Sun.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Proton%E2%80%93proton_chain" title="Proton–proton chain">proton–proton chain</a> reaction, branch I, dominates in stars the size of the Sun or smaller.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CNO_Cycle.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/CNO_Cycle.svg/250px-CNO_Cycle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/CNO_Cycle.svg/375px-CNO_Cycle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/CNO_Cycle.svg/500px-CNO_Cycle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/CNO_cycle" title="CNO cycle">CNO cycle</a> dominates in stars heavier than the Sun.</figcaption></figure> An important fusion process is the <a href="/wiki/Stellar_nucleosynthesis" title="Stellar nucleosynthesis">stellar nucleosynthesis</a> that powers <a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">stars</a>, including the Sun. In the 20th century, it was recognized that the energy released from nuclear fusion reactions accounts for the longevity of stellar heat and light. The fusion of nuclei in a star, starting from its initial hydrogen and helium abundance, provides that energy and synthesizes new nuclei. Different reaction chains are involved, depending on the mass of the star (and therefore the pressure and temperature in its core). Around 1920, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Eddington" title="Arthur Eddington">Arthur Eddington</a> anticipated the discovery and mechanism of nuclear fusion processes in stars, in his paper The Internal Constitution of the Stars.<a href="#cite_note-eddington-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-eddington2-21">[21]</a> At that time, the source of stellar energy was unknown; Eddington correctly speculated that the source was fusion of hydrogen into helium, liberating enormous energy according to <a href="/wiki/Mass%E2%80%93energy_equivalence" title="Mass–energy equivalence">Einstein's equation</a> E = mc2. This was a particularly remarkable development since at that time fusion and thermonuclear energy had not yet been discovered, nor even that stars are largely composed of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Metallicity" title="Metallicity">metallicity</a>). Eddington's paper reasoned that: <ol><li>The leading theory of stellar energy, the contraction hypothesis, should cause the rotation of a star to visibly speed up due to <a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_angular_momentum" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation of angular momentum">conservation of angular momentum</a>. But observations of <a href="/wiki/Cepheid" class="mw-redirect" title="Cepheid">Cepheid</a> variable stars showed this was not happening.</li> <li>The only other known plausible source of energy was conversion of matter to energy; Einstein had shown some years earlier that a small amount of matter was equivalent to a large amount of energy.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_William_Aston" title="Francis William Aston">Francis Aston</a> had also recently shown that the mass of a helium atom was about 0.8% less than the mass of the four hydrogen atoms which would, combined, form a helium atom (according to the then-prevailing theory of atomic structure which held atomic weight to be the distinguishing property between elements; work by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Moseley" title="Henry Moseley">Henry Moseley</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antonius_van_den_Broek" title="Antonius van den Broek">Antonius van den Broek</a> would later show that nucleic charge was the distinguishing property and that a helium nucleus, therefore, consisted of two hydrogen nuclei plus additional mass). This suggested that if such a combination could happen, it would release considerable energy as a byproduct.</li> <li>If a star contained just 5% of fusible hydrogen, it would suffice to explain how stars got their energy. (It is now known that most 'ordinary' stars are usually made of around 70% to 75% hydrogen)</li> <li>Further elements might also be fused, and other scientists had speculated that stars were the "crucible" in which light elements combined to create heavy elements, but without more accurate measurements of their <a href="/wiki/Atomic_mass" title="Atomic mass">atomic masses</a> nothing more could be said at the time.</li></ol> All of these speculations were proven correct in the following decades. The primary source of solar energy, and that of similar size stars, is the fusion of hydrogen to form helium (the <a href="/wiki/Proton%E2%80%93proton_chain" title="Proton–proton chain">proton–proton chain</a> reaction), which occurs at a solar-core temperature of 14 million kelvin. The net result is the fusion of four <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a> into one <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">alpha particle</a>, with the release of two <a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">positrons</a> and two <a href="/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino">neutrinos</a> (which changes two of the protons into neutrons), and energy. In heavier stars, the <a href="/wiki/CNO_cycle" title="CNO cycle">CNO cycle</a> and other processes are more important. As a star uses up a substantial fraction of its hydrogen, it begins to synthesize heavier elements. The heaviest elements are synthesized by fusion that occurs when a more massive star undergoes a violent <a href="/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova">supernova</a> at the end of its life, a process known as <a href="/wiki/Supernova_nucleosynthesis" title="Supernova nucleosynthesis">supernova nucleosynthesis</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Requirements">Requirements</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fusion&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Requirements">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Nuclear_fusion" title="Special:EditPage/Nuclear fusion">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Nuclear+fusion%22">"Nuclear fusion"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Nuclear+fusion%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Nuclear+fusion%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Nuclear+fusion%22+-wikipedia">books</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Nuclear+fusion%22">scholar</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Nuclear+fusion%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a> (October 2024) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> A substantial energy barrier of electrostatic forces must be overcome before fusion can occur. At large distances, two naked nuclei repel one another because of the repulsive <a href="/wiki/Electrostatic_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrostatic force">electrostatic force</a> between their <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">positively charged</a> protons. If two nuclei can be brought close enough together, however, the electrostatic repulsion can be overcome by the quantum effect in which nuclei can <a href="/wiki/Quantum_tunnelling#Nuclear_fusion" title="Quantum tunnelling">tunnel</a> through coulomb forces. When a <a href="/wiki/Nucleon" title="Nucleon">nucleon</a> such as a <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">proton</a> or <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutron</a> is added to a nucleus, the nuclear force attracts it to all the other nucleons of the nucleus (if the atom is small enough), but primarily to its immediate neighbors due to the short range of the force. The nucleons in the interior of a nucleus have more neighboring nucleons than those on the surface. Since smaller nuclei have a larger surface-area-to-volume ratio, the binding energy per nucleon due to the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_force" title="Nuclear force">nuclear force</a> generally increases with the size of the nucleus but approaches a limiting value corresponding to that of a nucleus with a diameter of about four nucleons. It is important to keep in mind that nucleons are <a href="/wiki/Quantum_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum physics">quantum objects</a>. So, for example, since two neutrons in a nucleus are identical to each other, the goal of distinguishing one from the other, such as which one is in the interior and which is on the surface, is in fact meaningless, and the inclusion of quantum mechanics is therefore necessary for proper calculations. The electrostatic force, on the other hand, is an <a href="/wiki/Inverse_square_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Inverse square law">inverse-square force</a>, so a proton added to a nucleus will feel an electrostatic repulsion from all the other protons in the nucleus. The electrostatic energy per nucleon due to the electrostatic force thus increases without limit as nuclei atomic number grows. <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuclear_fusion_forces_diagram.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Nuclear_fusion_forces_diagram.svg/350px-Nuclear_fusion_forces_diagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Nuclear_fusion_forces_diagram.svg/525px-Nuclear_fusion_forces_diagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Nuclear_fusion_forces_diagram.svg/700px-Nuclear_fusion_forces_diagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1186" data-file-height="534" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Electrostatic_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrostatic force">electrostatic force</a> between the positively charged nuclei is repulsive, but when the separation is small enough, the quantum effect will tunnel through the wall. Therefore, the prerequisite for fusion is that the two nuclei be brought close enough together for a long enough time for quantum tunneling to act.</figcaption></figure> The net result of the opposing electrostatic and strong nuclear forces is that the binding energy per nucleon generally increases with increasing size, up to the elements <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a>, and then decreases for heavier nuclei. Eventually, the <a href="/wiki/Binding_energy" title="Binding energy">binding energy</a> becomes negative and very heavy nuclei (all with more than 208 nucleons, corresponding to a diameter of about 6 nucleons) are not stable. The four most tightly bound nuclei, in decreasing order of <a href="/wiki/Binding_energy" title="Binding energy">binding energy</a> per nucleon, are <a href="/wiki/Nickel-62" title="Nickel-62">62 Ni </a>, <a href="/wiki/Iron-58" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron-58">58 Fe </a>, <a href="/wiki/Iron-56" title="Iron-56">56 Fe </a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nickel-60" class="mw-redirect" title="Nickel-60">60 Ni </a>.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Even though the <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_nickel" title="Isotopes of nickel">nickel isotope</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nickel-62" title="Nickel-62">62 Ni </a>, is more stable, the <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_iron" title="Isotopes of iron">iron isotope</a> <a href="/wiki/Iron-56" title="Iron-56">56 Fe </a> is an <a href="/wiki/Order_of_magnitude" title="Order of magnitude">order of magnitude</a> more common. This is due to the fact that there is no easy way for stars to create <a href="/wiki/Nickel-62" title="Nickel-62">62 Ni </a> through the <a href="/wiki/Alpha_process" title="Alpha process">alpha process</a>. An exception to this general trend is the <a href="/wiki/Helium-4" title="Helium-4">helium-4</a> nucleus, whose binding energy is higher than that of <a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">lithium</a>, the next heavier element. This is because protons and neutrons are <a href="/wiki/Fermion" title="Fermion">fermions</a>, which according to the <a href="/wiki/Pauli_exclusion_principle" title="Pauli exclusion principle">Pauli exclusion principle</a> cannot exist in the same nucleus in exactly the same state. Each proton or neutron's energy state in a nucleus can accommodate both a spin up particle and a spin down particle. Helium-4 has an anomalously large binding energy because its nucleus consists of two protons and two neutrons (it is a <a href="/wiki/Doubly_magic" class="mw-redirect" title="Doubly magic">doubly magic</a> nucleus), so all four of its nucleons can be in the ground state. Any additional nucleons would have to go into higher energy states. Indeed, the helium-4 nucleus is so tightly bound that it is commonly treated as a single quantum mechanical particle in nuclear physics, namely, the <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">alpha particle</a>. The situation is similar if two nuclei are brought together. As they approach each other, all the protons in one nucleus repel all the protons in the other. Not until the two nuclei actually come close enough for long enough so the strong attractive <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_force" title="Nuclear force">nuclear force</a> can take over and overcome the repulsive electrostatic force. This can also be described as the nuclei overcoming the so-called <a href="/wiki/Coulomb_barrier" title="Coulomb barrier">Coulomb barrier</a>. The kinetic energy to achieve this can be lower than the barrier itself because of quantum tunneling. The <a href="/wiki/Coulomb_barrier" title="Coulomb barrier">Coulomb barrier</a> is smallest for isotopes of hydrogen, as their nuclei contain only a single positive charge. A <a href="/wiki/Diproton" class="mw-redirect" title="Diproton">diproton</a> is not stable, so neutrons must also be involved, ideally in such a way that a helium nucleus, with its extremely tight binding, is one of the products. Using <a href="/wiki/Tritium#Deuterium" title="Tritium">deuterium–tritium</a> fuel, the resulting energy barrier is about 0.1 MeV. In comparison, the energy needed to remove an <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a> from <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> is 13.6 eV. The (intermediate) result of the fusion is an unstable 5He nucleus, which immediately ejects a neutron with 14.1 MeV. The recoil energy of the remaining 4He nucleus is 3.5 MeV, so the total energy liberated is 17.6 MeV. This is many times more than what was needed to overcome the energy barrier. <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fusion_rxnrate.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Fusion_rxnrate.svg/300px-Fusion_rxnrate.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Fusion_rxnrate.svg/450px-Fusion_rxnrate.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Fusion_rxnrate.svg/600px-Fusion_rxnrate.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="540" data-file-height="405" /></a><figcaption>The fusion reaction rate increases rapidly with temperature until it maximizes and then gradually drops off. The DT rate peaks at a lower temperature (about 70 keV, or 800 million kelvin) and at a higher value than other reactions commonly considered for fusion energy.</figcaption></figure> The reaction <a href="/wiki/Cross_section_(physics)" title="Cross section (physics)">cross section</a> (σ) is a measure of the probability of a fusion reaction as a function of the relative velocity of the two reactant nuclei. If the reactants have a distribution of velocities, e.g. a thermal distribution, then it is useful to perform an average over the distributions of the product of cross-section and velocity. This average is called the 'reactivity', denoted ⟨σv⟩. The reaction rate (fusions per volume per time) is ⟨σv⟩ times the product of the reactant number densities: <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f=n_{1}n_{2}\langle \sigma v\rangle .}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>f</mi> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟨</mo> <mi>σ</mi> <mi>v</mi> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟩</mo> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f=n_{1}n_{2}\langle \sigma v\rangle .}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0b9a8d14268990bd84ad6e3d04a8fd2f2f044370" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:14.188ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f=n_{1}n_{2}\langle \sigma v\rangle .}"></dd></dl> If a species of nuclei is reacting with a nucleus like itself, such as the DD reaction, then the product <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n_{1}n_{2}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n_{1}n_{2}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a70ec72e416c0e2120ab2480be2bf67cc40817bd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:4.898ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n_{1}n_{2}}"> must be replaced by <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n^{2}/2}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n^{2}/2}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2c9f86c317d81ea828f5a907b28bcdf606ef84f0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.774ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n^{2}/2}">. <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \langle \sigma v\rangle }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟨</mo> <mi>σ</mi> <mi>v</mi> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟩</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \langle \sigma v\rangle }</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c32624c6fcf974ef4aa9bfc7a9e691757fbd523f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.267ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \langle \sigma v\rangle }"> increases from virtually zero at room temperatures up to meaningful magnitudes at temperatures of <a href="/wiki/1_E-15_J" class="mw-redirect" title="1 E-15 J">10</a>–<a href="/wiki/1_E-14_J" class="mw-redirect" title="1 E-14 J">100</a> keV. At these temperatures, well above typical <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ionization</a> energies (13.6 eV in the hydrogen case), the fusion reactants exist in a <a href="/wiki/Plasma_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Plasma physics">plasma</a> state. The significance of <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \langle \sigma v\rangle }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟨</mo> <mi>σ</mi> <mi>v</mi> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟩</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \langle \sigma v\rangle }</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c32624c6fcf974ef4aa9bfc7a9e691757fbd523f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.267ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \langle \sigma v\rangle }"> as a function of temperature in a device with a particular energy <a href="/wiki/Confinement_time" class="mw-redirect" title="Confinement time">confinement time</a> is found by considering the <a href="/wiki/Lawson_criterion" title="Lawson criterion">Lawson criterion</a>. This is an extremely challenging barrier to overcome on Earth, which explains why fusion research has taken many years to reach the current advanced technical state.<a href="#cite_note-lawson-23">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Artificial_fusion">Artificial fusion</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fusion&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Artificial fusion">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fusion_power" title="Fusion power">Fusion power</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thermonuclear_fusion">Thermonuclear fusion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fusion&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Thermonuclear fusion">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Nuclear_fusion" title="Special:EditPage/Nuclear fusion">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (August 2023) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Thermonuclear fusion is the process of atomic nuclei combining or "fusing" using high temperatures to drive them close enough together for this to become possible. Such temperatures cause the matter to become a <a href="/wiki/Plasma_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Plasma physics">plasma</a> and, if confined, fusion reactions may occur due to collisions with extreme thermal kinetic energies of the particles. There are two forms of thermonuclear fusion: uncontrolled, in which the resulting energy is released in an uncontrolled manner, as it is in <a href="/wiki/Thermonuclear_weapon" title="Thermonuclear weapon">thermonuclear weapons</a> ("hydrogen bombs") and in most <a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">stars</a>; and controlled, where the fusion reactions take place in an environment allowing some or all of the energy released to be harnessed for constructive purposes. Temperature is a measure of the average <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">kinetic energy</a> of particles, so by heating the material it will gain energy. After reaching sufficient temperature, given by the <a href="/wiki/Lawson_criterion" title="Lawson criterion">Lawson criterion</a>, the energy of accidental collisions within the <a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">plasma</a> is high enough to overcome the <a href="/wiki/Coulomb_barrier" title="Coulomb barrier">Coulomb barrier</a> and the particles may fuse together. In a <a href="/wiki/Deuterium%E2%80%93tritium_fusion" title="Deuterium–tritium fusion">deuterium–tritium fusion reaction</a>, for example, the energy necessary to overcome the <a href="/wiki/Coulomb_barrier" title="Coulomb barrier">Coulomb barrier</a> is 0.1 <a href="/wiki/Electronvolt" title="Electronvolt">MeV</a>. Converting between energy and temperature shows that the 0.1 MeV barrier would be overcome at a temperature <a href="/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(temperature)" title="Orders of magnitude (temperature)">in excess of 1.2 billion</a> <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">kelvin</a>. There are two effects that are needed to lower the actual temperature. One is the fact that <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a> is the average kinetic energy, implying that some nuclei at this temperature would actually have much higher energy than 0.1 MeV, while others would be much lower. It is the nuclei in the high-energy tail of the <a href="/wiki/Distribution_function_(physics)" title="Distribution function (physics)">velocity distribution</a> that account for most of the fusion reactions. The other effect is <a href="/wiki/Quantum_tunnelling" title="Quantum tunnelling">quantum tunnelling</a>. The nuclei do not actually have to have enough energy to overcome the Coulomb barrier completely. If they have nearly enough energy, they can tunnel through the remaining barrier. For these reasons fuel at lower temperatures will still undergo fusion events, at a lower rate. Thermonuclear fusion is one of the methods being researched in the attempts to produce <a href="/wiki/Fusion_power" title="Fusion power">fusion power</a>. If thermonuclear fusion becomes favorable to use, it would significantly reduce the world's <a href="/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">carbon footprint</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Beam–beam_or_beam–target_fusion">Beam–beam or beam–target fusion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fusion&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Beam–beam or beam–target fusion">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Colliding_beam_fusion" title="Colliding beam fusion">Colliding beam fusion</a></div> Accelerator-based light-ion fusion is a technique using <a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">particle accelerators</a> to achieve particle kinetic energies sufficient to induce light-ion fusion reactions.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> Accelerating light ions is relatively easy, and can be done in an efficient manner—requiring only a vacuum tube, a pair of electrodes, and a high-voltage transformer; fusion can be observed with as little as 10 kV between the electrodes.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The system can be arranged to accelerate ions into a static fuel-infused target, known as beam–target fusion, or by accelerating two streams of ions towards each other, beam–beam fusion.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The key problem with accelerator-based fusion (and with cold targets in general) is that fusion cross sections are many orders of magnitude lower than Coulomb interaction cross-sections. Therefore, the vast majority of ions expend their energy emitting <a href="/wiki/Bremsstrahlung" title="Bremsstrahlung">bremsstrahlung</a> radiation and the ionization of atoms of the target. Devices referred to as sealed-tube <a href="/wiki/Neutron_generator" title="Neutron generator">neutron generators</a> are particularly relevant to this discussion. These small devices are miniature particle accelerators filled with deuterium and tritium gas in an arrangement that allows ions of those nuclei to be accelerated against hydride targets, also containing deuterium and tritium, where fusion takes place, releasing a flux of neutrons. Hundreds of neutron generators are produced annually for use in the petroleum industry where they are used in measurement equipment for locating and mapping oil reserves.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] A number of attempts to recirculate the ions that "miss" collisions have been made over the years. One of the better-known attempts in the 1970s was <a href="/wiki/Migma" title="Migma">Migma</a>, which used a unique particle <a href="/wiki/Storage_ring" title="Storage ring">storage ring</a> to capture ions into circular orbits and return them to the reaction area. Theoretical calculations made during funding reviews pointed out that the system would have significant difficulty scaling up to contain enough fusion fuel to be relevant as a power source. In the 1990s, a new arrangement using a <a href="/wiki/Field-reversed_configuration" title="Field-reversed configuration">field-reversed configuration</a> (FRC) as the storage system was proposed by <a href="/wiki/Norman_Rostoker" title="Norman Rostoker">Norman Rostoker</a> and continues to be studied by <a href="/wiki/TAE_Technologies" title="TAE Technologies">TAE Technologies</a> as of 2021<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fusion&action=edit">[update]</a>. A closely related approach is to merge two FRC's rotating in opposite directions,<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> which is being actively studied by <a href="/wiki/Helion_Energy" title="Helion Energy">Helion Energy</a>. Because these approaches all have ion energies well beyond the <a href="/wiki/Coulomb_barrier" title="Coulomb barrier">Coulomb barrier</a>, they often suggest the use of alternative fuel cycles like p-<a href="/wiki/Boron#Depleted_boron_(boron-11)" title="Boron">11B</a> that are too difficult to attempt using conventional approaches.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Muon-catalyzed_fusion">Muon-catalyzed fusion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fusion&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Muon-catalyzed fusion">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Muon-catalyzed_fusion" title="Muon-catalyzed fusion">Muon-catalyzed fusion</a> is a fusion process that occurs at ordinary temperatures. It was studied in detail by <a href="/wiki/Steven_E._Jones" title="Steven E. Jones">Steven Jones</a> in the early 1980s. Net energy production from this reaction has been unsuccessful because of the high energy required to create <a href="/wiki/Muon" title="Muon">muons</a>, their short 2.2 μs <a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">half-life</a>, and the high chance that a muon will bind to the new <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">alpha particle</a> and thus stop catalyzing fusion.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_principles">Other principles</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fusion&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Other principles">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TCV_vue_gen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/TCV_vue_gen.jpg/220px-TCV_vue_gen.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/TCV_vue_gen.jpg/330px-TCV_vue_gen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/TCV_vue_gen.jpg/440px-TCV_vue_gen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Tokamak_%C3%A0_configuration_variable" title="Tokamak à configuration variable">Tokamak à configuration variable</a>, research fusion reactor, at the <a href="/wiki/%C3%89cole_Polytechnique_F%C3%A9d%C3%A9rale_de_Lausanne" title="École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne">École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne</a> (Switzerland)</figcaption></figure> Some other confinement principles have been investigated. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antimatter_catalyzed_nuclear_pulse_propulsion" class="mw-redirect" title="Antimatter catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion">Antimatter-initialized fusion</a> uses small amounts of <a href="/wiki/Antimatter" title="Antimatter">antimatter</a> to trigger a tiny fusion explosion. This has been studied primarily in the context of making <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_pulse_propulsion" title="Nuclear pulse propulsion">nuclear pulse propulsion</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pure_fusion_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Pure fusion bomb">pure fusion bombs</a> feasible. This is not near becoming a practical power source, due to the cost of manufacturing antimatter alone.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyroelectric_fusion" title="Pyroelectric fusion">Pyroelectric fusion</a> was reported in April 2005 by a team at <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Los_Angeles" title="University of California, Los Angeles">UCLA</a>. The scientists used a <a href="/wiki/Pyroelectricity" title="Pyroelectricity">pyroelectric</a> crystal heated from −34 to 7 °C (−29 to 45 °F), combined with a <a href="/wiki/Tungsten" title="Tungsten">tungsten</a> needle to produce an <a href="/wiki/Electric_field" title="Electric field">electric field</a> of about 25 gigavolts per meter to ionize and accelerate <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a> nuclei into an <a href="/wiki/Erbium" title="Erbium">erbium</a> deuteride target. At the estimated energy levels,<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> the D–D fusion reaction may occur, producing <a href="/wiki/Helium-3" title="Helium-3">helium-3</a> and a 2.45 MeV <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutron</a>. Although it makes a useful neutron generator, the apparatus is not intended for power generation since it requires far more energy than it produces.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> D–T fusion reactions have been observed with a tritiated erbium target.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion%E2%80%93fission_hybrid" title="Nuclear fusion–fission hybrid">Nuclear fusion–fission hybrid</a> (hybrid nuclear power) is a proposed means of generating <a href="/wiki/Electrical_power_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical power industry">power</a> by use of a combination of nuclear fusion and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">fission</a> processes. The concept dates to the 1950s, and was briefly advocated by <a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Hans Bethe</a> during the 1970s, but largely remained unexplored until a revival of interest in 2009, due to the delays in the realization of pure fusion.<a href="#cite_note-hybrid-34">[34]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_PACER" title="Project PACER">Project PACER</a>, carried out at <a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_National_Laboratory" title="Los Alamos National Laboratory">Los Alamos National Laboratory</a> (LANL) in the mid-1970s, explored the possibility of a fusion power system that would involve exploding small <a href="/wiki/H-bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="H-bomb">hydrogen bombs</a> (fusion bombs) inside an underground cavity. As an energy source, the system is the only fusion power system that could be demonstrated to work using existing technology. However, it would also require a large, continuous supply of nuclear bombs, making the economics of such a system rather questionable.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bubble_fusion" title="Bubble fusion">Bubble fusion</a> also called sonofusion was a proposed mechanism for achieving fusion via <a href="/wiki/Sonic_cavitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Sonic cavitation">sonic cavitation</a> which rose to prominence in the early 2000s. Subsequent attempts at replication failed and the principal investigator, <a href="/wiki/Rusi_Taleyarkhan" title="Rusi Taleyarkhan">Rusi Taleyarkhan</a>, was judged guilty of <a href="/wiki/Research_misconduct" class="mw-redirect" title="Research misconduct">research misconduct</a> in 2008.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Confinement_in_thermonuclear_fusion">Confinement in thermonuclear fusion</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fusion&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Confinement in thermonuclear fusion">edit</a>]</div> The key problem in achieving thermonuclear fusion is how to confine the hot plasma. Due to the high temperature, the plasma cannot be in direct contact with any solid material, so it has to be located in a <a href="/wiki/Vacuum" title="Vacuum">vacuum</a>. Also, high temperatures imply high pressures. The plasma tends to expand immediately and some force is necessary to act against it. This force can take one of three forms: gravitation in stars, magnetic forces in magnetic confinement fusion reactors, or <a href="/wiki/Inertia" title="Inertia">inertial</a> as the fusion reaction may occur before the plasma starts to expand, so the plasma's inertia is keeping the material together. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gravitational_confinement">Gravitational confinement</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fusion&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Gravitational confinement">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Stellar_nucleosynthesis" title="Stellar nucleosynthesis">Stellar nucleosynthesis</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Nuclear_fusion" title="Special:EditPage/Nuclear fusion">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (August 2023) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> One force capable of confining the fuel well enough to satisfy the <a href="/wiki/Lawson_criterion" title="Lawson criterion">Lawson criterion</a> is <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a>. The mass needed, however, is so great that gravitational confinement is only found in <a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">stars</a>—the least massive stars capable of sustained fusion are <a href="/wiki/Red_dwarf" title="Red dwarf">red dwarfs</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Brown_dwarf" title="Brown dwarf">brown dwarfs</a> are able to fuse <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">lithium</a> if they are of sufficient mass. In stars <a href="/wiki/Asymptotic_giant_branch" title="Asymptotic giant branch">heavy enough</a>, after the supply of hydrogen is exhausted in their cores, their cores (or a shell around the core) start fusing <a href="/wiki/Triple-alpha_process" title="Triple-alpha process">helium to carbon</a>. In the most massive stars (at least 8–11 <a href="/wiki/Solar_mass" title="Solar mass">solar masses</a>), the process is continued until some of their energy is produced by <a href="/wiki/Silicon_burning_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Silicon burning process">fusing lighter elements to iron</a>. As iron has one of the highest <a href="/wiki/Binding_energy#Nuclear_binding_energy_curve" title="Binding energy">binding energies</a>, reactions producing heavier elements are generally <a href="/wiki/Endothermic" class="mw-redirect" title="Endothermic">endothermic</a>. Therefore, significant amounts of heavier elements are not formed during stable periods of massive star evolution, but are formed in <a href="/wiki/R-process" title="R-process">supernova explosions</a>. <a href="/wiki/S-process" title="S-process">Some lighter stars</a> also form these elements in the outer parts of the stars over long periods of time, by absorbing energy from fusion in the inside of the star, by absorbing neutrons that are emitted from the fusion process. All of the elements heavier than iron have some potential energy to release, in theory. At the extremely heavy end of element production, these heavier elements can <a href="/wiki/Exothermic" class="mw-redirect" title="Exothermic">produce energy</a> in the process of being split again back toward the size of iron, in the process of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a>. Nuclear fission thus releases energy that has been stored, sometimes billions of years before, during stellar <a href="/wiki/Nucleosynthesis" title="Nucleosynthesis">nucleosynthesis</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Magnetic_confinement">Magnetic confinement</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fusion&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Magnetic confinement">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_confinement_fusion" title="Magnetic confinement fusion">Magnetic confinement fusion</a></div> Electrically charged particles (such as fuel ions) will follow <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic field</a> lines (see <a href="/wiki/Guiding_center#Gyration" title="Guiding center">Guiding centre</a>). The fusion fuel can therefore be trapped using a strong magnetic field. A variety of magnetic configurations exist, including the toroidal geometries of <a href="/wiki/Tokamak" title="Tokamak">tokamaks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stellarator" title="Stellarator">stellarators</a> and open-ended mirror confinement systems. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inertial_confinement">Inertial confinement</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fusion&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Inertial confinement">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Inertial_confinement_fusion" title="Inertial confinement fusion">Inertial confinement fusion</a></div> A third confinement principle is to apply a rapid pulse of energy to a large part of the surface of a pellet of fusion fuel, causing it to simultaneously "implode" and heat to very high pressure and temperature. If the fuel is dense enough and hot enough, the fusion reaction rate will be high enough to burn a significant fraction of the fuel before it has dissipated. To achieve these extreme conditions, the initially cold fuel must be explosively compressed. Inertial confinement is used in the <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen bomb">hydrogen bomb</a>, where the driver is <a href="/wiki/X-rays" class="mw-redirect" title="X-rays">x-rays</a> created by a fission bomb. Inertial confinement is also attempted in "controlled" nuclear fusion, where the driver is a <a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">laser</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ion</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a> beam, or a <a href="/wiki/Z-pinch" title="Z-pinch">Z-pinch</a>. Another method is to use conventional high <a href="/wiki/Explosive_material" class="mw-redirect" title="Explosive material">explosive material</a> to compress a fuel to fusion conditions.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> The UTIAS explosive-driven-implosion facility was used to produce stable, centred and focused hemispherical implosions<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> to generate <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutrons</a> from D-D reactions. The simplest and most direct method proved to be in a predetonated stoichiometric mixture of <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a>-<a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>. The other successful method was using a miniature <a href="/wiki/Voitenko_compressor" title="Voitenko compressor">Voitenko compressor</a>,<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> where a plane diaphragm was driven by the implosion wave into a secondary small spherical cavity that contained pure <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a> gas at one atmosphere.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electrostatic_confinement">Electrostatic confinement</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fusion&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Electrostatic confinement">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Inertial_electrostatic_confinement" title="Inertial electrostatic confinement">Inertial electrostatic confinement</a></div> There are also <a href="/wiki/Inertial_electrostatic_confinement" title="Inertial electrostatic confinement">electrostatic confinement fusion</a> devices. These devices confine <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ions</a> using electrostatic fields. The best known is the <a href="/wiki/Fusor" title="Fusor">fusor</a>. This device has a cathode inside an anode wire cage. Positive ions fly towards the negative inner cage, and are heated by the electric field in the process. If they miss the inner cage they can collide and fuse. Ions typically hit the cathode, however, creating prohibitory high <a href="/wiki/Conduction_(heat)" class="mw-redirect" title="Conduction (heat)">conduction</a> losses. Also, fusion rates in <a href="/wiki/Fusor" title="Fusor">fusors</a> are very low due to competing physical effects, such as energy loss in the form of light radiation.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Designs have been proposed to avoid the problems associated with the cage, by generating the field using a non-neutral cloud. These include a plasma oscillating device,<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> a <a href="/wiki/Penning_trap" title="Penning trap">Penning trap</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Polywell" title="Polywell">polywell</a>.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> The technology is relatively immature, however, and many scientific and engineering questions remain. The most well known Inertial electrostatic confinement approach is the <a href="/wiki/Fusor" title="Fusor">fusor</a>. Starting in 1999, a number of amateurs have been able to do amateur fusion using these homemade devices.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> Other IEC devices include: the <a href="/wiki/Polywell" title="Polywell">Polywell</a>, MIX POPS<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> and Marble concepts.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Important_reactions">Important reactions</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fusion&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Important reactions">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Nuclear_fusion" title="Special:EditPage/Nuclear fusion">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (August 2023) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stellar_reaction_chains">Stellar reaction chains</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fusion&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Stellar reaction chains">edit</a>]</div> At the temperatures and densities in stellar cores, the rates of fusion reactions are notoriously slow. For example, at solar core temperature (T ≈ 15 MK) and density (160 g/cm3), the energy release rate is only 276 μW/cm3—about a quarter of the volumetric rate at which a resting human body generates heat.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> Thus, reproduction of stellar core conditions in a lab for nuclear fusion power production is completely impractical. Because nuclear reaction rates depend on density as well as temperature and most fusion schemes operate at relatively low densities, those methods are strongly dependent on higher temperatures. The fusion rate as a function of temperature (exp(−E/kT)), leads to the need to achieve temperatures in terrestrial reactors 10–100 times higher than in stellar interiors: T ≈ (0.1–1.0)×109 K. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criteria_and_candidates_for_terrestrial_reactions">Criteria and candidates for terrestrial reactions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fusion&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Criteria and candidates for terrestrial reactions">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fusion_power#Fuels" title="Fusion power">Fusion power § Fuels</a></div> In artificial fusion, the primary fuel is not constrained to be protons and higher temperatures can be used, so reactions with larger cross-sections are chosen. Another concern is the production of neutrons, which activate the reactor structure radiologically, but also have the advantages of allowing volumetric extraction of the fusion energy and <a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">tritium</a> breeding. Reactions that release no neutrons are referred to as <a href="/wiki/Aneutronic_fusion" title="Aneutronic fusion">aneutronic</a>. To be a useful energy source, a fusion reaction must satisfy several criteria. It must: <dl><dt>Be <a href="/wiki/Exothermic" class="mw-redirect" title="Exothermic">exothermic</a></dt> <dd>This limits the reactants to the low Z (number of protons) side of the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_binding_energy#Nuclear_binding_energy_curve" title="Nuclear binding energy">curve of binding energy</a>. It also makes helium <a href="/wiki/Helium-4" title="Helium-4">4 He </a> the most common product because of its extraordinarily tight binding, although <a href="/wiki/Helium-3" title="Helium-3">3 He </a> and <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen-3" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen-3">3 H </a> also show up.</dd> <dt>Involve low atomic number (Z) nuclei</dt> <dd>This is because the electrostatic repulsion that must be overcome before the nuclei are close enough to fuse ( <a href="/wiki/Coulomb_barrier" title="Coulomb barrier">Coulomb barrier</a> ) is directly related to the number of protons it contains – its atomic number.</dd> <dt>Have two reactants</dt> <dd>At anything less than stellar densities, three-body collisions are too improbable. In inertial confinement, both stellar densities and temperatures are exceeded to compensate for the shortcomings of the third parameter of the Lawson criterion, ICF's very short confinement time.</dd> <dt>Have two or more products</dt> <dd>This allows simultaneous conservation of energy and momentum without relying on the electromagnetic force.</dd> <dt>Conserve both protons and neutrons</dt> <dd>The cross sections for the weak interaction are too small.</dd></dl> Few reactions meet these criteria. The following are those with the largest cross sections:<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> <dl><dd><table border="0"> <tbody><tr style="height:2em;"> <td>(1) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">2 1D </a> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">3 1T </a> </td> <td>→ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Helium-4" title="Helium-4">4 2He </a> </td> <td>( </td> <td style="text-align:right;">3.52 MeV</td> <td>) </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">n0</a> </td> <td>( </td> <td style="text-align:right;">14.06 MeV</td> <td>) </td></tr> <tr style="height:2em;"> <td>(2i) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">2 1D </a> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">2 1D </a> </td> <td>→ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">3 1T </a> </td> <td>( </td> <td style="text-align:right;">1.01 MeV</td> <td>) </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">p+</a> </td> <td>( </td> <td style="text-align:right;">3.02 MeV</td> <td>) </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>50% </td></tr> <tr style="height:2em;"> <td>(2ii) </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>→ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Helium-3" title="Helium-3">3 2He </a> </td> <td>( </td> <td style="text-align:right;">0.82 MeV</td> <td>) </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">n0</a> </td> <td>( </td> <td style="text-align:right;">2.45 MeV</td> <td>) </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>50% </td></tr> <tr style="height:2em;"> <td>(3) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">2 1D </a> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Helium-3" title="Helium-3">3 2He </a> </td> <td>→ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Helium-4" title="Helium-4">4 2He </a> </td> <td>( </td> <td style="text-align:right;">3.6 MeV</td> <td>) </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">p+</a> </td> <td>( </td> <td style="text-align:right;">14.7 MeV</td> <td>) </td></tr> <tr style="height:2em;"> <td>(4) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">3 1T </a> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">3 1T </a> </td> <td>→ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Helium-4" title="Helium-4">4 2He </a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>+ </td> <td>2 <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">n0</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>+ </td> <td style="text-align:right;">11.3 MeV </td></tr> <tr style="height:2em;"> <td>(5) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Helium-3" title="Helium-3">3 2He </a> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Helium-3" title="Helium-3">3 2He </a> </td> <td>→ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Helium-4" title="Helium-4">4 2He </a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>+ </td> <td>2 <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">p+</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>+ </td> <td style="text-align:right;">12.9 MeV </td></tr> <tr style="height:2em;"> <td>(6i) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Helium-3" title="Helium-3">3 2He </a> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">3 1T </a> </td> <td>→ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Helium-4" title="Helium-4">4 2He </a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">p+</a> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">n0</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>+ </td> <td style="text-align:right;">12.1 MeV</td> <td> </td> <td>57% </td></tr> <tr style="height:2em;"> <td>(6ii) </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>→ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Helium-4" title="Helium-4">4 2He </a> </td> <td>( </td> <td style="text-align:right;">4.8 MeV</td> <td>) </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">2 1D </a> </td> <td>( </td> <td style="text-align:right;">9.5 MeV</td> <td>) </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>43% </td></tr> <tr style="height:2em;"> <td>(7i) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">2 1D </a> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lithium-6" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithium-6">6 3Li </a> </td> <td>→ </td> <td>2 <a href="/wiki/Helium-4" title="Helium-4">4 2He </a> </td> <td>+ </td> <td style="text-align:right;">22.4 MeV </td></tr> <tr style="height:2em;"> <td>(7ii) </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>→ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Helium-3" title="Helium-3">3 2He </a> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Helium-4" title="Helium-4">4 2He </a> </td> <td> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">n0</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>+ </td> <td style="text-align:right;">2.56 MeV </td></tr> <tr style="height:2em;"> <td>(7iii) </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>→ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lithium-7" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithium-7">7 3Li </a> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">p+</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>+ </td> <td style="text-align:right;">5.0 MeV </td></tr> <tr style="height:2em;"> <td>(7iv) </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>→ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Beryllium-7" class="mw-redirect" title="Beryllium-7">7 4Be </a> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">n0</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>+ </td> <td style="text-align:right;">3.4 MeV </td></tr> <tr style="height:2em;"> <td>(8) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">p+</a> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lithium-6" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithium-6">6 3Li </a> </td> <td>→ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Helium-4" title="Helium-4">4 2He </a> </td> <td>( </td> <td style="text-align:right;">1.7 MeV</td> <td>) </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Helium-3" title="Helium-3">3 2He </a> </td> <td>( </td> <td style="text-align:right;">2.3 MeV</td> <td>) </td></tr> <tr style="height:2em;"> <td>(9) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Helium-3" title="Helium-3">3 2He </a> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lithium-6" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithium-6">6 3Li </a> </td> <td>→ </td> <td>2 <a href="/wiki/Helium-4" title="Helium-4">4 2He </a> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">p+</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>+ </td> <td style="text-align:right;">16.9 MeV </td></tr> <tr style="height:2em;"> <td>(10) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">p+</a> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Boron-11" class="mw-redirect" title="Boron-11">11 5B </a> </td> <td>→ </td> <td>3 <a href="/wiki/Helium-4" title="Helium-4">4 2He </a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>+ </td> <td style="text-align:right;">8.7 MeV </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:auto;background:#F8F9FA"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="border-bottom: 2px solid #ccf"><a href="/wiki/Nucleosynthesis" title="Nucleosynthesis">Nucleosynthesis</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wpdms_physics_proton_proton_chain_1.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Wpdms_physics_proton_proton_chain_1.svg/85px-Wpdms_physics_proton_proton_chain_1.svg.png" decoding="async" width="85" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Wpdms_physics_proton_proton_chain_1.svg/128px-Wpdms_physics_proton_proton_chain_1.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Wpdms_physics_proton_proton_chain_1.svg/170px-Wpdms_physics_proton_proton_chain_1.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="416" data-file-height="484" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_nucleosynthesis" title="Stellar nucleosynthesis">Stellar nucleosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis" title="Big Bang nucleosynthesis">Big Bang nucleosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernova_nucleosynthesis" title="Supernova nucleosynthesis">Supernova nucleosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray_spallation" title="Cosmic ray spallation">Cosmic ray spallation</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#F8F9FA; border-top: 2px solid #ccf; border-bottom: 2px solid #ccf"> Related topics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">Astrophysics</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nuclear fusion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/R-process" title="R-process">R-process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-process" title="S-process">S-process</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">Nuclear fission</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="border-top: 2px solid #ccf"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nucleosynthesis" title="Template:Nucleosynthesis"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nucleosynthesis" title="Template talk:Nucleosynthesis"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nucleosynthesis" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nucleosynthesis"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> For reactions with two products, the energy is divided between them in inverse proportion to their masses, as shown. In most reactions with three products, the distribution of energy varies. For reactions that can result in more than one set of products, the branching ratios are given. Some reaction candidates can be eliminated at once. The D–6Li reaction has no advantage compared to <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">p+</a>–<a href="/wiki/Boron-11" class="mw-redirect" title="Boron-11">11 5B </a> because it is roughly as difficult to burn but produces substantially more neutrons through <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">2 1D </a>–<a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">2 1D </a> side reactions. There is also a <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">p+</a>–<a href="/wiki/Lithium-7" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithium-7">7 3Li </a> reaction, but the cross section is far too low, except possibly when Ti > 1 MeV, but at such high temperatures an endothermic, direct neutron-producing reaction also becomes very significant. Finally there is also a <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">p+</a>–<a href="/wiki/Beryllium-9" class="mw-redirect" title="Beryllium-9">9 4Be </a> reaction, which is not only difficult to burn, but <a href="/wiki/Beryllium-9" class="mw-redirect" title="Beryllium-9">9 4Be </a> can be easily induced to split into two alpha particles and a neutron. In addition to the fusion reactions, the following reactions with neutrons are important in order to "breed" tritium in "dry" fusion bombs and some proposed fusion reactors: <dl><dd><table border="0"> <tbody><tr style="height:2em;"> <td><a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">n0</a> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lithium-6" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithium-6">6 3Li </a> </td> <td>→ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">3 1T </a> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Helium-4" title="Helium-4">4 2He </a> + 4.784 MeV </td></tr> <tr style="height:2em;"> <td><a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">n0</a> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lithium-7" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithium-7">7 3Li </a> </td> <td>→ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">3 1T </a> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Helium-4" title="Helium-4">4 2He </a> + <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">n0</a> − 2.467 MeV </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> The latter of the two equations was unknown when the U.S. conducted the <a href="/wiki/Castle_Bravo" title="Castle Bravo">Castle Bravo</a> fusion bomb test in 1954. Being just the second fusion bomb ever tested (and the first to use lithium), the designers of the Castle Bravo "Shrimp" had understood the usefulness of 6Li in tritium production, but had failed to recognize that 7Li fission would greatly increase the yield of the bomb. While 7Li has a small neutron cross-section for low neutron energies, it has a higher cross section above 5 MeV.<a href="#cite_note-cross_section-53">[53]</a> The 15 Mt yield was 150% greater than the predicted 6 Mt and caused unexpected exposure to fallout. To evaluate the usefulness of these reactions, in addition to the reactants, the products, and the energy released, one needs to know something about the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_cross_section" title="Nuclear cross section">nuclear cross section</a>. Any given fusion device has a maximum plasma pressure it can sustain, and an economical device would always operate near this maximum. Given this pressure, the largest fusion output is obtained when the temperature is chosen so that ⟨σv⟩/T2 is a maximum. This is also the temperature at which the value of the triple product nTτ required for <a href="/wiki/Fusion_energy_gain_factor#Ignition" title="Fusion energy gain factor">ignition</a> is a minimum, since that required value is inversely proportional to ⟨σv⟩/T2 (see <a href="/wiki/Lawson_criterion" title="Lawson criterion">Lawson criterion</a>). (A plasma is "ignited" if the fusion reactions produce enough power to maintain the temperature without external heating.) This optimum temperature and the value of ⟨σv⟩/T2 at that temperature is given for a few of these reactions in the following table. <table class="wikitable" style="margin:auto;"> <tbody><tr> <th>fuel</th> <th>T [keV]</th> <th>⟨σv⟩/T2 [m3/s/keV2] </th></tr> <tr> <td>2 1D –3 1T </td> <td>13.6</td> <td>1.24×10−24 </td></tr> <tr> <td>2 1D –2 1D </td> <td>15</td> <td>1.28×10−26 </td></tr> <tr> <td>2 1D –3 2He </td> <td>58</td> <td>2.24×10−26 </td></tr> <tr> <td>p+–6 3Li </td> <td>66</td> <td>1.46×10−27 </td></tr> <tr> <td>p+–11 5B </td> <td>123</td> <td>3.01×10−27 </td></tr></tbody></table> Note that many of the reactions form chains. For instance, a reactor fueled with 3 1T and 3 2He creates some 2 1D , which is then possible to use in the 2 1D –3 2He reaction if the energies are "right". An elegant idea is to combine the reactions (8) and (9). The 3 2He from reaction (8) can react with 6 3Li in reaction (9) before completely thermalizing. This produces an energetic proton, which in turn undergoes reaction (8) before thermalizing. Detailed analysis shows that this idea would not work well,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] but it is a good example of a case where the usual assumption of a <a href="/wiki/Maxwell%E2%80%93Boltzmann_distribution" title="Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution">Maxwellian</a> plasma is not appropriate. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abundance_of_the_nuclear_fusion_fuels">Abundance of the nuclear fusion fuels</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fusion&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Abundance of the nuclear fusion fuels">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Abundance_of_the_chemical_elements" title="Abundance of the chemical elements">Abundance of the chemical elements</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abundance_of_elements_in_Earth%27s_crust" title="Abundance of elements in Earth's crust">Abundance of elements in Earth's crust</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abundances_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Abundances of the elements (data page)">Abundances of the elements (data page)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aneutronic_fusion" title="Aneutronic fusion">Aneutronic fusion</a>, <a href="/wiki/CNO_cycle" title="CNO cycle">CNO cycle</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cold_fusion" title="Cold fusion">Cold fusion</a></div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Nuclear Fusion Fuel Isotope </th> <th>Half-Life </th> <th>Abundance </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen-1" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen-1">1 1H </a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-:5-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-:6-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-:7-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-:8-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-:9-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-:10-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-:11-61">[61]</a> </td> <td>Stable </td> <td>99.98% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">2 1D </a><a href="#cite_note-:2-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-65">[65]</a> </td> <td>Stable </td> <td>0.02% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">3 1T </a><a href="#cite_note-:2-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-63">[63]</a> </td> <td>12.32(2) y </td> <td>trace </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Helium-3" title="Helium-3">3 2He </a><a href="#cite_note-:2-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-64">[64]</a> </td> <td>stable </td> <td>0.0002% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Helium-4" title="Helium-4">4 2He </a><a href="#cite_note-:1-65">[65]</a> </td> <td>stable </td> <td>99.9998% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lithium-6" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithium-6">6 3Li </a><a href="#cite_note-:2-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-64">[64]</a> </td> <td>stable </td> <td>7.59% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lithium-7" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithium-7">7 3Li </a><a href="#cite_note-:2-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-64">[64]</a> </td> <td>stable </td> <td>92.41% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Boron-11" class="mw-redirect" title="Boron-11">11 5B </a><a href="#cite_note-:2-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> </td> <td>stable </td> <td>80% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Carbon-12" title="Carbon-12">12 6C </a><a href="#cite_note-:5-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-:9-59">[59]</a> </td> <td>stable </td> <td>98.9% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Carbon-13" title="Carbon-13">13 6C </a><a href="#cite_note-:5-55">[55]</a> </td> <td>stable </td> <td>1.1% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen-13" title="Nitrogen-13">13 7N </a><a href="#cite_note-:5-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-:9-59">[59]</a> </td> <td>9.965(4) min </td> <td>syn </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen-14" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitrogen-14">14 7N </a><a href="#cite_note-:5-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-:6-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-:9-59">[59]</a> </td> <td>stable </td> <td>99.6% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen-15" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitrogen-15">15 7N </a><a href="#cite_note-:5-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-:6-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-:7-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-:9-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-:10-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-64">[64]</a> </td> <td>stable </td> <td>0.4% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Oxygen-14" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxygen-14">14 8O </a><a href="#cite_note-:9-59">[59]</a> </td> <td>70.621(11) s </td> <td>syn </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Oxygen-15" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxygen-15">15 8O </a><a href="#cite_note-:5-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-:6-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-:9-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-:10-60">[60]</a> </td> <td>122.266(43) s </td> <td>syn </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Oxygen-16" title="Oxygen-16">16 8O </a><a href="#cite_note-:6-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-:7-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-:8-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-:10-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-:11-61">[61]</a> </td> <td>stable </td> <td>99.76% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Oxygen-17" title="Oxygen-17">17 8O </a><a href="#cite_note-:6-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-:7-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-:8-58">[58]</a> </td> <td>stable </td> <td>0.04% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Oxygen-18" title="Oxygen-18">18 8O </a><a href="#cite_note-:7-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-:8-58">[58]</a> </td> <td>stable </td> <td>0.20% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Fluorine-17" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluorine-17">17 9F </a><a href="#cite_note-:6-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-:7-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-:8-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-:10-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-:11-61">[61]</a> </td> <td>64.370(27) s </td> <td>syn </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Fluorine-18" title="Fluorine-18">18 9F </a><a href="#cite_note-:7-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-:8-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-:10-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-:11-61">[61]</a> </td> <td>109.734(8) min </td> <td>trace </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Fluorine-19" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluorine-19">19 9F </a><a href="#cite_note-:8-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-:11-61">[61]</a> </td> <td>stable </td> <td>100% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Neon-18" class="mw-redirect" title="Neon-18">18 10Ne </a><a href="#cite_note-:10-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-:11-61">[61]</a> </td> <td>1664.20(47) ms </td> <td>trace </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Neon-19" class="mw-redirect" title="Neon-19">19 10Ne </a><a href="#cite_note-:11-61">[61]</a> </td> <td>17.2569(19) s </td> <td>trace </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neutronicity,_confinement_requirement,_and_power_density">Neutronicity, confinement requirement, and power density</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fusion&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Neutronicity, confinement requirement, and power density">edit</a>]</div> Any of the reactions above can in principle be the basis of <a href="/wiki/Fusion_power" title="Fusion power">fusion power</a> production. In addition to the temperature and cross section discussed above, we must consider the total energy of the fusion products Efus, the energy of the charged fusion products Ech, and the atomic number Z of the non-hydrogenic reactant. Specification of the 2 1D –2 1D reaction entails some difficulties, though. To begin with, one must average over the two branches (2i) and (2ii). More difficult is to decide how to treat the 3 1T and 3 2He products. 3 1T burns so well in a deuterium plasma that it is almost impossible to extract from the plasma. The 2 1D –3 2He reaction is optimized at a much higher temperature, so the burnup at the optimum 2 1D –2 1D temperature may be low. Therefore, it seems reasonable to assume the 3 1T but not the 3 2He gets burned up and adds its energy to the net reaction, which means the total reaction would be the sum of (2i), (2ii), and (1): <dl><dd>5 <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">2 1D </a> → <a href="/wiki/Helium-4" title="Helium-4">4 2He </a> + 2 <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">n0</a> + <a href="/wiki/Helium-3" title="Helium-3">3 2He </a> + <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">p+</a>, Efus = 4.03 + 17.6 + 3.27 = 24.9 MeV, Ech = 4.03 + 3.5 + 0.82 = 8.35 MeV.</dd></dl> For calculating the power of a reactor (in which the reaction rate is determined by the D–D step), we count the 2 1D –2 1D fusion energy per D–D reaction as Efus = (4.03 MeV + 17.6 MeV) × 50% + (3.27 MeV) × 50% = 12.5 MeV and the energy in charged particles as Ech = (4.03 MeV + 3.5 MeV) × 50% + (0.82 MeV) × 50% = 4.2 MeV. (Note: if the tritium ion reacts with a deuteron while it still has a large kinetic energy, then the kinetic energy of the helium-4 produced may be quite different from 3.5 MeV,<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> so this calculation of energy in charged particles is only an approximation of the average.) The amount of energy per deuteron consumed is 2/5 of this, or 5.0 MeV (a <a href="/wiki/Specific_energy" title="Specific energy">specific energy</a> of about 225 million <a href="/wiki/Megajoule" class="mw-redirect" title="Megajoule">MJ</a> per kilogram of deuterium). Another unique aspect of the 2 1D –2 1D reaction is that there is only one reactant, which must be taken into account when calculating the reaction rate. With this choice, we tabulate parameters for four of the most important reactions <table class="wikitable" style="margin:auto; text-align:right;"> <tbody><tr> <th>fuel</th> <th>Z</th> <th>Efus [MeV]</th> <th>Ech [MeV]</th> <th>neutronicity </th></tr> <tr> <td>2 1D –3 1T </td> <td>1</td> <td>17.6</td> <td>3.5</td> <td>0.80 </td></tr> <tr> <td>2 1D –2 1D </td> <td>1</td> <td>12.5</td> <td>4.2</td> <td>0.66 </td></tr> <tr> <td>2 1D –3 2He </td> <td>2</td> <td>18.3</td> <td>18.3</td> <td>≈0.05 </td></tr> <tr> <td>p+–11 5B </td> <td>5</td> <td>8.7</td> <td>8.7</td> <td>≈0.001 </td></tr></tbody></table> The last column is the <a href="/wiki/Aneutronic_fusion" title="Aneutronic fusion">neutronicity</a> of the reaction, the fraction of the fusion energy released as neutrons. This is an important indicator of the magnitude of the problems associated with neutrons like radiation damage, biological shielding, remote handling, and safety. For the first two reactions it is calculated as (Efus − Ech)/Efus. For the last two reactions, where this calculation would give zero, the values quoted are rough estimates based on side reactions that produce neutrons in a plasma in thermal equilibrium. Of course, the reactants should also be mixed in the optimal proportions. This is the case when each reactant ion plus its associated electrons accounts for half the pressure. Assuming that the total pressure is fixed, this means that particle density of the non-hydrogenic ion is smaller than that of the hydrogenic ion by a factor 2/(Z + 1). Therefore, the rate for these reactions is reduced by the same factor, on top of any differences in the values of ⟨σv⟩/T2. On the other hand, because the 2 1D –2 1D reaction has only one reactant, its rate is twice as high as when the fuel is divided between two different hydrogenic species, thus creating a more efficient reaction. Thus there is a "penalty" of 2/(Z + 1) for non-hydrogenic fuels arising from the fact that they require more electrons, which take up pressure without participating in the fusion reaction. (It is usually a good assumption that the electron temperature will be nearly equal to the ion temperature. Some authors, however, discuss the possibility that the electrons could be maintained substantially colder than the ions. In such a case, known as a "hot ion mode", the "penalty" would not apply.) There is at the same time a "bonus" of a factor 2 for 2 1D –2 1D because each ion can react with any of the other ions, not just a fraction of them. We can now compare these reactions in the following table. <table class="wikitable" style="margin:auto; text-align:right;"> <tbody><tr> <th>fuel</th> <th>⟨σv⟩/T2</th> <th>penalty/bonus</th> <th>inverse reactivity</th> <th>Lawson criterion</th> <th>power density [W/m3/kPa2]</th> <th>inverse ratio of power density </th></tr> <tr> <td>2 1D –3 1T </td> <td>1.24×10−24</td> <td>1</td> <td>1</td> <td>1</td> <td>34</td> <td>1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>2 1D –2 1D </td> <td>1.28×10−26</td> <td>2</td> <td>48</td> <td>30</td> <td>0.5</td> <td>68 </td></tr> <tr> <td>2 1D –3 2He </td> <td>2.24×10−26</td> <td>2/3</td> <td>83</td> <td>16</td> <td>0.43</td> <td>80 </td></tr> <tr> <td>p+–6 3Li </td> <td>1.46×10−27</td> <td>1/2</td> <td>1700</td> <td></td> <td>0.005</td> <td>6800 </td></tr> <tr> <td>p+–11 5B </td> <td>3.01×10−27</td> <td>1/3</td> <td>1240</td> <td>500</td> <td>0.014</td> <td>2500 </td></tr></tbody></table> The maximum value of ⟨σv⟩/T2 is taken from a previous table. The "penalty/bonus" factor is that related to a non-hydrogenic reactant or a single-species reaction. The values in the column "inverse reactivity" are found by dividing 1.24×10−24 by the product of the second and third columns. It indicates the factor by which the other reactions occur more slowly than the <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">2 1D </a>–<a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">3 1T </a> reaction under comparable conditions. The column "<a href="/wiki/Lawson_criterion" title="Lawson criterion">Lawson criterion</a>" weights these results with Ech and gives an indication of how much more difficult it is to achieve ignition with these reactions, relative to the difficulty for the <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">2 1D </a>–<a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">3 1T </a> reaction. The next-to-last column is labeled "power density" and weights the practical reactivity by Efus. The final column indicates how much lower the fusion power density of the other reactions is compared to the <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">2 1D </a>–<a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">3 1T </a> reaction and can be considered a measure of the economic potential. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bremsstrahlung_losses_in_quasineutral,_isotropic_plasmas">Bremsstrahlung losses in quasineutral, isotropic plasmas</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fusion&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Bremsstrahlung losses in quasineutral, isotropic plasmas">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Nuclear_fusion" title="Special:EditPage/Nuclear fusion">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (August 2023) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> The ions undergoing fusion in many systems will essentially never occur alone but will be mixed with <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> that in aggregate neutralize the ions' bulk <a href="/wiki/Electrical_charge" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical charge">electrical charge</a> and form a <a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">plasma</a>. The electrons will generally have a temperature comparable to or greater than that of the ions, so they will collide with the ions and emit <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">x-ray</a> radiation of 10–30 keV energy, a process known as <a href="/wiki/Bremsstrahlung" title="Bremsstrahlung">Bremsstrahlung</a>. The huge size of the Sun and stars means that the x-rays produced in this process will not escape and will deposit their energy back into the plasma. They are said to be <a href="/wiki/Opacity_(optics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Opacity (optics)">opaque</a> to x-rays. But any terrestrial fusion reactor will be <a href="/wiki/Optical_depth" title="Optical depth">optically thin</a> for x-rays of this energy range. X-rays are difficult to reflect but they are effectively absorbed (and converted into heat) in less than mm thickness of stainless steel (which is part of a reactor's shield). This means the bremsstrahlung process is carrying energy out of the plasma, cooling it. The ratio of fusion power produced to x-ray radiation lost to walls is an important figure of merit. This ratio is generally maximized at a much higher temperature than that which maximizes the power density (see the previous subsection). The following table shows estimates of the optimum temperature and the power ratio at that temperature for several reactions: <table class="wikitable" style="margin:auto;"> <tbody><tr> <th>fuel</th> <th>Ti [keV]</th> <th>Pfusion/PBremsstrahlung </th></tr> <tr> <td>2 1D –3 1T </td> <td>50</td> <td>140 </td></tr> <tr> <td>2 1D –2 1D </td> <td>500</td> <td>2.9 </td></tr> <tr> <td>2 1D –3 2He </td> <td>100</td> <td>5.3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>3 2He –3 2He </td> <td>1000</td> <td>0.72 </td></tr> <tr> <td>p+–6 3Li </td> <td>800</td> <td>0.21 </td></tr> <tr> <td>p+–11 5B </td> <td>300</td> <td>0.57 </td></tr></tbody></table> The actual ratios of fusion to Bremsstrahlung power will likely be significantly lower for several reasons. For one, the calculation assumes that the energy of the fusion products is transmitted completely to the fuel ions, which then lose energy to the electrons by collisions, which in turn lose energy by Bremsstrahlung. However, because the fusion products move much faster than the fuel ions, they will give up a significant fraction of their energy directly to the electrons. Secondly, the ions in the plasma are assumed to be purely fuel ions. In practice, there will be a significant proportion of impurity ions, which will then lower the ratio. In particular, the fusion products themselves must remain in the plasma until they have given up their energy, and will remain for some time after that in any proposed confinement scheme. Finally, all channels of energy loss other than Bremsstrahlung have been neglected. The last two factors are related. On theoretical and experimental grounds, particle and energy confinement seem to be closely related. In a confinement scheme that does a good job of retaining energy, fusion products will build up. If the fusion products are efficiently ejected, then energy confinement will be poor, too. The temperatures maximizing the fusion power compared to the Bremsstrahlung are in every case higher than the temperature that maximizes the power density and minimizes the required value of the <a href="/wiki/Lawson_criterion" title="Lawson criterion">fusion triple product</a>. This will not change the optimum operating point for <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">2 1D </a>–<a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">3 1T </a> very much because the Bremsstrahlung fraction is low, but it will push the other fuels into regimes where the power density relative to <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">2 1D </a>–<a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">3 1T </a> is even lower and the required confinement even more difficult to achieve. For <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">2 1D </a>–<a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">2 1D </a> and <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">2 1D </a>–<a href="/wiki/Helium-3" title="Helium-3">3 2He </a>, Bremsstrahlung losses will be a serious, possibly prohibitive problem. For <a href="/wiki/Helium-3" title="Helium-3">3 2He </a>–<a href="/wiki/Helium-3" title="Helium-3">3 2He </a>, <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">p+</a>–<a href="/wiki/Lithium-6" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithium-6">6 3Li </a> and <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">p+</a>–<a href="/wiki/Boron-11" class="mw-redirect" title="Boron-11">11 5B </a> the Bremsstrahlung losses appear to make a fusion reactor using these fuels with a quasineutral, isotropic plasma impossible. Some ways out of this dilemma have been considered but rejected.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> This limitation does not apply to <a href="/wiki/Non-neutral_plasmas" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-neutral plasmas">non-neutral and anisotropic plasmas</a>; however, these have their own challenges to contend with. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mathematical_description_of_cross_section">Mathematical description of cross section</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fusion&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Mathematical description of cross section">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fusion_under_classical_physics">Fusion under classical physics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fusion&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Fusion under classical physics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Nuclear_fusion" title="Special:EditPage/Nuclear fusion">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (August 2023) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> In a classical picture, nuclei can be understood as hard spheres that repel each other through the Coulomb force but fuse once the two spheres come close enough for contact. Estimating the radius of an atomic nuclei as about one femtometer, the energy needed for fusion of two hydrogen is: <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E_{\ce {thresh}}={\frac {1}{4\pi \epsilon _{0}}}{\frac {Z_{1}Z_{2}}{r}}{\ce {->[{\text{2 protons}}]}}{\frac {1}{4\pi \epsilon _{0}}}{\frac {e^{2}}{1\ {\ce {fm}}}}\approx 1.4\ {\ce {MeV}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>thresh</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mrow> <mn>4</mn> <mi>π</mi> <msub> <mi>ϵ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msub> <mi>Z</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>Z</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mi>r</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-REL"> <mover> <mo>→</mo> <mpadded width="+0.611em" lspace="0.278em" voffset=".15em"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>2 protons</mtext> </mrow> </mpadded> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mrow> <mn>4</mn> <mi>π</mi> <msub> <mi>ϵ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mtext> </mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>fm</mtext> </mrow> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>≈</mo> <mn>1.4</mn> <mtext> </mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>MeV</mtext> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E_{\ce {thresh}}={\frac {1}{4\pi \epsilon _{0}}}{\frac {Z_{1}Z_{2}}{r}}{\ce {->[{\text{2 protons}}]}}{\frac {1}{4\pi \epsilon _{0}}}{\frac {e^{2}}{1\ {\ce {fm}}}}\approx 1.4\ {\ce {MeV}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ca1291445cce7787dc6d8b4cdf069e51ab63d0dd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:51.228ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E_{\ce {thresh}}={\frac {1}{4\pi \epsilon _{0}}}{\frac {Z_{1}Z_{2}}{r}}{\ce {->[{\text{2 protons}}]}}{\frac {1}{4\pi \epsilon _{0}}}{\frac {e^{2}}{1\ {\ce {fm}}}}\approx 1.4\ {\ce {MeV}}}"></dd></dl> This would imply that for the core of the sun, which has a <a href="/wiki/Boltzmann_distribution" title="Boltzmann distribution">Boltzmann distribution</a> with a temperature of around 1.4 keV, the probability hydrogen would reach the threshold is <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 10^{-290}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>290</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 10^{-290}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2b38cda6f1ecfad0af24e679b9f87d006266068d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:6.302ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 10^{-290}}">, that is, fusion would never occur. However, fusion in the sun does occur due to quantum mechanics. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Parameterization_of_cross_section">Parameterization of cross section</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fusion&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Parameterization of cross section">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Nuclear_fusion" title="Special:EditPage/Nuclear fusion">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (August 2023) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> The probability that fusion occurs is greatly increased compared to the classical picture, thanks to the smearing of the effective radius as the <a href="/wiki/Matter_wave" title="Matter wave">de Broglie wavelength</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Quantum_tunneling" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum tunneling">quantum tunneling</a> through the potential barrier. To determine the rate of fusion reactions, the value of most interest is the <a href="/wiki/Cross_section_(physics)" title="Cross section (physics)">cross section</a>, which describes the probability that particles will fuse by giving a characteristic area of interaction. An estimation of the fusion cross-sectional area is often broken into three pieces: <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sigma \approx \sigma _{\text{geometry}}\times T\times R,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>σ</mi> <mo>≈</mo> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>geometry</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mo>×</mo> <mi>T</mi> <mo>×</mo> <mi>R</mi> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sigma \approx \sigma _{\text{geometry}}\times T\times R,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/74628f07e0568bfdf5be496554371f111e7f9421" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:22.341ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sigma \approx \sigma _{\text{geometry}}\times T\times R,}"></dd></dl> where <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sigma _{\text{geometry}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>geometry</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sigma _{\text{geometry}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/55ff7c8823510ea56beb75bf0efc5859e9ac1c9d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:8.185ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sigma _{\text{geometry}}}"> is the geometric cross section, T is the barrier transparency and R is the reaction characteristics of the reaction. <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sigma _{\text{geometry}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>geometry</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sigma _{\text{geometry}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/55ff7c8823510ea56beb75bf0efc5859e9ac1c9d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:8.185ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sigma _{\text{geometry}}}"> is of the order of the square of the de Broglie wavelength <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sigma _{\text{geometry}}\approx \lambda ^{2}={\bigg (}{\frac {\hbar }{m_{r}v}}{\bigg )}^{2}\propto {\frac {1}{\epsilon }}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>geometry</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mo>≈</mo> <msup> <mi>λ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo maxsize="2.047em" minsize="2.047em">(</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ</mi> <mrow> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>r</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mi>v</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo maxsize="2.047em" minsize="2.047em">)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>∝</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mi>ϵ</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sigma _{\text{geometry}}\approx \lambda ^{2}={\bigg (}{\frac {\hbar }{m_{r}v}}{\bigg )}^{2}\propto {\frac {1}{\epsilon }}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ec102175ed3f9a8e274e1220b7e74f3b2bec8ba3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:31.341ex; height:6.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sigma _{\text{geometry}}\approx \lambda ^{2}={\bigg (}{\frac {\hbar }{m_{r}v}}{\bigg )}^{2}\propto {\frac {1}{\epsilon }}}"> where <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{r}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>r</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{r}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/55cb6f47d826e98ab3f09fba26148d2f7ad17be9" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.014ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{r}}"> is the reduced mass of the system and <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \epsilon }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>ϵ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \epsilon }</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c3837cad72483d97bcdde49c85d3b7b859fb3fd2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.944ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \epsilon }"> is the center of mass energy of the system. T can be approximated by the Gamow transparency, which has the form: <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T\approx e^{-{\sqrt {\epsilon _{G}/\epsilon }}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>T</mi> <mo>≈</mo> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <msub> <mi>ϵ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>G</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi>ϵ</mi> </msqrt> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T\approx e^{-{\sqrt {\epsilon _{G}/\epsilon }}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b14b296b62829610b076da03eb79b5242cc85d35" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:12.342ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T\approx e^{-{\sqrt {\epsilon _{G}/\epsilon }}}}"> where <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \epsilon _{G}=(\pi \alpha Z_{1}Z_{2})^{2}\times 2m_{r}c^{2}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>ϵ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>G</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>π</mi> <mi>α</mi> <msub> <mi>Z</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>Z</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>×</mo> <mn>2</mn> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>r</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msup> <mi>c</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \epsilon _{G}=(\pi \alpha Z_{1}Z_{2})^{2}\times 2m_{r}c^{2}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0835123d445a3459ee0b454eb599283a54cb3b0a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:25.611ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \epsilon _{G}=(\pi \alpha Z_{1}Z_{2})^{2}\times 2m_{r}c^{2}}"> is the <a href="/wiki/Gamow_factor" title="Gamow factor">Gamow factor</a> and comes from estimating the quantum tunneling probability through the potential barrier. R contains all the nuclear physics of the specific reaction and takes very different values depending on the nature of the interaction. However, for most reactions, the variation of <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle R(\epsilon )}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>R</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>ϵ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle R(\epsilon )}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a0c3d5599baba0ef855309bbb2417eb9bd775a96" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.517ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle R(\epsilon )}"> is small compared to the variation from the Gamow factor and so is approximated by a function called the astrophysical <a href="/wiki/S-factor" title="S-factor">S-factor</a>, <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S(\epsilon )}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>S</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>ϵ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S(\epsilon )}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/63330dc88ae8d9953344e7108cea534ecc3d315a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.253ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S(\epsilon )}">, which is weakly varying in energy. Putting these dependencies together, one approximation for the fusion cross section as a function of energy takes the form: <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sigma (\epsilon )\approx {\frac {S(\epsilon )}{\epsilon }}e^{-{\sqrt {\epsilon _{G}/\epsilon }}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>σ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>ϵ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>≈</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>S</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>ϵ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mi>ϵ</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <msub> <mi>ϵ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>G</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi>ϵ</mi> </msqrt> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sigma (\epsilon )\approx {\frac {S(\epsilon )}{\epsilon }}e^{-{\sqrt {\epsilon _{G}/\epsilon }}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a819ed458292b1113929241122bab25fac75dcc4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:19.878ex; height:5.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sigma (\epsilon )\approx {\frac {S(\epsilon )}{\epsilon }}e^{-{\sqrt {\epsilon _{G}/\epsilon }}}}"></dd></dl> More detailed forms of the cross-section can be derived through nuclear physics-based models and <a href="/wiki/R-matrix" title="R-matrix">R-matrix</a> theory. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Formulas_of_fusion_cross_sections">Formulas of fusion cross sections</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fusion&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Formulas of fusion cross sections">edit</a>]</div> The Naval Research Lab's plasma physics formulary<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> gives the total cross section in <a href="/wiki/Barn_(unit)" title="Barn (unit)">barns</a> as a function of the energy (in keV) of the incident particle towards a target ion at rest fit by the formula: <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sigma ^{\text{NRL}}(\epsilon )={\frac {A_{5}+{\big (}(A_{4}-A_{3}\epsilon )^{2}+1{\big )}^{-1}A_{2}}{\epsilon (e^{A_{1}\epsilon ^{-1/2}}-1)}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>NRL</mtext> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>ϵ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msub> <mi>A</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>5</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">(</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>A</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>A</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mi>ϵ</mi> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> <msub> <mi>A</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>ϵ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi>A</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msup> <mi>ϵ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </msup> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sigma ^{\text{NRL}}(\epsilon )={\frac {A_{5}+{\big (}(A_{4}-A_{3}\epsilon )^{2}+1{\big )}^{-1}A_{2}}{\epsilon (e^{A_{1}\epsilon ^{-1/2}}-1)}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9328fc3099ed008ba54dfac9efdb6ac744db809c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.005ex; width:40.863ex; height:7.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sigma ^{\text{NRL}}(\epsilon )={\frac {A_{5}+{\big (}(A_{4}-A_{3}\epsilon )^{2}+1{\big )}^{-1}A_{2}}{\epsilon (e^{A_{1}\epsilon ^{-1/2}}-1)}}}"> with the following coefficient values:</dd></dl> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:right;"> <caption>NRL Formulary Cross Section Coefficients </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>DT(1) </th> <th>DD(2i) </th> <th>DD(2ii) </th> <th>DHe3(3) </th> <th>TT(4) </th> <th>The3(6) </th></tr> <tr> <td>A1 </td> <td>45.95 </td> <td>46.097 </td> <td>47.88 </td> <td>89.27 </td> <td>38.39 </td> <td>123.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>A2 </td> <td>50200 </td> <td>372 </td> <td>482 </td> <td>25900 </td> <td>448 </td> <td>11250 </td></tr> <tr> <td>A3 </td> <td>1.368×10−2 </td> <td>4.36×10−4 </td> <td>3.08×10−4 </td> <td>3.98×10−3 </td> <td>1.02×10−3 </td> <td>0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>A4 </td> <td>1.076 </td> <td>1.22 </td> <td>1.177 </td> <td>1.297 </td> <td>2.09 </td> <td>0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>A5 </td> <td>409 </td> <td>0 </td> <td>0 </td> <td>647 </td> <td>0 </td> <td>0 </td></tr></tbody></table> Bosch-Hale<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> also reports a R-matrix calculated cross sections fitting observation data with <a href="/wiki/Pad%C3%A9_approximant" title="Padé approximant">Padé rational approximating coefficients</a>. With energy in units of keV and cross sections in units of millibarn, the factor has the form: <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S^{\text{Bosch-Hale}}(\epsilon )={\frac {A_{1}+\epsilon {\bigg (}A_{2}+\epsilon {\big (}A_{3}+\epsilon (A_{4}+\epsilon A_{5}){\big )}{\bigg )}}{1+\epsilon {\bigg (}B_{1}+\epsilon {\big (}B_{2}+\epsilon (B_{3}+\epsilon B_{4}){\big )}{\bigg )}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>Bosch-Hale</mtext> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>ϵ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msub> <mi>A</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <mi>ϵ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo maxsize="2.047em" minsize="2.047em">(</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <msub> <mi>A</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <mi>ϵ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">(</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <msub> <mi>A</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <mi>ϵ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>A</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <mi>ϵ</mi> <msub> <mi>A</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>5</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo maxsize="2.047em" minsize="2.047em">)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mi>ϵ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo maxsize="2.047em" minsize="2.047em">(</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <mi>ϵ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">(</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <mi>ϵ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <mi>ϵ</mi> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo maxsize="2.047em" minsize="2.047em">)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S^{\text{Bosch-Hale}}(\epsilon )={\frac {A_{1}+\epsilon {\bigg (}A_{2}+\epsilon {\big (}A_{3}+\epsilon (A_{4}+\epsilon A_{5}){\big )}{\bigg )}}{1+\epsilon {\bigg (}B_{1}+\epsilon {\big (}B_{2}+\epsilon (B_{3}+\epsilon B_{4}){\big )}{\bigg )}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/704810105868f0f0bd3128f16d2e609a4a82e1bf" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -5.838ex; width:52.994ex; height:12.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S^{\text{Bosch-Hale}}(\epsilon )={\frac {A_{1}+\epsilon {\bigg (}A_{2}+\epsilon {\big (}A_{3}+\epsilon (A_{4}+\epsilon A_{5}){\big )}{\bigg )}}{1+\epsilon {\bigg (}B_{1}+\epsilon {\big (}B_{2}+\epsilon (B_{3}+\epsilon B_{4}){\big )}{\bigg )}}}}">, with the coefficient values:</dd></dl> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:right;"> <caption>Bosch-Hale coefficients for the fusion cross section </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>DT(1) </th> <th>DD(2ii) </th> <th>DHe3(3) </th> <th>The4 </th></tr> <tr> <td><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \epsilon _{G}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>ϵ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>G</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \epsilon _{G}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/34e615a87750b05c0afb9807e4b65c6a9c1bd52c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.468ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \epsilon _{G}}"> </td> <td>31.3970 </td> <td>68.7508 </td> <td>31.3970 </td> <td>34.3827 </td></tr> <tr> <td>A1 </td> <td>5.5576×104 </td> <td>5.7501×106 </td> <td>5.3701×104 </td> <td>6.927×104 </td></tr> <tr> <td>A2 </td> <td>2.1054×102 </td> <td>2.5226×103 </td> <td>3.3027×102 </td> <td>7.454×108 </td></tr> <tr> <td>A3 </td> <td>−3.2638×10−2 </td> <td>4.5566×101 </td> <td>−1.2706×10−1 </td> <td>2.050×106 </td></tr> <tr> <td>A4 </td> <td>1.4987×10−6 </td> <td>0 </td> <td>2.9327×10−5 </td> <td>5.2002×104 </td></tr> <tr> <td>A5 </td> <td>1.8181×10−10 </td> <td>0 </td> <td>−2.5151×10−9 </td> <td>0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>B1 </td> <td>0 </td> <td>−3.1995×10−3 </td> <td>0 </td> <td>6.38×101 </td></tr> <tr> <td>B2 </td> <td>0 </td> <td>−8.5530×10−6 </td> <td>0 </td> <td>−9.95×10−1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>B3 </td> <td>0 </td> <td>5.9014×10−8 </td> <td>0 </td> <td>6.981×10−5 </td></tr> <tr> <td>B4 </td> <td>0 </td> <td>0 </td> <td>0 </td> <td>1.728×10−4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Applicable Energy Range [keV] </td> <td>0.5–5000 </td> <td>0.3–900 </td> <td>0.5–4900 </td> <td>0.5–550 </td></tr> <tr> <td><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (\Delta S)_{\text{max}}\%}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <mi>S</mi> <msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>max</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mi mathvariant="normal">%</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (\Delta S)_{\text{max}}\%}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a46543424018d11249a736fe3f71015ce57ec3ae" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:10.471ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (\Delta S)_{\text{max}}\%}"> </td> <td>2.0 </td> <td>2.2 </td> <td>2.5 </td> <td>1.9 </td></tr></tbody></table> where <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sigma ^{\text{Bosch-Hale}}(\epsilon )={\frac {S^{\text{Bosch-Hale}}(\epsilon )}{\epsilon \exp(\epsilon _{G}/{\sqrt {\epsilon }})}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>Bosch-Hale</mtext> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>ϵ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msup> <mi>S</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>Bosch-Hale</mtext> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>ϵ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>ϵ</mi> <mi>exp</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>ϵ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>G</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <mi>ϵ</mi> </msqrt> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sigma ^{\text{Bosch-Hale}}(\epsilon )={\frac {S^{\text{Bosch-Hale}}(\epsilon )}{\epsilon \exp(\epsilon _{G}/{\sqrt {\epsilon }})}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e5d59f71cf8ec875b9512e47a469e819f8729514" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.838ex; width:29.521ex; height:6.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sigma ^{\text{Bosch-Hale}}(\epsilon )={\frac {S^{\text{Bosch-Hale}}(\epsilon )}{\epsilon \exp(\epsilon _{G}/{\sqrt {\epsilon }})}}}"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Maxwell-averaged_nuclear_cross_sections">Maxwell-averaged nuclear cross sections</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fusion&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Maxwell-averaged nuclear cross sections">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Nuclear_fusion" title="Special:EditPage/Nuclear fusion">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (August 2023) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> In fusion systems that are in thermal equilibrium, the particles are in a <a href="/wiki/Maxwell%E2%80%93Boltzmann_distribution" title="Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution">Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution</a>, meaning the particles have a range of energies centered around the plasma temperature. The sun, magnetically confined plasmas and inertial confinement fusion systems are well modeled to be in thermal equilibrium. In these cases, the value of interest is the fusion cross-section averaged across the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution. The Naval Research Lab's plasma physics formulary tabulates Maxwell averaged fusion cross sections reactivities in <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {cm^{3}/s} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">c</mi> <msup> <mi mathvariant="normal">m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {cm^{3}/s} }</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/09f9acebf57b8636507ec3ac3e04c3b7cce75be8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.101ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {cm^{3}/s} }">. <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:right;"> <caption>NRL Formulary fusion reaction rates averaged over Maxwellian distributions </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Temperature [keV] </th> <th>DT(1) </th> <th>DD(2ii) </th> <th>DHe3(3) </th> <th>TT(4) </th> <th>The3(6) </th></tr> <tr> <td>1 </td> <td>5.5×10−21 </td> <td>1.5×10−22 </td> <td>1.0×10−26 </td> <td>3.3×10−22 </td> <td>1.0×10−28 </td></tr> <tr> <td>2 </td> <td>2.6×10−19 </td> <td>5.4×10−21 </td> <td>1.4×10−23 </td> <td>7.1×10−21 </td> <td>1.0×10−25 </td></tr> <tr> <td>5 </td> <td>1.3×10−17 </td> <td>1.8×10−19 </td> <td>6.7×10−21 </td> <td>1.4×10−19 </td> <td>2.1×10−22 </td></tr> <tr> <td>10 </td> <td>1.1×10−16 </td> <td>1.2×10−18 </td> <td>2.3×10−19 </td> <td>7.2×10−19 </td> <td>1.2×10−20 </td></tr> <tr> <td>20 </td> <td>4.2×10−16 </td> <td>5.2×10−18 </td> <td>3.8×10−18 </td> <td>2.5×10−18 </td> <td>2.6×10−19 </td></tr> <tr> <td>50 </td> <td>8.7×10−16 </td> <td>2.1×10−17 </td> <td>5.4×10−17 </td> <td>8.7×10−18 </td> <td>5.3×10−18 </td></tr> <tr> <td>100 </td> <td>8.5×10−16 </td> <td>4.5×10−17 </td> <td>1.6×10−16 </td> <td>1.9×10−17 </td> <td>2.7×10−17 </td></tr> <tr> <td>200 </td> <td>6.3×10−16 </td> <td>8.8×10−17 </td> <td>2.4×10−16 </td> <td>4.2×10−17 </td> <td>9.2×10−17 </td></tr> <tr> <td>500 </td> <td>3.7×10−16 </td> <td>1.8×10−16 </td> <td>2.3×10−16 </td> <td>8.4×10−17 </td> <td>2.9×10−16 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1000 </td> <td>2.7×10−16 </td> <td>2.2×10−16 </td> <td>1.8×10−16 </td> <td>8.0×10−17 </td> <td>5.2×10−16 </td></tr></tbody></table> For energies <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T\leq 25{\text{ keV}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>T</mi> <mo>≤</mo> <mn>25</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext> keV</mtext> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T\leq 25{\text{ keV}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ef9e70c294e07d0c8ef3a58caddfb9d5cfd0ed22" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:11.643ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T\leq 25{\text{ keV}}}"> the data can be represented by: <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle ({\overline {\sigma v}})_{DD}=2.33\times 10^{-14}\cdot T^{-2/3}\cdot e^{-18.76\ T^{-1/3}}\mathrm {~{cm}^{3}/s} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mrow> <mi>σ</mi> <mi>v</mi> </mrow> <mo accent="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> <msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>D</mi> <mi>D</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>2.33</mn> <mo>×</mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>14</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>⋅</mo> <msup> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>⋅</mo> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>18.76</mn> <mtext> </mtext> <msup> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext> </mtext> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">c</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">m</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle ({\overline {\sigma v}})_{DD}=2.33\times 10^{-14}\cdot T^{-2/3}\cdot e^{-18.76\ T^{-1/3}}\mathrm {~{cm}^{3}/s} }</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0d8b47996263df02d91466cbb08e063e4db50926" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:49.965ex; height:3.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle ({\overline {\sigma v}})_{DD}=2.33\times 10^{-14}\cdot T^{-2/3}\cdot e^{-18.76\ T^{-1/3}}\mathrm {~{cm}^{3}/s} }"></dd></dl> <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle ({\overline {\sigma v}})_{DT}=3.68\times 10^{-12}\cdot T^{-2/3}\cdot e^{-19.94\ T^{-1/3}}\mathrm {~{cm}^{3}/s} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mrow> <mi>σ</mi> <mi>v</mi> </mrow> <mo accent="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> <msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>D</mi> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>3.68</mn> <mo>×</mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>12</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>⋅</mo> <msup> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>⋅</mo> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>19.94</mn> <mtext> </mtext> <msup> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext> </mtext> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">c</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">m</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle ({\overline {\sigma v}})_{DT}=3.68\times 10^{-12}\cdot T^{-2/3}\cdot e^{-19.94\ T^{-1/3}}\mathrm {~{cm}^{3}/s} }</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b4833f4c2a3910851af0059cb35b0207d42712dc" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:49.762ex; height:3.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle ({\overline {\sigma v}})_{DT}=3.68\times 10^{-12}\cdot T^{-2/3}\cdot e^{-19.94\ T^{-1/3}}\mathrm {~{cm}^{3}/s} }"></dd></dl> with T in units of keV. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fusion&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/China_Fusion_Engineering_Test_Reactor" title="China Fusion Engineering Test Reactor">China Fusion Engineering Test Reactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_fusion" title="Cold fusion">Cold fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Focus_fusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Focus fusion">Focus fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusenet" class="mw-redirect" title="Fusenet">Fusenet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusion_rocket" title="Fusion rocket">Fusion rocket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impulse_generator" title="Impulse generator">Impulse generator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_European_Torus" title="Joint European Torus">Joint European Torus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fusion_experiments" title="List of fusion experiments">List of fusion experiments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Fusor_examples" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Fusor examples">List of Fusor examples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_source" title="Neutron source">Neutron source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Nuclear physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">Nuclear reactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">Periodic table</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulsed_power" title="Pulsed power">Pulsed power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_fusion_weapon" title="Pure fusion weapon">Pure fusion weapon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teller%E2%80%93Ulam_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Teller–Ulam design">Teller–Ulam design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_fusion" title="Timeline of nuclear fusion">Timeline of nuclear fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple-alpha_process" title="Triple-alpha process">Triple-alpha process</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fusion&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output 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Retrieved 17 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Scientific+Monthly&rft.atitle=The+internal+constitution+of+the+stars&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=297-303&rft.date=1920-10&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1920SciMo..11..297E&rft.aulast=Eddington&rft.aufirst=A.S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Dhvd.32044102928264%26view%3D1up%26seq%3D313%26skin%3D2021&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fusion" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Reprinted in: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEddington1920" class="citation journal cs1">Eddington, A.S. (October 1920). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015011432153&view=1up&seq=347&skin=2021">"The internal constitution of the stars"</a>. The Observatory. 43 (557): 341–358. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1920Obs....43..341E">1920Obs....43..341E</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220817060446/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015011432153&view=1up&seq=347&skin=2021">Archived</a> from the original on 17 August 2022. Retrieved 17 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Observatory&rft.atitle=The+internal+constitution+of+the+stars&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=557&rft.pages=341-358&rft.date=1920-10&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1920Obs....43..341E&rft.aulast=Eddington&rft.aufirst=A.S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Dmdp.39015011432153%26view%3D1up%26seq%3D347%26skin%3D2021&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fusion" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHund1927" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Hund, F. (October 1927). "Zur Deutung der Molekelspektren. I." [On the explanation of molecular spectra I.]. Zeitschrift für Physik (in German). 40 (10): 742–764. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1927ZPhy...40..742H">1927ZPhy...40..742H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01400234">10.1007/BF01400234</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:186239503">186239503</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Physik&rft.atitle=Zur+Deutung+der+Molekelspektren.+I.&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=742-764&rft.date=1927-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A186239503%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF01400234&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1927ZPhy...40..742H&rft.aulast=Hund&rft.aufirst=F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fusion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> Tunnelling was independently observed by Soviet scientists <a href="/wiki/Grigory_Samuilovich_Landsberg" class="mw-redirect" title="Grigory Samuilovich Landsberg">Grigory Samuilovich Landsberg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leonid_Isaakovich_Mandelstam" class="mw-redirect" title="Leonid Isaakovich Mandelstam">Leonid Isaakovich Mandelstam</a>. See: <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFЛандсбергМандельштам1928" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Ландсберг, Г.С.; Мандельштам, Л.И. (1928). "Новое явление в рассеянии света (предварительный отчет)" [A new phenomenon in the scattering of light (preliminary report)]. Журнал Русского физико-химического общества, Раздел физики [Journal of the Russian Physico-Chemical Society, Physics Section] (in Russian). 60: 335.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%D0%96%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB+%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE+%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE+%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%89%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0%2C+%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB+%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8+%5BJournal+of+the+Russian+Physico-Chemical+Society%2C+Physics+Section%5D&rft.atitle=%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B5+%D1%8F%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5+%D0%B2+%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B8+%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0+%28%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9+%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%82%29&rft.volume=60&rft.pages=335&rft.date=1928&rft.aulast=%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3&rft.aufirst=%D0%93.%D0%A1.&rft.au=%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC%2C+%D0%9B.%D0%98.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fusion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLandsbergMandelstam1928" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Landsberg, G.; Mandelstam, L. 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Retrieved 10 January 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bloomberg.com&rft.atitle=Nuclear+Fusion+Breakthrough+Set+to+Send+Billions+of+Dollars+Flowing+to+Atomic+Startups&rft.date=2022-12-14&rft.aulast=Wade&rft.aufirst=Will&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bloomberg.com%2Fnews%2Farticles%2F2022-12-14%2Ffusion-milestone-draws-billions-to-replicate-power-of-the-stars&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fusion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGrath2024" class="citation web cs1">McGrath, Jenny (7 May 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencealert.com/fusion-breakthrough-6-minutes-of-plasma-sets-new-reactor-record">"Fusion Breakthrough: 6 Minutes of Plasma Sets New Reactor Record"</a>. ScienceAlert. 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Plasma Physics and Controlled Nuclear Fusion. <a href="/wiki/Springer-Verlag" class="mw-redirect" title="Springer-Verlag">Springer-Verlag</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-540-24217-1" title="Special:BookSources/3-540-24217-1"><bdi>3-540-24217-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plasma+Physics+and+Controlled+Nuclear+Fusion&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=3-540-24217-1&rft.au=K.+Miyamoto&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fusion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-cross_section-53"><a href="#cite_ref-cross_section_53-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kayelaby.npl.co.uk/atomic_and_nuclear_physics/4_7/4_7_4c.html">Subsection 4.7.4c</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180816195425/http://www.kayelaby.npl.co.uk/atomic_and_nuclear_physics/4_7/4_7_4c.html">Archived</a> 16 August 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Kayelaby.npl.co.uk. Retrieved 19 December 2012. </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <a href="/wiki/CNO_cycle" title="CNO cycle">CNO cycle#</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-55">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_55-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_55-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_55-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_55-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_55-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_55-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_55-6">g</a> <a href="/wiki/CNO_cycle#CNO-I" title="CNO cycle">CNO cycle#CNO-I</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-56">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_56-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_56-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_56-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_56-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_56-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_56-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_56-6">g</a> <a href="/wiki/CNO_cycle#CNO-II" title="CNO cycle">CNO cycle#CNO-II</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-:7-57">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:7_57-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_57-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_57-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_57-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_57-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_57-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_57-6">g</a> <a href="/wiki/CNO_cycle#CNO-III" title="CNO cycle">CNO cycle#CNO-III</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-:8-58">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:8_58-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_58-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_58-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_58-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_58-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_58-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_58-6">g</a> <a href="/wiki/CNO_cycle#CNO-IV" title="CNO cycle">CNO cycle#CNO-IV</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-:9-59">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:9_59-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_59-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_59-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_59-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_59-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_59-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_59-6">g</a> <a href="/wiki/CNO_cycle#HCNO-I" title="CNO cycle">CNO cycle#HCNO-I</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-:10-60">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:10_60-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_60-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_60-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_60-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_60-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_60-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_60-6">g</a> <a href="/wiki/CNO_cycle#HCNO-II" title="CNO cycle">CNO cycle#HCNO-II</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-:11-61">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:11_61-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:11_61-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:11_61-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:11_61-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:11_61-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:11_61-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:11_61-6">g</a> <a href="/wiki/CNO_cycle#HCNO-III" title="CNO cycle">CNO cycle#HCNO-III</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-62">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_62-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_62-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_62-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_62-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_62-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_62-5">f</a> <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Criteria_and_candidates_for_terrestrial_reactions">Nuclear fusion#Criteria and candidates for terrestrial reactions</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-63">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_63-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_63-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_63-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_63-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_63-4">e</a> <a href="/wiki/Aneutronic_fusion#Coulomb_barrier" title="Aneutronic fusion">Aneutronic fusion#Coulomb barrier</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-64">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_64-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_64-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_64-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_64-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_64-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_64-5">f</a> <a href="/wiki/Aneutronic_fusion#Candidate_reactions" title="Aneutronic fusion">Aneutronic fusion#Candidate reactions</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-65">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_65-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_65-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Cold_fusion#Lack_of_expected_reaction_products" title="Cold fusion">Cold fusion#Lack of expected reaction products</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Aneutronic_fusion#Residual_radiation" title="Aneutronic fusion">Aneutronic fusion#Residual radiation</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> A momentum and energy balance shows that if the tritium has an energy of ET (and using relative masses of 1, 3, and 4 for the neutron, tritium, and helium) then the energy of the helium can be anything from [(12ET)1/2−(5×17.6MeV+2×ET)1/2]2/25 to [(12ET)1/2+(5×17.6MeV+2×ET)1/2]2/25. For ET=1.01 MeV this gives a range from 1.44 MeV to 6.73 MeV. </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRider,_Todd_Harrison1995" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Rider, Todd Harrison (1995). "Fundamental Limitations on Plasma Fusion Systems not in Thermodynamic Equilibrium". Dissertation Abstracts International. 56–07 (Section B): 3820. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995PhDT........45R">1995PhDT........45R</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dissertation+Abstracts+International&rft.atitle=Fundamental+Limitations+on+Plasma+Fusion+Systems+not+in+Thermodynamic+Equilibrium&rft.volume=56-07&rft.issue=Section+B&rft.pages=3820&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1995PhDT........45R&rft.au=Rider%2C+Todd+Harrison&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fusion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> Rostoker, Norman; Binderbauer, Michl and Qerushi, Artan. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051223133818/http://fusion.ps.uci.edu/artan/Posters/aps_poster_2.pdf">Fundamental limitations on plasma fusion systems not in thermodynamic equilibrium</a>. fusion.ps.uci.edu </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuba2003" class="citation web cs1">Huba, J. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://library.psfc.mit.edu/catalog/online_pubs/NRL_FORMULARY_13.pdf">"NRL PLASMA FORMULARY"</a> (PDF). MIT Catalog. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180417231213/http://library.psfc.mit.edu/catalog/online_pubs/NRL_FORMULARY_13.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 17 April 2018. Retrieved 11 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=MIT+Catalog&rft.atitle=NRL+PLASMA+FORMULARY&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Huba&rft.aufirst=J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibrary.psfc.mit.edu%2Fcatalog%2Fonline_pubs%2FNRL_FORMULARY_13.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fusion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBosch1993" class="citation journal cs1">Bosch, H. S (1993). "Improved formulas for fusion cross-sections and thermal reactivities". Nuclear Fusion. 32 (4): 611–631. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0029-5515%2F32%2F4%2FI07">10.1088/0029-5515/32/4/I07</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:55303621">55303621</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nuclear+Fusion&rft.atitle=Improved+formulas+for+fusion+cross-sections+and+thermal+reactivities&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=611-631&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F0029-5515%2F32%2F4%2FI07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A55303621%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Bosch&rft.aufirst=H.+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fusion" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fusion&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060928042248/http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/basics/what-is-fusion.htm">"What is Nuclear Fusion?"</a>. NuclearFiles.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/basics/what-is-fusion.htm">the original</a> on 28 September 2006. Retrieved 12 January 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+is+Nuclear+Fusion%3F&rft.pub=NuclearFiles.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nuclearfiles.org%2Fmenu%2Fkey-issues%2Fnuclear-weapons%2Fbasics%2Fwhat-is-fusion.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fusion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAtzeniMeyer-ter-Vehn2004" class="citation book cs1">Atzeni, Stefano; Meyer-ter-Vehn, Jürgen (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050124085615/http://www.oup.co.uk/pdf/0-19-856264-0.pdf">"Nuclear fusion reactions"</a> (PDF). The physics of inertial fusion: beam plasma interaction, hydrodynamics, hot dense matter. International series of monographs on physics (Repr ed.). Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Clarendon_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Clarendon Press">Clarendon Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-856264-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-856264-1"><bdi>978-0-19-856264-1</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oup.co.uk/pdf/0-19-856264-0.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 24 January 2005.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Nuclear+fusion+reactions&rft.btitle=The+physics+of+inertial+fusion%3A+beam+plasma+interaction%2C+hydrodynamics%2C+hot+dense+matter&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=International+series+of+monographs+on+physics&rft.edition=Repr&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-19-856264-1&rft.aulast=Atzeni&rft.aufirst=Stefano&rft.au=Meyer-ter-Vehn%2C+J%C3%BCrgen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oup.co.uk%2Fpdf%2F0-19-856264-0.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fusion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrumfiel2006" class="citation journal cs1">Brumfiel, Geoff (22 May 2006). "Chaos could keep fusion under control". <a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnews060522-2">10.1038/news060522-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0028-0836">0028-0836</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:62598131">62598131</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Chaos+could+keep+fusion+under+control&rft.date=2006-05-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A62598131%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0028-0836&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnews060522-2&rft.aulast=Brumfiel&rft.aufirst=Geoff&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fusion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBussard2007" class="citation audio-visual cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bussard" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Bussard">Bussard, Robert</a> (8 October 2007) [9 November 2006]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FhL5VO2NStU">Should Google Go Nuclear? Clean, cheap, nuclear power...</a> (Video). Google TechTalks – via <a href="/wiki/YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Should+Google+Go+Nuclear%3F+Clean%2C+cheap%2C+nuclear+power...&rft.pub=Google+TechTalks&rft.date=2007-10-08&rft.aulast=Bussard&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DFhL5VO2NStU&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fusion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWenischKrompReinberger2007" class="citation web cs1">Wenisch, Antonia; Kromp, Richard; Reinberger, David (November 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210126133058/http://www.ecology.at/ecology/files/pr577_1.pdf">"Science or Fiction: Is there a Future for Nuclear?"</a> (PDF). Austrian Institute of Ecology. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ecology.at/ecology/files/pr577_1.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 8 October 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Science+or+Fiction%3A+Is+there+a+Future+for+Nuclear%3F&rft.pub=Austrian+Institute+of+Ecology&rft.date=2007-11&rft.aulast=Wenisch&rft.aufirst=Antonia&rft.au=Kromp%2C+Richard&rft.au=Reinberger%2C+David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ecology.at%2Fecology%2Ffiles%2Fpr577_1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fusion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKikuchiLacknerTran2012" class="citation book cs1">Kikuchi, Mitsuru; Lackner, Karl & Tran, M. Q. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-pub.iaea.org/books/IAEABooks/8879/Fusion-Physics">Fusion physics</a>. Publication / Division of Scientific and Technical Information, International Atomic Energy Agency. Vienna: <a href="/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agency" title="International Atomic Energy Agency">International Atomic Energy Agency</a>. p. 22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-0-130410-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-0-130410-0"><bdi>978-92-0-130410-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151208122642/http://www-pub.iaea.org/books/IAEABooks/8879/Fusion-Physics">Archived</a> from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 8 December 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fusion+physics&rft.place=Vienna&rft.series=Publication+%2F+Division+of+Scientific+and+Technical+Information%2C+International+Atomic+Energy+Agency&rft.pages=22&rft.pub=International+Atomic+Energy+Agency&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-92-0-130410-0&rft.aulast=Kikuchi&rft.aufirst=Mitsuru&rft.au=Lackner%2C+Karl&rft.au=Tran%2C+M.+Q.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-pub.iaea.org%2Fbooks%2FIAEABooks%2F8879%2FFusion-Physics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fusion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJanev1995" class="citation book cs1">Janev, R. K., ed. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4757-9319-2">Atomic and Molecular Processes in Fusion Edge Plasmas</a>. Boston, MA: <a href="/wiki/Springer_US" class="mw-redirect" title="Springer US">Springer US</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4757-9319-2">10.1007/978-1-4757-9319-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4757-9321-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4757-9321-5"><bdi>978-1-4757-9321-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230116205120/https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-1-4757-9319-2">Archived</a> from the original on 16 January 2023. Retrieved 16 January 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atomic+and+Molecular+Processes+in+Fusion+Edge+Plasmas&rft.place=Boston%2C+MA&rft.pub=Springer+US&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4757-9319-2&rft.isbn=978-1-4757-9321-5&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4757-9319-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+fusion" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_fusion&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output 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fusion</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161215103736/http://nuclearfiles.org/">NuclearFiles.org</a> – A repository of documents related to nuclear power.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304054003/http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=science%2FFusion">Annotated bibliography for nuclear fusion from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lasp.colorado.edu/~horanyi/5150/NRL_FORMULARY_07.pdf">NRL Fusion Formulary</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201026032602/http://lasp.colorado.edu/~horanyi/5150/NRL_FORMULARY_07.pdf">Archived</a> 26 October 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation 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.navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Fusion_power,_processes_and_devices" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Fusion_power" title="Template:Fusion power"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Fusion_power" title="Template talk:Fusion power"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Fusion_power" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Fusion power"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Fusion_power,_processes_and_devices" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Fusion_power" title="Fusion power">Fusion power</a>, processes and devices</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Core topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Nuclear_fusion" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nuclear fusion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burning_plasma" title="Burning plasma">Burning plasma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_fusion" title="Timeline of nuclear fusion">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fusion_experiments" title="List of fusion experiments">List of experiments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fusion_power_technologies" title="List of fusion power technologies">List of technologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_fusion" title="Commercial fusion">Commercial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aneutronic_fusion" title="Aneutronic fusion">Aneutronic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">Nuclear reactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">Atomic nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusion_energy_gain_factor" title="Fusion energy gain factor">Fusion energy gain factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawson_criterion" title="Lawson criterion">Lawson criterion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetohydrodynamics" title="Magnetohydrodynamics">Magnetohydrodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">Neutron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">Plasma</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Processes, methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Confinementtype" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Confinement">Confinement</a> type</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Stellar_nucleosynthesis" title="Stellar nucleosynthesis">Gravitational</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_process" title="Alpha process">Alpha process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple-alpha_process" title="Triple-alpha process">Triple-alpha process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CNO_cycle" title="CNO cycle">CNO cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusor_(astronomy)" title="Fusor (astronomy)">Fusor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helium_flash" title="Helium flash">Helium flash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nova" title="Nova">Nova</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nova_remnant" title="Nova remnant">remnants</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton%E2%80%93proton_chain" title="Proton–proton chain">Proton–proton chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon-burning_process" title="Carbon-burning process">Carbon-burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_burning" title="Lithium burning">Lithium burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neon-burning_process" title="Neon-burning process">Neon-burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen-burning_process" title="Oxygen-burning process">Oxygen-burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silicon-burning_process" title="Silicon-burning process">Silicon-burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R-process" title="R-process">R-process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-process" title="S-process">S-process</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_confinement_fusion" title="Magnetic confinement fusion">Magnetic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Field-reversed_configuration" title="Field-reversed configuration">Field-reversed configuration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levitated_dipole" title="Levitated dipole">Levitated dipole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_mirror" title="Magnetic mirror">Magnetic mirror</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bumpy_torus" title="Bumpy torus">Bumpy torus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinch_(plasma_physics)" title="Pinch (plasma physics)">Pinch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dense_plasma_focus" title="Dense plasma focus">Dense plasma focus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reversed_field_pinch" title="Reversed field pinch">Reversed field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theta_pinch" title="Theta pinch">Theta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z-pinch" title="Z-pinch">Zeta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellarator" title="Stellarator">Stellarator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokamak" title="Tokamak">Tokamak</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spherical_tokamak" title="Spherical tokamak">Spherical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spheromak" title="Spheromak">Spheromak</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dynomak" title="Dynomak">Dynomak</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toroidal_solenoid" title="Toroidal solenoid">Toroidal solenoid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Magneto-inertial_fusion" title="Magneto-inertial fusion">Magneto-inertial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magnetized_liner_inertial_fusion" title="Magnetized liner inertial fusion">Magnetized liner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetized_target_fusion" title="Magnetized target fusion">Magnetized target</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Inertial_confinement_fusion" title="Inertial confinement fusion">Inertial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bubble_fusion" title="Bubble fusion">Bubble (acoustic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inertial_confinement_fusion" title="Inertial confinement fusion">Laser-driven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_ion_fusion" title="Heavy ion fusion">Ion-driven</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Inertial_electrostatic_confinement" title="Inertial electrostatic confinement">Electrostatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fusor" title="Fusor">Fusor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polywell" title="Polywell">Polywell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colliding_beam_fusion" title="Colliding beam fusion">Colliding beam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Migma" title="Migma">Migma</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lattice_confinement_fusion" title="Lattice confinement fusion">Metal lattice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muon-catalyzed_fusion" title="Muon-catalyzed fusion">Muon-catalyzed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyroelectric_fusion" title="Pyroelectric fusion">Pyroelectric</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_fusion_experiments" title="List of fusion experiments">Devices, experiments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_confinement_fusion" title="Magnetic confinement fusion">Magnetic confinement</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tokamak" title="Tokamak">Tokamak</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;font-weight:normal;">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ITER" title="ITER">ITER</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DEMOnstration_Power_Plant" title="DEMOnstration Power Plant">DEMO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PROTO_(fusion_reactor)" title="PROTO (fusion reactor)">PROTO</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;font-weight:normal;">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Plasma_Physics_Laboratory_(Saskatchewan)" title="Plasma Physics Laboratory (Saskatchewan)">STOR-M</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /> <a href="/wiki/Alcator_C-Mod" title="Alcator C-Mod">Alcator C-Mod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ARC_fusion_reactor" title="ARC fusion reactor">ARC</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SPARC_(tokamak)" title="SPARC (tokamak)">SPARC</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DIII-D_(tokamak)" title="DIII-D (tokamak)">DIII-D</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enormous_Toroidal_Plasma_Device" title="Enormous Toroidal Plasma Device">Electric Tokamak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_Tokamak_Experiment" title="Lithium Tokamak Experiment">LTX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Spherical_Torus_Experiment" title="National Spherical Torus Experiment">NSTX</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Princeton_Large_Torus" title="Princeton Large Torus">PLT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokamak_Fusion_Test_Reactor" title="Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor">TFTR</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pegasus_Toroidal_Experiment" title="Pegasus Toroidal Experiment">Pegasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riggatron" title="Riggatron">Riggatron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustained_Spheromak_Physics_Experiment" title="Sustained Spheromak Physics Experiment">SSPX</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/22px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/33px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/43px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /> <a href="/wiki/ETE_(tokamak)" title="ETE (tokamak)">ETE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokamak_Chauffage_Alfv%C3%A9n_Br%C3%A9silien_(TCABR)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tokamak Chauffage Alfvén Brésilien (TCABR)">TCABR</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/23px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/35px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/46px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="980" data-file-height="560" /> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Novillo_(tokamak)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Novillo (tokamak) (page does not exist)">Novillo</a> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokamak_Novillo" class="extiw" title="es:Tokamak Novillo">es</a>]</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;font-weight:normal;">Asia, Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/China_Fusion_Engineering_Test_Reactor" title="China Fusion Engineering Test Reactor">CFETR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_Advanced_Superconducting_Tokamak" title="Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak">EAST</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HT-7" title="HT-7">HT-7</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HL-2A" title="HL-2A">HL-2A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HL-2M" title="HL-2M">HL-2M</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SUNIST" title="SUNIST">SUNIST</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/23px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/35px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/45px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/ADITYA_(tokamak)" title="ADITYA (tokamak)">ADITYA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SST-1_(tokamak)" title="SST-1 (tokamak)">SST-1</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/JT-60" title="JT-60">JT-60</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Q-shu_University_Experiment_with_Steady_State_Spherical_Tokamak&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Q-shu University Experiment with Steady State Spherical Tokamak (page does not exist)">QUEST</a> [<a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/QUEST" class="extiw" title="ja:QUEST">ja</a>]</li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/GLAST_(tokamak)" title="GLAST (tokamak)">GLAST</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/23px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/35px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/45px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/KSTAR" title="KSTAR">KSTAR</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg/23px-Flag_of_Thailand.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg/35px-Flag_of_Thailand.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg/45px-Flag_of_Thailand.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Thailand_Tokamak-1" title="Thailand Tokamak-1">TT-1</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;font-weight:normal;">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/23px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/35px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/45px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="810" data-file-height="540" /> <a href="/wiki/Joint_European_Torus" title="Joint European Torus">JET</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/COMPASS_tokamak" title="COMPASS tokamak">COMPASS</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=GOLEM_tokamak&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="GOLEM tokamak (page does not exist)">GOLEM</a> [<a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokamak_TM-1_MH" class="extiw" title="cs:Tokamak TM-1 MH">cs</a>]</li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Tokamak_de_Fontenay_aux_Roses" class="mw-redirect" title="Tokamak de Fontenay aux Roses">TFR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WEST_(formerly_Tore_Supra)" title="WEST (formerly Tore Supra)">WEST</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/46px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/ASDEX_Upgrade" title="ASDEX Upgrade">ASDEX Upgrade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TEXTOR" class="mw-redirect" title="TEXTOR">TEXTOR</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /> <a href="/wiki/Divertor_Tokamak_Test" title="Divertor Tokamak Test">DTT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frascati_Tokamak_Upgrade" title="Frascati Tokamak Upgrade">FTU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IGNITOR" title="IGNITOR">IGNITOR</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/23px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/35px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/45px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /> <a href="/wiki/ISTTOK" title="ISTTOK">ISTTOK</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/T-15_(reactor)" title="T-15 (reactor)">T-15</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg/16px-Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg/24px-Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg/32px-Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /> <a href="/wiki/Tokamak_%C3%A0_configuration_variable" title="Tokamak à configuration variable">TCV</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Mega_Ampere_Spherical_Tokamak" title="Mega Ampere Spherical Tokamak">MAST-U</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_Tight_Aspect_Ratio_Tokamak" title="Small Tight Aspect Ratio Tokamak">START</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spherical_Tokamak_for_Energy_Production" title="Spherical Tokamak for Energy Production">STEP</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stellarator" title="Stellarator">Stellarator</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;font-weight:normal;">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /> <a href="/wiki/Columbia_Non-neutral_Torus" title="Columbia Non-neutral Torus">CNT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compact_Toroidal_Hybrid" title="Compact Toroidal Hybrid">CTH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_Illinois_Device_for_Research_and_Applications" title="Hybrid Illinois Device for Research and Applications">HIDRA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helically_Symmetric_Experiment" title="Helically Symmetric Experiment">HSX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model_C_stellarator" title="Model C stellarator">Model C</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Compact_Stellarator_Experiment" title="National Compact Stellarator Experiment">NCSX</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/23px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/35px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/46px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/SCR-1" title="SCR-1">SCR-1</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;font-weight:normal;">Asia, Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="640" /> <a href="/wiki/H-1NF" title="H-1NF">H-1NF</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Heliotron_J" title="Heliotron J">Heliotron J</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_Helical_Device" title="Large Helical Device">LHD</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;font-weight:normal;">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/46px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/WEGA_(stellarator)" class="mw-redirect" title="WEGA (stellarator)">WEGA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wendelstein_7-AS" title="Wendelstein 7-AS">Wendelstein 7-AS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wendelstein_7-X" title="Wendelstein 7-X">Wendelstein 7-X</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/23px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/35px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/45px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500" /> <a href="/wiki/TJ-II" title="TJ-II">TJ-II</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/35px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/45px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /> <a href="/wiki/Uragan-2M" title="Uragan-2M">Uragan-2M</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Uragan-3M&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Uragan-3M (page does not exist)">Uragan-3M</a> [<a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD-3%D0%9C" class="extiw" title="uk:Ураган-3М">uk</a>]</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pinch_(plasma_physics)" title="Pinch (plasma physics)">Pinch</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /> <a href="/wiki/Perhapsatron" title="Perhapsatron">Perhapsatron</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Sceptre_(fusion_reactor)" title="Sceptre (fusion reactor)">Sceptre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ZETA_(fusion_reactor)" title="ZETA (fusion reactor)">ZETA</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reversed_field_pinch" title="Reversed field pinch">RFP</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /> <a href="/wiki/Reversed-Field_eXperiment" title="Reversed-Field eXperiment">RFX</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /> <a href="/wiki/Madison_Symmetric_Torus" title="Madison Symmetric Torus">MST</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_mirror" title="Magnetic mirror">Mirror</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Gas_Dynamic_Trap" title="Gas Dynamic Trap">GDT</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /> <a href="/wiki/Astron_(fusion_reactor)" title="Astron (fusion reactor)">Astron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lockheed_Martin_Compact_Fusion_Reactor" title="Lockheed Martin Compact Fusion Reactor">Lockheed Martin CFR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirror_Fusion_Test_Facility" title="Mirror Fusion Test Facility">MFTF</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tandem_Mirror_Experiment" title="Tandem Mirror Experiment">TMX</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /> <a href="/wiki/Levitated_Dipole_Experiment" title="Levitated Dipole Experiment">LDX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeton_field-reversed_configuration" title="Princeton field-reversed configuration">PFRC</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Trisops" title="Trisops">Trisops</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Magneto-inertial_fusion" title="Magneto-inertial fusion">Magneto-inertial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/General_Fusion" title="General Fusion">SPECTOR</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /> <a href="/wiki/Linus_(fusion_experiment)" title="Linus (fusion experiment)">Linus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetized_target_fusion#Devices" title="Magnetized target fusion">FRX-L – FRCHX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helion_Energy" title="Helion Energy">Fusion Engine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Inertial_confinement_fusion" title="Inertial confinement fusion">Inertial confinement</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Laser</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;font-weight:normal;">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /> <a href="/wiki/Argus_laser" title="Argus laser">Argus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclops_laser" title="Cyclops laser">Cyclops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Janus_laser" title="Janus laser">Janus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser_Inertial_Fusion_Energy" title="Laser Inertial Fusion Energy">LIFE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_path_laser" title="Long path laser">Long path</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Ignition_Facility" title="National Ignition Facility">NIF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nike_laser" title="Nike laser">Nike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nova_(laser)" title="Nova (laser)">Nova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laboratory_for_Laser_Energetics" title="Laboratory for Laser Energetics">OMEGA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiva_laser" title="Shiva laser">Shiva</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;font-weight:normal;">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/GEKKO_XII" title="GEKKO XII">GEKKO XII</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;font-weight:normal;">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/23px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/35px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/45px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="810" data-file-height="540" /> <a href="/wiki/HiPER" title="HiPER">HiPER</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Asterix_IV_laser" title="Asterix IV laser">Asterix IV (PALS)</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Laser_M%C3%A9gajoule" title="Laser Mégajoule">LMJ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LULI2000" title="LULI2000">LULI2000</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/ISKRA_lasers" title="ISKRA lasers">ISKRA</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Vulcan_laser" title="Vulcan laser">Vulcan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-laser</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /> <a href="/wiki/Project_PACER" title="Project PACER">PACER</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z_Pulsed_Power_Facility" title="Z Pulsed Power Facility">Z machine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Fusion_Materials_Irradiation_Facility" title="International Fusion Materials Irradiation Facility">International Fusion Materials Irradiation Facility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ITER_Neutral_Beam_Test_Facility" title="ITER Neutral Beam Test Facility">ITER Neutral Beam Test Facility</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Nuclear_technology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist ｜ above = * [[Outline of nuclear technology|Outline]] mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nuclear_technology" title="Template:Nuclear technology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nuclear_technology" title="Template talk:Nuclear technology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear_technology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear technology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nuclear_technology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_technology" title="Nuclear technology">Nuclear technology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chemistry" title="Nuclear chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_engineering" title="Nuclear engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">Atomic nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">Fission</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">Radiation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bremsstrahlung" title="Bremsstrahlung">braking</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel" title="Nuclear fuel">Fuel</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">Tritium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">Deuterium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helium-3" title="Helium-3">Helium-3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertile_material" title="Fertile material">Fertile material</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fissile_material" title="Fissile material">Fissile material</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isotope_separation" title="Isotope separation">Isotope separation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_material" title="Nuclear material">Nuclear material</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">Uranium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enriched_uranium" title="Enriched uranium">enriched</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depleted_uranium" title="Depleted uranium">depleted</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">Plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">Thorium</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">Neutron</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_activation" title="Neutron activation">Activation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture" title="Neutron capture">Capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_poison" title="Neutron poison">Poison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_cross_section" title="Neutron cross section">Cross section</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_generator" title="Neutron generator">Generator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_radiation" title="Neutron radiation">Radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_reflector" title="Neutron reflector">Reflector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_temperature" title="Neutron temperature">Temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal neutron">Thermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fast_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast neutron">Fast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron#Fusion_neutrons" title="Neutron">Fusion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Power</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_by_country" title="Nuclear power by country">by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant" title="Nuclear power plant">Power plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_nuclear_power_plants" title="Economics of nuclear power plants">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents" title="Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents">Accidents and incidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_policy" title="Nuclear energy policy">Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusion_power" title="Fusion power">Fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator" title="Radioisotope thermoelectric generator">Radioisotope thermoelectric (RTG)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multi-mission_radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator" title="Multi-mission radioisotope thermoelectric generator">MMRTG</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_propulsion" title="Nuclear propulsion">Propulsion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_thermal_rocket" title="Nuclear thermal rocket">rocket</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_safety_and_security" title="Nuclear safety and security">Safety and security</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_meltdown" title="Nuclear meltdown">Nuclear meltdown</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_medicine" title="Nuclear medicine">Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">Imaging</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autoradiograph" title="Autoradiograph">Autoradiograph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RadBall" title="RadBall">RadBall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scintigraphy" title="Scintigraphy">Scintigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-photon_emission_computed_tomography" title="Single-photon emission computed tomography">Single-photon emission (SPECT)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positron_emission_tomography" title="Positron emission tomography">Positron-emission tomography (PET)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">Therapy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fast_neutron_therapy" title="Fast neutron therapy">Fast-neutron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture_therapy_of_cancer" title="Neutron capture therapy of cancer">Neutron capture therapy of cancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Targeted_alpha-particle_therapy" title="Targeted alpha-particle therapy">Targeted alpha-particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton_therapy" title="Proton therapy">Proton-beam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomotherapy" title="Tomotherapy">Tomotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brachytherapy" title="Brachytherapy">Brachytherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiosurgery" title="Radiosurgery">Radiosurgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiopharmacology" title="Radiopharmacology">Radiopharmacology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Irradiation" title="Irradiation">Processing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_gardening" title="Atomic gardening">Atomic gardening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron-beam_processing" title="Electron-beam processing">Electron-beam processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_irradiation" title="Food irradiation">Food irradiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemstone_irradiation" title="Gemstone irradiation">Gemstone irradiation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">Weapons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_arms_race" title="Nuclear arms race">Arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_delivery" title="Nuclear weapons delivery">Delivery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_design" title="Nuclear weapon design">Design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_disarmament" title="Nuclear disarmament">Disarmament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_ethics" title="Nuclear ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_explosion" title="Nuclear explosion">Explosion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_nuclear_explosions" title="Effects of nuclear explosions">effects</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nuclear_weapons" title="History of nuclear weapons">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_proliferation" title="Nuclear proliferation">Proliferation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_testing" title="Nuclear weapons testing">Testing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/High-altitude_nuclear_explosion" title="High-altitude nuclear explosion">high-altitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_nuclear_weapons_testing" title="Underground nuclear weapons testing">underground</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">Warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_yield" title="Nuclear weapon yield">Yield</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/TNT_equivalent" title="TNT equivalent">TNTe</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_nuclear_weapons" title="List of states with nuclear weapons">States with nuclear weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_nuclear_weapons_stockpiles_and_nuclear_tests_by_country" title="Historical nuclear weapons stockpiles and nuclear tests by country">Historical stockpiles and tests</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests" title="List of nuclear weapons tests">Tests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="List of nuclear weapons tests of the United States">Tests in the United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_weapons_of_mass_destruction_treaties" title="List of weapons of mass destruction treaties">WMD treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear-weapon-free_zone" title="Nuclear-weapon-free zone">Weapon-free zones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons" title="List of nuclear weapons">Weapons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">Waste</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;">Products</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actinide" title="Actinide">Actinide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reprocessed_uranium" title="Reprocessed uranium">Reprocessed uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactor-grade_plutonium" title="Reactor-grade plutonium">Reactor-grade plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minor_actinide" title="Minor actinide">Minor actinide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Activation_product" title="Activation product">Activation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission_product" title="Nuclear fission product">Fission</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Long-lived_fission_product" title="Long-lived fission product">LLFP</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actinide_chemistry" title="Actinide chemistry">Actinide chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;">Disposal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel_cycle" title="Nuclear fuel cycle">Fuel cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-level_waste" title="High-level waste">High-level (HLW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-level_waste" title="Low-level waste">Low-level (LLW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_decommissioning" title="Nuclear decommissioning">Nuclear decommissioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_geological_repository" title="Deep geological repository">Repository</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessing" title="Nuclear reprocessing">Reprocessing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spent_nuclear_fuel" title="Spent nuclear fuel">Spent fuel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spent_fuel_pool" title="Spent fuel pool">pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_cask_storage" title="Dry cask storage">cask</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation" title="Nuclear transmutation">Transmutation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Debate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_debate" title="Nuclear power debate">Nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_debate" title="Nuclear weapons debate">Nuclear weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_Ribbon_Commission_on_America%27s_Nuclear_Future" title="Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future">Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement" title="Anti-nuclear movement">Anti-nuclear movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_mining_debate" title="Uranium mining debate">Uranium mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_phase-out" title="Nuclear power phase-out">Nuclear power phase-out</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Nuclear_reactors" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">Nuclear reactors</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Fission" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor#Fission" title="Nuclear reactor">Fission</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div style="float: left;"><a href="/wiki/Neutron_moderator" title="Neutron moderator">Moderator</a></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Light-water_reactor" title="Light-water reactor">Light water</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aqueous_homogeneous_reactor" title="Aqueous homogeneous reactor">Aqueous homogeneous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boiling_water_reactor" title="Boiling water reactor">Boiling</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/GE_BWR" title="GE BWR">BWR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_boiling_water_reactor" title="Advanced boiling water reactor">ABWR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Simplified_Boiling_Water_Reactor" title="Economic Simplified Boiling Water Reactor">ESBWR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerena_boiling_water_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Kerena boiling water reactor">Kerena</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_nuclear_fission_reactor" title="Natural nuclear fission reactor">Natural fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor" title="Pressurized water reactor">Pressurized</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AP1000" title="AP1000">AP1000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/APR-1400" title="APR-1400">APR-1400</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/APR%2B" class="mw-redirect" title="APR+">APR+</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/APWR" class="mw-redirect" title="APWR">APWR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ATMEA1" class="mw-redirect" title="ATMEA1">ATMEA1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CAP1400" title="CAP1400">CAP1400</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CPR-1000" title="CPR-1000">CPR-1000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EPR_(nuclear_reactor)" title="EPR (nuclear reactor)">EPR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hualong_One" title="Hualong One">HPR-1000</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ACPR1000" class="mw-redirect" title="ACPR1000">ACPR1000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ACP1000" class="mw-redirect" title="ACP1000">ACP1000</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VVER" title="VVER">VVER</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPWR-900" title="IPWR-900">IPWR-900</a></li> <li>many others</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercritical_water_reactor" title="Supercritical water reactor">Supercritical (SCWR)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Heavy-water_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy-water reactor">Heavy water</a> by <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor_coolant" title="Nuclear reactor coolant">coolant</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;;background:whitesmoke;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Deuterium_oxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Deuterium oxide">D2O</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pressurized_heavy-water_reactor" title="Pressurized heavy-water reactor">Pressurized</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CANDU_reactor" title="CANDU reactor">CANDU</a> <ul><li>CANDU 6</li> <li>CANDU 9</li> <li>EC6</li> <li>AFCR</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ACR-1000" class="mw-redirect" title="ACR-1000">ACR-1000</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolinas%E2%80%93Virginia_Tube_Reactor" title="Carolinas–Virginia Tube Reactor">CVTR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPHWR" title="IPHWR">IPHWR</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IPHWR-220" title="IPHWR-220">IPHWR-220</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPHWR#IPHWR-540" title="IPHWR">IPHWR-540</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPHWR-700" title="IPHWR-700">IPHWR-700</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Argentina" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Argentina">PHWR KWU</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=MZFR&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MZFR (page does not exist)">MZFR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%85gestaverket" class="mw-redirect" title="Ågestaverket">R3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R4_nuclear_reactor" title="R4 nuclear reactor">R4 Marviken</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/H2O" class="mw-redirect" title="H2O">H2O</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=HWLWR&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="HWLWR (page does not exist)">HWLWR</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fugen_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Fugen Nuclear Power Plant">ATR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gentilly_Nuclear_Generating_Station#Gentilly-1" title="Gentilly Nuclear Generating Station">HW BLWR 250</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steam-generating_heavy_water_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Steam-generating heavy water reactor">Steam-generating (SGHWR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_heavy-water_reactor" title="Advanced heavy-water reactor">AHWR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">Organic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/WR-1" title="WR-1">WR-1</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO2</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=HWGCR&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="HWGCR (page does not exist)">HWGCR</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brennilis_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Brennilis Nuclear Power Plant">EL-4</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kernkraftwerk_Niederaichbach&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kernkraftwerk Niederaichbach (page does not exist)">KKN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KS_150" title="KS 150">KS 150</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucens_reactor" title="Lucens reactor">Lucens</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Graphite-moderated_reactor" title="Graphite-moderated reactor">Graphite</a> by <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor_coolant" title="Nuclear reactor coolant">coolant</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Water</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="H2O" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/H2O" class="mw-redirect" title="H2O">H2O</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Obninsk_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant">AM-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beloyarsk_Nuclear_Power_Station#Early_reactors" title="Beloyarsk Nuclear Power Station">AMB-X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EGP-6" title="EGP-6">EGP-6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RBMK" title="RBMK">RBMK</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Gas-cooled_reactor" title="Gas-cooled reactor">Gas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO2</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/UNGG_reactor" title="UNGG reactor">Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz (UNGG)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnox" title="Magnox">Magnox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_Gas-cooled_Reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Advanced Gas-cooled Reactor">Advanced gas-cooled (AGR)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">He</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_turbine_modular_helium_reactor" title="Gas turbine modular helium reactor">GTMHR</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=MHR-T&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MHR-T (page does not exist)">MHR-T</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UHTREX" title="UHTREX">UHTREX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Very-high-temperature_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Very-high-temperature reactor">VHTR (HTGR)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pebble-bed_reactor" title="Pebble-bed reactor">PBR (PBMR)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AVR_reactor" title="AVR reactor">AVR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HTR-10" title="HTR-10">HTR-10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HTR-PM" title="HTR-PM">HTR-PM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/THTR-300" title="THTR-300">THTR-300</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prismatic_block_reactor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Prismatic block reactor (page does not exist)">PMR</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Molten_salt_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Molten salt reactor">Molten-salt</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Fluorides" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/FLiBe" title="FLiBe">Fluorides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fuji_Molten_Salt_Reactor" title="Fuji Molten Salt Reactor">Fuji MSR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid_fluoride_thorium_reactor" title="Liquid fluoride thorium reactor">Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molten-Salt_Reactor_Experiment" title="Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment">Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integral_Molten_Salt_Reactor" title="Integral Molten Salt Reactor">Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TMSR-500" class="mw-redirect" title="TMSR-500">TMSR-500</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TMSR-LF1" title="TMSR-LF1">TMSR-LF1</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">None (<a href="/wiki/Fast-neutron_reactor" title="Fast-neutron reactor">fast-neutron</a>)</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fast_breeder_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast breeder reactor">Breeder (FBR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integral_fast_reactor" title="Integral fast reactor">Integral (IFR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid_metal_cooled_reactor" title="Liquid metal cooled reactor">Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small,_sealed,_transportable,_autonomous_reactor" title="Small, sealed, transportable, autonomous reactor">Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traveling_wave_reactor" title="Traveling wave reactor">Traveling-wave (TWR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_Multiplier_Module" title="Energy Multiplier Module">Energy Multiplier Module (EM2)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reduced_moderation_water_reactor" title="Reduced moderation water reactor">Reduced-moderation (RMWR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fast_Breeder_Test_Reactor" title="Fast Breeder Test Reactor">Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_fluid_reactor" title="Dual fluid reactor">Dual fluid reactor (DFR)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Generation_IV_reactor" title="Generation IV reactor">Generation IV</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sodium-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Sodium-cooled fast reactor">Sodium (SFR)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BN-350_reactor" title="BN-350 reactor">BN-350</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BN-600_reactor" title="BN-600 reactor">BN-600</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BN-800_reactor" title="BN-800 reactor">BN-800</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BN-1200_reactor" title="BN-1200 reactor">BN-1200</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CFR-600" title="CFR-600">CFR-600</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ph%C3%A9nix" title="Phénix">Phénix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superph%C3%A9nix" title="Superphénix">Superphénix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prototype_Fast_Breeder_Reactor" title="Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor">PFBR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FBR-600" title="FBR-600">FBR-600</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Experimental_Fast_Reactor" title="China Experimental Fast Reactor">CEFR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dounreay#Prototype_Fast_Reactor_(PFR)" title="Dounreay">PFR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PRISM_(reactor)" title="PRISM (reactor)">PRISM</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Lead-cooled fast reactor">Lead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Gas-cooled fast reactor">Helium gas (GFR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stable_salt_reactor" title="Stable salt reactor">Stable Salt Reactor (SSR)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organic_nuclear_reactor" title="Organic nuclear reactor">Organic nuclear reactor</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arbus-reactor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arbus-reactor (page does not exist)">Arbus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piqua_Nuclear_Generating_Station" title="Piqua Nuclear Generating Station">Piqua</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_Nuclear_Propulsion" title="Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion">Aircraft Reactor Experiment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Fusion" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor#Fusion_reactors" title="Nuclear reactor">Fusion</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>by <a href="/wiki/Thermonuclear_fusion#Confinement" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermonuclear fusion">confinement</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_confinement_fusion" title="Magnetic confinement fusion">Magnetic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Field-reversed_configuration" title="Field-reversed configuration">Field-reversed configuration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levitated_dipole" title="Levitated dipole">Levitated dipole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reversed_field_pinch" title="Reversed field pinch">Reversed field pinch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spheromak" title="Spheromak">Spheromak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellarator" title="Stellarator">Stellarator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokamak" title="Tokamak">Tokamak</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Inertial_confinement_fusion" title="Inertial confinement fusion">Inertial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bubble_fusion" title="Bubble fusion">Bubble (acoustic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusor" title="Fusor">Fusor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inertial_electrostatic_confinement" title="Inertial electrostatic confinement">electrostatic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inertial_confinement_fusion" title="Inertial confinement fusion">Laser-driven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetized_target_fusion" title="Magnetized target fusion">Magnetized-target</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z-pinch" title="Z-pinch">Z-pinch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dense_plasma_focus" title="Dense plasma focus">Dense plasma focus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migma" title="Migma">Migma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muon-catalyzed_fusion" title="Muon-catalyzed fusion">Muon-catalyzed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polywell" title="Polywell">Polywell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyroelectric_fusion" title="Pyroelectric fusion">Pyroelectric</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/32px-Radioactive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/48px-Radioactive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/64px-Radioactive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="446" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Nuclear_technology" title="Portal:Nuclear technology">Nuclear technology portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Nuclear_technology" title="Category:Nuclear technology">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Nuclear_technology" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Nuclear technology">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Radiation_(physics_and_health)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Radiation" title="Template:Radiation"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Radiation" title="Template talk:Radiation"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Radiation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Radiation"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Radiation_(physics_and_health)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">Radiation</a> (physics and health)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Non-ionizing_radiation" title="Non-ionizing radiation">Non-ionizing radiation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acoustic_radiation_force" title="Acoustic radiation force">Acoustic radiation force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">Infrared</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">Light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starlight" title="Starlight">Starlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">Sunlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">Microwave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">Radio waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">Ultraviolet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">Ionizing radiation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">Radioactive decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_decay" title="Cluster decay">Cluster decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Background_radiation" title="Background radiation">Background radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">Alpha particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_particle" title="Beta particle">Beta particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">Gamma ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">Cosmic ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_radiation" title="Neutron radiation">Neutron radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">Nuclear fission</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nuclear fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">Nuclear reactors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">Nuclear weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">Particle accelerators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radionuclide" title="Radionuclide">Radioactive materials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-ray</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget" title="Earth's energy budget">Earth's energy budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">Electromagnetic radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synchrotron_radiation" title="Synchrotron radiation">Synchrotron radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_radiation" title="Thermal radiation">Thermal radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black-body_radiation" title="Black-body radiation">Black-body radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_radiation" title="Particle radiation">Particle radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitational radiation">Gravitational radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_background_radiation" title="Cosmic background radiation">Cosmic background radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherenkov_radiation" title="Cherenkov radiation">Cherenkov radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Askaryan_radiation" title="Askaryan radiation">Askaryan radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bremsstrahlung" title="Bremsstrahlung">Bremsstrahlung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unruh_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Unruh radiation">Unruh radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_radiation" title="Dark radiation">Dark radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_exposure" title="Radiation exposure">Radiation exposure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Radiation and health</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Radiation syndrome <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acute_radiation_syndrome" title="Acute radiation syndrome">acute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronic_radiation_syndrome" title="Chronic radiation syndrome">chronic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_physics" title="Health physics">Health physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dosimetry" title="Dosimetry">Dosimetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation_and_health" title="Electromagnetic radiation and health">Electromagnetic radiation and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser_safety" title="Laser safety">Laser safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lasers_and_aviation_safety" title="Lasers and aviation safety">Lasers and aviation safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_radiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical radiography">Medical radiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_protection" title="Radiation protection">Radiation protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">Radiation therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_damage" title="Radiation damage">Radiation damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactivity_in_the_life_sciences" title="Radioactivity in the life sciences">Radioactivity in the life sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">Radioactive contamination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiobiology" title="Radiobiology">Radiobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sievert" title="Sievert">Biological dose units and quantities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_device_radiation_and_health" title="Wireless device radiation and health">Wireless device radiation and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_electronic_devices_and_health" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless electronic devices and health">Wireless electronic devices and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_transfer" title="Heat transfer">Radiation heat-transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_energy_transfer" title="Linear energy transfer">Linear energy transfer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Radiation incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_civilian_radiation_accidents" title="List of civilian radiation accidents">List of civilian radiation accidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1996_San_Juan_de_Dios_radiotherapy_accident" title="1996 San Juan de Dios radiotherapy accident">1996 Costa Rica accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goi%C3%A2nia_accident" title="Goiânia accident">1987 Goiânia accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_Moroccan_radiation_accident" title="1984 Moroccan radiation accident">1984 Moroccan accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1990_Clinic_of_Zaragoza_radiotherapy_accident" class="mw-redirect" title="1990 Clinic of Zaragoza radiotherapy accident">1990 Zaragoza accident</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">Half-life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Nuclear physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_source" title="Radioactive source">Radioactive source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_hardening" title="Radiation hardening">Radiation hardening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Havana_syndrome" title="Havana syndrome">Havana syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable selfref">See also the categories <a href="/wiki/Category:Radiation_effects" title="Category:Radiation effects">Radiation effects</a>, <a href="/wiki/Category:Radioactivity" title="Category:Radioactivity">Radioactivity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Category:Radiobiology" title="Category:Radiobiology">Radiobiology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Category:Radiation_protection" title="Category:Radiation protection">Radiation protection</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Energy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Energy_footer" title="Template:Energy footer"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Energy_footer" title="Template talk:Energy footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Energy_footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Energy footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Energy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_energy" title="History of energy">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_energy_articles" title="Index of energy articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_energy" title="Outline of energy">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fundamental concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_energy" title="Conservation of energy">Conservation of energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">Energetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Units_of_energy" title="Units of energy">Units</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_condition" title="Energy condition">Energy condition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_level" title="Energy level">Energy level</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_system" title="Energy system">Energy system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_transformation" title="Energy transformation">Energy transformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_transition" title="Energy transition">Energy transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass" title="Mass">Mass</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negative_mass" title="Negative mass">Negative mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass%E2%80%93energy_equivalence" title="Mass–energy equivalence">Mass–energy equivalence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(physics)" title="Power (physics)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">Thermodynamics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enthalpy" title="Enthalpy">Enthalpy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entropic_force" title="Entropic force">Entropic force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entropy" title="Entropy">Entropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exergy" title="Exergy">Exergy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_entropy" title="Free entropy">Free entropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_capacity" title="Heat capacity">Heat capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_transfer" title="Heat transfer">Heat transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreversible_process" title="Irreversible process">Irreversible process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isolated_system" title="Isolated system">Isolated system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laws_of_thermodynamics" title="Laws of thermodynamics">Laws of thermodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negentropy" title="Negentropy">Negentropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_thermodynamics" title="Quantum thermodynamics">Quantum thermodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_equilibrium" title="Thermal equilibrium">Thermal equilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_reservoir" title="Thermal reservoir">Thermal reservoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_equilibrium" title="Thermodynamic equilibrium">Thermodynamic equilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_free_energy" title="Thermodynamic free energy">Thermodynamic free energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_potential" title="Thermodynamic potential">Thermodynamic potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_state" title="Thermodynamic state">Thermodynamic state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_system" title="Thermodynamic system">Thermodynamic system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_temperature" title="Thermodynamic temperature">Thermodynamic temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volume_(thermodynamics)" title="Volume (thermodynamics)">Volume (thermodynamics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_(physics)" title="Work (physics)">Work</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Binding_energy" title="Binding energy">Binding</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_binding_energy" title="Nuclear binding energy">Nuclear</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_energy" title="Chemical energy">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_energy" title="Dark energy">Dark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elastic_energy" title="Elastic energy">Elastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_potential_energy" title="Electric potential energy">Electric potential energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_energy" title="Electrical energy">Electrical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_energy" title="Gravitational energy">Gravitational</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_binding_energy" title="Gravitational binding energy">Binding</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interatomic_potential" title="Interatomic potential">Interatomic potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_energy" title="Internal energy">Internal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionization_energy" title="Ionization energy">Ionization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">Kinetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_energy" title="Magnetic energy">Magnetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_energy" title="Mechanical energy">Mechanical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_energy" title="Negative energy">Negative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phantom_energy" title="Phantom energy">Phantom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potential_energy" title="Potential energy">Potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_chromodynamics_binding_energy" title="Quantum chromodynamics binding energy">Quantum chromodynamics binding energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_fluctuation" title="Quantum fluctuation">Quantum fluctuation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_potential" title="Quantum potential">Quantum potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintessence_(physics)" title="Quintessence (physics)">Quintessence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiant_energy" title="Radiant energy">Radiant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rest_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Rest energy">Rest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sound_energy" title="Sound energy">Sound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_energy" title="Surface energy">Surface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_energy" title="Thermal energy">Thermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_energy" title="Vacuum energy">Vacuum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero-point_energy" title="Zero-point energy">Zero-point</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Energy_carrier" title="Energy carrier">Energy carriers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electric_battery" title="Electric battery">Battery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capacitor" title="Capacitor">Capacitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">Electricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enthalpy" title="Enthalpy">Enthalpy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel" title="Fuel">Fuel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_oil" title="Fuel oil">Oil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat" title="Heat">Heat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latent_heat" title="Latent heat">Latent heat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">Hydrogen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_fuel" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen fuel">Hydrogen fuel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_wave" title="Mechanical wave">Mechanical wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">Radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sound_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Sound wave">Sound wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_(physics)" title="Work (physics)">Work</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Primary_energy" title="Primary energy">Primary energy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioenergy" title="Bioenergy">Bioenergy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil fuel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">Coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">Natural gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">Petroleum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_energy" title="Geothermal energy">Geothermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_energy" title="Gravitational energy">Gravitational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">Hydropower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_energy" title="Marine energy">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel" title="Nuclear fuel">Nuclear fuel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_uranium" title="Natural uranium">Natural uranium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiant_energy" title="Radiant energy">Radiant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_energy" title="Solar energy">Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">Wind</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Energy_system" title="Energy system">Energy system</a> components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_power" title="Electric power">Electric power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electricity_delivery" title="Electricity delivery">Electricity delivery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_engineering" title="Energy engineering">Energy engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_power_station" title="Fossil fuel power station">Fossil fuel power station</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cogeneration" title="Cogeneration">Cogeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_gasification_combined_cycle" title="Integrated gasification combined cycle">Integrated gasification combined cycle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power" title="Geothermal power">Geothermal power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">Hydropower</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity" title="Hydroelectricity">Hydroelectricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">Tidal power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_farm" class="mw-redirect" title="Wave farm">Wave farm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant" title="Nuclear power plant">Nuclear power plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator" title="Radioisotope thermoelectric generator">Radioisotope thermoelectric generator</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_refinery" title="Oil refinery">Oil refinery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power" title="Solar power">Solar power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concentrated_solar_power" title="Concentrated solar power">Concentrated solar power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_system" title="Photovoltaic system">Photovoltaic system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_thermal_energy" title="Solar thermal energy">Solar thermal energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_furnace" title="Solar furnace">Solar furnace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_tower" title="Solar power tower">Solar power tower</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">Wind power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_wind_energy" title="Airborne wind energy">Airborne wind energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_farm" title="Wind farm">Wind farm</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Use and <a href="/wiki/Energy_supply" title="Energy supply">supply</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Efficient_energy_use" title="Efficient energy use">Efficient energy use</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Energy_efficiency_in_agriculture" title="Energy efficiency in agriculture">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_usage_effectiveness" title="Power usage effectiveness">Computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_efficiency_in_transport" title="Energy efficiency in transport">Transport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_conservation" title="Energy conservation">Energy conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_consumption" title="Energy consumption">Energy consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy" title="Energy policy">Energy policy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Energy_development" title="Energy development">Energy development</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_security" title="Energy security">Energy security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_storage" title="Energy storage">Energy storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">Sustainable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_energy_supply_and_consumption" title="World energy supply and consumption">World energy supply and consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Africa" title="Energy in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy in Asia">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Australia" title="Energy in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_Canada" title="Energy policy of Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Europe" title="Energy in Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Mexico" title="Energy in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_South_America" title="Energy in South America">South America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_the_United_States" title="Energy in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Misc.</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">Carbon footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_democracy" title="Energy democracy">Energy democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_recovery" title="Energy recovery">Energy recovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_recycling" title="Energy recycling">Energy recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jevons_paradox" title="Jevons paradox">Jevons paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste-to-energy" title="Waste-to-energy">Waste-to-energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Waste-to-energy_plant" title="Waste-to-energy plant">Waste-to-energy plant</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Energy" title="Portal:Energy">Portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Energy" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Energy">WikiProject</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div 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class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Excimer_lasers" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Excimer lasers"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Excimer_lasers" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Excimer_laser" title="Excimer laser">Excimer lasers</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Excimer</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argon_fluoride_laser" title="Argon fluoride laser">Argon fluoride laser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krypton_fluoride_laser" title="Krypton fluoride laser">Krypton fluoride laser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nike_laser" title="Nike laser">Nike laser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenon_monochloride" title="Xenon monochloride">Xenon monochloride</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Excimer" title="Excimer">Excimer</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nuclear fusion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 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