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href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%9E%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%96_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%80%E2%80%99%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Кулонаўскі бар’ер – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Кулонаўскі бар’ер" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrera_de_Coulomb" title="Barrera de Coulomb – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Barrera de Coulomb" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulombwall" title="Coulombwall – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Coulombwall" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulomb%27i_barj%C3%A4%C3%A4r" title="Coulomb'i barjäär – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Coulomb'i barjäär" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrera_de_Coulomb" title="Barrera de Coulomb – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Barrera de Coulomb" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B9_%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%84%D9%86" title="مانع کولن – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مانع کولن" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barri%C3%A8re_coulombienne" title="Barrière coulombienne – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Barrière coulombienne" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%BF%A8%EB%A1%B1_%EC%9E%A5%EB%B2%BD" title="쿨롱 장벽 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="쿨롱 장벽" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulombova_barijera" title="Coulombova barijera – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Coulombova barijera" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sawar_Coulomb" title="Sawar Coulomb – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sawar Coulomb" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barriera_di_Coulomb" title="Barriera di Coulomb – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Barriera di Coulomb" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AF%E3%83%BC%E3%83%AD%E3%83%B3%E9%9A%9C%E5%A3%81" title="クーロン障壁 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="クーロン障壁" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulomb-barriere" title="Coulomb-barriere – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Coulomb-barriere" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulomb-barriere" title="Coulomb-barriere – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Coulomb-barriere" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bariera_kulombowska" title="Bariera kulombowska – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Bariera kulombowska" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barreira_de_Coulomb" title="Barreira de Coulomb – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Barreira de Coulomb" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bariera_Coulomb" title="Bariera Coulomb – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Bariera Coulomb" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8C%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Кулоновский барьер – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Кулоновский барьер" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulombova_barijera" title="Coulombova barijera – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Coulombova barijera" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulombbarri%C3%A4ren" title="Coulombbarriären – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Coulombbarriären" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B3%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%9A%E0%B9%8C" title="กำแพงคูลอมบ์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="กำแพงคูลอมบ์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%80%27%D1%94%D1%80" title="Кулонівський бар'єр – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Кулонівський бар'єр" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A0o_th%E1%BA%BF_Coulomb" title="Rào thế Coulomb – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Rào thế Coulomb" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BA%AB%E4%BE%96%E9%9A%9C%E5%A3%81" title="庫侖障壁 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="庫侖障壁" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1136984#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit 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0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Coulomb_barrier" title="Special:EditPage/Coulomb barrier">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Coulomb+barrier%22">"Coulomb barrier"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Coulomb+barrier%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Coulomb+barrier%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Coulomb+barrier%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Coulomb+barrier%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Coulomb+barrier%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2016</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Coulomb barrier</b>, named after <a href="/wiki/Coulomb%27s_law" title="Coulomb's law">Coulomb's law</a>, which is in turn named after physicist <a href="/wiki/Charles-Augustin_de_Coulomb" title="Charles-Augustin de Coulomb">Charles-Augustin de Coulomb</a>, is the energy barrier due to <a href="/wiki/Electrostatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrostatic">electrostatic</a> interaction that two <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">nuclei</a> need to overcome so they can get close enough to undergo a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reaction" title="Nuclear reaction">nuclear reaction</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Potential_energy_barrier">Potential energy barrier</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coulomb_barrier&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Potential energy barrier"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This energy barrier is given by the <a href="/wiki/Electric_potential_energy" title="Electric potential energy">electric potential energy</a>: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle U_{\text{coulomb}}={1 \over 4\pi \varepsilon _{0}}{q_{1}q_{2} \over r}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>U</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>coulomb</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mrow> <mn>4</mn> <mi>π</mi> <msub> <mi>ε</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msub> <mi>q</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>q</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mi>r</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle U_{\text{coulomb}}={1 \over 4\pi \varepsilon _{0}}{q_{1}q_{2} \over r}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ab54c042728af62d87e31b139d1d9e5c05b60c5d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:21.433ex; height:5.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle U_{\text{coulomb}}={1 \over 4\pi \varepsilon _{0}}{q_{1}q_{2} \over r}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where </p> <dl><dd><i>ε</i><sub>0</sub> is the <a href="/wiki/Permittivity_of_free_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Permittivity of free space">permittivity of free space</a>;</dd> <dd><i>q</i><sub>1</sub>, <i>q</i><sub>2</sub> are the charges of the interacting particles;</dd> <dd><i>r</i> is the interaction radius.</dd></dl> <p>A positive value of <i>U</i> is due to a repulsive force, so interacting particles are at higher energy levels as they get closer. A negative potential energy indicates a bound state (due to an attractive force). </p><p>The Coulomb barrier increases with the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_number" title="Atomic number">atomic numbers</a> (i.e. the number of protons) of the colliding nuclei: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle U_{\text{coulomb}}={{Z_{1}Z_{2}e^{2}} \over 4\pi \varepsilon _{0}r}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>U</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>coulomb</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi>Z</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>Z</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>4</mn> <mi>π</mi> <msub> <mi>ε</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mi>r</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle U_{\text{coulomb}}={{Z_{1}Z_{2}e^{2}} \over 4\pi \varepsilon _{0}r}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/23e70fbfa66b9d1bf44f035d5e6ebd2143789691" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:19.204ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle U_{\text{coulomb}}={{Z_{1}Z_{2}e^{2}} \over 4\pi \varepsilon _{0}r}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where <i>e</i> is the <a href="/wiki/Elementary_charge" title="Elementary charge">elementary charge</a>, and <i>Z<sub>i</sub></i> the corresponding atomic numbers. </p><p>To overcome this barrier, nuclei have to collide at high velocities, so their kinetic energies drive them close enough for the <a href="/wiki/Strong_interaction" title="Strong interaction">strong interaction</a> to take place and bind them together. </p><p>According to the <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_theory_of_gases#Temperature_and_kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic theory of gases">kinetic theory of gases</a>, the temperature of a gas is just a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in that gas. For classical <a href="/wiki/Ideal_gas" title="Ideal gas">ideal gases</a> the velocity distribution of the gas particles is given by <a href="/wiki/Maxwell%E2%80%93Boltzmann_distribution" title="Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution">Maxwell–Boltzmann</a>. From this distribution, the fraction of particles with a velocity high enough to overcome the Coulomb barrier can be determined. </p><p>In practice, temperatures needed to overcome the Coulomb barrier turned out to be smaller than expected due to <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanical_tunnelling" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum mechanical tunnelling">quantum mechanical tunnelling</a>, as established by <a href="/wiki/George_Gamow" title="George Gamow">Gamow</a>. The consideration of barrier-penetration through tunnelling and the speed distribution gives rise to a limited range of conditions where <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">fusion</a> can take place, known as the <a href="/wiki/Gamow_window" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamow window">Gamow window</a>. </p><p>The absence of the Coulomb barrier enabled the <a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_the_neutron" title="Discovery of the neutron">discovery of the neutron</a> by <a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">James Chadwick</a> in 1932.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modeling_a_potential_energy_barrier">Modeling a potential energy barrier</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coulomb_barrier&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Modeling a potential energy barrier"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is keen interest in the mechanics and parameters of nuclear fusion, including methods of modeling the Coulomb barrier for scientific and educational purposes. The Coulomb barrier is a type of potential energy barrier, and is central to nuclear fusion. It results from the interplay of two fundamental interactions: the strong interaction at close-range within ≈ 1 fm, and the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetic interaction</a> at far-range beyond the Coulomb barrier. The microscopic range of the strong interaction, on the order of one femtometre, makes it challenging to model and no classical examples exist on the human scale.  A visual and tactile classroom model of strong close-range attraction and far-range repulsion characteristic of the fusion potential curve is modeled in the magnetic “Coulomb” barrier apparatus.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The apparatus won first place in the 2023 national apparatus competition of the American Academy of Physics Teachers in Sacramento, California. Essentially, a pair of opposing permanent magnet arrays generate asymmetric alternating N/S magnetic fields that result in repulsion at a distance and attraction within ≈ 1cm. A related patent method (US11,087,910 B2) further describes the apparatus and outlines criteria for more generally modeling an electromagnetic potential energy barrier. Magnetic and electric forces were unified within the electromagnetic fundamental force by James Clerk Maxwell in 1873 in <a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_on_Electricity_and_Magnetism" title="A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism">A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism</a>. In the case of the magnetic “Coulomb” barrier, the patent describes alternating/unequal or asymmetric North and South <i>magnetic</i> poles but the patent method language is broad enough to include positive and negative <i>electrostatic</i> poles as well. The implication is that regularly spaced opposite and unequal electrostatic point charges possess the capacity to model an electrostatic potential energy barrier as well. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coulomb_barrier&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFChadwick1932" class="citation journal cs1">Chadwick, James (1932). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F129312a0">"Possible existence of a neutron"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>129</b> (3252): 312. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1932Natur.129Q.312C">1932Natur.129Q.312C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F129312a0">10.1038/129312a0</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Possible+existence+of+a+neutron&rft.volume=129&rft.issue=3252&rft.pages=312&rft.date=1932&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F129312a0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1932Natur.129Q.312C&rft.aulast=Chadwick&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252F129312a0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoulomb+barrier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChadwick1932" class="citation journal cs1">Chadwick, James (1932). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1932.0112">"The existence of a neutron"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences</i>. <b>136</b> (830): 692–708. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1932RSPSA.136..692C">1932RSPSA.136..692C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1932.0112">10.1098/rspa.1932.0112</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London+A%3A+Mathematical%2C+Physical+and+Engineering+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+existence+of+a+neutron&rft.volume=136&rft.issue=830&rft.pages=692-708&rft.date=1932&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frspa.1932.0112&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1932RSPSA.136..692C&rft.aulast=Chadwick&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1098%252Frspa.1932.0112&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoulomb+barrier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalsh2023" class="citation journal cs1">Walsh, Ray (2023-11-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1361-6552/acede3">"Magnetic 'Coulomb' barrier"</a>. <i>Physics Education</i>. <b>58</b> (6): 063001. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1361-6552%2Facede3">10.1088/1361-6552/acede3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-9120">0031-9120</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+Education&rft.atitle=Magnetic+%E2%80%98Coulomb%E2%80%99+barrier&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=063001&rft.date=2023-11-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F1361-6552%2Facede3&rft.issn=0031-9120&rft.aulast=Walsh&rft.aufirst=Ray&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiopscience.iop.org%2Farticle%2F10.1088%2F1361-6552%2Facede3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoulomb+barrier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> 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