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data-permalink="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/2015/01/21/deciphering-the-genetic-code-a-50-year-anniversary/jjbbdf_feature/" data-orig-file="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/jjbbdf_feature.png?fit=932%2C361&ssl=1" data-orig-size="932,361" data-comments-opened="1" data-image-meta="{"aperture":"0","credit":"","camera":"","caption":"","created_timestamp":"0","copyright":"","focal_length":"0","iso":"0","shutter_speed":"0","title":"","orientation":"0"}" data-image-title="JJBBDF_feature" data-image-description="" data-image-caption="" data-medium-file="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/jjbbdf_feature.png?fit=300%2C116&ssl=1" data-large-file="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/jjbbdf_feature.png?fit=840%2C325&ssl=1" /> <header class="entry-header"> <h1 class="entry-title">Deciphering the Genetic Code: A 50 Year Anniversary</h1> <div class="entry-meta"><span class="meta-date"><svg class="icon icon-standard" aria-hidden="true" role="img"> <use xlink:href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/themes/tortuga/assets/icons/genericons-neue.svg#standard"></use> </svg><a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/2015/01/21/deciphering-the-genetic-code-a-50-year-anniversary/" title="4:30 PM" rel="bookmark"><time class="entry-date published updated" datetime="2015-01-21T16:30:56-05:00">January 21, 2015</time></a></span><span class="meta-author"> <svg class="icon icon-user" aria-hidden="true" role="img"> <use xlink:href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/themes/tortuga/assets/icons/genericons-neue.svg#user"></use> </svg><span class="author vcard"><a class="url fn n" href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/author/bethmullen/" title="View all posts by Circulating Now" rel="author">Circulating Now</a></span></span><span class="meta-category"> <svg class="icon icon-category" aria-hidden="true" role="img"> <use xlink:href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/themes/tortuga/assets/icons/genericons-neue.svg#category"></use> </svg><a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/category/collections/archives-manuscripts/" rel="category tag">Archives & Manuscripts</a>, <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/category/collections/" rel="category tag">Collections</a>, <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/category/series/deciphering-the-genetic-code/" rel="category tag">Deciphering the Genetic Code</a>, <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/category/series/" rel="category tag">Series</a></span><span class="meta-comments"> <svg class="icon icon-edit" aria-hidden="true" role="img"> <use xlink:href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/themes/tortuga/assets/icons/genericons-neue.svg#edit"></use> </svg><a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/2015/01/21/deciphering-the-genetic-code-a-50-year-anniversary/#comments">7 comments</a></span></div> </header> <div class="entry-content clearfix"> <p><em>By Christie Moffatt</em></p> <figure id="attachment_5848" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-5848" style="width: 197px" class="wp-caption alignright"><a href="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/jjbbdf_.png?ssl=1"><img data-recalc-dims="1" decoding="async" data-attachment-id="5848" data-permalink="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/2015/01/21/deciphering-the-genetic-code-a-50-year-anniversary/jjbbdf_/" data-orig-file="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/jjbbdf_.png?fit=963%2C1200&ssl=1" data-orig-size="963,1200" data-comments-opened="1" data-image-meta="{"aperture":"0","credit":"","camera":"","caption":"","created_timestamp":"0","copyright":"","focal_length":"0","iso":"0","shutter_speed":"0","title":"","orientation":"0"}" data-image-title="JJBBDF_" data-image-description="" data-image-caption="<p>Marshall Nirenberg performing experiment, ca. 1962<br /> Profiles in Science</p> " data-medium-file="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/jjbbdf_.png?fit=241%2C300&ssl=1" data-large-file="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/jjbbdf_.png?fit=822%2C1024&ssl=1" class="wp-image-5848" title="Marshall Nirenberg in the lab, ca. 1962" src="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/jjbbdf_.png?resize=197%2C245&ssl=1" alt="A young man in a lab coat and plastic gloves holds up a glass tube in a laboratory." width="197" height="245" /></a><figcaption id="caption-attachment-5848" class="wp-caption-text">Marshall Nirenberg in the lab, ca. 1962<br /><a title="NLM's Profiles in Science" href="https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/101584910X46">Profiles in Science</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Fifty years ago, on January 18, 1965, Dr. Marshall W. Nirenberg (1927–2010) completed his <a title="NLM's Profiles in Science" href="https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/101584910X475">first summary of the genetic code</a>—one of the most significant documents in the history of twentieth-century science—a painstaking, handwritten chart of the discovery of how sequences of DNA, known as “triplets,” direct the assembly of amino acids into the structural and functional proteins essential to life. The chart is included in the <a title="NLM's Archives and Modern Manuscripts Finding Aid" href="https://findingaids.nlm.nih.gov/repositories/4/resources/941">Marshall W. Nirenberg Papers</a>, held at the National Library of Medicine. <a title="NLM's Circulating Now" href="http://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/2014/09/16/preserving-nirenbergs-genetic-code-chart/1">Preserving this genetic code chart</a> has been an important and exciting challenge for NLM conservators, as they study the best way to store this important document written on multiple sheets of paper in pencil, India ink, and multiple ball-point pen inks, and held together with adhesive tape.</p> <p>The data provided in this summary was compiled beginning in 1961 after Dr. Nirenberg presented, in a now-famous <a title="NLM's Profiles in Science" href="https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/101584910X148">speech</a> given to a small group of <a href="https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/101584910X148">speech</a> about 30 scientists at the International Congress of Biochemistry in Moscow, the results of his “<a title="NLM's Profiles in Science" href="https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/spotlight/jj/browse/all-items">poly-U experiments</a>” conducted with post-doctoral researcher J. Heinrich Matthaei. Francis Crick, who was in attendance at the Moscow meeting, had heard that Nirenberg and Matthaei had found a clue that might unravel one of the central mysteries of molecular genetics. Crick arranged to have the young scientist deliver his paper again, this time to the assembled body of about a thousand people. Many scientists–especially the 1959 Nobel Laureate Severo Ochoa–were eager to take it to the next level. Thus began a research race with some of the world’s most famous (and well-funded) molecular geneticists. Over the course of the next five years, Nirenberg worked steadily with a team of about twenty postdoctoral researchers and laboratory technicians, including Norma Heaton, who remained a member of Nirenberg’s team at the National Heart, Blood, and Lung Institute for forty years. Dr. DeWitt “Hans” Stetten, former director of the National Institute of General Medical Sciences, called this period of time “the finest hour of the NIH.”</p> <p>In 2006, Dr. Nirenberg provided a description of this first summary chart:</p> <div style="text-align: justify; padding-left: 25px; padding-right: 40px; padding-bottom: 25px;"> <p>“The DNA that we inherit from our parents contains the information that is needed to make the more than 100,000 kinds of proteins that are the molecular machinery of the body. DNA consists of four kinds of [nucleotides represented by the] letters, T, C, A and G, in long sequences. DNA is transcribed to RNA that also consists of long sequences of four letters, U, C, A, and G. The sequence of letters in RNA determines the sequence of amino acids in proteins. There are 64 kinds of 3 letter words or triplets in RNA. When we deciphered the genetic code, we determined the sequence of letters in each RNA triplet that corresponds to each kind of amino acid in protein. All forms of life on this planet use the same genetic code, although small differences in the code have been found in some organisms.</p> <p>This is the first summary of the genetic code that I made on Jan. 18, 1965, when we had deciphered more than half of the code. The columns on the left and right of the chart are the 64 RNA triplets. The row across the top, ALA, ARG, ASP, etc., are the 20 amino acids. The numbers in the chart correspond to the amount of radioactive aminoacyl-tRNA that bound to a triplet on ribosomes. The second column on the right-hand side contains the tentative amino acid-triplet assignments that we made at that time. Some of the tentative assignments were changed when we obtained more data, and all of the assignments that we published were correct.”</p> </div> <figure id="attachment_3022" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-3022" style="width: 650px" class="wp-caption alignleft"><a href="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/nirenberg_chart_jjbccw.jpg?ssl=1"><img data-recalc-dims="1" decoding="async" data-attachment-id="3022" data-permalink="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/2014/01/17/protecting-the-past-a-study-of-acetic-acid-offgassing/nirenberg_chart_jjbccw/" data-orig-file="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/nirenberg_chart_jjbccw.jpg?fit=1600%2C1584&ssl=1" data-orig-size="1600,1584" data-comments-opened="1" data-image-meta="{"aperture":"0","credit":"","camera":"","caption":"","created_timestamp":"0","copyright":"Copyright (C) reserved","focal_length":"0","iso":"0","shutter_speed":"0","title":""}" data-image-title="Nirenberg Chart" data-image-description="<p>By 1966, Nirenberg announced that he had deciphered the 64 RNA codons for all 20 amino acids. This chart from 1965 lists the correspondence between these codons and amino acids.<br /> JJBCCW</p> " data-image-caption="<p>Nirenberg’s handwritten genetic code chart, 1965.<br /> http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/ps/retrieve/ResourceMetadata/JJBCCW</p> " data-medium-file="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/nirenberg_chart_jjbccw.jpg?fit=300%2C297&ssl=1" data-large-file="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/nirenberg_chart_jjbccw.jpg?fit=840%2C832&ssl=1" class="wp-image-3022 size-large" title="Nirenberg's handwritten genetic code chart, 1965." src="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/nirenberg_chart_jjbccw.jpg?resize=650%2C644&ssl=1" alt="A large paper chart constructed of serveral pages taped together, handwritten in several colors of ink." width="650" height="644" /></a><figcaption id="caption-attachment-3022" class="wp-caption-text"><a title="NLM's Profiles in Science" href="https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/101584910X475">Nirenberg’s handwritten genetic code chart, 1965.</a></figcaption></figure> <p> </p> <p>Throughout 1965, there would be several versions of the chart created to incorporate new findings from the many experiments conducted during this intense period of discovery. A <a title="NLM's Profiles in Science" href="https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/101584910X472">second and last summary of the code</a> was prepared at Dr. Nirenberg’s request by his technician, Norma Heaton, in late 1965 or early 1966, when almost all of the 64 codons had been deciphered. In an <a title="NLM's Profiles in Science" href="https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/spotlight/jj/catalog?search_field=all_fields&utf8=%E2%9C%93">oral history interview</a> from 2010 Norma Heaton remembers:</p> <div style="text-align: justify; padding-left: 25px; padding-right: 40px; padding-bottom: 25px;"> <figure id="attachment_5843" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-5843" style="width: 155px" class="wp-caption alignleft"><a href="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/nzmwntc1-1024x811_norma.png?ssl=1"><img data-recalc-dims="1" loading="lazy" decoding="async" data-attachment-id="5843" data-permalink="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/2015/01/21/deciphering-the-genetic-code-a-50-year-anniversary/nzmwntc1-1024x811_norma/" data-orig-file="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/nzmwntc1-1024x811_norma.png?fit=314%2C453&ssl=1" data-orig-size="314,453" data-comments-opened="1" data-image-meta="{"aperture":"0","credit":"","camera":"","caption":"","created_timestamp":"0","copyright":"","focal_length":"0","iso":"0","shutter_speed":"0","title":"","orientation":"0"}" data-image-title="NZ+MWN+TC1-1024x811_Norma" data-image-description="" data-image-caption="<p>Norma Heaton, ca. 1964<br /> Courtesy Norma Heaton</p> " data-medium-file="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/nzmwntc1-1024x811_norma.png?fit=208%2C300&ssl=1" data-large-file="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/nzmwntc1-1024x811_norma.png?fit=314%2C453&ssl=1" class="wp-image-5843" title="Norma Heaton, ca. 1964" src="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/nzmwntc1-1024x811_norma.png?resize=155%2C224&ssl=1" alt="A young woman in a white lab coat." width="155" height="224" /></a><figcaption id="caption-attachment-5843" class="wp-caption-text">Norma Heaton, ca. 1964<br /><em>Courtesy Norma Heaton</em></figcaption></figure> <p><span style="color: #303030;">“I do not even know if the term spreadsheet had been invented then. It got to the point where we knew we needed to have some sort of means of seeing it all in one big picture. So I taped data paper together and drew the columns and rows with a pen and ruler…</span></p> <p>One of my memories…is that I can remember being in the room, and Mert Bernfield and Edward M. Scolnick—Ed went on to be vice president of Merck.…They were both kind of, I don’t want to say loud, but they were not quiet, soft-spoken people. One of my memories is, they would hang over the [experiment], and they would have the tape and they would say, “Which one is this? Which one is this?” Then you would hear this shout, like, “Oh, we discovered a new one.””</p> </div> <p>Dr. Nirenberg would go on to win the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1968 for this work, sharing the award with Robert W. Holley of Cornell University and Har Gobind Khorana of the University of Wisconsin at Madison “for their interpretation of the genetic code and its function in protein synthesis.” He began donating his papers to NLM in 1999, and since then nearly 500 selections from the Marshall Nirenberg Papers have been digitized and made available on NLM’s <em><a title="NLM's Profiles in Science" href="https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/spotlight/jj">Profiles in Science</a></em>. Visitors can access archival materials related to the code, including pages from Dr. Nirenberg’s <a title="NLM's Profiles in Science" href="https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/101584910X146">laboratory notebooks</a>, photographs of <a title="NLM's Profiles in Science" href="https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/101584910X46">Dr. Nirenberg in his laboratory</a>, correspondence with other scientists working on the code, such as <a title="NLM PDF - Letter from Francis Crick to Marshall W. Nirenberg (January 4, 1962)" href="https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/101584910X72">Francis Crick</a>, and the full 2010 oral history interview with Norma Heaton, in which she recalls the technical challenges of the research, and more broadly, what it was like to work in Dr. Nirenberg’s laboratory during this time.</p> <figure id="attachment_5858" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-5858" style="width: 650px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><a href="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/1526_001.png?ssl=1"><img data-recalc-dims="1" loading="lazy" decoding="async" data-attachment-id="5858" data-permalink="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/2015/01/21/deciphering-the-genetic-code-a-50-year-anniversary/1526_001/" data-orig-file="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/1526_001.png?fit=1600%2C1268&ssl=1" data-orig-size="1600,1268" data-comments-opened="1" data-image-meta="{"aperture":"0","credit":"","camera":"","caption":"","created_timestamp":"0","copyright":"","focal_length":"0","iso":"0","shutter_speed":"0","title":"","orientation":"0"}" data-image-title="1526_001" data-image-description="" data-image-caption="<p>The staff of Nirenberg’s lab celebrating his Nobel Prize. From left to right: Norma Heaton, Ed Scolnich, Mike Wilcoz, Marshall Nirenberg, Theresa Caryk, Ty Jacuni, Wynn Russner, Darlene Levenson, Greg Milnian, Frank Portugal.</p> " data-medium-file="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/1526_001.png?fit=300%2C238&ssl=1" data-large-file="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/1526_001.png?fit=840%2C666&ssl=1" class="wp-image-5858 size-large" title="The staff of Nirenberg's lab " src="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/1526_001.png?resize=650%2C515&ssl=1" alt="A group of people pose in a hallway." width="650" height="515" /></a><figcaption id="caption-attachment-5858" class="wp-caption-text">The staff of Nirenberg’s lab celebrating his Nobel Prize.<br />From left to right: Norma Zabriskie Heaton, Ed Scolnick, Mike Wilcox, Marshall Nirenberg, Theresa Caryk, Ty Jaouni (hidden), Wynn Russner (partially hidden), Darlene Levenson, Greg Milman, Frank Portugal.<br /><em>Courtesy Marshall Nirenberg</em></figcaption></figure> <blockquote><p><em>On March 17, 2015 at 1:00, NLM will host a special two-hour program, “A Tribute to Marshall Nirenberg.” The program marks the 50th anniversary of Nirenberg’s Genetic Code Charts—groundbreaking scientific documents now held in NLM’s historical collections. Marshall Nirenberg’s Nobel Prize medal and certificate, newly given to NLM through the generous donation of his wife, Dr. Myrna Weissman, will be on display. Dr. Frank Portugal, author of </em><a title="MIT Press" href="http://mitpress.mit.edu/books/least-likely-man" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">The Least Likely Man: Marshall Nirenberg and the Discovery of the Genetic Code</a> (MIT Press),<em> and Dr. David Serlin, historian and curator of NLM’s </em><a href="https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/spotlight/jj">Profiles in Science</a> <em>site on the <a title="NLM's Archives and Modern Manuscripts Finding Aids" href="https://findingaids.nlm.nih.gov/repositories/4/resources/941">Marshall Nirenberg Papers</a>, will speak at the event. For more information and directions please visit our <a title="NLM's History of Medicine Lecture Series" href="http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/happening/lectures/lectures_2015.html">2015 lectures page</a>. Subsequent NIH events will be announced soon.<br /> </em></p></blockquote> <p><em>This article is part of a <a title="NLM's Circulating Now" href="http://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/category/series/deciphering-the-genetic-code/">series </a>that commemorates the 50th anniversary of the Genetic Code Charts. Stay tuned throughout the year to learn more about Marshall Nirenberg and these groundbreaking documents.</em></p> <p><em><a href="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/cm3-2_crop.jpg"><img data-recalc-dims="1" loading="lazy" decoding="async" data-attachment-id="2622" data-permalink="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/2013/12/05/future-explorations-of-the-modern-flu/cm3-2_crop/" data-orig-file="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/cm3-2_crop.jpg?fit=1000%2C1173&ssl=1" data-orig-size="1000,1173" data-comments-opened="1" data-image-meta="{"aperture":"5.6","credit":"","camera":"NIKON D800","caption":"","created_timestamp":"1384788061","copyright":"","focal_length":"85","iso":"200","shutter_speed":"0.016666666666667","title":""}" data-image-title="Christie Moffatt" data-image-description="" data-image-caption="" data-medium-file="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/cm3-2_crop.jpg?fit=256%2C300&ssl=1" data-large-file="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/cm3-2_crop.jpg?fit=840%2C985&ssl=1" class="alignleft wp-image-2622" src="https://i0.wp.com/circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/cm3-2_crop.jpg?resize=89%2C105" alt="Christie in the NLM HMD reading room." width="89" height="105" /></a>Christie Moffatt is Manager of the Digital Manuscripts Program in the History of Medicine Division at the National Library of Medicine and Chair of the NLM Web Collecting and Archiving Working Group.</em></p> <div class="sharedaddy sd-sharing-enabled"><div class="robots-nocontent sd-block sd-social sd-social-icon sd-sharing"><h3 class="sd-title">Circulate this:</h3><div class="sd-content"><ul><li class="share-twitter"><a rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" data-shared="sharing-twitter-5830" class="share-twitter sd-button share-icon no-text" href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/2015/01/21/deciphering-the-genetic-code-a-50-year-anniversary/?share=twitter" target="_blank" title="Click to share on Twitter" ><span></span><span class="sharing-screen-reader-text">Click to share on Twitter (Opens in new window)</span></a></li><li class="share-facebook"><a rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" data-shared="sharing-facebook-5830" class="share-facebook sd-button share-icon no-text" href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/2015/01/21/deciphering-the-genetic-code-a-50-year-anniversary/?share=facebook" target="_blank" title="Click to share on Facebook" ><span></span><span class="sharing-screen-reader-text">Click to share on Facebook (Opens in new window)</span></a></li><li class="share-pinterest"><a rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" data-shared="sharing-pinterest-5830" class="share-pinterest sd-button share-icon no-text" href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/2015/01/21/deciphering-the-genetic-code-a-50-year-anniversary/?share=pinterest" target="_blank" title="Click to share on Pinterest" ><span></span><span class="sharing-screen-reader-text">Click to share on Pinterest (Opens in new window)</span></a></li><li class="share-tumblr"><a rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" data-shared="" class="share-tumblr sd-button share-icon no-text" href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/2015/01/21/deciphering-the-genetic-code-a-50-year-anniversary/?share=tumblr" target="_blank" title="Click to share on Tumblr" ><span></span><span class="sharing-screen-reader-text">Click to share on Tumblr (Opens in new window)</span></a></li><li class="share-reddit"><a rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" data-shared="" class="share-reddit sd-button share-icon no-text" href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/2015/01/21/deciphering-the-genetic-code-a-50-year-anniversary/?share=reddit" target="_blank" title="Click to share on Reddit" ><span></span><span class="sharing-screen-reader-text">Click to share on Reddit (Opens in new window)</span></a></li><li class="share-linkedin"><a rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" data-shared="sharing-linkedin-5830" class="share-linkedin sd-button share-icon no-text" href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/2015/01/21/deciphering-the-genetic-code-a-50-year-anniversary/?share=linkedin" target="_blank" title="Click to share on LinkedIn" ><span></span><span class="sharing-screen-reader-text">Click to share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window)</span></a></li><li class="share-email"><a rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" data-shared="" class="share-email sd-button share-icon no-text" href="mailto:?subject=%5BShared%20Post%5D%20Deciphering%20the%20Genetic%20Code%3A%20A%2050%20Year%20Anniversary&body=https%3A%2F%2Fcirculatingnow.nlm.nih.gov%2F2015%2F01%2F21%2Fdeciphering-the-genetic-code-a-50-year-anniversary%2F&share=email" target="_blank" title="Click to email a link to a friend" data-email-share-error-title="Do you have email set up?" data-email-share-error-text="If you're having problems sharing via email, you might not have email set up for your browser. 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items)">1500s</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/1600s/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-275516 tag-link-position-2" style="font-size: 12.666666666667pt;" aria-label="1600s (38 items)">1600s</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/1700s/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-411245 tag-link-position-3" style="font-size: 11.36pt;" aria-label="1700s (32 items)">1700s</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/1800s/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-273905 tag-link-position-4" style="font-size: 20.88pt;" aria-label="1800s (107 items)">1800s</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/1900s/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-273907 tag-link-position-5" style="font-size: 20.32pt;" aria-label="1900s (99 items)">1900s</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/1950s/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-24741 tag-link-position-6" style="font-size: 9.68pt;" aria-label="1950s (26 items)">1950s</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/1960s/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-24742 tag-link-position-7" style="font-size: 12.106666666667pt;" aria-label="1960s (35 items)">1960s</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/african-american-history/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-168941 tag-link-position-8" style="font-size: 15.093333333333pt;" aria-label="African American History (52 items)">African American History</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/america/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-8055 tag-link-position-9" style="font-size: 9.12pt;" aria-label="America (24 items)">America</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/anatomy/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-26371 tag-link-position-10" style="font-size: 10.613333333333pt;" aria-label="anatomy (29 items)">anatomy</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/animals/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-490 tag-link-position-11" style="font-size: 10.613333333333pt;" aria-label="animals (29 items)">animals</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/anniversaries/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-678875953 tag-link-position-12" style="font-size: 11.173333333333pt;" aria-label="anniversaries (31 items)">anniversaries</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/archives/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-12080 tag-link-position-13" style="font-size: 14.533333333333pt;" aria-label="archives (48 items)">archives</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/art/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-177 tag-link-position-14" style="font-size: 18.64pt;" aria-label="art (80 items)">art</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/book-illustration/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-1480675 tag-link-position-15" style="font-size: 16.4pt;" aria-label="book illustration (61 items)">book illustration</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/children/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-1343 tag-link-position-16" style="font-size: 8pt;" aria-label="children (21 items)">children</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/covid-19/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-678875829 tag-link-position-17" style="font-size: 10.613333333333pt;" aria-label="COVID-19 (29 items)">COVID-19</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/data/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-22379 tag-link-position-18" style="font-size: 16.586666666667pt;" aria-label="data (62 items)">data</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/digital-humanities/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-541876 tag-link-position-19" style="font-size: 12.106666666667pt;" aria-label="digital humanities (35 items)">digital humanities</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/digitization/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-106484 tag-link-position-20" style="font-size: 13.04pt;" aria-label="digitization (40 items)">digitization</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/drugs/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-6200 tag-link-position-21" style="font-size: 9.12pt;" aria-label="drugs (24 items)">drugs</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/education/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-1342 tag-link-position-22" style="font-size: 13.04pt;" aria-label="education (40 items)">education</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/epidemic/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-136219 tag-link-position-23" style="font-size: 15.84pt;" aria-label="epidemic (56 items)">epidemic</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/film/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-524 tag-link-position-24" style="font-size: 17.52pt;" aria-label="film (70 items)">film</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/food/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-586 tag-link-position-25" style="font-size: 11.546666666667pt;" aria-label="food (33 items)">food</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/france/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-4704 tag-link-position-26" style="font-size: 10.613333333333pt;" aria-label="France (29 items)">France</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/germany/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-3550 tag-link-position-27" style="font-size: 8pt;" aria-label="Germany (21 items)">Germany</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/hidden-treasure/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-1487506 tag-link-position-28" style="font-size: 13.226666666667pt;" aria-label="Hidden Treasure (41 items)">Hidden Treasure</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/hospitals/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-38746 tag-link-position-29" style="font-size: 13.04pt;" aria-label="hospitals (40 items)">hospitals</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/interview/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-11788 tag-link-position-30" style="font-size: 22pt;" aria-label="interview (121 items)">interview</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/legislation/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-5563 tag-link-position-31" style="font-size: 12.853333333333pt;" aria-label="legislation (39 items)">legislation</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/letter/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-50991 tag-link-position-32" style="font-size: 9.68pt;" aria-label="letter (26 items)">letter</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/librarians/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-15380 tag-link-position-33" style="font-size: 9.68pt;" aria-label="librarians (26 items)">librarians</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/libraries/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-12499 tag-link-position-34" style="font-size: 10.613333333333pt;" aria-label="libraries (29 items)">libraries</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/manuscript/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-517998 tag-link-position-35" style="font-size: 16.4pt;" aria-label="manuscript (60 items)">manuscript</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/medicine-on-screen/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-671616459 tag-link-position-36" style="font-size: 12.106666666667pt;" aria-label="Medicine on Screen (35 items)">Medicine on Screen</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/mental-health/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-5004 tag-link-position-37" style="font-size: 10.8pt;" aria-label="mental health (30 items)">mental health</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/michael-e-debakey/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-1753209 tag-link-position-38" style="font-size: 8.7466666666667pt;" aria-label="Michael E. DeBakey (23 items)">Michael E. DeBakey</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/military/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-488 tag-link-position-39" style="font-size: 18.266666666667pt;" aria-label="military (76 items)">military</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/nih/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-631875 tag-link-position-40" style="font-size: 8.3733333333333pt;" aria-label="NIH (22 items)">NIH</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/fellowship/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-58980 tag-link-position-41" style="font-size: 12.853333333333pt;" aria-label="NLM DeBakey Fellowship (39 items)">NLM DeBakey Fellowship</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/nlmhisttalk/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-5711 tag-link-position-42" style="font-size: 19.013333333333pt;" aria-label="NLM History Talks (85 items)">NLM History Talks</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/nursing/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-7193 tag-link-position-43" style="font-size: 11.36pt;" aria-label="nursing (32 items)">nursing</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/photograph/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-12074 tag-link-position-44" style="font-size: 12.293333333333pt;" aria-label="photograph (36 items)">photograph</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/physician/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-541893 tag-link-position-45" style="font-size: 10.613333333333pt;" aria-label="physician (29 items)">physician</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/plants/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-15734 tag-link-position-46" style="font-size: 9.12pt;" aria-label="plants (24 items)">plants</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/posters/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-7195 tag-link-position-47" style="font-size: 12.106666666667pt;" aria-label="posters (35 items)">posters</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/profiles-in-science/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-5535849 tag-link-position-48" style="font-size: 9.68pt;" aria-label="Profiles in Science (26 items)">Profiles in Science</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/public-health/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-28006 tag-link-position-49" style="font-size: 19.946666666667pt;" aria-label="public health (95 items)">public health</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/race/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-678875950 tag-link-position-50" style="font-size: 11.733333333333pt;" aria-label="race (34 items)">race</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/rare-books/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-393736 tag-link-position-51" style="font-size: 9.68pt;" aria-label="Rare Books (26 items)">Rare Books</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/recent-acquisitions/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-2971278 tag-link-position-52" style="font-size: 15.093333333333pt;" aria-label="Recent Acquisitions (51 items)">Recent Acquisitions</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/research/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-668 tag-link-position-53" style="font-size: 20.693333333333pt;" aria-label="research (104 items)">research</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/surgeon-general/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-385674 tag-link-position-54" style="font-size: 9.12pt;" aria-label="Surgeon General (24 items)">Surgeon General</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/surgery/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-57544 tag-link-position-55" style="font-size: 8pt;" aria-label="surgery (21 items)">surgery</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/traveling-exhibitions/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-6044794 tag-link-position-56" style="font-size: 9.68pt;" aria-label="traveling exhibitions (26 items)">traveling exhibitions</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/web-collecting/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-238214791 tag-link-position-57" style="font-size: 8pt;" aria-label="web collecting (21 items)">web collecting</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/womens-history/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-97077 tag-link-position-58" style="font-size: 17.146666666667pt;" aria-label="Women's History (66 items)">Women's History</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/world-war-i/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-110820 tag-link-position-59" style="font-size: 14.906666666667pt;" aria-label="World War I (50 items)">World War I</a> <a href="https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/tag/world-war-ii/" class="tag-cloud-link tag-link-62291 tag-link-position-60" style="font-size: 13.6pt;" aria-label="World War II (43 items)">World War II</a></div> </aside></div><div class="widget-wrap"><aside id="archives-5" class="widget widget_archive clearfix"><div class="widget-header"><h3 class="widget-title">Archives</h3></div> <label class="screen-reader-text" for="archives-dropdown-5">Archives</label> <select id="archives-dropdown-5" name="archive-dropdown"> <option value="">Select Month</option> <option value='https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/2025/01/'> January 2025 </option> <option value='https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/2024/12/'> December 2024 </option> <option value='https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/2024/11/'> November 2024 </option> <option value='https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/2024/10/'> October 2024 </option> <option value='https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/2024/09/'> September 2024 </option> <option value='https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/2024/08/'> August 2024 </option> <option value='https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/2024/07/'> July 2024 </option> <option value='https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/2024/06/'> June 2024 </option> <option value='https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/2024/05/'> May 2024 </option> <option value='https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/2024/04/'> April 2024 </option> <option value='https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/2024/03/'> March 2024 </option> <option value='https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/2024/02/'> February 2024 </option> <option 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