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<span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bateman's_study" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bateman's_study"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Bateman's study</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bateman's_study-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Replication_of_Bateman's_experiments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Replication_of_Bateman's_experiments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Replication of Bateman's experiments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Replication_of_Bateman's_experiments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Related_experiments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Related_experiments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Related experiments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Related_experiments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Modern criticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conflicting_evidence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conflicting_evidence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Conflicting evidence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conflicting_evidence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sex-role_reversed_species" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sex-role_reversed_species"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Sex-role reversed species</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sex-role_reversed_species-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li 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href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bateman-Prinzip" title="Bateman-Prinzip – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Bateman-Prinzip" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batemani_printsiip" title="Batemani printsiip – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Batemani printsiip" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principio_de_Bateman" title="Principio de Bateman – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Principio de Bateman" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B5%D9%84_%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%AA%D9%85%D9%86" title="اصل بیتمن – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اصل بیتمن" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principe_de_Bateman" title="Principe de Bateman – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Principe de Bateman" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%99%E3%82%A4%E3%83%88%E3%83%9E%E3%83%B3%E3%81%AE%E5%8E%9F%E7%90%86" title="ベイトマンの原理 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ベイトマンの原理" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batemans_princip" title="Batemans princip – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Batemans princip" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BF_%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%82%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Принцип Бейтмана – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Принцип Бейтмана" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B2%9D%E7%89%B9%E6%9B%BC%E5%8E%9F%E7%90%86" title="貝特曼原理 – Cantonese" lang="yue" 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Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Bateman%27s+principle%22">"Bateman's principle"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Bateman%27s+principle%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Bateman%27s+principle%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Bateman%27s+principle%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Bateman%27s+principle%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Bateman%27s+principle%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2019</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Bateman's principle</b>, in <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">evolutionary biology</a>, is that in most species, variability in <a href="/wiki/Reproductive_success" title="Reproductive success">reproductive success</a> (or reproductive variance) is greater in males than in females. It was first proposed by <a href="/wiki/Angus_John_Bateman" title="Angus John Bateman">Angus John Bateman</a> (1919–1996), an English geneticist. Bateman suggested that, since males are capable of producing millions of sperm cells with little effort, while females invest much higher levels of energy in order to nurture a relatively small number of eggs, the female plays a significantly larger role in their offspring's reproductive success. Bateman's paradigm thus views females as the limiting factor of parental investment, over which males will compete in order to <a href="/wiki/Copulation_(zoology)" title="Copulation (zoology)">copulate</a> successfully. </p><p>Although Bateman's principle served as a cornerstone for the study of <a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">sexual selection</a> for many decades, it has recently been subject to criticism. Attempts to reproduce Bateman's experiments in 2012 and 2013 were unable to support his conclusions. Some scientists have criticized Bateman's experimental and statistical methods, or pointed out conflicting evidence, while others have defended the veracity of the principle and cited evidence in support of it. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Description">Description</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bateman%27s_principle&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Description"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Typically it is the <a href="/wiki/Female" title="Female">females</a> who have a relatively larger investment in producing each offspring. Bateman attributed the origin of the unequal investment to the differences in the production of gametes: sperm are cheaper than eggs. A single <a href="/wiki/Male" title="Male">male</a> can easily fertilize all of a female's eggs; she will not produce more offspring by mating with more than one male. A male is capable of fathering more offspring if he mates with several females. By and large, a male's potential reproductive success is limited by the number of females he mates with, whereas a female's potential reproductive success is limited by how many eggs she can produce. According to Bateman's principle, this results in <a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">sexual selection</a>, in which males compete with each other, and females become choosy in which males to mate with. Thus, as a result of being <a href="/wiki/Anisogamy" title="Anisogamy">anisogamous</a>, males are fundamentally promiscuous, and females are fundamentally selective. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bateman%27s_principle&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bateman initially published his review in 1948.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBateman1948_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBateman1948-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was a botanist, contributing to the literature of sexual selection only once in his lifetime. Bateman initially saw his study on <i><a href="/wiki/Drosophila" title="Drosophila">Drosophila</a></i> to be a test of Charles Darwin's doctrine of sexual selection,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDarwin1871_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarwin1871-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which he saw not as flawed, but as incomplete. He felt that if he were to provide a concrete demonstration of how sexual selection played a role in the reproductive success of certain species, he could explain the gap between Darwin's ideas and sexual dimorphism. </p><p>Although it is common to confuse Bateman's ideas with those of later scientists, his principle can be expressed in three simple statements. The first is that male reproductive success increases with the number of mates they attempt to copulate with, while female reproductive success does not. The second is that male reproductive success will show greater variance than female. The third is that sexual selection will have a greater effect on the sex with greater variance in reproductive success. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bateman's_study"><span id="Bateman.27s_study"></span>Bateman's study</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bateman%27s_principle&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Bateman's study"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Throughout his research, Bateman conducted experiments using fruit flies in order to observe their copulation and sexual behavior. A total of six series of experiments were conducted with the fruit fly <i><a href="/wiki/Drosophila_melanogaster" title="Drosophila melanogaster">Drosophila melanogaster</a></i>, using three to five individuals of each sex. Each trial ran for three or four days. Some ran to completion without the transfer of the <i>Drosophila</i> from one environment (bottle) to another. In the others, Bateman transferred the flies and their eggs to a new bottle every day. Bateman also varied the age of the flies depending on the experiment, with an age gap between one and six days total. He never watched the flies' copulations. The flies used were from several inbred strains, which meant they could be identified by their specific inbred strain. Therefore, he inferred the number of involved mates based on the number of offspring that were later found to have mutations from both a male and a female. The difficulty that arose was that if a female <i>Drosophila</i> had copulated with five males and only one larva survived, Bateman would not be able to account for the other four copulations. </p><p>Analysis of the data collected in sets one through four showed that the males' reproductive success, estimated as the number of sired offspring, increased at a steady rate until a total of three mates were reached. It is important to note that Bateman kept the sex ratio of males to females completely even throughout his trials. But after surpassing three mates, male reproductive success began to fall. Female reproductive success also increased with number of mates, but much more gradually than that of the males. The second series of data collected in sets five and six illustrated a dramatically different outcome. Male reproductive success increased at a steady and steep rate, never dropping. Female reproductive success, on the other hand, plateaued after a single mate. Bateman focused mainly on the second series of data when discussing his results. His main conclusion was that the reproductive success of females does not increase with an influx of mates, as one fit mate was enough to successfully complete fertilization. This is often referred to as Bateman's Gradient. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Replication_of_Bateman's_experiments"><span id="Replication_of_Bateman.27s_experiments"></span>Replication of Bateman's experiments</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bateman%27s_principle&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Replication of Bateman's experiments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Throughout 2012 and 2013, Gowaty, Kim, and Anderson repeated Bateman's experiment in its entirety, staying as close to Bateman's published methodology as possible.<sup id="cite_ref-Tang-Martinez_2012_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tang-Martinez_2012-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gowaty2012_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gowaty2012-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They found that upon combining certain fly strains with one another, the offspring were unable to survive to adulthood. Thus, Bateman's results regarding the number of individuals not having mated was too high. This was valid for both the males and females.<sup id="cite_ref-Gowaty2012_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gowaty2012-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gowaty desired to further explore the reasoning behind the premature death of the Drosophila. She began doing so by running monogamy trials between different strains of flies and found that 25% of the offspring died due to becoming double mutants.<sup id="cite_ref-Gowaty2012_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gowaty2012-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid23360967_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid23360967-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bateman thought his work fit within the lines of Mendel's laws of genetics, while Gowaty proved otherwise. The 1948 experiments inferred reproductive success based on the number of adults living by the end of the trial. In reality, many factors were left out of the equation when calculating reproductive success as a function of the number of mates, which had the ability to completely dislodge the accuracy behind Bateman's results. Gowaty was not able to confirm Bateman's conclusions and found no evidence for sexual selection in the experiment.<sup id="cite_ref-Gowaty2012_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gowaty2012-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tang-Martinez_2012_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tang-Martinez_2012-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-TangMartinez2017_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TangMartinez2017-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid23360967_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid23360967-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Related_experiments">Related experiments</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bateman%27s_principle&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Related experiments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Nevertheless, some modern experiments between the relationship of number of mates and the reproductive success of males and females support Bateman's principle. Julie Collet conducted an experiment with a population of red jungle fowl.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A total of thirteen replicate groups of three males and four females were monitored for ten days. In this experiment, the sex ratio was biased toward females. A male's reproductive success was calculated using the proportion of embryos fathered to the total number of embryos produced by all the females he mated with. The total sexual selection opportunity was calculated using the following formula. </p><p>The <i>σ</i><sup>2</sup> represents the variance in RS, while the<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (December 2016)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> is the square mean of reproductive success of members of one sex in a group. </p><p>In 2013, Fritzsche and Arnqvist tested Bateman's principle by estimating sexual selection between males and females in four seed beetles. They used a unique experimental design that showed sexual selection to be greater in males than in females. In contrast, sexual selection was also shown to be stronger for females in role-reversed species. They suggested that the Bateman gradient is typically the most accurate and informative measure of sexual selection between different sexes and species.<sup id="cite_ref-Fritzsche_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fritzsche-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_criticism">Modern criticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bateman%27s_principle&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Modern criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>More than 60 years later, Bateman's principle has received considerable attention. Sutherland argued that males' higher variance in reproductive success may result from random mating and coincidence. Hubbell and Johnson suggested that variance in reproductive success can be greatly influenced by the time and allocations of mating. In 2005, Gowaty and Hubbell suggested that mating tendencies are subject to change depending on certain strategies. They argued that there are cases in which males can be more selective than females, whereas Bateman suggested that his paradigm would be “almost universal” among sexually reproducing species. Critics proposed that females might be more subject to sexual selection than males, but not in all circumstances.<sup id="cite_ref-Newcomer_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newcomer-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Experimental and statistical criticisms followed. Until approximately a decade ago<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (September 2023)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup>, critics of Bateman's model focused on his experimental design. In recent years, they have shifted attention to the actual experimental and statistical calculations Bateman published throughout his trials. Birkhead wrote a 2000 review arguing that since Bateman's experiments lasted only three to four days, the female fruit fly, <i>Drosophila melanogaster</i>, may not have needed to mate repeatedly, as it can store sperm for up to four days; if Bateman had used a species in which females had to copulate more often to fertilize their eggs, the results might have been different. Snyder and Gowaty conducted the first in-depth analysis of the data in Bateman's 1948 paper. They found sampling biases, mathematical errors, and selective presentation of data.<sup id="cite_ref-Snyder2007_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Snyder2007-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2012 review by <a href="/wiki/Zuleyma_Tang-Martinez" class="mw-redirect" title="Zuleyma Tang-Martinez">Zuleyma Tang-Martínez</a> concluded that various empirical and theoretical studies, especially Gowaty's reproduction of Bateman's original experiment, pose a major challenge to Bateman's conclusions, and that Bateman's principle should be considered an unproven hypothesis in need of further reexamination.<sup id="cite_ref-Tang-Martinez_2012_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tang-Martinez_2012-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Tang-Martínez, "modern data simply don't support most of Bateman's and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Trivers" title="Robert Trivers">Trivers</a>'s predictions and assumptions."<sup id="cite_ref-TangMartinez2017_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TangMartinez2017-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2016 review confirmed Darwinian sex roles across the animal kingdom, concluding that "sexual selection, as captured by standard Bateman metrics, is indeed stronger in males than in females and that it is evolutionarily tied to sex biases in parental care and sexual dimorphism."<sup id="cite_ref-Janicke2016_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Janicke2016-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One error source that have been shown to give an illusion of greater differential in reproductive success in males than in females genetically is that chromosome effects cause a greater percentage of mutations to be lethal before even reaching sexual maturity in males than in females.<sup id="cite_ref-Gowaty2012_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gowaty2012-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The assumption that any differential in reproductive success between males and females among the individuals that do reach sexual maturity must be due to sexual selection in the current population is also subject to criticism, such as the possibility of remnants of sexually selected traits in a previous species from which a new species have evolved can be negatively selected due to costs in nutrients and weakened immune systems and that such negative selection would cause a higher difference in reproductive success in males than in females even without any still ongoing sexual selection. Since lower degrees of selection during times of stable environment allows genetic variation to build up by random mutations and allow some individuals in a population to survive environmental change while strong constant selection offsets the effect and increases the risk of the entire population dying out during catastrophic environmental change due to less genetic variation, constant loss of genetic variation caused by sexual selection have been suggested as a factor contributing to higher <a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">extinction</a> rates in more sexually dimorphic species besides the nutrient, immunity and other costs of the ornaments themselves. While the ornament cost risk would only be removed when the ornaments have been eliminated by selection, the genetic variation model predicts that the species ability to survive would improve significantly even at an early stage of reduction of sexual dimorphism due to other adaptive mutations arising and surviving due to minimal selection during times of stable environment while the genes causing sexually dimorphic anatomy have only in small part been affected by the mutations. Applied to human evolution, this model can explain why early <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_sapiens" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo sapiens">Homo sapiens</a></i> display a significantly increased adaptability to environmental change already at its early divergence from <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">Homo erectus</a></i> that had a high muscular sexual dimorphism, as well as why human anatomy through the history of Homo sapiens show a diversification during times of stable climate and a selective loss of the more robust male forms during environmental change that does not recover during later stability, continuing through the loss of many robust characteristics in regional bottlenecks as recent as the end of the Ice Age and the time around the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">agricultural revolution</a>. It also explains genetic evidence of human genetic diversity increasing during stable environmental periods and being reduced during bottlenecks related to changes in the environment.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conflicting_evidence">Conflicting evidence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bateman%27s_principle&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Conflicting evidence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Recently, DNA testing has permitted more detailed investigation of mating behavior in numerous species. The results, in many cases, have been cited as evidence against Bateman's principle.<sup id="cite_ref-TangMartinez2017_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TangMartinez2017-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-TangMartinez2016_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TangMartinez2016-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Until recently, most bird species were believed to be sexually monogamous. <a href="/wiki/DNA_paternity_testing" title="DNA paternity testing">DNA paternity testing</a>, however, has shown that in nearly 90% of bird species, females copulate with multiple males during each breeding season.<sup id="cite_ref-TangMartinez2016_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TangMartinez2016-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BennettOwens2002_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BennettOwens2002-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Superb_fairy_wren" class="mw-redirect" title="Superb fairy wren">superb fairy wren</a> is socially monogamous, but 95% of its clutches contain young fathered by extra-pair males. Up to 87% of <a href="/wiki/Tree_swallow" title="Tree swallow">tree swallow</a> clutches, 75% of <a href="/wiki/Coal_tit" title="Coal tit">coal tit</a> clutches, and 70% of <a href="/wiki/Reed_bunting" class="mw-redirect" title="Reed bunting">reed bunting</a> clutches contain young fathered by extra-pair males.<sup id="cite_ref-TangMartinez2016_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TangMartinez2016-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-coaltits_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-coaltits-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even female <a href="/wiki/Waved_albatross" title="Waved albatross">waved albatrosses</a>, which typically mate for life, are sexually promiscuous, with 17% of young fathered by extra-pair males.<sup id="cite_ref-Huyvaert2000_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huyvaert2000-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In many <a href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">primate</a> species, females solicit sex from males and may mate with more than one male in quick succession.<sup id="cite_ref-Drea2005_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drea2005-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Female <a href="/wiki/Lion" title="Lion">lions</a> may mate 100 times per day with different males while they are in <a href="/wiki/Estrus" class="mw-redirect" title="Estrus">estrus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Eaton1978_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eaton1978-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hrdy1986_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hrdy1986-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Females of the <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscorpion" title="Pseudoscorpion">pseudoscorpion</a> species, <i>Cordylochernes scorpioides</i>, have been shown to have higher reproductive success when mated with more than one male.<sup id="cite_ref-Newcomer_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newcomer-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sex-role_reversed_species">Sex-role reversed species</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bateman%27s_principle&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Sex-role reversed species"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The most well-known exceptions to Bateman's principle are the existence of sex-role reversed species such as pipefish (<a href="/wiki/Seahorse" title="Seahorse">seahorses</a>), <a href="/wiki/Phalarope" title="Phalarope">phalaropes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jacanidae" title="Jacanidae">jacanas</a> in which the males perform the majority of the parental care, and are cryptic while the females are highly ornamented and territorially aggressive.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmlenOring1977_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmlenOring1977-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKnowlton1982_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnowlton1982-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBerglundWidemoRosenqvist2005_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerglundWidemoRosenqvist2005-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In these species, however, the typical fundamental sex differences are reversed: females have a faster reproductive rate than males (and thus greater reproductive variance), and males have greater assurance of genetic parentage than do females.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlinn2004_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlinn2004-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consequently, reversals in sex roles and reproductive variance are consistent with Bateman's principle, and with <a href="/wiki/Robert_Trivers" title="Robert Trivers">Robert Trivers</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Parental_investment" title="Parental investment">parental investment</a> theory. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bateman%27s_principle&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Variability_hypothesis" title="Variability hypothesis">Variability hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinderella_effect" title="Cinderella effect">Cinderella effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coolidge_effect" title="Coolidge effect">Coolidge effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypergamy" title="Hypergamy">Hypergamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_investment" title="Parental investment">Parental investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paternal_care" title="Paternal care">Paternal care</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bateman%27s_principle&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBateman1948-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBateman1948_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBateman1948">Bateman 1948</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarwin1871-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDarwin1871_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDarwin1871">Darwin 1871</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tang-Martinez_2012-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tang-Martinez_2012_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tang-Martinez_2012_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tang-Martinez_2012_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output 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0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFTang-Martinez2012" class="citation journal cs1">Tang-Martinez, Zuleyma (6 July 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3406825">"Repetition of Bateman challenges the paradigm"</a>. 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"High Frequency of Extra-Pair Paternity in the Coal Tit". <i>Journal of Avian Biology</i>. <b>30</b> (2): 229–233. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3677134">10.2307/3677134</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0908-8857">0908-8857</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3677134">3677134</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Avian+Biology&rft.atitle=High+Frequency+of+Extra-Pair+Paternity+in+the+Coal+Tit&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=229-233&rft.date=1999&rft.issn=0908-8857&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3677134%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3677134&rft.aulast=Lubjuhn&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft.au=Gerken%2C+Thomas&rft.au=Brun%2C+Jorg&rft.au=Epplen%2C+Jorg+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABateman%27s+principle" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Huyvaert2000-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Huyvaert2000_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuyvaertAndersonJonesDuan2000" class="citation journal cs1">Huyvaert, Kathryn P.; Anderson, David J.; Jones, Thomas C.; Duan, Wenrui; Parker, Patricia G. (2000). "Extra-pair paternity in waved albatrosses". <i>Molecular Ecology</i>. <b>9</b> (9): 1415–1419. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000MolEc...9.1415H">2000MolEc...9.1415H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1365-294x.2000.00996.x">10.1046/j.1365-294x.2000.00996.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0962-1083">0962-1083</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10972780">10972780</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:36426746">36426746</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Molecular+Ecology&rft.atitle=Extra-pair+paternity+in+waved+albatrosses&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=1415-1419&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A36426746%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000MolEc...9.1415H&rft.issn=0962-1083&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1046%2Fj.1365-294x.2000.00996.x&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10972780&rft.aulast=Huyvaert&rft.aufirst=Kathryn+P.&rft.au=Anderson%2C+David+J.&rft.au=Jones%2C+Thomas+C.&rft.au=Duan%2C+Wenrui&rft.au=Parker%2C+Patricia+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABateman%27s+principle" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Drea2005-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Drea2005_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrea2005" class="citation journal cs1">Drea, C. M. (1 October 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Ficb%2F45.5.915">"Bateman Revisited: The Reproductive Tactics of Female Primates"</a>. <i>Integrative and Comparative Biology</i>. <b>45</b> (5): 915–923. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.510.1491">10.1.1.510.1491</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Ficb%2F45.5.915">10.1093/icb/45.5.915</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1540-7063">1540-7063</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21676842">21676842</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Integrative+and+Comparative+Biology&rft.atitle=Bateman+Revisited%3A+The+Reproductive+Tactics+of+Female+Primates&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=915-923&rft.date=2005-10-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.510.1491%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft.issn=1540-7063&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21676842&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Ficb%2F45.5.915&rft.aulast=Drea&rft.aufirst=C.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Ficb%252F45.5.915&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABateman%27s+principle" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Eaton1978-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Eaton1978_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEaton1978" class="citation journal cs1">Eaton, R. L. (1978). "Why Some Felids Copulate So Much: A Model for the Evolution of Copulation Frequency". <i>Carnivore</i>. <b>1</b>: 42–51.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Carnivore&rft.atitle=Why+Some+Felids+Copulate+So+Much%3A+A+Model+for+the+Evolution+of+Copulation+Frequency&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=42-51&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Eaton&rft.aufirst=R.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABateman%27s+principle" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hrdy1986-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hrdy1986_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHrdy1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Blaffer_Hrdy" title="Sarah Blaffer Hrdy">Hrdy, Sarah Blaffer</a> (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8xothimSsikC">"Empathy, polyandry, and the myth of the 'coy' female"</a>. In Bleier, Ruth (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/feministapproach00ruth/page/119"><i>Feminist Approaches to Science</i></a>. New York: Pergamon Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/feministapproach00ruth/page/119">119–146</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0080327860" title="Special:BookSources/978-0080327860"><bdi>978-0080327860</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Empathy%2C+polyandry%2C+and+the+myth+of+the+%27coy%27+female&rft.btitle=Feminist+Approaches+to+Science&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=119-146&rft.pub=Pergamon+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0080327860&rft.aulast=Hrdy&rft.aufirst=Sarah+Blaffer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8xothimSsikC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABateman%27s+principle" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmlenOring1977-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmlenOring1977_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEmlenOring1977">Emlen & Oring 1977</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnowlton1982-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKnowlton1982_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKnowlton1982">Knowlton 1982</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerglundWidemoRosenqvist2005-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBerglundWidemoRosenqvist2005_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBerglundWidemoRosenqvist2005">Berglund, Widemo & Rosenqvist 2005</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlinn2004-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlinn2004_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFlinn2004">Flinn 2004</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bateman%27s_principle&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRidley2002" class="citation cs2">Ridley, Mat (2002), <i>The Red Queen: Sex and the Evolution of Human Nature</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Red+Queen%3A+Sex+and+the+Evolution+of+Human+Nature&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Ridley&rft.aufirst=Mat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABateman%27s+principle" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaker2003" class="citation cs2">Baker, Robin (2003), <i>Sperm Wars: The Science of Sex</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sperm+Wars%3A+The+Science+of+Sex&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Baker&rft.aufirst=Robin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABateman%27s+principle" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBateman1948" class="citation cs2">Bateman, A.J. (1948), "Intra-sexual selection in Drosophila", <i>Heredity</i>, <b>2</b> (Pt. 3): 349–368, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fhdy.1948.21">10.1038/hdy.1948.21</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18103134">18103134</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Heredity&rft.atitle=Intra-sexual+selection+in+Drosophila&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=Pt.+3&rft.pages=349-368&rft.date=1948&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fhdy.1948.21&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18103134&rft.aulast=Bateman&rft.aufirst=A.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABateman%27s+principle" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerglundWidemoRosenqvist2005" class="citation cs2">Berglund, A.; Widemo, M.S.; Rosenqvist, G. (2005), "Sex-role reversal revisited: choosy females and ornamented, competitive males in a pipefish", <i>Behavioral Ecology</i>, <b>16</b> (3): 649–655, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fbeheco%2Fari038">10.1093/beheco/ari038</a></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Behavioral+Ecology&rft.atitle=Sex-role+reversal+revisited%3A+choosy+females+and+ornamented%2C+competitive+males+in+a+pipefish&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=649-655&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fbeheco%2Fari038&rft.aulast=Berglund&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=Widemo%2C+M.S.&rft.au=Rosenqvist%2C+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABateman%27s+principle" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBirkhead2001" class="citation cs2">Birkhead, T. (2001), <i>Promiscuity: An Evolutionary History of Sperm Competition</i>, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-00666-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-00666-9"><bdi>978-0-674-00666-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Promiscuity%3A+An+Evolutionary+History+of+Sperm+Competition&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-674-00666-9&rft.aulast=Birkhead&rft.aufirst=T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABateman%27s+principle" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrookerRowleyAdamsBaverstock1990" class="citation cs2">Brooker, MG; Rowley, I; Adams, M; Baverstock, PR (Mar 1990), "Promiscuity: An inbreeding avoidance mechanism in a socially monogamous species?", <i>Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology</i>, <b>26</b> (3): 191–199, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00172086">10.1007/BF00172086</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:34870402">34870402</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Behavioral+Ecology+and+Sociobiology&rft.atitle=Promiscuity%3A+An+inbreeding+avoidance+mechanism+in+a+socially+monogamous+species%3F&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=191-199&rft.date=1990-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF00172086&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A34870402%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Brooker&rft.aufirst=MG&rft.au=Rowley%2C+I&rft.au=Adams%2C+M&rft.au=Baverstock%2C+PR&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABateman%27s+principle" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDarwin1871" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin, C.R.</a> (1871), <i>The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex</i>, Hurst and Co</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Descent+of+Man+and+Selection+in+Relation+to+Sex&rft.pub=Hurst+and+Co&rft.date=1871&rft.aulast=Darwin&rft.aufirst=C.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABateman%27s+principle" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEmlenOring1977" class="citation cs2">Emlen, S.T.; Oring, L.W. (1977), "Ecology, sexual selection, and the evolution of mating systems", <i>Science</i>, <b>197</b> (4300): 215–223, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1977Sci...197..215E">1977Sci...197..215E</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.327542">10.1126/science.327542</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/327542">327542</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Ecology%2C+sexual+selection%2C+and+the+evolution+of+mating+systems&rft.volume=197&rft.issue=4300&rft.pages=215-223&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F327542&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.327542&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1977Sci...197..215E&rft.aulast=Emlen&rft.aufirst=S.T.&rft.au=Oring%2C+L.W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABateman%27s+principle" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlinn2004" class="citation cs2">Flinn, Mark (2004), "Sexual selection: monkeys, apes, and humans", <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080117145437/http://web.missouri.edu/~flinnm/courses/mah/lectures/sexualselection.htm"><i>Lecture notes for Anth 1500</i></a>, University of Missouri-Columbia, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.missouri.edu/~flinnm/courses/mah/lectures/sexualselection.htm">the original</a> on 2008-01-17<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-06-28</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sexual+selection%3A+monkeys%2C+apes%2C+and+humans&rft.btitle=Lecture+notes+for+Anth+1500&rft.pub=University+of+Missouri-Columbia&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Flinn&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.missouri.edu%2F~flinnm%2Fcourses%2Fmah%2Flectures%2Fsexualselection.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABateman%27s+principle" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHewett2003" class="citation cs2">Hewett, Caspar (2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thegreatdebate.org.uk/sexualselection.html"><i>Theory of Sexual Selection - The Human Mind and the Peacock's Tale</i></a>, The Great Debate<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-06-28</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theory+of+Sexual+Selection+-+The+Human+Mind+and+the+Peacock%27s+Tale&rft.pub=The+Great+Debate&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Hewett&rft.aufirst=Caspar&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thegreatdebate.org.uk%2Fsexualselection.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABateman%27s+principle" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuxley1938" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Julian_Huxley" title="Julian Huxley">Huxley, J.S.</a> (1938), "The present standing of the theory of sexual selection", in de Beer, G.R. (ed.), <i>Evolution: Essays on aspects of evolutionary biology</i>, Oxford: Clarendon Press, pp. 11–42</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+present+standing+of+the+theory+of+sexual+selection&rft.btitle=Evolution%3A+Essays+on+aspects+of+evolutionary+biology&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=11-42&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1938&rft.aulast=Huxley&rft.aufirst=J.S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABateman%27s+principle" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJudson2002" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Olivia_Judson" title="Olivia Judson">Judson, Olivia</a> (2002), <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/drtatianassexadv00juds"><i>Dr. Tatiana's Sex Advice To All Creation</i></a></span>, New York: Metropolitan Books, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-6331-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-6331-8"><bdi>978-0-8050-6331-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dr.+Tatiana%27s+Sex+Advice+To+All+Creation&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Metropolitan+Books&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8050-6331-8&rft.aulast=Judson&rft.aufirst=Olivia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdrtatianassexadv00juds&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABateman%27s+principle" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnight2002" class="citation cs2">Knight, J (Jan 2002), "Sexual stereotypes", <i>Nature</i>, <b>415</b> (6869): 254–7, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002Natur.415..254K">2002Natur.415..254K</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F415254a">10.1038/415254a</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11796975">11796975</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4337214">4337214</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Sexual+stereotypes&rft.volume=415&rft.issue=6869&rft.pages=254-7&rft.date=2002-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F415254a&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4337214%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11796975&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002Natur.415..254K&rft.aulast=Knight&rft.aufirst=J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABateman%27s+principle" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnowlton1982" class="citation cs2">Knowlton, N. (1982), "Parental care and sex role reversal", in King’s College Sociobiology Group (ed.), <i>Current problems in sociobiology</i>, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24203-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24203-5"><bdi>978-0-521-24203-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Parental+care+and+sex+role+reversal&rft.btitle=Current+problems+in+sociobiology&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-521-24203-5&rft.aulast=Knowlton&rft.aufirst=N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABateman%27s+principle" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMéryJoly2002" class="citation cs2">Méry, F; Joly, D (Feb 2002), "Multiple mating, sperm transfer and oviposition pattern in the giant sperm species, Drosophila bifurca", <i>Journal of Evolutionary Biology</i>, <b>15</b> (1): 49–56, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1420-9101.2002.00364.x">10.1046/j.1420-9101.2002.00364.x</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:85151408">85151408</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Evolutionary+Biology&rft.atitle=Multiple+mating%2C+sperm+transfer+and+oviposition+pattern+in+the+giant+sperm+species%2C+Drosophila+bifurca&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=49-56&rft.date=2002-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1046%2Fj.1420-9101.2002.00364.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A85151408%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=M%C3%A9ry&rft.aufirst=F&rft.au=Joly%2C+D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABateman%27s+principle" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPruett-JonesTuttle2007" class="citation cs2">Pruett-Jones, S; Tuttle, EM (Feb 2007), "Fairy-wren sperm counts: a correction", <i>Animal Behaviour</i>, <b>73</b> (3): e1–e2, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.anbehav.2006.10.003">10.1016/j.anbehav.2006.10.003</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53189441">53189441</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Animal+Behaviour&rft.atitle=Fairy-wren+sperm+counts%3A+a+correction&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=e1-e2&rft.date=2007-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.anbehav.2006.10.003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A53189441%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Pruett-Jones&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Tuttle%2C+EM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABateman%27s+principle" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThornhill2008" class="citation cs2">Thornhill, Randy (2008), <i>The Evolutionary Biology of Human Female Sexuality</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Evolutionary+Biology+of+Human+Female+Sexuality&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Thornhill&rft.aufirst=Randy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABateman%27s+principle" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams1966" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/George_C._Williams_(biologist)" class="mw-redirect" title="George C. Williams (biologist)">Williams, GC</a> (1966), <i>Adaptation and natural selection: a critique of some current evolutionary thought</i>, Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-07900-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-07900-4"><bdi>978-0-691-07900-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Adaptation+and+natural+selection%3A+a+critique+of+some+current+evolutionary+thought&rft.place=Princeton%2C+N.J&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1966&rft.isbn=978-0-691-07900-4&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=GC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABateman%27s+principle" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolffMacdonald2004" class="citation cs2">Wolff, JO; Macdonald, DW (Mar 2004), "Promiscuous females protect their offspring", <i>Trends in Ecology & Evolution</i>, <b>19</b> (3): 127–33, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tree.2003.12.009">10.1016/j.tree.2003.12.009</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16701243">16701243</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Ecology+%26+Evolution&rft.atitle=Promiscuous+females+protect+their+offspring&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=127-33&rft.date=2004-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tree.2003.12.009&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16701243&rft.aulast=Wolff&rft.aufirst=JO&rft.au=Macdonald%2C+DW&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABateman%27s+principle" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bateman%27s_principle&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAngeloniBradburyCharnov2002" class="citation cs2">Angeloni, L.; Bradbury, J.W.; Charnov, E.L. (2002), "Body size and sex allocation in simultaneously hermaphroditic animals", <i>Behavioral Ecology</i>, <b>13</b> (3): 419–426, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fbeheco%2F13.3.419">10.1093/beheco/13.3.419</a></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Behavioral+Ecology&rft.atitle=Body+size+and+sex+allocation+in+simultaneously+hermaphroditic+animals&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=419-426&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fbeheco%2F13.3.419&rft.aulast=Angeloni&rft.aufirst=L.&rft.au=Bradbury%2C+J.W.&rft.au=Charnov%2C+E.L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABateman%27s+principle" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharnov1982" class="citation cs2">Charnov, E.L. (1982), "The Theory of Sex Allocation", <i>Monographs in Population Biology</i>, <b>18</b>, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press: 1–355, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-08311-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-08311-7"><bdi>978-0-691-08311-7</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7144766">7144766</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Monographs+in+Population+Biology&rft.atitle=The+Theory+of+Sex+Allocation&rft.volume=18&rft.pages=1-355&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F7144766&rft.isbn=978-0-691-08311-7&rft.aulast=Charnov&rft.aufirst=E.L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABateman%27s+principle" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJanickeHädererLajeunesseAnthes2016" class="citation cs2">Janicke, T.; Häderer, I. K.; Lajeunesse, M. J.; Anthes, N. (12 February 2016), "Darwinian sex roles confirmed across the animal kingdom", <i><a href="/wiki/Science_Advances" title="Science Advances">Science Advances</a></i>, <b>2</b> (2): e1500983, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016SciA....2E0983J">2016SciA....2E0983J</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fsciadv.1500983">10.1126/sciadv.1500983</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4758741">4758741</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26933680">26933680</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+Advances&rft.atitle=Darwinian+sex+roles+confirmed+across+the+animal+kingdom&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=e1500983&rft.date=2016-02-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4758741%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26933680&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fsciadv.1500983&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016SciA....2E0983J&rft.aulast=Janicke&rft.aufirst=T.&rft.au=H%C3%A4derer%2C+I.+K.&rft.au=Lajeunesse%2C+M.+J.&rft.au=Anthes%2C+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABateman%27s+principle" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaynard_Smith1978" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Smith" title="John Maynard Smith">Maynard Smith, J.</a> (1978), <i>The Evolution of Sex</i>, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29302-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29302-0"><bdi>978-0-521-29302-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Evolution+of+Sex&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-521-29302-0&rft.aulast=Maynard+Smith&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABateman%27s+principle" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bateman%27s_principle&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> 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<li><a href="/wiki/Metabolic_theory_of_ecology" title="Metabolic theory of ecology">Metabolic theory of ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productivity_(ecology)" title="Productivity (ecology)">Productivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">Resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Restoration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Producers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Autotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">Chemosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemotroph" title="Chemotroph">Chemotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundation_species" title="Foundation species">Foundation species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetotroph" title="Kinetotroph">Kinetotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixotroph" title="Mixotroph">Mixotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myco-heterotrophy" title="Myco-heterotrophy">Myco-heterotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycotroph" title="Mycotroph">Mycotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organotroph" title="Organotroph">Organotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoheterotroph" title="Photoheterotroph">Photoheterotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic_efficiency" title="Photosynthetic efficiency">Photosynthetic efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phototroph" title="Phototroph">Phototrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_nutritional_groups" title="Primary nutritional groups">Primary nutritional groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">Primary production</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Consumer_(food_chain)" title="Consumer (food chain)">Consumers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apex_predator" title="Apex predator">Apex predator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacterivore" title="Bacterivore">Bacterivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnivore" title="Carnivore">Carnivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemoorganotroph" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganotroph">Chemoorganotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foraging" title="Foraging">Foraging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalist_and_specialist_species" title="Generalist and specialist species">Generalist and specialist species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraguild_predation" title="Intraguild predation">Intraguild predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">Herbivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">Heterotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotrophic_nutrition" title="Heterotrophic nutrition">Heterotrophic nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insectivore" title="Insectivore">Insectivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopredator" title="Mesopredator">Mesopredators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopredator_release_hypothesis" title="Mesopredator release hypothesis">Mesopredator release hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnivore" title="Omnivore">Omnivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimal_foraging_theory" title="Optimal foraging theory">Optimal foraging theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planktivore" title="Planktivore">Planktivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">Predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prey_switching" title="Prey switching">Prey switching</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Decomposer" title="Decomposer">Decomposers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemoorganoheterotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganoheterotrophy">Chemoorganoheterotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">Decomposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritivore" title="Detritivore">Detritivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritus" title="Detritus">Detritus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Microorganism#Habitats_and_ecology" title="Microorganism">Microorganisms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">Bacteriophage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithoautotroph" title="Lithoautotroph">Lithoautotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithotroph" title="Lithotroph">Lithotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_cooperation" title="Microbial cooperation">Microbial cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">Microbial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_food_web" title="Microbial food web">Microbial food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_intelligence" title="Microbial intelligence">Microbial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">Microbial loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_mat" title="Microbial mat">Microbial mat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_metabolism" title="Microbial metabolism">Microbial metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phage_ecology" title="Phage ecology">Phage ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">Food webs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomagnification" title="Biomagnification">Biomagnification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_efficiency" title="Ecological efficiency">Ecological efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_pyramid" title="Ecological pyramid">Ecological pyramid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Energy flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">Food chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic level</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Example webs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lake_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="Lake ecosystem">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="River ecosystem">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_food_web" title="Soil food web">Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tritrophic_interactions_in_plant_defense" title="Tritrophic interactions in plant defense">Tritrophic interactions in plant defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_food_web" title="Marine food web">Marine food webs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">cold seeps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent#Biological_communities" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_ecology" title="Intertidal ecology">intertidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest#Trophic_ecology" title="Kelp forest">kelp forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Pacific_Gyre" title="North Pacific Gyre">North Pacific Gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology_of_the_San_Francisco_Estuary#Food_web" title="Ecology of the San Francisco Estuary">San Francisco Estuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">tide pool</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ascendency" title="Ascendency">Ascendency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioaccumulation" title="Bioaccumulation">Bioaccumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_effect_(ecology)" title="Cascade effect (ecology)">Cascade effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climax_community" title="Climax community">Climax community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competitive_exclusion_principle" title="Competitive exclusion principle">Competitive exclusion principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer%E2%80%93resource_interactions" title="Consumer–resource interactions">Consumer–resource interactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copiotroph" title="Copiotroph">Copiotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominance_(ecology)" title="Dominance (ecology)">Dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_network" title="Ecological network">Ecological network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_succession" title="Ecological succession">Ecological succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_quality" title="Energy quality">Energy quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_systems_language" title="Energy systems language">Energy systems language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-ratio_(oceanography)" title="F-ratio (oceanography)">f-ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feed_conversion_ratio" title="Feed conversion ratio">Feed conversion ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feeding_frenzy" title="Feeding frenzy">Feeding frenzy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesotrophic_soil" title="Mesotrophic soil">Mesotrophic soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycle" title="Nutrient cycle">Nutrient cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligotroph" title="Oligotroph">Oligotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_the_plankton" title="Paradox of the plankton">Paradox of the plankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_cascade" title="Trophic cascade">Trophic cascade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_mutualism" title="Trophic mutualism">Trophic mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_state_index" title="Trophic state index">Trophic state index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Defense,<br />counter</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_coloration" title="Animal coloration">Animal coloration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptation" title="Anti-predator adaptation">Anti-predator adaptations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">Camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deimatic_behaviour" title="Deimatic behaviour">Deimatic behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbivore_adaptations_to_plant_defense" title="Herbivore adaptations to plant defense">Herbivore adaptations to plant defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">Mimicry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_defense_against_herbivory" title="Plant defense against herbivory">Plant defense against herbivory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling#Predator_avoidance" title="Shoaling and schooling">Predator avoidance in schooling fish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Other_components" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Other_components" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Modelling ecosystems</a>: Other components</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">Population<br />ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abundance_(ecology)" title="Abundance (ecology)">Abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allee_effect" title="Allee effect">Allee effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer-resource_model" title="Consumer-resource model">Consumer-resource model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depensation" title="Depensation">Depensation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_yield" title="Ecological yield">Ecological yield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effective_population_size" title="Effective population size">Effective population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraspecific_competition" title="Intraspecific competition">Intraspecific competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logistic_function" title="Logistic function">Logistic function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthusian_growth_model" title="Malthusian growth model">Malthusian growth model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_sustainable_yield" title="Maximum sustainable yield">Maximum sustainable yield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overpopulation" title="Overpopulation">Overpopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_cycle" title="Population cycle">Population cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_dynamics" title="Population dynamics">Population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_model" title="Population model">Population modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_size" title="Population size">Population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_equations" title="Lotka–Volterra equations">Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recruitment_(biology)" title="Recruitment (biology)">Recruitment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_population_size" title="Small population size">Small population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_stability" title="Ecological stability">Stability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_resilience" title="Ecological resilience">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_(ecology)" title="Resistance (ecology)">Resistance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Random_generalized_Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_model" title="Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model">Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Density_dependence" title="Density dependence">Density-dependent inhibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_effects_of_biodiversity" title="Ecological effects of biodiversity">Ecological effects of biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_extinction" title="Ecological extinction">Ecological extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endemism" title="Endemism">Endemic species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flagship_species" title="Flagship species">Flagship species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination_(statistics)" title="Ordination (statistics)">Gradient analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioindicator" title="Bioindicator">Indicator species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">Introduced species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a> / <a href="/wiki/Native_species" title="Native species">Native species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latitudinal_gradients_in_species_diversity" title="Latitudinal gradients in species diversity">Latitudinal gradients in species diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_viable_population" title="Minimum viable population">Minimum viable population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_neutral_theory_of_biodiversity" title="Unified neutral theory of biodiversity">Neutral theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupancy%E2%80%93abundance_relationship" title="Occupancy–abundance relationship">Occupancy–abundance relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_viability_analysis" title="Population viability analysis">Population viability analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priority_effect" title="Priority effect">Priority effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapoport%27s_rule" title="Rapoport's rule">Rapoport's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_abundance_distribution" title="Relative abundance distribution">Relative abundance distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_species_abundance" title="Relative species abundance">Relative species abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_diversity" title="Species diversity">Species diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_homogeneity" title="Species homogeneity">Species homogeneity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_richness" title="Species richness">Species richness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_distribution" title="Species distribution">Species distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species%E2%80%93area_relationship" title="Species–area relationship">Species–area curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbrella_species" title="Umbrella species">Umbrella species</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species<br />interaction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antibiosis" title="Antibiosis">Antibiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">Biological interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensalism" title="Commensalism">Commensalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">Community ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_facilitation" title="Ecological facilitation">Ecological facilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interspecific_competition" title="Interspecific competition">Interspecific competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">Parasitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_effect" title="Storage effect">Storage effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">Symbiosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Spatial_ecology" title="Spatial ecology">Spatial<br />ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-boundary_subsidy" title="Cross-boundary subsidy">Cross-boundary subsidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cline_(biology)" title="Cline (biology)">Ecocline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotone" title="Ecotone">Ecotone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotype" title="Ecotype">Ecotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disturbance_(ecology)" title="Disturbance (ecology)">Disturbance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_effects" title="Edge effects">Edge effects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foster%27s_rule" title="Foster's rule">Foster's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">Habitat fragmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_free_distribution" title="Ideal free distribution">Ideal free distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate_disturbance_hypothesis" title="Intermediate disturbance hypothesis">Intermediate disturbance hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_biogeography" title="Insular biogeography">Insular biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_change_modeling" title="Land change modeling">Land change modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_epidemiology" title="Landscape epidemiology">Landscape epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_limnology" title="Landscape limnology">Landscape limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapopulation" title="Metapopulation">Metapopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patch_dynamics" title="Patch dynamics">Patch dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R/K_selection_theory" title="R/K selection theory"><i>r</i>/<i>K</i> selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_selection_function" title="Resource selection function">Resource selection function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source%E2%80%93sink_dynamics" title="Source–sink dynamics">Source–sink dynamics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Niche</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Ecological niche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_trap" title="Ecological trap">Ecological trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_engineer" title="Ecosystem engineer">Ecosystem engineer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_distribution_modelling" title="Species distribution modelling">Environmental niche modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guild_(ecology)" title="Guild (ecology)">Guild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">Habitat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">marine habitats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limiting_similarity" title="Limiting similarity">Limiting similarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_apportionment_models" title="Niche apportionment models">Niche apportionment models</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_construction" title="Niche construction">Niche construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_differentiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Niche differentiation">Niche differentiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontogenetic_niche_shift" title="Ontogenetic niche shift">Ontogenetic niche shift</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Non-trophic_networks" title="Non-trophic networks">Other<br />networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_rules" title="Assembly rules">Assembly rules</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bateman's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">Bioluminescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological collapse">Ecological collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_debt" title="Ecological debt">Ecological debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_debt" title="Ecological debt">Ecological deficit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Ecological energetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_indicator" title="Ecological indicator">Ecological indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_threshold" title="Ecological threshold">Ecological threshold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_diversity" title="Ecosystem diversity">Ecosystem diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">Emergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_debt" title="Extinction debt">Extinction debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleiber%27s_law" title="Kleiber's law">Kleiber's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liebig%27s_law_of_the_minimum" title="Liebig's law of the minimum">Liebig's law of the minimum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_value_theorem" title="Marginal value theorem">Marginal value theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorson%27s_rule" title="Thorson's rule">Thorson's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xerosere" title="Xerosere">Xerosere</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allometry" title="Allometry">Allometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_stable_state" title="Alternative stable state">Alternative stable state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_nature" title="Balance of nature">Balance of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_data_visualization" title="Biological data visualization">Biological data visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li> <li><a 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