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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Conceptions of philosophy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Conceptions_of_philosophy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Conceptions of philosophy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Conceptions_of_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-General_conception" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_conception"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>General conception</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_conception-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Academic_definitions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Academic_definitions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Academic definitions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Academic_definitions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Western" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Western"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Western</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Western-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arabic–Persian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arabic–Persian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Arabic–Persian</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arabic–Persian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Indian</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chinese" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chinese"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Chinese</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chinese-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_traditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_traditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Other traditions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_traditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Core_branches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Core_branches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Core branches</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Core_branches-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Core branches subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Core_branches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Epistemology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epistemology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Epistemology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epistemology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Ethics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Logic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Logic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Logic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Logic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metaphysics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metaphysics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Metaphysics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metaphysics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_major_branches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_major_branches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Other major branches</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_major_branches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relation_to_other_fields" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relation_to_other_fields"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Relation to other fields</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relation_to_other_fields-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Philosophy</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 236 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-236" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">236 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ace mw-list-item"><a href="https://ace.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam – Acehnese" lang="ace" hreflang="ace" data-title="Kalam" data-language-autonym="Acèh" data-language-local-name="Acehnese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Acèh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" title="Filosofie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Filosofie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie" title="Philosophie – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Philosophie" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8D%8D%E1%88%8D%E1%88%B5%E1%8D%8D%E1%8A%93" title="ፍልስፍና – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ፍልስፍና" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="दर्शन – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="दर्शन" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%AA%C3%B0witegung" title="Ūðwitegung – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Ūðwitegung" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ænglisc</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D8%A9" title="فلسفة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فلسفة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa" title="Filosofía – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Filosofía" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%93%D5%AB%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%B8%D6%83%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Փիլիսոփայութիւն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Փիլիսոփայութիւն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Aromanian" lang="rup" hreflang="rup" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Armãneashti" data-language-local-name="Aromanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Armãneashti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Arpetan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%A8" title="দৰ্শন – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="দৰ্শন" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa" title="Filosofía – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Filosofía" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="दर्शन – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="दर्शन" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अवधी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arandupykuaaty" title="Arandupykuaaty – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Arandupykuaaty" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Философия – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Философия" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Авар</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lup%27intawi" title="Lup'intawi – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Lup'intawi" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aymar aru</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C9%99ls%C9%99f%C9%99" title="Fəlsəfə – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Fəlsəfə" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="فلسفه – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="فلسفه" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filsafat" title="Filsafat – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Filsafat" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Bali</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%A8" title="দর্শন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="দর্শন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiat-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Tiat-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Tiat-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D3%99%D0%BB%D1%81%D3%99%D1%84%D3%99" title="Фәлсәфә – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Фәлсәфә" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Філасофія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Філасофія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Філязофія – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Філязофія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="दर्शन – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="दर्शन" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilosopiya" title="Pilosopiya – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Pilosopiya" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bi mw-list-item"><a href="https://bi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi" title="Filosofi – Bislama" lang="bi" hreflang="bi" data-title="Filosofi" data-language-autonym="Bislama" data-language-local-name="Bislama" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bislama</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Философия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Философия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie" title="Philosophie – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Philosophie" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%98%E0%BD%9A%E0%BD%93%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%89%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%91%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%82%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94%E0%BC%8D" title="མཚན་ཉིད་རིག་པ། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="མཚན་ཉིད་རིག་པ།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofija" title="Filozofija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Filozofija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prederouriezh" title="Prederouriezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Prederouriezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D2%AF%D0%BD_%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Гүн ухаан – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Гүн ухаан" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8" title="Философи – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Философи" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilosopiya" title="Pilosopiya – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Pilosopiya" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofie" title="Filozofie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Filozofie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ugondamano" title="Ugondamano – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Ugondamano" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Corsu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athroniaeth" title="Athroniaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Athroniaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi" title="Filosofi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Filosofi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D8%A9" title="لفلسفة – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="لفلسفة" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofiija" title="Filosofiija – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Filosofiija" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="Northern Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Davvisámegiella</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie" title="Philosophie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Philosophie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dty mw-list-item"><a href="https://dty.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="दर्शन – Doteli" lang="dty" hreflang="dty" data-title="दर्शन" data-language-autonym="डोटेली" data-language-local-name="Doteli" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>डोटेली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosoofia" title="Filosoofia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Filosoofia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CE%B9%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%BF%CF%86%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Φιλοσοφία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Φιλοσοφία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%AE" title="Filosofî – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Filosofî" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Emiliàn e rumagnòl</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%80%D1%8F%D0%BC%D0%BE_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BE" title="Эрямо койтнень содамо – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Эрямо койтнень содамо" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Эрзянь</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa" title="Filosofía – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Filosofía" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofio" title="Filozofio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Filozofio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="فلسفه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فلسفه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Philosophy" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heimspeki" title="Heimspeki – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Heimspeki" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie" title="Philosophie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Philosophie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofy" title="Filosofy – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Filosofy" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" title="Filosofie – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Filosofie" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feals%C3%BAnacht" title="Fealsúnacht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Fealsúnacht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallsoonys" title="Fallsoonys – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Fallsoonys" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feallsanachd" title="Feallsanachd – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Feallsanachd" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa" title="Filosofía – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Filosofía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8" title="Философи – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Философи" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ГӀалгӀай</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="哲學 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="哲學" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-got mw-list-item"><a href="https://got.wikipedia.org/wiki/%F0%90%8D%86%F0%90%8D%82%F0%90%8D%89%F0%90%8C%B3%F0%90%8C%B0%F0%90%8C%BB%F0%90%8C%BF%F0%90%8C%B1%F0%90%8D%89" title="𐍆𐍂𐍉𐌳𐌰𐌻𐌿𐌱𐍉 – Gothic" lang="got" hreflang="got" data-title="𐍆𐍂𐍉𐌳𐌰𐌻𐌿𐌱𐍉" data-language-autonym="𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺" data-language-local-name="Gothic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chet-ho%CC%8Dk" title="Chet-ho̍k – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Chet-ho̍k" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B2%A0%ED%95%99" title="철학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="철학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsafa" title="Falsafa – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Falsafa" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%93%D5%AB%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%B8%D6%83%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Փիլիսոփայություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Փիլիսոփայություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="दर्शनशास्त्र – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="दर्शनशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofija" title="Filozofija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Filozofija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofio" title="Filozofio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Filozofio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81k%E1%BB%8D_na_Uche" title="Ákọ na Uche – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Ákọ na Uche" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Igbo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilosopia" title="Pilosopia – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Pilosopia" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filsafat" title="Filsafat – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Filsafat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophia" title="Philosophia – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Philosophia" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" title="Filosofie – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Filosofie" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iu mw-list-item"><a href="https://iu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%90%83%E1%93%B1%E1%92%AA%E1%93%95%E1%90%85%E1%95%90%E1%93%82%E1%96%85" title="ᐃᓱᒪᓕᐅᕐᓂᖅ – Inuktitut" lang="iu" hreflang="iu" data-title="ᐃᓱᒪᓕᐅᕐᓂᖅ" data-language-autonym="ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut" data-language-local-name="Inuktitut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ifilosofi" title="Ifilosofi – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="Ifilosofi" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiXhosa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injulalwazi" title="Injulalwazi – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Injulalwazi" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heimspeki" title="Heimspeki – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Heimspeki" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%94" title="פילוסופיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פילוסופיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filsafat" title="Filsafat – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Filsafat" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofii" title="Filozofii – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Filozofii" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kl mw-list-item"><a href="https://kl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inuunerup_isumalerineq" title="Inuunerup isumalerineq – Kalaallisut" lang="kl" hreflang="kl" data-title="Inuunerup isumalerineq" data-language-autonym="Kalaallisut" data-language-local-name="Kalaallisut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kalaallisut</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ತತ್ತ್ವಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ತತ್ತ್ವಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ფილოსოფია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ფილოსოფია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofij%C3%B4" title="Filozofijô – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Filozofijô" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="Kashubian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kaszëbsczi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Философия – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Философия" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofieth" title="Filosofieth – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Filosofieth" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rw mw-list-item"><a href="https://rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofi" title="Filozofi – Kinyarwanda" lang="rw" hreflang="rw" data-title="Filozofi" data-language-autonym="Ikinyarwanda" data-language-local-name="Kinyarwanda" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ikinyarwanda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsafa" title="Falsafa – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Falsafa" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-avk mw-list-item"><a href="https://avk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trakopa" title="Trakopa – Kotava" lang="avk" hreflang="avk" data-title="Trakopa" data-language-autonym="Kotava" data-language-local-name="Kotava" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kotava</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofi" title="Filozofi – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Filozofi" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofi" title="Filozofi – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Filozofi" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felsefe" title="Felsefe – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Felsefe" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Философия – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Философия" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladino</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%9B%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%94%E0%BA%8A%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%8D%E0%BA%B2" title="ປັດຊະຍາ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ປັດຊະຍາ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophia" title="Philosophia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Philosophia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofija" title="Filozofija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Filozofija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie" title="Philosophie – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Philosophie" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Философия – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Философия" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Лезги</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofija" title="Filosofija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Filosofija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nia mw-list-item"><a href="https://nia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi" title="Filosofi – Nias" lang="nia" hreflang="nia" data-title="Filosofi" data-language-autonym="Li Niha" data-language-local-name="Nias" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Li Niha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozof%C3%AEa" title="Filozofîa – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Filozofîa" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" title="Filosofie – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Filosofie" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosoufii" title="Filosoufii – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Filosoufii" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Livvinkarjala</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/pijyske" title="pijyske – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="pijyske" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>La .lojban.</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filusufia" title="Filusufia – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Filusufia" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filoz%C3%B3fia" title="Filozófia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Filozófia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="दर्शन – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="दर्शन" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मैथिली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Филозофија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Филозофија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fil%C3%B4z%C3%B4fia" title="Filôzôfia – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Filôzôfia" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="തത്ത്വശാസ്ത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="തത്ത്വശാസ്ത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofija" title="Filosofija – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Filosofija" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="तत्त्वज्ञान – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="तत्त्वज्ञान" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ფილოსოფია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ფილოსოფია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="فلسفه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="فلسفه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="فلسفه – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="فلسفه" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsafah" title="Falsafah – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Falsafah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%8B%EA%AF%A5%EA%AF%A1%EA%AF%8E%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A3%EA%AF%9F" title="ꯋꯥꯡꯎꯂꯣꯟ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯋꯥꯡꯎꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filsafat" title="Filsafat – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Filsafat" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Di%C3%A9k-h%C5%8Fk" title="Diék-hŏk – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Diék-hŏk" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" title="Filosofie – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Filosofie" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D2%AF%D0%BD_%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Гүн ухаан – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Гүн ухаан" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%92%E1%80%BF%E1%80%94%E1%80%AD%E1%80%80%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="ဒဿနိကဗေဒ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဒဿနိကဗေဒ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi" title="Filosofi – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Filosofi" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Na Vosa Vakaviti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" title="Filosofie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Filosofie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filesefie" title="Filesefie – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Filesefie" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="दर्शन – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="दर्शन" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="दर्शन – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="दर्शन" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="哲学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="哲学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nqo mw-list-item"><a href="https://nqo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DF%A5%DF%98%DF%8B%DF%AC%DF%A5%DF%98%DF%8B%DF%AC%DF%9F%DF%8C" title="ߥߘߋ߬ߥߘߋ߬ߟߌ – N’Ko" lang="nqo" hreflang="nqo" data-title="ߥߘߋ߬ߥߘߋ߬ߟߌ" data-language-autonym="ߒߞߏ" data-language-local-name="N’Ko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ߒߞߏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8" title="Философи – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Философи" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofii" title="Filosofii – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Filosofii" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi" title="Filosofi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Filosofi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi" title="Filosofi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Filosofi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie" title="Philosophie – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Philosophie" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nouormand</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Философий – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Философий" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marraaga" title="Marraaga – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Marraaga" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsafa" title="Falsafa – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Falsafa" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%A8" title="ਦਰਸ਼ਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਦਰਸ਼ਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pfl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pfl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie" title="Philosophie – Palatine German" lang="pfl" hreflang="pfl" data-title="Philosophie" data-language-autonym="Pälzisch" data-language-local-name="Palatine German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Pälzisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pag mw-list-item"><a href="https://pag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofiya" title="Filosofiya – Pangasinan" lang="pag" hreflang="pag" data-title="Filosofiya" data-language-autonym="Pangasinan" data-language-local-name="Pangasinan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Pangasinan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%81%DB%8C" title="فلاسفی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="فلاسفی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9E%E1%80%98%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9D%E1%80%90%E1%80%B9%E1%80%91%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="သဘာဝတ္ထဗေဒ – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="သဘာဝတ္ထဗေဒ" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="فلسفه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="فلسفه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filasafi" title="Filasafi – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Filasafi" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6" title="ទស្សនវិជ្ជា – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ទស្សនវិជ្ជា" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" title="Filosofie – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Filosofie" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Picard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ACa" title="Filosofìa – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Filosofìa" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi mw-list-item"><a href="https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilosopi" title="Pilosopi – Tok Pisin" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi" data-title="Pilosopi" data-language-autonym="Tok Pisin" data-language-local-name="Tok Pisin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tok Pisin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie" title="Philosophie – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Philosophie" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia" title="Filozofia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Filozofia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CE%B9%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%BF%CF%86%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Φιλοσοφία – Pontic" lang="pnt" hreflang="pnt" data-title="Φιλοσοφία" data-language-autonym="Ποντιακά" data-language-local-name="Pontic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ποντιακά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofiya" title="Filosofiya – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Filosofiya" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" title="Filosofie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Filosofie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Rumantsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yachay_wayllukuy" title="Yachay wayllukuy – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Yachay wayllukuy" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Філозофія – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Філозофія" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Философия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Философия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Философия – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Философия" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="तत्त्वज्ञानम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="तत्त्वज्ञानम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sg mw-list-item"><a href="https://sg.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%AAnd%C3%A2ndar%C3%A4" title="Sêndândarä – Sango" lang="sg" hreflang="sg" data-title="Sêndândarä" data-language-autonym="Sängö" data-language-local-name="Sango" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sängö</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%DB%81" title="فلسفہ – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="فلسفہ" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سرائیکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Philosophy" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie" title="Philosophie – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Philosophie" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-st mw-list-item"><a href="https://st.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi" title="Filosofi – Southern Sotho" lang="st" hreflang="st" data-title="Filosofi" data-language-autonym="Sesotho" data-language-local-name="Southern Sotho" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sesotho</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia" title="Filozofia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Filozofia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filusuf%C3%ACa" title="Filusufìa – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Filusufìa" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%AF%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8A%E0%B7%81%E0%B6%B1%E0%B6%BA" title="දර්ශනය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="දර්ශනය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Philosophy" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%88" title="فلسفو – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="فلسفو" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia" title="Filozofia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Filozofia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofija" title="Filozofija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Filozofija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murtimaal" title="Murtimaal – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Murtimaal" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%95%D9%84%D8%B3%DB%95%D9%81%DB%95" title="فەلسەفە – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="فەلسەفە" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-srn mw-list-item"><a href="https://srn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabi_fu_denki" title="Sabi fu denki – Sranan Tongo" lang="srn" hreflang="srn" data-title="Sabi fu denki" data-language-autonym="Sranantongo" data-language-local-name="Sranan Tongo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sranantongo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Филозофија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Филозофија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofija" title="Filozofija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Filozofija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filsafat" title="Filsafat – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Filsafat" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi" title="Filosofi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Filosofi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilosopiya" title="Pilosopiya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Pilosopiya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="மெய்யியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மெய்யியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taflsuft" title="Taflsuft – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Taflsuft" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taclḥit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tafelseft" title="Tafelseft – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tafelseft" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D3%99%D0%BB%D1%81%D3%99%D1%84%D3%99" title="Фәлсәфә – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Фәлсәфә" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%82" title="తత్వం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="తత్వం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tet mw-list-item"><a href="https://tet.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filisofia" title="Filisofia – Tetum" lang="tet" hreflang="tet" data-title="Filisofia" data-language-autonym="Tetun" data-language-local-name="Tetum" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tetun</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%B2" title="ปรัชญา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ปรัชญา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B0" title="Фалсафа – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Фалсафа" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8E%A4%E1%8F%AC%E1%8E%B3%E1%8F%A8%E1%8E%AF" title="ᎤᏬᎳᏨᎯ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᎤᏬᎳᏨᎯ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᏣᎳᎩ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felsefe" title="Felsefe – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Felsefe" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi%C3%BDa" title="Filosofiýa – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Filosofiýa" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyenfilosofi" title="Lyenfilosofi – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="Lyenfilosofi" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tyap</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv mw-list-item"><a href="https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Философия – Tuvinian" lang="tyv" hreflang="tyv" data-title="Философия" data-language-autonym="Тыва дыл" data-language-local-name="Tuvinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тыва дыл</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Філософія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Філософія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%DB%81" title="فلسفہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="فلسفہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%95%D9%84%D8%B3%DB%95%D9%BE%DB%95" title="پەلسەپە – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="پەلسەپە" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cwzyoz" title="Cwzyoz – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Cwzyoz" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vahcuengh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fi%C5%82ozofia" title="Fiłozofia – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Fiłozofia" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofii" title="Filosofii – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Filosofii" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tri%E1%BA%BFt_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Triết học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Triết học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosop" title="Filosop – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Filosop" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Volapük</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosoofia" title="Filosoofia – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Filosoofia" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofeye" title="Filozofeye – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Filozofeye" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-guc mw-list-item"><a href="https://guc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piloosopia" title="Piloosopia – Wayuu" lang="guc" hreflang="guc" data-title="Piloosopia" data-language-autonym="Wayuunaiki" data-language-local-name="Wayuu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Wayuunaiki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%80%9A%E5%B9%BE" title="通幾 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="通幾" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofiya" title="Filosofiya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Filosofiya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo mw-list-item"><a href="https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xeltu" title="Xeltu – Wolof" lang="wo" hreflang="wo" data-title="Xeltu" data-language-autonym="Wolof" data-language-local-name="Wolof" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Wolof</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="哲學 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="哲學" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ts mw-list-item"><a href="https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ntivo-vuhleketi" title="Ntivo-vuhleketi – Tsonga" lang="ts" hreflang="ts" data-title="Ntivo-vuhleketi" data-language-autonym="Xitsonga" data-language-local-name="Tsonga" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Xitsonga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%A2" title="פילאסאפיע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="פילאסאפיע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Cm%C3%B2ye" title="Ìmòye – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Ìmòye" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="哲學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="哲學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felsefe" title="Felsefe – Dimli" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Felsefe" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Dimli" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea mw-list-item"><a href="https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" title="Filosofie – Zeelandic" lang="zea" hreflang="zea" data-title="Filosofie" data-language-autonym="Zeêuws" data-language-local-name="Zeelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zeêuws</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosuop%C4%97j%C4%97" title="Filosuopėjė – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Filosuopėjė" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="哲学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="哲学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bew mw-list-item"><a href="https://bew.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilsapat" title="Pilsapat – Betawi" lang="bew" hreflang="bew" data-title="Pilsapat" data-language-autonym="Betawi" data-language-local-name="Betawi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Betawi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filsafat" title="Filsafat – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Filsafat" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Batak Mandailing</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dtp mw-list-item"><a href="https://dtp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsafah" title="Falsafah – Central Dusun" lang="dtp" hreflang="dtp" data-title="Falsafah" data-language-autonym="Kadazandusun" data-language-local-name="Central Dusun" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kadazandusun</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tly mw-list-item"><a href="https://tly.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C9%99ls%C9%99f%C9%99" title="Fəlsəfə – Talysh" lang="tly" hreflang="tly" data-title="Fəlsəfə" data-language-autonym="Tolışi" data-language-local-name="Talysh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tolışi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zgh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zgh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%B5%9C%E2%B4%B0%E2%B4%BC%E2%B5%8D%E2%B5%99%E2%B5%93%E2%B4%BC%E2%B5%9C" title="ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⵓⴼⵜ – Standard Moroccan Tamazight" lang="zgh" hreflang="zgh" data-title="ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⵓⴼⵜ" data-language-autonym="ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ" data-language-local-name="Standard Moroccan Tamazight" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q5891#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div 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.hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Philosophy (disambiguation)">Philosophy (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Le_Penseur_by_Rodin_(Kunsthalle_Bielefeld)_2014-04-10.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photo of Auguste Rodin's statue The Thinker" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Le_Penseur_by_Rodin_%28Kunsthalle_Bielefeld%29_2014-04-10.JPG/260px-Le_Penseur_by_Rodin_%28Kunsthalle_Bielefeld%29_2014-04-10.JPG" decoding="async" width="260" height="347" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Le_Penseur_by_Rodin_%28Kunsthalle_Bielefeld%29_2014-04-10.JPG/390px-Le_Penseur_by_Rodin_%28Kunsthalle_Bielefeld%29_2014-04-10.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Le_Penseur_by_Rodin_%28Kunsthalle_Bielefeld%29_2014-04-10.JPG/520px-Le_Penseur_by_Rodin_%28Kunsthalle_Bielefeld%29_2014-04-10.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>The statue <i><a href="/wiki/The_Thinker" title="The Thinker">The Thinker</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Rodin" title="Auguste Rodin">Auguste Rodin</a> is a symbol of philosophical thought.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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href="/wiki/File:Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg/80px-Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg/120px-Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg/160px-Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above sidebar-phi-above"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/10px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/15px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/21px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Philosophy_and_thinking" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Philosophy and thinking">Contents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy" title="Outline of philosophy">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy" title="Index of philosophy">Lists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_philosophy" title="Glossary of philosophy">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy" title="Category:Philosophy">Categories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophical_schools_and_traditions" title="Category:Philosophical schools and traditions">Philosophies</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_by_period" title="Category:Philosophy by period">By period</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Ancient Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Indigenous American</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_philosophy" title="Middle Eastern philosophy">Middle Eastern philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_philosophy" title="Russian philosophy">Russian</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Religious_philosophy" title="Religious philosophy">By religion</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_philosophy" title="Taoist philosophy">Taoist</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Category:Branches_of_philosophy" title="Category:Branches of philosophy">Branches</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_philosophers" title="Lists of philosophers">Philosophers</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_aestheticians" title="List of aestheticians">Aesthetic philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">Epistemologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethicists" title="List of ethicists">Ethicists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_logicians" title="List of logicians">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">Metaphysicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_mind" title="List of philosophers of mind">Philosophers of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociopolitical_thinkers" title="Index of sociopolitical thinkers">Social and political philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_philosophy" title="Women in philosophy">Women in philosophy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Template:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Template talk:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Philosophy</b> is a systematic study of general and fundamental questions concerning topics like <a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">existence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a>, <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics_and_social_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics and social sciences)">value</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">mind</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a>. It is a rational and critical inquiry that reflects on its methods and assumptions. </p><p>Historically, many of the individual <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">sciences</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, formed part of philosophy. However, they are considered separate academic disciplines in the modern sense of the term. Influential traditions in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">history of philosophy</a> include <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Arabic–Persian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese philosophy</a>. Western philosophy originated in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a> and covers a wide area of philosophical subfields. A central topic in Arabic–Persian philosophy is the relation between reason and <a href="/wiki/Revelation" title="Revelation">revelation</a>. Indian philosophy combines the <a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">spiritual</a> problem of how to reach <a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">enlightenment</a> with the exploration of the nature of reality and the ways of arriving at knowledge. Chinese philosophy focuses principally on practical issues about right social conduct, government, and <a href="/wiki/Self-cultivation" title="Self-cultivation">self-cultivation</a>. </p><p>Major branches of philosophy are <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>. Epistemology studies what knowledge is and how to acquire it. Ethics investigates moral principles and what constitutes right conduct. Logic is the study of <a href="/wiki/Logical_reasoning" title="Logical reasoning">correct reasoning</a> and explores how good <a href="/wiki/Argument" title="Argument">arguments</a> can be distinguished from bad ones. Metaphysics examines the most general features of <a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">reality</a>, existence, <a href="/wiki/Object_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Object (philosophy)">objects</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">properties</a>. Other subfields are <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">aesthetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">philosophy of language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">philosophy of mind</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">philosophy of religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">philosophy of science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">philosophy of mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">philosophy of history</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a>. Within each branch, there are competing <a href="/wiki/Schools_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Schools of philosophy">schools of philosophy</a> that promote different principles, theories, or methods. </p><p>Philosophers use a great variety of methods to arrive at philosophical knowledge. They include <a href="/wiki/Conceptual_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Conceptual analysis">conceptual analysis</a>, reliance on <a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">common sense</a> and <a href="/wiki/Intuition" title="Intuition">intuitions</a>, use of <a href="/wiki/Thought_experiments" class="mw-redirect" title="Thought experiments">thought experiments</a>, analysis of <a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ordinary language">ordinary language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">description of experience</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Socratic_questioning" title="Socratic questioning">critical questioning</a>. Philosophy is related to many other fields, including the sciences, <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Business" title="Business">business</a>, <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Journalism" title="Journalism">journalism</a>. It provides an <a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinary" class="mw-redirect" title="Interdisciplinary">interdisciplinary</a> perspective and studies the scope and fundamental concepts of these fields. It also investigates their methods and ethical implications. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div> <p>The word <i>philosophy</i> comes from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> words <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">φίλος</span></span> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">philos</i></span>) <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">love</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">σοφία</span></span> (<a href="/wiki/Sophia_(wisdom)#Greek_and_Hellenistic_tradition" title="Sophia (wisdom)"><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">sophia</i></span></a>) <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">wisdom</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some sources say that the term was coined by the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Socratic">pre-Socratic</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a>, but this is not certain.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Doctor_Zirkel_follows_Newton%27s_famous_steps_under_the_fabled_Wellcome_V0011942.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Wood engraving of Isaac Newton under an apple tree" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Doctor_Zirkel_follows_Newton%27s_famous_steps_under_the_fabled_Wellcome_V0011942.jpg/220px-Doctor_Zirkel_follows_Newton%27s_famous_steps_under_the_fabled_Wellcome_V0011942.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Doctor_Zirkel_follows_Newton%27s_famous_steps_under_the_fabled_Wellcome_V0011942.jpg/330px-Doctor_Zirkel_follows_Newton%27s_famous_steps_under_the_fabled_Wellcome_V0011942.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Doctor_Zirkel_follows_Newton%27s_famous_steps_under_the_fabled_Wellcome_V0011942.jpg/440px-Doctor_Zirkel_follows_Newton%27s_famous_steps_under_the_fabled_Wellcome_V0011942.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2525" data-file-height="3439" /></a><figcaption>Physics was originally part of philosophy, like <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>'s observation of how <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton%27s_apple_tree" title="Isaac Newton's apple tree">gravity affects falling apples</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The word entered the English language primarily from <a href="/wiki/Old_French" title="Old French">Old French</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_language" title="Anglo-Norman language">Anglo-Norman</a> starting around 1175 CE. The French <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">philosophie</i></span> is itself a borrowing from the Latin <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">philosophia</i></span>. The term <i>philosophy</i> acquired the meanings of "advanced study of the speculative subjects (<a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>)", "deep wisdom consisting of love of truth and virtuous living", "profound learning as transmitted by the ancient writers", and "the study of the fundamental nature of <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">reality</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">existence</a>, and the basic limits of human understanding".<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Before the modern age, the term <i>philosophy</i> was used in a wide sense. It included most forms of <a href="/wiki/Rational" class="mw-redirect" title="Rational">rational</a> inquiry, such as the individual <a href="/wiki/Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Sciences">sciences</a>, as its subdisciplines.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a> was a major branch of philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This branch of philosophy encompassed a wide range of fields, including disciplines like physics, <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example of this usage is the 1687 book <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" title="Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica">Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>. This book referred to natural philosophy in its title, but it is today considered a book of physics.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The meaning of <i>philosophy</i> changed toward the end of the modern period when it acquired the more narrow meaning common today. In this new sense, the term is mainly associated with philosophical disciplines like metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics. Among other topics, it covers the rational study of reality, knowledge, and values. It is distinguished from other disciplines of rational inquiry such as the empirical sciences and <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conceptions_of_philosophy">Conceptions of philosophy</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_conception">General conception</h3></div> <p>The practice of philosophy is characterized by several general features: it is a form of rational inquiry, it aims to be systematic, and it tends to critically reflect on its own methods and presuppositions.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It requires attentively thinking long and carefully about the provocative, vexing, and enduring problems central to the human condition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPerryBratmanFischer2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid0ndAAQAAIAAJ_4]_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerryBratmanFischer2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid0ndAAQAAIAAJ_4]-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The philosophical pursuit of wisdom involves asking general and fundamental questions. It often does not result in straightforward answers but may help a person to better understand the topic, examine their life, dispel confusion, and overcome prejudices and self-deceptive ideas associated with common sense.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, Socrates stated that "<a href="/wiki/The_unexamined_life_is_not_worth_living" title="The unexamined life is not worth living">the unexamined life is not worth living</a>" to highlight the role of philosophical inquiry in understanding one's own existence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlato2023[httpsstandardebooksorgebooksplatodialoguesbenjamin-jowetttextapologyapology-text_Apology]_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlato2023[httpsstandardebooksorgebooksplatodialoguesbenjamin-jowetttextapologyapology-text_Apology]-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCutcheon2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidvpzCBQAAQBAJpgPA26_26]_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCutcheon2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidvpzCBQAAQBAJpgPA26_26]-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> And according to <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a>, "the man who has no tincture of philosophy goes through life imprisoned in the prejudices derived from common sense, from the habitual beliefs of his age or his nation, and from convictions which have grown up in his mind without the cooperation or consent of his deliberate reason."<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Academic_definitions">Academic definitions</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Definitions_of_philosophy" title="Definitions of philosophy">Definitions of philosophy</a></div> <p>Attempts to provide more precise definitions of philosophy are controversial<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and are studied in <a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">metaphilosophy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOvergaardGilbertBurwood2013vii,_17_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOvergaardGilbertBurwood2013vii,_17-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some approaches argue that there is a set of essential features shared by all parts of philosophy. Others see only weaker family resemblances or contend that it is merely an empty blanket term.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Precise definitions are often only accepted by theorists belonging to a certain <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophical movement">philosophical movement</a> and are revisionistic according to Søren Overgaard et al. in that many presumed parts of philosophy would not deserve the title "philosophy" if they were true.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some definitions characterize philosophy in relation to its method, like pure reasoning. Others focus on its topic, for example, as the study of the biggest patterns of the world as a whole or as the attempt to answer the big questions.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such an approach is pursued by <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>, who holds that the task of philosophy is united by four questions: "What can I know?"; "What should I do?"; "What may I hope?"; and "What is the human being?"<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both approaches have the problem that they are usually either too wide, by including non-philosophical disciplines, or too narrow, by excluding some philosophical sub-disciplines.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOvergaardGilbertBurwood2013[httpswwwcambridgeorgcorebooksabsan-introduction-to-metaphilosophywhat-is-philosophy9D6F6F1186D1FF68A23B97B17CC810EE_20–22]What_Is_Philosophy?_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOvergaardGilbertBurwood2013[httpswwwcambridgeorgcorebooksabsan-introduction-to-metaphilosophywhat-is-philosophy9D6F6F1186D1FF68A23B97B17CC810EE_20–22]What_Is_Philosophy?-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many definitions of philosophy emphasize its intimate relation to science.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERegenbogen2010[httpsmeinerdeenzyklopadie-philosophie-14071html_Philosophiebegriffe]_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERegenbogen2010[httpsmeinerdeenzyklopadie-philosophie-14071html_Philosophiebegriffe]-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this sense, philosophy is sometimes understood as a proper science in its own right. According to some <a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">naturalistic philosophers</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/W._V._O._Quine" class="mw-redirect" title="W. V. O. Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a>, philosophy is an empirical yet abstract science that is concerned with wide-ranging empirical patterns instead of particular observations.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Science-based definitions usually face the problem of explaining why philosophy in its long history has not progressed to the same extent or in the same way as the sciences.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This problem is avoided by seeing philosophy as an immature or provisional science whose subdisciplines cease to be philosophy once they have fully developed.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this sense, philosophy is sometimes described as "the midwife of the sciences".<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other definitions focus on the contrast between science and philosophy. A common theme among many such conceptions is that philosophy is concerned with <a href="/wiki/Meaning_(philosophy)" title="Meaning (philosophy)">meaning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Understanding" title="Understanding">understanding</a>, or the clarification of language.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to one view, philosophy is <a href="/wiki/Conceptual_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Conceptual analysis">conceptual analysis</a>, which involves finding the <a href="/wiki/Necessary_and_sufficient_conditions" class="mw-redirect" title="Necessary and sufficient conditions">necessary and sufficient conditions</a> for the application of concepts.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another definition characterizes philosophy as <i><a href="/wiki/Thinking" class="mw-redirect" title="Thinking">thinking</a> about thinking</i> to emphasize its self-critical, reflective nature.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A further approach presents philosophy as a <a href="/wiki/Linguistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic">linguistic</a> therapy. According to <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a>, for instance, philosophy aims at dispelling misunderstandings to which humans are susceptible due to the confusing structure of <a href="/wiki/Natural_language" title="Natural language">ordinary language</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenologists</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a>, characterize philosophy as a "rigorous science" investigating <a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">essences</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They practice a radical <a href="/wiki/Epoche" class="mw-redirect" title="Epoche">suspension</a> of theoretical assumptions about reality to get back to the "things themselves", that is, as originally given in experience. They contend that this base-level of experience provides the foundation for higher-order theoretical knowledge, and that one needs to understand the former to understand the latter.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith§_2.b_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith§_2.b-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An early approach found in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">ancient Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman philosophy">Roman philosophy</a> is that philosophy is the spiritual practice of developing one's rational capacities.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This practice is an expression of the philosopher's love of wisdom and has the aim of improving one's <a href="/wiki/Well-being" title="Well-being">well-being</a> by leading a reflective life.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrimmCohoe2021[httpsonlinelibrarywileycomdoi101111ejop12562_236–237]_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrimmCohoe2021[httpsonlinelibrarywileycomdoi101111ejop12562_236–237]-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the <a href="/wiki/Stoics" class="mw-redirect" title="Stoics">Stoics</a> saw philosophy as an exercise to train the mind and thereby achieve <a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">eudaimonia</a> and flourish in life.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharpeUre2021[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidLIstEAAAQBAJpgPA76_76,_80]_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharpeUre2021[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidLIstEAAAQBAJpgPA76_76,_80]-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History <span class="anchor" id="Historical_overview"></span></h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">History of philosophy</a></div> <p>As a discipline, the history of philosophy aims to provide a systematic and chronological exposition of philosophical concepts and doctrines.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some theorists see it as a part of <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_history" title="Intellectual history">intellectual history</a>, but it also investigates questions not covered by intellectual history such as whether the theories of past philosophers are true and have remained philosophically relevant.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The history of philosophy is primarily concerned with theories based on rational inquiry and argumentation; some historians understand it in a looser sense that includes <a href="/wiki/Myth" title="Myth">myths</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religious teachings</a>, and proverbial lore.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Influential traditions in the history of philosophy include <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Arabic–Persian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese philosophy</a>. Other philosophical traditions are <a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latin_American_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin American philosophy">Latin American philosophy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African philosophy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Western">Western</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Bust of Aristotle" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/180px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/270px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/360px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1700" data-file-height="2275" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> was a major figure in ancient philosophy and developed a comprehensive system of thought including metaphysics, logic, ethics, politics, and natural science.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShields2022Lead_Section_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShields2022Lead_Section-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Western philosophy originated in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a> in the 6th century BCE with the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratics" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Socratics">pre-Socratics</a>. They attempted to provide rational explanations of the <a href="/wiki/Cosmos" title="Cosmos">cosmos</a> as a whole.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The philosophy following them was shaped by <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> (469–399 BCE), <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> (427–347 BCE), and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (384–322 BCE). They expanded the range of topics to questions like <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">how people should act</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">how to arrive at knowledge</a>, and what the <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">nature of reality</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">mind</a> is.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The later part of the ancient period was marked by the emergence of philosophical movements, for example, <a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Skepticism" title="Skepticism">Skepticism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The medieval period started in the 5th century CE. Its focus was on religious topics and many thinkers used ancient philosophy to explain and further elaborate <a href="/wiki/Christian_doctrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian doctrine">Christian doctrines</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> period started in the 14th century and saw a renewed interest in schools of ancient philosophy, in particular <a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a>. <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Humanism</a> also emerged in this period.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The modern period started in the 17th century. One of its central concerns was how philosophical and scientific knowledge are created. Specific importance was given to the <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">role of reason</a> and <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">sensory experience</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of these innovations were used in the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment movement</a> to challenge traditional authorities.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several attempts to develop comprehensive systems of philosophy were made in the 19th century, for instance, by <a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German idealism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019Philosophy_in_the_Nineteenth_Century_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019Philosophy_in_the_Nineteenth_Century-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Influential developments in 20th-century philosophy were the emergence and application of <a href="/wiki/Formal_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal logic">formal logic</a>, the focus on the <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_turn" title="Linguistic turn">role of language</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">pragmatism</a>, and movements in <a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">continental philosophy</a> like phenomenology, <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existentialism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">post-structuralism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 20th century saw a rapid expansion of academic philosophy in terms of the number of philosophical publications and philosophers working at <a href="/wiki/Academic_institution" title="Academic institution">academic institutions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019Philosophy_in_the_Twentieth_Century_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019Philosophy_in_the_Twentieth_Century-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There was also a noticeable growth in the number of <a href="/wiki/Female_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="Female philosophers">female philosophers</a>, but they still remained underrepresented.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaithe1995xix–xxiii_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaithe1995xix–xxiii-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arabic–Persian"><span id="Arabic.E2.80.93Persian"></span>Arabic–Persian</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian philosophy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_(Avicenna)_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_(7423560860).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Portrait of Avicenna on a Silver Vase" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_%28Avicenna%29_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_%287423560860%29.jpg/180px-Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_%28Avicenna%29_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_%287423560860%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_%28Avicenna%29_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_%287423560860%29.jpg/270px-Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_%28Avicenna%29_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_%287423560860%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_%28Avicenna%29_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_%287423560860%29.jpg/360px-Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_%28Avicenna%29_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_%287423560860%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2736" data-file-height="3648" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a>, one of the most influential philosophers of the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Arabic–Persian philosophy arose in the early 9th century CE as a response to discussions in the <a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">Islamic theological tradition</a>. Its classical period lasted until the 12th century CE and was strongly influenced by ancient Greek philosophers. It employed their ideas to elaborate and interpret the teachings of the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi</a> (801–873 CE) is usually regarded as the first philosopher of this tradition. He translated and interpreted many works of Aristotle and Neoplatonists in his attempt to show that there is a harmony between <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a> and <a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">faith</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> (980–1037 CE) also followed this goal and developed a comprehensive philosophical system to provide a rational understanding of reality encompassing science, religion, and mysticism.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazali</a> (1058–1111 CE) was a strong critic of the idea that reason can arrive at a true understanding of reality and God. He formulated a detailed <a href="/wiki/The_Incoherence_of_the_Philosophers" title="The Incoherence of the Philosophers">critique of philosophy</a> and tried to assign philosophy a more limited place besides the teachings of the Quran and mystical insight.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following Al-Ghazali and the end of the classical period, the influence of philosophical inquiry waned.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mulla_Sadra" title="Mulla Sadra">Mulla Sadra</a> (1571–1636 CE) is often regarded as one of the most influential philosophers of the subsequent period.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The increasing influence of Western thought and institutions in the 19th and 20th centuries gave rise to the intellectual movement of <a href="/wiki/Islamic_modernism" title="Islamic modernism">Islamic modernism</a>, which aims to understand the relation between traditional Islamic beliefs and modernity.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indian">Indian</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian philosophy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_Sankaracharya_-_cropped.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Painting of Adi Shankara" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_Sankaracharya_-_cropped.png/180px-Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_Sankaracharya_-_cropped.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_Sankaracharya_-_cropped.png/270px-Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_Sankaracharya_-_cropped.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_Sankaracharya_-_cropped.png/360px-Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_Sankaracharya_-_cropped.png 2x" data-file-width="1620" data-file-height="2444" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a> developed the <a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">monistic</a> view of <a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita Vedanta</a>, stating that the existence of a plurality of distinct entities is an <a href="/wiki/Maya_(religion)" title="Maya (religion)">illusion</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>One of the distinguishing features of Indian philosophy is that it integrates the exploration of the nature of reality, the ways of arriving at knowledge, and the <a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">spiritual</a> question of how to reach <a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">enlightenment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It started around 900 BCE when the <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a> were written. They are the foundational scriptures of <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a> and contemplate issues concerning the relation between the <a href="/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Hinduism)" title="Ātman (Hinduism)">self</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">ultimate reality</a> as well as the question of how <a href="/wiki/Jiva" title="Jiva">souls</a> are reborn based on their <a href="/wiki/Karma" title="Karma">past actions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This period also saw the emergence of non-Vedic teachings, like <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Buddhism was founded by <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Siddhartha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Siddhartha">Gautama Siddhartha</a> (563–483 BCE), who challenged the Vedic idea of a <a href="/wiki/Anicca" class="mw-redirect" title="Anicca">permanent self</a> and proposed <a href="/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path" title="Noble Eightfold Path">a path</a> to liberate oneself from <a href="/wiki/Du%E1%B8%A5kha" title="Duḥkha">suffering</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jainism was founded by <a href="/wiki/Mahavira" title="Mahavira">Mahavira</a> (599–527 BCE), who emphasized <a href="/wiki/Ahi%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahiṃsā">non-violence</a> as well as respect toward all forms of life.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The subsequent classical period started roughly 200 BCE<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was characterized by the emergence of the six <a href="/wiki/Astika" class="mw-redirect" title="Astika">orthodox schools of Hinduism</a>: <a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyāyá</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vai%C5%9Be%E1%B9%A3ika" class="mw-redirect" title="Vaiśeṣika">Vaiśeṣika</a>, <a href="/wiki/S%C4%81%E1%B9%83khya" class="mw-redirect" title="Sāṃkhya">Sāṃkhya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">Yoga</a>, <a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The school of <a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita Vedanta</a> developed later in this period. It was systematized by <a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 700</span>–750 CE), who held that <a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">everything is one</a> and that the impression of a universe consisting of many distinct entities is an <a href="/wiki/Maya_(religion)" title="Maya (religion)">illusion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A slightly different perspective was defended by <a href="/wiki/Ramanuja" title="Ramanuja">Ramanuja</a> (1017–1137 CE),<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who founded the school of <a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita_Vedanta" class="mw-redirect" title="Vishishtadvaita Vedanta">Vishishtadvaita Vedanta</a> and argued that individual entities are real as aspects or parts of the underlying unity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERanganathanLead_Section,_2c._Substantive_Theses_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERanganathanLead_Section,_2c._Substantive_Theses-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also helped to popularize the <a href="/wiki/Bhakti_movement" title="Bhakti movement">Bhakti movement</a>, which taught <a href="/wiki/Bhakti" title="Bhakti">devotion toward the divine</a> as a spiritual path and lasted until the 17th to 18th centuries CE.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The modern period began roughly 1800 CE and was shaped by encounters with Western thought.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Philosophers tried to formulate comprehensive systems to harmonize diverse philosophical and religious teachings. For example, <a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Swami Vivekananda</a> (1863–1902 CE) used the teachings of Advaita Vedanta to argue that all the different religions are valid paths toward the one divine.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chinese">Chinese</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese philosophy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Half_Portraits_of_the_Great_Sage_and_Virtuous_Men_of_Old_-_Confucius.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Painting of Confucius" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Half_Portraits_of_the_Great_Sage_and_Virtuous_Men_of_Old_-_Confucius.jpg/180px-Half_Portraits_of_the_Great_Sage_and_Virtuous_Men_of_Old_-_Confucius.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Half_Portraits_of_the_Great_Sage_and_Virtuous_Men_of_Old_-_Confucius.jpg/270px-Half_Portraits_of_the_Great_Sage_and_Virtuous_Men_of_Old_-_Confucius.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Half_Portraits_of_the_Great_Sage_and_Virtuous_Men_of_Old_-_Confucius.jpg/360px-Half_Portraits_of_the_Great_Sage_and_Virtuous_Men_of_Old_-_Confucius.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1178" data-file-height="1595" /></a><figcaption>The teachings of <a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a> on ethics and society shaped subsequent Chinese philosophy.</figcaption></figure> <p>Chinese philosophy is particularly interested in practical questions associated with right social conduct, government, and <a href="/wiki/Self-cultivation" title="Self-cultivation">self-cultivation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Schools_of_Thought" title="Hundred Schools of Thought">schools of thought</a> emerged in the 6th century BCE in competing attempts to resolve the political turbulence of that period. The most prominent among them were <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Daoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Daoism">Daoism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Confucianism was founded by <a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a> (551–479 BCE). It focused on different forms of moral <a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">virtues</a> and explored how they lead to harmony in society.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Daoism was founded by <a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a> (6th century BCE) and examined how humans can live in harmony with nature by following the <a href="/wiki/Dao" class="mw-redirect" title="Dao">Dao</a> or the natural order of the universe.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other influential early schools of thought were <a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a>, which developed an early form of altruistic <a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">consequentialism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a>, which emphasized the importance of a strong state and strict laws.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Buddhism was introduced to China in the 1st century CE and diversified into <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">new forms of Buddhism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Starting in the 3rd century CE, the school of <a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Xuanxue</a> emerged. It interpreted earlier Daoist works with a specific emphasis on metaphysical explanations.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a> developed in the 11th century CE. It systematized previous Confucian teachings and sought a metaphysical foundation of ethics.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The modern period in Chinese philosophy began in the early 20th century and was shaped by the influence of and reactions to Western philosophy. The emergence of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Marxism" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Marxism">Chinese Marxism</a>—which focused on <a href="/wiki/Class_struggle" class="mw-redirect" title="Class struggle">class struggle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a>—resulted in a significant transformation of the political landscape.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another development was the emergence of <a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a>, which aims to modernize and rethink Confucian teachings to explore their compatibility with democratic ideals and modern science.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_traditions">Other traditions</h3></div> <p>Traditional Japanese philosophy assimilated and synthesized ideas from different traditions, including the indigenous <a href="/wiki/Shinto" title="Shinto">Shinto</a> religion and Chinese and Indian thought in the forms of Confucianism and Buddhism, both of which entered Japan in the 6th and 7th centuries. Its practice is characterized by active interaction with reality rather than disengaged examination.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Neo-Confucianism became an influential school of thought in the 16th century and the following <a href="/wiki/Edo_period" title="Edo period">Edo period</a> and prompted a greater focus on language and the natural world.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a> emerged in the 20th century and integrated Eastern spirituality with Western philosophy in its exploration of concepts like absolute nothingness (<i>zettai-mu</i>), place (<i>basho</i>), and the <a href="/wiki/Self" title="Self">self</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Latin American philosophy in the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">pre-colonial period</a> was practiced by indigenous civilizations and explored questions concerning the nature of reality and the role of humans.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has similarities to <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">indigenous North American philosophy</a>, which covered themes such as the interconnectedness of all things.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Latin American philosophy during the <a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">colonial period</a>, starting around 1550, was dominated by religious philosophy in the form of <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholasticism</a>. Influential topics in the post-colonial period were <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">positivism</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_liberation" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of liberation">philosophy of liberation</a>, and the exploration of identity and culture.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early African philosophy was primarily conducted and transmitted orally. It focused on community, morality, and ancestral ideas, encompassing folklore, wise sayings, religious ideas, and philosophical concepts like <a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">Ubuntu</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Systematic African philosophy emerged at the beginning of the 20th century. It discusses topics such as <a href="/wiki/Ethnophilosophy" title="Ethnophilosophy">ethnophilosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/N%C3%A9gritude" title="Négritude">négritude</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">pan-Africanism</a>, Marxism, <a href="/wiki/Postcolonialism" title="Postcolonialism">postcolonialism</a>, the role of cultural identity, <a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">relativism</a>, <a href="/wiki/African_philosophy#African_epistemology" title="African philosophy">African epistemology</a>, and the critique of <a href="/wiki/Eurocentrism" title="Eurocentrism">Eurocentrism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Core_branches">Core branches</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Branches_of_philosophy" title="Outline of philosophy">Outline of philosophy § Branches of philosophy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophical_schools_of_thought" title="Outline of philosophy">Outline of philosophy § Philosophical schools of thought</a></div> <p>Philosophical questions can be grouped into several branches. These groupings allow philosophers to focus on a set of similar topics and interact with other thinkers who are interested in the same questions. Epistemology, ethics, logic, and metaphysics are sometimes listed as the main branches.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are many other subfields besides them and the different divisions are neither exhaustive nor mutually exclusive. For example, political philosophy, ethics, and <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">aesthetics</a> are sometimes linked under the general heading of <a href="/wiki/Value_theory" title="Value theory">value theory</a> as they investigate <a href="/wiki/Normative" class="mw-redirect" title="Normative">normative</a> or evaluative aspects.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchroeder2021Lead_Section:_"In_its_broadest_sense,_'value_theory'_is_a_catch-all_label_used_to_encompass_all_branches_of_moral_philosophy,_social_and_political_philosophy,_aesthetics,_and_sometimes_feminist_philosophy_and_the_philosophy_of_religion_–_whatever_areas_of_philosophy_are_deemed_to_encompass_some_'evaluative'_aspect."_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchroeder2021Lead_Section:_"In_its_broadest_sense,_'value_theory'_is_a_catch-all_label_used_to_encompass_all_branches_of_moral_philosophy,_social_and_political_philosophy,_aesthetics,_and_sometimes_feminist_philosophy_and_the_philosophy_of_religion_–_whatever_areas_of_philosophy_are_deemed_to_encompass_some_'evaluative'_aspect."-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, philosophical inquiry sometimes overlaps with other disciplines in the natural and social sciences, religion, and mathematics.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Epistemology">Epistemology</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></div> <p>Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies knowledge. It is also known as <i>theory of knowledge</i> and aims to understand what knowledge is, how it arises, what its limits are, and what value it has. It further examines the nature of <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">belief</a>, <a href="/wiki/Justification_(epistemology)" title="Justification (epistemology)">justification</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">rationality</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of the questions addressed by epistemologists include "By what method(s) can one acquire knowledge?"; "How is truth established?"; and "Can we prove causal relations?"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMulvaney2009ix_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMulvaney2009ix-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Epistemology is primarily interested in <a href="/wiki/Declarative_knowledge" title="Declarative knowledge">declarative knowledge</a> or knowledge of facts, like knowing that Princess Diana died in 1997. But it also investigates <a href="/wiki/Practical_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Practical knowledge">practical knowledge</a>, such as knowing how to ride a bicycle, and <a href="/wiki/Knowledge_by_acquaintance" title="Knowledge by acquaintance">knowledge by acquaintance</a>, for example, knowing a celebrity personally.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One area in epistemology is the <i><a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Analysis of knowledge">analysis of knowledge</a></i>. It assumes that declarative knowledge is a combination of different parts and attempts to identify what those parts are. An influential theory in this area claims that knowledge has three components: it is a <i>belief</i> that is <i>justified</i> and <i>true</i>. This theory is controversial and the difficulties associated with it are known as the <a href="/wiki/Gettier_problem" title="Gettier problem">Gettier problem</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alternative views state that knowledge requires additional components, like the absence of luck; different components, like the manifestation of <a href="/wiki/Epistemic_virtue" title="Epistemic virtue">cognitive virtues</a> instead of justification; or they deny that knowledge can be analyzed in terms of other phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another area in epistemology asks how people acquire knowledge. Often-discussed sources of knowledge are <a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perception</a>, <a href="/wiki/Introspection" title="Introspection">introspection</a>, <a href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">memory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inference" title="Inference">inference</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Testimony" title="Testimony">testimony</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Empiricists" class="mw-redirect" title="Empiricists">empiricists</a>, all knowledge is based on some form of experience. Rationalists reject this view and hold that some forms of knowledge, like <a href="/wiki/Innate_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Innate knowledge">innate knowledge</a>, are not acquired through experience.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Regress_problem" class="mw-redirect" title="Regress problem">regress problem</a> is a common issue in relation to the sources of knowledge and the justification they offer. It is based on the idea that beliefs require some kind of reason or evidence to be justified. The problem is that the source of justification may itself be in need of another source of justification. This leads to an <a href="/wiki/Infinite_regress" title="Infinite regress">infinite regress</a> or <a href="/wiki/Circular_reasoning" title="Circular reasoning">circular reasoning</a>. <a href="/wiki/Foundationalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Foundationalist">Foundationalists</a> avoid this conclusion by arguing that some sources can provide justification without requiring justification themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another solution is presented by <a href="/wiki/Coherentist" class="mw-redirect" title="Coherentist">coherentists</a>, who state that a belief is justified if it coheres with other beliefs of the person.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlsson2021Lead_Section,_§_1._Coherentism_Versus_Foundationalism_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlsson2021Lead_Section,_§_1._Coherentism_Versus_Foundationalism-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many discussions in epistemology touch on the topic of <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">philosophical skepticism</a>, which raises doubts about some or all claims to knowledge. These doubts are often based on the idea that knowledge requires absolute certainty and that humans are unable to acquire it.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethics">Ethics</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JohnStuartMill.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Drawing of John Stuart Mill" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/JohnStuartMill.jpg/170px-JohnStuartMill.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/JohnStuartMill.jpg/255px-JohnStuartMill.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/JohnStuartMill.jpg/340px-JohnStuartMill.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2723" data-file-height="3548" /></a><figcaption>"The utilitarian doctrine is, that happiness is desirable, and the only thing desirable, as an end; all other things being only desirable as means to that end." — <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism_(book)" title="Utilitarianism (book)">Utilitarianism</a></i> (1863)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMill1863[httpsenwikisourceorgwikiUtilitarianismChapter_4_51]_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMill1863[httpsenwikisourceorgwikiUtilitarianismChapter_4_51]-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, studies what constitutes right <a href="/wiki/Action_(philosophy)" title="Action (philosophy)">conduct</a>. It is also concerned with the moral <a href="/wiki/Values_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Values (philosophy)">evaluation</a> of character traits and institutions. It explores what the standards of <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">morality</a> are and how to live a good life.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Philosophical ethics addresses such basic questions as "Are moral obligations relative?"; "Which has priority: well-being or obligation?"; and "What gives life meaning?"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMulvaney2009vii–xi_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMulvaney2009vii–xi-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The main branches of ethics are <a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">meta-ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">normative ethics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">applied ethics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meta-ethics asks abstract questions about the nature and sources of morality. It analyzes the meaning of ethical concepts, like <i>right action</i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Obligation" title="Obligation">obligation</a></i>. It also investigates whether ethical theories can be <a href="/wiki/Moral_relativism" title="Moral relativism">true in an absolute sense</a> and how to acquire knowledge of them.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Normative ethics encompasses general theories of how to distinguish between right and wrong conduct. It helps guide moral decisions by examining what moral obligations and rights people have. Applied ethics studies the consequences of the general theories developed by normative ethics in specific situations, for example, in the workplace or for medical treatments.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Within contemporary normative ethics, consequentialism, <a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">deontology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">virtue ethics</a> are influential schools of thought.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Consequentialists</i> judge actions based on their consequences. One such view is <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarianism</a>, which argues that actions should increase overall happiness while minimizing suffering. <i>Deontologists</i> judge actions based on whether they follow moral duties, such as abstaining from lying or killing. According to them, what matters is that actions are in tune with those duties and not what consequences they have. <i>Virtue theorists</i> judge actions based on how the moral character of the agent is expressed. According to this view, actions should conform to what an ideally virtuous agent would do by manifesting virtues like <a href="/wiki/Generosity" title="Generosity">generosity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Honesty" title="Honesty">honesty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Logic">Logic</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></div> <p>Logic is the study of <a href="/wiki/Logical_reasoning" title="Logical reasoning">correct reasoning</a>. It aims to understand how to distinguish good from bad <a href="/wiki/Argument" title="Argument">arguments</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is usually divided into formal and <a href="/wiki/Informal_logic" title="Informal logic">informal logic</a>. Formal logic uses <a href="/wiki/Formal_language" title="Formal language">artificial languages</a> with a precise symbolic representation to investigate arguments. In its search for exact criteria, it examines the structure of arguments to determine whether they are correct or incorrect. Informal logic uses non-formal criteria and standards to assess the correctness of arguments. It relies on additional factors such as content and context.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Logic examines a variety of arguments. <a href="/wiki/Deductive_arguments" class="mw-redirect" title="Deductive arguments">Deductive arguments</a> are mainly studied by formal logic. An argument is deductively <a href="/wiki/Validity_(logic)" title="Validity (logic)">valid</a> if the truth of its <a href="/wiki/Premise" title="Premise">premises</a> ensures the truth of its conclusion. Deductively valid arguments follow a <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_inference" title="Rule of inference">rule of inference</a>, like <i><a href="/wiki/Modus_ponens" title="Modus ponens">modus ponens</a></i>, which has the following <a href="/wiki/Logical_form" title="Logical form">logical form</a>: "<i>p</i>; if <i>p</i> then <i>q</i>; therefore <i>q</i>". An example is the argument "today is Sunday; if today is Sunday then I don't have to go to work today; therefore I don't have to go to work today".<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The premises of non-deductive arguments also support their conclusion, although this support does not guarantee that the conclusion is true.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One form is <a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">inductive reasoning</a>. It starts from a set of individual cases and uses generalization to arrive at a universal law governing all cases. An example is the inference that "all ravens are black" based on observations of many individual black ravens.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another form is <a href="/wiki/Abductive_reasoning" title="Abductive reasoning">abductive reasoning</a>. It starts from an observation and concludes that the best explanation of this observation must be true. This happens, for example, when a doctor diagnoses a disease based on the observed symptoms.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Logic also investigates incorrect forms of reasoning. They are called <i><a href="/wiki/Fallacies" class="mw-redirect" title="Fallacies">fallacies</a></i> and are divided into <a href="/wiki/Formal_fallacy" title="Formal fallacy">formal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Informal_fallacies" class="mw-redirect" title="Informal fallacies">informal fallacies</a> based on whether the source of the error lies only in the form of the argument or also in its content and context.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aristotle,_Metaphysics,_Incunabulum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Incunabulum showing the beginning of Aristotle's Metaphysics" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Aristotle%2C_Metaphysics%2C_Incunabulum.jpg/220px-Aristotle%2C_Metaphysics%2C_Incunabulum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Aristotle%2C_Metaphysics%2C_Incunabulum.jpg/330px-Aristotle%2C_Metaphysics%2C_Incunabulum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Aristotle%2C_Metaphysics%2C_Incunabulum.jpg/440px-Aristotle%2C_Metaphysics%2C_Incunabulum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2393" data-file-height="3589" /></a><figcaption>The beginning of <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">Aristotle's <i>Metaphysics</i></a> in an <a href="/wiki/Incunabulum" class="mw-redirect" title="Incunabulum">incunabulum</a> decorated with hand-painted miniatures.</figcaption></figure> <p>Metaphysics is the study of the most general features of <a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">reality</a>, such as existence, <a href="/wiki/Object_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Object (philosophy)">objects</a> and their <a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">properties</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mereology" title="Mereology">wholes and their parts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Space" title="Space">space</a> and <a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">time</a>, <a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">events</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are disagreements about the precise definition of the term and its meaning has changed throughout the ages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvan_InwagenSullivanBernstein2023Lead_Section_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_InwagenSullivanBernstein2023Lead_Section-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Metaphysicians attempt to answer basic questions including "<a href="/wiki/Why_is_there_something_rather_than_nothing%3F" class="mw-redirect" title="Why is there something rather than nothing?">Why is there something rather than nothing?</a>"; "Of what does reality ultimately consist?"; and "Are humans free?"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMulvaney2009ix–x_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMulvaney2009ix–x-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Metaphysics is sometimes divided into general metaphysics and specific or special metaphysics. General metaphysics investigates being as such. It examines the features that all entities have in common. Specific metaphysics is interested in different kinds of being, the features they have, and how they differ from one another.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An important area in metaphysics is <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a>. Some theorists identify it with general metaphysics. Ontology investigates concepts like <a href="/wiki/Being" class="mw-redirect" title="Being">being</a>, <a href="/wiki/Becoming_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Becoming (philosophy)">becoming</a>, and reality. It studies the <a href="/wiki/Categories_of_being" class="mw-redirect" title="Categories of being">categories of being</a> and asks what exists on the most fundamental level.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another subfield of metaphysics is <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_cosmology" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophical cosmology">philosophical cosmology</a>. It is interested in the essence of the world as a whole. It asks questions including whether the universe has a beginning and an end and whether it was created by something else.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A key topic in metaphysics concerns the question of whether reality only consists of physical things like matter and energy. Alternative suggestions are that mental entities (such as <a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">souls</a> and <a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">experiences</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">abstract entities</a> (such as numbers) exist apart from physical things. Another topic in metaphysics concerns the problem of <a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">identity</a>. One question is how much an entity can change while still remaining the same entity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAudi2006§_Metaphysics_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAudi2006§_Metaphysics-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to one view, entities have <a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">essential</a> and <a href="/wiki/Accident_(philosophy)" title="Accident (philosophy)">accidental features</a>. They can change their accidental features but they cease to be the same entity if they lose an essential feature.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A central distinction in metaphysics is between <a href="/wiki/Particular" title="Particular">particulars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Universals" class="mw-redirect" title="Universals">universals</a>. Universals, like the color red, can exist at different locations at the same time. This is not the case for particulars including individual persons or specific objects.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other metaphysical questions are whether the past <a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">fully determines</a> the present and what implications this would have for the existence of <a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">free will</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_major_branches">Other major branches</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">List of philosophies</a></div> <p>There are many other subfields of philosophy besides its core branches. Some of the most prominent are aesthetics, philosophy of language, philosophy of mind, philosophy of religion, philosophy of science, and political philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a> in the philosophical sense is the field that studies the nature and appreciation of <a href="/wiki/Beauty" title="Beauty">beauty</a> and other aesthetic properties, like <a href="/wiki/The_sublime" class="mw-redirect" title="The sublime">the sublime</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although it is often treated together with the <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics#Aesthetics_and_the_philosophy_of_art" title="Aesthetics">philosophy of art</a>, aesthetics is a broader category that encompasses other aspects of experience, such as natural beauty.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a more general sense, aesthetics is "critical reflection on art, culture, and <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A key question in aesthetics is whether beauty is an objective feature of entities or a subjective aspect of experience.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aesthetic philosophers also investigate the nature of aesthetic experiences and <a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_judgment" class="mw-redirect" title="Aesthetic judgment">judgments</a>. Further topics include the essence of <a href="/wiki/Works_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Works of art">works of art</a> and the processes involved in creating them.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">philosophy of language</a> studies the nature and function of <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a>. It examines the concepts of <a href="/wiki/Meaning_(philosophy)" title="Meaning (philosophy)">meaning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reference" title="Reference">reference</a>, and truth. It aims to answer questions such as how words are related to things and how language affects human <a href="/wiki/Thought" title="Thought">thought</a> and understanding. It is closely related to the disciplines of logic and linguistics.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The philosophy of language rose to particular prominence in the early 20th century in <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">analytic philosophy</a> due to the works of <a href="/wiki/Frege" class="mw-redirect" title="Frege">Frege</a> and Russell. One of its central topics is to understand how sentences get their meaning. There are two broad theoretical camps: those emphasizing the formal <a href="/wiki/Truth_conditions" class="mw-redirect" title="Truth conditions">truth conditions</a> of sentences<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and those investigating circumstances that determine when it is suitable to use a sentence, the latter of which is associated with <a href="/wiki/Speech_act_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Speech act theory">speech act theory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">philosophy of mind</a> studies the nature of mental phenomena and how they are related to the physical world.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It aims to understand different types of <a href="/wiki/Conscious" class="mw-redirect" title="Conscious">conscious</a> and <a href="/wiki/Unconscious_mind" title="Unconscious mind">unconscious</a> <a href="/wiki/Mental_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental states">mental states</a>, like <a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">beliefs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Desire" title="Desire">desires</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intention" title="Intention">intentions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feeling" title="Feeling">feelings</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sense" title="Sense">sensations</a>, and free will.<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An influential intuition in the philosophy of mind is that there is a distinction between the inner experience of objects and their existence in the external world. The <a href="/wiki/Mind-body_problem" class="mw-redirect" title="Mind-body problem">mind-body problem</a> is the problem of explaining how these two types of thing—mind and matter—are related. The main traditional responses are <a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">materialism</a>, which assumes that matter is more fundamental; <a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">idealism</a>, which assumes that mind is more fundamental; and <a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">dualism</a>, which assumes that mind and matter are distinct types of entities. In contemporary philosophy, another common view is <a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">functionalism</a>, which understands mental states in terms of the functional or causal roles they play.<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mind-body problem is closely related to the <a href="/wiki/Hard_problem_of_consciousness" title="Hard problem of consciousness">hard problem of consciousness</a>, which asks how the physical brain can produce <a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">qualitatively subjective experiences.</a><sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">philosophy of religion</a> investigates the basic concepts, assumptions, and arguments associated with <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a>. It critically reflects on what religion is, how to define the <a href="/wiki/Divine" class="mw-redirect" title="Divine">divine</a>, and whether one or more gods exist. It also includes the discussion of <a href="/wiki/Worldview" title="Worldview">worldviews</a> that reject religious doctrines.<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further questions addressed by the philosophy of religion are: "How are we to interpret religious language, if not literally?";<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaliaferro2023§_1_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaliaferro2023§_1-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Is divine omniscience compatible with free will?";<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaliaferro2023§_5.1.1_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaliaferro2023§_5.1.1-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and, "Are the great variety of world religions in some way compatible in spite of their apparently contradictory theological claims?"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaliaferro2023§_6_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaliaferro2023§_6-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It includes topics from nearly all branches of philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It differs from <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a> since theological debates typically take place within one religious tradition, whereas debates in the philosophy of religion transcend any particular set of theological assumptions.<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">philosophy of science</a> examines the fundamental concepts, assumptions, and problems associated with science. It reflects on what science is and how to distinguish it from <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">pseudoscience</a>. It investigates the methods employed by scientists, how their application can result in knowledge, and on what assumptions they are based. It also studies the purpose and implications of science.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of its questions are "What counts as an adequate explanation?";<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENewton-Smith20007_154-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENewton-Smith20007-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Is a scientific law anything more than a description of a regularity?";<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENewton-Smith20005_155-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENewton-Smith20005-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and "Can some special sciences be explained entirely in the terms of a more general science?"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPapineau2005855–856_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPapineau2005855–856-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is a vast field that is commonly divided into the philosophy of the <a href="/wiki/Natural_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural sciences">natural sciences</a> and the philosophy of the <a href="/wiki/Social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sciences">social sciences</a>, with further subdivisions for each of the individual sciences under these headings. How these branches are related to one another is also a question in the philosophy of science. Many of its philosophical issues overlap with the fields of metaphysics or epistemology.<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a> is the philosophical inquiry into the fundamental principles and ideas governing political systems and societies. It examines the basic concepts, assumptions, and arguments in the field of <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</a>. It investigates the nature and purpose of <a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">government</a> and compares its different forms.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It further asks under what circumstances the use of political power is <a href="/wiki/Political_legitimacy" title="Political legitimacy">legitimate</a>, rather than a form of simple violence.<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this regard, it is concerned with the distribution of political power, social and material goods, and <a href="/wiki/Legal_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal rights">legal rights</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWolff20061–2_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolff20061–2-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other topics are <a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">justice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">liberty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">equality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">sovereignty</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMolefeAllsobrook2021[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwKQeEAAAQBAJpgPA8_8–9]_161-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMolefeAllsobrook2021[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwKQeEAAAQBAJpgPA8_8–9]-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Political philosophy involves a general inquiry into normative matters and differs in this respect from <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a>, which aims to provide empirical descriptions of actually existing states.<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Political philosophy is often treated as a subfield of ethics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAudi2006§_Subfields_of_Ethics_163-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAudi2006§_Subfields_of_Ethics-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Influential schools of thought in political philosophy are <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conservativism" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservativism">conservativism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">anarchism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methods">Methods</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_methodology" title="Philosophical methodology">Philosophical methodology</a></div> <p>Methods of philosophy are ways of conducting philosophical inquiry. They include techniques for arriving at philosophical knowledge and justifying philosophical claims as well as principles used for choosing between competing theories.<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A great variety of methods have been employed throughout the history of philosophy. Many of them differ significantly from the methods used in the <a href="/wiki/Natural_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural sciences">natural sciences</a> in that they do not use experimental data obtained through measuring equipment.<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The choice of one's method usually has important implications both for how philosophical theories are constructed and for the arguments cited for or against them.<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This choice is often guided by epistemological considerations about what constitutes philosophical <a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">evidence</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Methodological disagreements can cause conflicts among philosophical theories or about the answers to philosophical questions. The discovery of new methods has often had important consequences both for how philosophers conduct their research and for what claims they defend.<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some philosophers engage in most of their theorizing using one particular method while others employ a wider range of methods based on which one fits the specific problem investigated best.<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Conceptual analysis is a common method in analytic philosophy. It aims to clarify the meaning of concepts by analyzing them into their component parts.<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another method often employed in analytic philosophy is based on <a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">common sense</a>. It starts with commonly accepted beliefs and tries to draw unexpected conclusions from them, which it often employs in a negative sense to criticize philosophical theories that are too far removed from how the average person sees the issue.<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is similar to how <a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">ordinary language philosophy</a> approaches philosophical questions by investigating how ordinary language is used.<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trolley_Problem.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Diagram depicting a trolley that is headed towards a group of people. There is an alternate track with only one person and a switch to change tracks." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Trolley_Problem.svg/280px-Trolley_Problem.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Trolley_Problem.svg/420px-Trolley_Problem.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Trolley_Problem.svg/560px-Trolley_Problem.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1345" data-file-height="459" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Trolley_problem" title="Trolley problem">trolley problem</a> is a thought experiment that investigates the moral difference between doing and allowing harm. This issue is explored in an imaginary situation in which a person can sacrifice a single person by redirecting a trolley to save a group of people.<sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Various methods in philosophy give particular importance to <a href="/wiki/Intuition" title="Intuition">intuitions</a>, that is, non-inferential impressions about the correctness of specific claims or general principles.<sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, they play an important role in <a href="/wiki/Thought_experiment" title="Thought experiment">thought experiments</a>, which employ <a href="/wiki/Counterfactual_thinking" title="Counterfactual thinking">counterfactual thinking</a> to evaluate the possible consequences of an imagined situation. These anticipated consequences can then be used to confirm or refute philosophical theories.<sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The method of <a href="/wiki/Reflective_equilibrium" title="Reflective equilibrium">reflective equilibrium</a> also employs intuitions. It seeks to form a <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">coherent</a> position on a certain issue by examining all the relevant beliefs and intuitions, some of which often have to be deemphasized or reformulated to arrive at a coherent perspective.<sup id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pragmatists stress the significance of concrete practical consequences for assessing whether a philosophical theory is true.<sup id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the <a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_maxim" title="Pragmatic maxim">pragmatic maxim</a> as formulated by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a>, the idea a person has of an object is nothing more than the totality of practical consequences they associate with this object. Pragmatists have also used this method to expose disagreements as merely verbal, that is, to show they make no genuine difference on the level of consequences.<sup id="cite_ref-179" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Phenomenologists seek knowledge of the realm of appearance and the structure of human experience. They insist upon the first-personal character of all experience and proceed by suspending theoretical judgments about the external world. This technique of phenomenological reduction is known as "bracketing" or <a href="/wiki/Bracketing_(phenomenology)" title="Bracketing (phenomenology)">epoché</a>. The goal is to give an unbiased description of the appearance of things.<sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Methodological_naturalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Methodological naturalism">Methodological naturalism</a> places great emphasis on the empirical approach and the resulting theories found in the natural sciences. In this way, it contrasts with methodologies that give more weight to pure reasoning and introspection.<sup id="cite_ref-181" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relation_to_other_fields">Relation to other fields</h2></div> <p>Philosophy is closely related to many other fields. It is sometimes understood as a meta-discipline that clarifies their nature and limits. It does this by critically examining their basic concepts, background assumptions, and methods. In this regard, it plays a key role in providing an <a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinary" class="mw-redirect" title="Interdisciplinary">interdisciplinary</a> perspective. It bridges the gap between different disciplines by analyzing which concepts and problems they have in common. It shows how they overlap while also delimiting their scope.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAudi2006332–337_182-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAudi2006332–337-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historically, most of the individual sciences originated from philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The influence of philosophy is felt in several fields that require difficult practical decisions. In <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, philosophical considerations related to <a href="/wiki/Bioethics" title="Bioethics">bioethics</a> affect issues like whether an <a href="/wiki/Embryo" title="Embryo">embryo</a> is already a <a href="/wiki/Personhood" title="Personhood">person</a> and under what conditions <a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">abortion</a> is morally permissible. A closely related philosophical problem is how humans should treat other animals, for instance, whether it is acceptable to use non-human animals as food or for <a href="/wiki/Animal_experiments" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal experiments">research experiments</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In relation to <a href="/wiki/Business" title="Business">business</a> and professional life, philosophy has contributed by providing ethical frameworks. They contain guidelines on which business practices are morally acceptable and cover the issue of <a href="/wiki/Corporate_social_responsibility" title="Corporate social responsibility">corporate social responsibility</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-185" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Philosophical inquiry is relevant to many fields that are concerned with what to believe and how to arrive at evidence for one's beliefs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELippert-Rasmussen201751–53_186-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELippert-Rasmussen201751–53-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is a key issue for the sciences, which have as one of their prime objectives the creation of scientific knowledge. Scientific knowledge is based on <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">empirical evidence</a> but it is often not clear whether empirical observations are neutral or already <a href="/wiki/Theory-ladenness" title="Theory-ladenness">include theoretical assumptions</a>. A closely connected problem is whether the available <a href="/wiki/Underdetermination" title="Underdetermination">evidence is sufficient</a> to decide between competing theories.<sup id="cite_ref-187" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Epistemological problems in relation to the <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a> include what counts as evidence and how much evidence is required to find a person <a href="/wiki/Guilt_(law)" title="Guilt (law)">guilty</a> of a crime. A related issue in <a href="/wiki/Journalism" title="Journalism">journalism</a> is how to ensure truth and <a href="/wiki/Journalistic_objectivity" title="Journalistic objectivity">objectivity</a> when reporting on events.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAudi2006332–337_182-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAudi2006332–337-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the fields of <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a> and religion, there are many doctrines associated with the existence and nature of God as well as rules governing correct behavior. A key issue is whether a rational person should believe these doctrines, for example, whether <a href="/wiki/Revelation" title="Revelation">revelation</a> in the form of holy books and <a href="/wiki/Religious_experience" title="Religious experience">religious experiences</a> of the divine are sufficient evidence for these beliefs.<sup id="cite_ref-188" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JudithButler2013_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photo of Judith Butler" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/JudithButler2013_%28cropped%29.jpg/170px-JudithButler2013_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/JudithButler2013_%28cropped%29.jpg/255px-JudithButler2013_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/JudithButler2013_%28cropped%29.jpg/340px-JudithButler2013_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="920" data-file-height="1060" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Judith Butler</a> is one of the philosophers responsible for the cultural influence of philosophy on the feminist movement.</figcaption></figure> <p>Philosophy in the form of logic has been influential in the fields of mathematics and <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-189" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further fields influenced by philosophy include <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, linguistics, <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a>, and <a href="/wiki/The_arts" title="The arts">the arts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-190" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The close relation between philosophy and other fields in the contemporary period is reflected in the fact that many philosophy graduates go on to work in related fields rather than in philosophy itself.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECropper1997_191-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECropper1997-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the field of politics, philosophy addresses issues such as how to assess whether a government policy is just.<sup id="cite_ref-192" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Philosophical ideas have prepared and shaped various political developments. For example, ideals formulated in <a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Enlightenment philosophy">Enlightenment philosophy</a> laid the foundation for <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_democracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitutional democracy">constitutional democracy</a> and played a role in the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> and the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBristow2023Lead_Section,_§_2.1_Political_Theory_193-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBristow2023Lead_Section,_§_2.1_Political_Theory-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marxist philosophy and its exposition of communism was one of the factors in the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Chinese Communist Revolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-194" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In India, <a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Satyagraha#Ahimsa_and_satyagraha" title="Satyagraha">philosophy of non-violence</a> shaped the <a href="/wiki/Indian_independence_movement" title="Indian independence movement">Indian independence movement</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-195" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An example of the cultural and critical role of philosophy is found in its influence on the <a href="/wiki/Feminist" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminist">feminist</a> movement through philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Mary Wollstonecraft</a>, <a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">Simone de Beauvoir</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Judith Butler</a>. It has shaped the understanding of key concepts in feminism, for instance, the meaning of <a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">gender</a>, how it differs from <a href="/wiki/Biological_sex" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological sex">biological sex</a>, and what role it plays in the formation of <a href="/wiki/Personal_identity" title="Personal identity">personal identity</a>. Philosophers have also investigated the concepts of justice and <a href="/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">equality</a> and their implications with respect to the <a href="/wiki/Sexism" title="Sexism">prejudicial treatment of women</a> in <a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">male-dominated societies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-196" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The idea that philosophy is useful for many aspects of life and society is sometimes rejected. According to one such view, philosophy is mainly undertaken for its own sake and does not make significant contributions to existing practices or external goals.<sup id="cite_ref-197" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy" title="Outline of philosophy">Outline of philosophy</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_philosophy" title="List of important publications in philosophy">List of important publications in philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophical_problems" title="List of philosophical problems">List of philosophical problems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophy_awards" title="List of philosophy awards">List of philosophy awards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophy_journals" title="List of philosophy journals">List of philosophy journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_philosophy" title="List of years in philosophy">List of years in philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_philosophers" title="Lists of philosophers">Lists of philosophers</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Ancient Greek <i>philosophos</i> ('philosopher') was itself possibly borrowed from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Egyptian">Ancient Egyptian</a> term <i>mer-rekh</i> (<i>mr-rḫ</i>) meaning 'lover of wisdom'.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The exact periodization is disputed with some sources suggesting it started as early as 500 BCE, while others argue it began as late as 200 CE.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">These dates are traditionally cited but some recent scholars suggest that his life ran from 1077 to 1157.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERanganathan1._Rāmānuja's_Life_and_Works_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERanganathan1._Rāmānuja's_Life_and_Works-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The truth conditions of a sentence are the circumstances or states of affairs under which the sentence would be true.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBirner2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid9pQ3KPKY1hkCpgPT33_33]_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBirner2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid9pQ3KPKY1hkCpgPT33_33]-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFPratt2023">Pratt 2023</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FCHMEAAAQBAJ&pg=RA4-PT31">169</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFMorujãoDimasRelvas2021">Morujão, Dimas & Relvas 2021</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ed5BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA105">105</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFMitias2022">Mitias 2022</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sORjEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA3">3</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHoad1993">Hoad 1993</a>, p. 350</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSimpson2002">Simpson 2002</a>, Philosophy</li><li><a href="#CITEREFJacobs2022">Jacobs 2022</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Kw9sEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA23">23</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHerbjørnsrud2021">Herbjørnsrud 2021</a>, p. 123</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHerbjørnsrud2023">Herbjørnsrud 2023</a>, p. X</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBottin1993">Bottin 1993</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FJ7UBP_jYeMC&pg=PA151">151</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFJaroszyński2018">Jaroszyński 2018</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fsZKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA12">12</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFOED_staff2022">OED staff 2022</a>, Philosophy, n.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHoad1993">Hoad 1993</a>, p. 350</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFTen1999">Ten 1999</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=04yBhMdnd3MC&pg=PA9">9</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFTuomela1985">Tuomela 1985</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2Hg9rKafnHsC&pg=PA1">1</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFGrant2007">Grant 2007</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-g26ckhZ21wC&pg=PA303">303</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFKenny2018">Kenny 2018</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fn9xDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA189">189</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFGrant2007">Grant 2007</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-g26ckhZ21wC&pg=PA163">163</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFCotterell2017">Cotterell 2017</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hpA4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA458">458</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFMaddy2022">Maddy 2022</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6_dQEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA24">24</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFGrant2007">Grant 2007</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BxbLDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA318">318</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFTen1999">Ten 1999</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=04yBhMdnd3MC&pg=PA9">9</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFCotterell2017">Cotterell 2017</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hpA4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA458">458</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFMaddy2022">Maddy 2022</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6_dQEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA24">24</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFRegenbogen2010">Regenbogen 2010</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meiner.de/enzyklopadie-philosophie-14071.html">Philosophiebegriffe</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, Philosophy in the Nineteenth Century</li><li><a href="#CITEREFRegenbogen2010">Regenbogen 2010</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFTen1999">Ten 1999</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=04yBhMdnd3MC&pg=PA9">9</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFAHD_Staff2022">AHD Staff 2022</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFAudi2006">Audi 2006</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/philosophy">Lead Section, § Conclusion</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFQuinton2005">Quinton 2005</a>, p. 702</li><li><a href="#CITEREFRegenbogen2010">Regenbogen 2010</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meiner.de/enzyklopadie-philosophie-14071.html">Philosophiebegriffe</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFEB_Staff2023a">EB Staff 2023a</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFOUP_Staff2020">OUP Staff 2020</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFAdler2000">Adler 2000</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerryBratmanFischer2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid0ndAAQAAIAAJ_4]-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPerryBratmanFischer2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid0ndAAQAAIAAJ_4]_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPerryBratmanFischer2010">Perry, Bratman & Fischer 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0ndAAQAAIAAJ">4</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFRussell1912">Russell 1912</a>, p. 91</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBlackwell2013">Blackwell 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rRrfO14H5i0C&pg=PA148">148</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFPojman2009">Pojman 2009</a>, p. 2</li><li><a href="#CITEREFKenny2004">Kenny 2004</a>, p. xv</li><li><a href="#CITEREFVintiadis2020">Vintiadis 2020</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t8P4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT137">137</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlato2023[httpsstandardebooksorgebooksplatodialoguesbenjamin-jowetttextapologyapology-text_Apology]-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlato2023[httpsstandardebooksorgebooksplatodialoguesbenjamin-jowetttextapologyapology-text_Apology]_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPlato2023">Plato 2023</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/plato/dialogues/benjamin-jowett/text/apology#apology-text">Apology</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCutcheon2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidvpzCBQAAQBAJpgPA26_26]-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCutcheon2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidvpzCBQAAQBAJpgPA26_26]_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcCutcheon2014">McCutcheon 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vpzCBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA26">26</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFRussell1912">Russell 1912</a>, p. 91</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBlackwell2013">Blackwell 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rRrfO14H5i0C&pg=PA148">148</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFQuinton2005">Quinton 2005</a>, p. 702</li><li><a href="#CITEREFRegenbogen2010">Regenbogen 2010</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meiner.de/enzyklopadie-philosophie-14071.html">Philosophiebegriffe</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOvergaardGilbertBurwood2013vii,_17-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOvergaardGilbertBurwood2013vii,_17_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOvergaardGilbertBurwood2013">Overgaard, Gilbert & Burwood 2013</a>, pp. vii, 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFOvergaardGilbertBurwood2013">Overgaard, Gilbert & Burwood 2013</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/an-introduction-to-metaphilosophy/what-is-philosophy/9D6F6F1186D1FF68A23B97B17CC810EE">20, 44</a>, What Is Philosophy?</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMittelstraß2005">Mittelstraß 2005</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.springer.com/de/book/9783476021083">Philosophie</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFJoll">Joll</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFOvergaardGilbertBurwood2013">Overgaard, Gilbert & Burwood 2013</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/an-introduction-to-metaphilosophy/what-is-philosophy/9D6F6F1186D1FF68A23B97B17CC810EE">20–21, 25, 35, 39</a>, What Is Philosophy?</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFOvergaardGilbertBurwood2013">Overgaard, Gilbert & Burwood 2013</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/an-introduction-to-metaphilosophy/what-is-philosophy/9D6F6F1186D1FF68A23B97B17CC810EE">20–22</a>, What Is Philosophy?</li><li><a href="#CITEREFRescher2013">Rescher 2013</a>, pp. 1–3, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RIx_k41e1xAC">1. The Nature of Philosophy</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFNuttall2013">Nuttall 2013</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=luc-Hf_bEOIC&pg=PT12">12–13</a>, 1. The Nature of Philosophy</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFGuyer2014">Guyer 2014</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a4T8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA7">7–8</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFKant1998">Kant 1998</a>, p. A805/B833</li><li><a href="#CITEREFKant1992">Kant 1992</a>, p. 9:25</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOvergaardGilbertBurwood2013[httpswwwcambridgeorgcorebooksabsan-introduction-to-metaphilosophywhat-is-philosophy9D6F6F1186D1FF68A23B97B17CC810EE_20–22]What_Is_Philosophy?-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOvergaardGilbertBurwood2013[httpswwwcambridgeorgcorebooksabsan-introduction-to-metaphilosophywhat-is-philosophy9D6F6F1186D1FF68A23B97B17CC810EE_20–22]What_Is_Philosophy?_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOvergaardGilbertBurwood2013">Overgaard, Gilbert & Burwood 2013</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/an-introduction-to-metaphilosophy/what-is-philosophy/9D6F6F1186D1FF68A23B97B17CC810EE">20–22</a>, What Is Philosophy?.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERegenbogen2010[httpsmeinerdeenzyklopadie-philosophie-14071html_Philosophiebegriffe]-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERegenbogen2010[httpsmeinerdeenzyklopadie-philosophie-14071html_Philosophiebegriffe]_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRegenbogen2010">Regenbogen 2010</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meiner.de/enzyklopadie-philosophie-14071.html">Philosophiebegriffe</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFOvergaardGilbertBurwood2013">Overgaard, Gilbert & Burwood 2013</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/an-introduction-to-metaphilosophy/what-is-philosophy/9D6F6F1186D1FF68A23B97B17CC810EE">26–27</a>, What Is Philosophy?</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHyltonKemp2020">Hylton & Kemp 2020</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFOvergaardGilbertBurwood2013">Overgaard, Gilbert & Burwood 2013</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/an-introduction-to-metaphilosophy/what-is-philosophy/9D6F6F1186D1FF68A23B97B17CC810EE">25–27</a>, What Is Philosophy?</li><li><a href="#CITEREFChalmers2015">Chalmers 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/CHAWIT-15">3–4</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFDellsénLawlerNorton2021">Dellsén, Lawler & Norton 2021</a>, pp. 814–815</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFRegenbogen2010">Regenbogen 2010</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meiner.de/enzyklopadie-philosophie-14071.html">Philosophiebegriffe</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFMittelstraß2005">Mittelstraß 2005</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.springer.com/de/book/9783476021083">Philosophie</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFOvergaardGilbertBurwood2013">Overgaard, Gilbert & Burwood 2013</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/an-introduction-to-metaphilosophy/what-is-philosophy/9D6F6F1186D1FF68A23B97B17CC810EE">27–30</a>, What Is Philosophy?</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHacker2013">Hacker 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8W1BAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA6">6</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFRegenbogen2010">Regenbogen 2010</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meiner.de/enzyklopadie-philosophie-14071.html">Philosophiebegriffe</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFOvergaardGilbertBurwood2013">Overgaard, Gilbert & Burwood 2013</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/an-introduction-to-metaphilosophy/what-is-philosophy/9D6F6F1186D1FF68A23B97B17CC810EE">34–36</a>, What Is Philosophy?</li><li><a href="#CITEREFRescher2013">Rescher 2013</a>, pp. 1–2, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RIx_k41e1xAC">1. The Nature of Philosophy</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFOvergaardGilbertBurwood2013">Overgaard, Gilbert & Burwood 2013</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/an-introduction-to-metaphilosophy/what-is-philosophy/9D6F6F1186D1FF68A23B97B17CC810EE">20–21, 29</a>, What Is Philosophy?</li><li><a href="#CITEREFNuttall2013">Nuttall 2013</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=luc-Hf_bEOIC&pg=PT12">12–13</a>, 1. The Nature of Philosophy</li><li><a href="#CITEREFShaffer2015">Shaffer 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26602327">555–556</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFOvergaardGilbertBurwood2013">Overgaard, Gilbert & Burwood 2013</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/an-introduction-to-metaphilosophy/what-is-philosophy/9D6F6F1186D1FF68A23B97B17CC810EE">36–37, 43</a>, What Is Philosophy?</li><li><a href="#CITEREFNuttall2013">Nuttall 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=luc-Hf_bEOIC&pg=PT12">12</a>, 1. The Nature of Philosophy</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFRegenbogen2010">Regenbogen 2010</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meiner.de/enzyklopadie-philosophie-14071.html">Philosophiebegriffe</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFJoll">Joll</a>, Lead Section, § 2c. Ordinary Language Philosophy and the Later Wittgenstein</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBiletzkiMatar2021">Biletzki & Matar 2021</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFJoll">Joll</a>, § 4.a.i</li><li><a href="#CITEREFGelan2020">Gelan 2020</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-29357-4_6">98</a>, Husserl's Idea of Rigorous Science and Its Relevance for the Human and Social Sciences</li><li><a href="#CITEREFIngarden1975">Ingarden 1975</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-010-1689-6_3">8–11</a>, The Concept of Philosophy as Rigorous Science</li><li><a href="#CITEREFTieszen2005">Tieszen 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2fgQ_fuCcKAC&pg=PA100">100</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith§_2.b-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith§_2.b_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmith">Smith</a>, § 2.b.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBanicki2014">Banicki 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/BANPAT">7</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFHadot1995">Hadot 1995</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/HADPAA">11. 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max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFDouven2022">Douven 2022</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFKoslowski2017">Koslowski 2017</a>, pp. 366–368, Abductive Reasoning and Explanation</li><li><a href="#CITEREFNunes2011">Nunes 2011</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xZuSxo4JxoAC">2066–2069</a>, Logical Reasoning and Learning</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHansen2020">Hansen 2020</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFDowden2023">Dowden 2023</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFDowden2020">Dowden 2020</a>, p. 290</li><li><a href="#CITEREFVleet2011">Vleet 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UCFYUGRG5dcC&pg=PR9">ix</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFvan_InwagenSullivanBernstein2023">van Inwagen, Sullivan & Bernstein 2023</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFCraig1998">Craig 1998</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFAudi2006">Audi 2006</a>, § Metaphysics</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_InwagenSullivanBernstein2023Lead_Section-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvan_InwagenSullivanBernstein2023Lead_Section_124-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvan_InwagenSullivanBernstein2023">van Inwagen, Sullivan & Bernstein 2023</a>, Lead Section.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMulvaney2009ix–x-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMulvaney2009ix–x_125-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMulvaney2009">Mulvaney 2009</a>, pp. ix–x.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFvan_InwagenSullivanBernstein2023">van Inwagen, Sullivan & Bernstein 2023</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFCraig1998">Craig 1998</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFGracia1999">Gracia 1999</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PrUkAQAAMAAJ">149</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHaaparantaKoskinen2012">Haaparanta & Koskinen 2012</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yz8sko5zVyUC&pg=PA454">454</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFFiet2022">Fiet 2022</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nK1jEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA133">133</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFAudi2006">Audi 2006</a>, § Metaphysics</li><li><a href="#CITEREFvan_InwagenSullivanBernstein2023">van Inwagen, Sullivan & Bernstein 2023</a>, 1. The Word 'Metaphysics' and the Concept of Metaphysics</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFAudi2006">Audi 2006</a>, § Metaphysics</li><li><a href="#CITEREFCoughlin2012">Coughlin 2012</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QPFoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA15">15</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAudi2006§_Metaphysics-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAudi2006§_Metaphysics_129-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAudi2006">Audi 2006</a>, § Metaphysics.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFRobertson_IshiiAtkins2023">Robertson Ishii & Atkins 2023</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/essential-accidental/">Lead Section</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFEspínNickoloff2007">Espín & Nickoloff 2007</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=k85JKr1OXcQC&pg=PA8">8</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFLowe2005">Lowe 2005</a>, p. 683</li><li><a href="#CITEREFKuhlmann2010">Kuhlmann 2010</a>, Ontologie: 4.2.1 Einzeldinge und Universalien</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFKane2009">Kane 2009</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=i7PG-Vk824UC&pg=PA22">22–23</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFKane2013">Kane 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LRV-Tzcry8EC&pg=RA3-PT258">258</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFStambaugh1987">Stambaugh 1987</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/philosophy-overview">Philosophy: An Overview</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFPhillips2010">Phillips 2010</a>, p. 16</li><li><a href="#CITEREFRamos2004">Ramos 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y2XkGpGBzbsC&pg=PA4">4</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFShand2004">Shand 2004</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uoCh8mpbZO4C&pg=PA9">9–10</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSmithBrownDuncan2019">Smith, Brown & Duncan 2019</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QkmqDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT174">174</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFMcQuillan2015">McQuillan 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NObaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA122">122–123</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFJanaway2005">Janaway 2005</a>, p. 9, Aesthetics, History Of</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFNanay2019">Nanay 2019</a>, p. 4</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMcQuillan2015">McQuillan 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NObaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA122">122–123</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFKelly1998">Kelly 1998</a>, p. ix</li><li><a href="#CITEREFRiedel1999">Riedel 1999</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMcQuillan2015">McQuillan 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NObaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA122">122–123</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFSartwell2022">Sartwell 2022</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/beauty/">Lead Section, 1. Objectivity and Subjectivity</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSmithBrownDuncan2019">Smith, Brown & Duncan 2019</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QkmqDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT174">174</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFMcQuillan2015">McQuillan 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NObaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA122">122–123</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFAudi2006">Audi 2006</a>, § Philosophy of Language</li><li><a href="#CITEREFRussellFara2013">Russell & Fara 2013</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=czr880lvAPIC&pg=PR2">ii, 1–2</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFBlackburn2022">Blackburn 2022</a>, Lead Section</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBirner2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid9pQ3KPKY1hkCpgPT33_33]-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBirner2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid9pQ3KPKY1hkCpgPT33_33]_140-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBirner2012">Birner 2012</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9pQ3KPKY1hkC&pg=PT33">33</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFWolf2023">Wolf 2023</a>, §§ 1.a-b, 3–4</li><li><a href="#CITEREFIfantidou2014">Ifantidou 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4bKKAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT12">12</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFLowe2000">Lowe 2000</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mH12kYm1RKAC&pg=PA1">1–2</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFCrumley2006">Crumley 2006</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Yf4eAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2">2–3</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFAudi2006">Audi 2006</a>, § Philosophy of Mind</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHeidemann2014">Heidemann 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6pTJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT140">140</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHeil2013">Heil 2013</a>, pp. 1–3, 9, 12–13</li><li><a href="#CITEREFWeir2023">Weir 2023</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jUXAEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT10">10–11</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFShiraev2010">Shiraev 2010</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=r4xBJXxnnx8C&pg=PA83">83–84</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFPolger">Polger</a>, Lead Section</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHeil2013">Heil 2013</a>, pp. 1–3, 12–13</li><li><a href="#CITEREFWeisberg">Weisberg</a>, Lead Section, 1. Stating the Problem</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFTaliaferro2023">Taliaferro 2023</a>, Lead Section, § 5.2</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBurns2017">Burns 2017</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YWU9DwAAQBAJ">i, 1–3</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFAudi2006">Audi 2006</a>, § Philosophy of Religion</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMeister">Meister</a>, Lead Section</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaliaferro2023§_1-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaliaferro2023§_1_148-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTaliaferro2023">Taliaferro 2023</a>, § 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaliaferro2023§_5.1.1-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaliaferro2023§_5.1.1_149-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTaliaferro2023">Taliaferro 2023</a>, § 5.1.1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaliaferro2023§_6-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaliaferro2023§_6_150-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTaliaferro2023">Taliaferro 2023</a>, § 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFTaliaferro2023">Taliaferro 2023</a>, Introduction</li><li><a href="#CITEREFAudi2006">Audi 2006</a>, § Philosophy of Religion</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBayne2018">Bayne 2018</a>, pp. 1–2</li><li><a href="#CITEREFLouthThielicke2014">Louth & Thielicke 2014</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFAudi2006">Audi 2006</a>, § Philosophy of Science</li><li><a href="#CITEREFKitcher2023">Kitcher 2023</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFLosee2001">Losee 2001</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lQN6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1">1–3</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFWei2020">Wei 2020</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U2wNEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA127">127</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFNewton-Smith2000">Newton-Smith 2000</a>, pp. 2–3</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENewton-Smith20007-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENewton-Smith20007_154-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNewton-Smith2000">Newton-Smith 2000</a>, pp. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENewton-Smith20005-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENewton-Smith20005_155-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNewton-Smith2000">Newton-Smith 2000</a>, pp. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPapineau2005855–856-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPapineau2005855–856_156-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPapineau2005">Papineau 2005</a>, pp. 855–856.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFPapineau2005">Papineau 2005</a>, p. 852</li><li><a href="#CITEREFAudi2006">Audi 2006</a>, § Philosophy of Science</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMolefeAllsobrook2021">Molefe & Allsobrook 2021</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wKQeEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA8">8–9</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFMoseley">Moseley</a>, Lead Section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFDuignan2012">Duignan 2012</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ye-cAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA5">5–6</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFBowleArneson2023">Bowle & Arneson 2023</a>, Lead Section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMcQueen2010">McQueen 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ho5KEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA162">162</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMolefeAllsobrook2021">Molefe & Allsobrook 2021</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wKQeEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA8">8–9</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFHoward2010">Howard 2010</a>, p. 4</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolff20061–2-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWolff20061–2_160-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWolff2006">Wolff 2006</a>, pp. 1–2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMolefeAllsobrook2021[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwKQeEAAAQBAJpgPA8_8–9]-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMolefeAllsobrook2021[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwKQeEAAAQBAJpgPA8_8–9]_161-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMolefeAllsobrook2021">Molefe & Allsobrook 2021</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wKQeEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA8">8–9</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMoseley">Moseley</a>, Lead Section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMolefeAllsobrook2021">Molefe & Allsobrook 2021</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wKQeEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA8">8–9</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAudi2006§_Subfields_of_Ethics-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAudi2006§_Subfields_of_Ethics_163-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAudi2006">Audi 2006</a>, § Subfields of Ethics.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMoseley">Moseley</a>, Lead Section, § 3. Political Schools of Thought</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMcQueen2010">McQueen 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ho5KEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA162">162</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMcKeon2002">McKeon 2002</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/methodology-philosophy">Lead Section, § Summation </a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFOvergaardD'Oro2017">Overgaard & D'Oro 2017</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-companion-to-philosophical-methodology/introduction/03C3CBE35E1E1FD54E29AD2D5E1C4D48">1, 4–5</a>, Introduction</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMehrtens2010">Mehrtens 2010</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meiner.de/enzyklopadie-philosophie-14071.html">Methode/Methodologie</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFDaly2010">Daly 2010</a>, p. 9, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wilaDwAAQBAJ">Introduction</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFWilliamson2020">Williamson 2020</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFIchikawa2011">Ichikawa 2011</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFOvergaardD'Oro2017">Overgaard & D'Oro 2017</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-companion-to-philosophical-methodology/introduction/03C3CBE35E1E1FD54E29AD2D5E1C4D48">1, 3–5</a>, Introduction</li><li><a href="#CITEREFNado2017">Nado 2017</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40961-017-0116-8">447–449, 461–462</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFDever2016">Dever 2016</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199668779.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199668779-e-34">3–6</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFDaly2010">Daly 2010</a>, pp. 9–11, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wilaDwAAQBAJ">Introduction</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFOvergaardD'Oro2017">Overgaard & D'Oro 2017</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-companion-to-philosophical-methodology/introduction/03C3CBE35E1E1FD54E29AD2D5E1C4D48">3</a>, Introduction</li><li><a href="#CITEREFDever2016">Dever 2016</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199668779.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199668779-e-34">3–4</a>, What Is Philosophical Methodology?</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFDaly2015">Daly 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9781137344557_1">1–2, 5</a>, Introduction and Historical Overview</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMehrtens2010">Mehrtens 2010</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meiner.de/enzyklopadie-philosophie-14071.html">Methode/Methodologie</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFOvergaardD'Oro2017">Overgaard & D'Oro 2017</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-companion-to-philosophical-methodology/introduction/03C3CBE35E1E1FD54E29AD2D5E1C4D48">1, 3–5</a>, Introduction</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFWilliamson2020">Williamson 2020</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFSinger1974">Singer 1974</a>, pp. 420–421</li><li><a href="#CITEREFVenturinha2013">Venturinha 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Td3BAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA76">76</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFWalshTeoBaydala2014">Walsh, Teo & Baydala 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8JxcAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA68">68</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFEderLawlervan_Riel2020">Eder, Lawler & van Riel 2020</a>, p. 915</li><li><a href="#CITEREFShaffer2015">Shaffer 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26602327">555–556</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFAudi2006">Audi 2006</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/philosophy">§ Philosophical Methods</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFIchikawa2011">Ichikawa 2011</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFReynolds2010">Reynolds 2010</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-9191.2010.00361.x">231–232</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFEB_Staff2007">EB Staff 2007</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMehrtens2010">Mehrtens 2010</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meiner.de/enzyklopadie-philosophie-14071.html">Methode/Methodologie</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFParker-Ryan">Parker-Ryan</a>, Lead Section, § 1. Introduction</li><li><a href="#CITEREFEB_Staff2022">EB Staff 2022</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFWoollardHoward-Snyder2022">Woollard & Howard-Snyder 2022</a>, § 3. The Trolley Problem and the Doing/Allowing Distinction</li><li><a href="#CITEREFRini">Rini</a>, § 8. Moral Cognition and Moral Epistemology</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFDaly2015">Daly 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9781137344557_1">11–12</a>, Introduction and Historical Overview</li><li><a href="#CITEREFDuignan2009">Duignan 2009</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBrownFehige2019">Brown & Fehige 2019</a>, Lead Section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFGoffiRoux2011">Goffi & Roux 2011</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/GOFOTV">165, 168–169</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFEderLawlervan_Riel2020">Eder, Lawler & van Riel 2020</a>, pp. 915–916</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFDaly2015">Daly 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9781137344557_1">12–13</a>, Introduction and Historical Overview</li><li><a href="#CITEREFDaniels2020">Daniels 2020</a>, Lead Section, § 1. The Method of Reflective Equilibrium</li><li><a href="#CITEREFLittle1984">Little 1984</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/LITREA-2">373–375</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMcDermid">McDermid</a>, Lead Section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFLeggHookway2021">Legg & Hookway 2021</a>, Lead Section</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMcDermid">McDermid</a>, Lead Section, § 2a. A Method and A Maxim</li><li><a href="#CITEREFLeggHookway2021">Legg & Hookway 2021</a>, Lead Section, § 2. The Pragmatic Maxim: Peirce</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFCogan">Cogan</a>, Lead Section, § 5. The Structure, Nature and Performance of the Phenomenological Reduction</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMehrtens2010">Mehrtens 2010</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meiner.de/enzyklopadie-philosophie-14071.html">Methode/Methodologie</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFSmith2018">Smith 2018</a>, Lead Section, § 1. What Is Phenomenology?</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSmith">Smith</a>, Lead Section, § 2.Phenomenological Method</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFFischerCollins2015">Fischer & Collins 2015</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4VuhCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA4">4</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFFisherSytsma2023">Fisher & Sytsma 2023</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=C83bEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT9">Projects and Methods of Experimental Philosophy</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFPapineau2023">Papineau 2023</a>, § 2. 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Bioethics</li><li><a href="#CITEREFLippert-Rasmussen2017">Lippert-Rasmussen 2017</a>, pp. 4–5</li><li><a href="#CITEREFUniacke2017">Uniacke 2017</a>, pp. 34–35</li><li><a href="#CITEREFCrary2013">Crary 2013</a>, pp. 321–322</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFDittmer">Dittmer</a>, Lead Section, § 2. Business Ethics, § 5. Professional Ethics</li><li><a href="#CITEREFLippert-Rasmussen2017">Lippert-Rasmussen 2017</a>, pp. 4–5</li><li><a href="#CITEREFUniacke2017">Uniacke 2017</a>, pp. 34–35</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELippert-Rasmussen201751–53-186"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELippert-Rasmussen201751–53_186-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLippert-Rasmussen2017">Lippert-Rasmussen 2017</a>, pp. 51–53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBird2010">Bird 2010</a>, pp. 5–6, 8–9</li><li><a href="#CITEREFRosenberg2013">Rosenberg 2013</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VAzy5bGCcs0C&pg=PA129">129, 155</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFClark2022">Clark 2022</a>, Lead Section, § 1. Reason/Rationality</li><li><a href="#CITEREFForrest2021">Forrest 2021</a>, Lead Section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFDougherty2014">Dougherty 2014</a>, pp. 97–98</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFKakasSadri2003">Kakas & Sadri 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wQVqCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA588">588</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFLi2014">Li 2014</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_ZQ9BQAAQBAJ&pg=PR9">ix–x</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFNievergelt2015">Nievergelt 2015</a>, pp. v–vi</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFAudi2006">Audi 2006</a>, pp. 332–37</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMurphy2018">Murphy 2018</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qmUPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA138">138</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFDittmer">Dittmer</a>, Lead Section, Table of Contents</li><li><a href="#CITEREFFrankenaRaybeckBurbules2002">Frankena, Raybeck & Burbules 2002</a>, § Definition</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECropper1997-191"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECropper1997_191-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCropper1997">Cropper 1997</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFDittmer">Dittmer</a>, Lead Section, § 6. Social Ethics, Distributive Justice, and Environmental Ethics</li><li><a href="#CITEREFLippert-Rasmussen2017">Lippert-Rasmussen 2017</a>, pp. 4–5</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBristow2023Lead_Section,_§_2.1_Political_Theory-193"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBristow2023Lead_Section,_§_2.1_Political_Theory_193-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBristow2023">Bristow 2023</a>, Lead Section, § 2.1 Political Theory.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFPipes2020">Pipes 2020</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aXX0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA29">29</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFWolffLeopold2021">Wolff & Leopold 2021</a>, § 9. Marx's Legacy</li><li><a href="#CITEREFShaw2019">Shaw 2019</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H7uZDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT124">124</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSingh2014">Singh 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=d0CgBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT83">83</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFBondurant1988">Bondurant 1988</a>, pp. 23–24</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMcAfee2018">McAfee 2018</a>, Lead Section, 2.1 Feminist Beliefs and Feminist Movements</li><li><a href="#CITEREFAinley2005">Ainley 2005</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bJFCAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA294">294–296</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFHirschmann2008">Hirschmann 2008</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZinYQ0vgFEsC&pg=PA148">148–151</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFMcAfeeGarrySupersonGrasswick2023">McAfee et al. 2023</a>, Lead Section, 1. What Is Feminism?</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFJonesBos2007">Jones & Bos 2007</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=g6x_AgAAQBAJ&pg=PT56">56</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFRickles2020">Rickles 2020</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rSrfDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT9">9</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFLockie2015">Lockie 2015</a>, pp. 24–28</li></ul></div></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAdamsonGaneri2020" class="citation book cs1">Adamson, Peter; Ganeri, Jonardon (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NCbTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA101"><i>Classical Indian Philosophy</i></a>. 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Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-957749-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-957749-1"><bdi>978-0-19-957749-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophy+in+the+Islamic+World&rft.series=A+History+of+Philosophy+Without+Any+Gaps&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-19-957749-1&rft.aulast=Adamson&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKEpRDAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdler2000" class="citation book cs1">Adler, Mortimer J. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+to+Think+About+the+Great+Ideas%3A+From+the+Great+Books+of+Western+Civilization&rft.pub=Open+Court&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8126-9412-3&rft.aulast=Adler&rft.aufirst=Mortimer+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPv3BHyktJWkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAHD_Staff2022" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=philosophy&submit.x=58&submit.y=14">"Philosophy"</a>. <i>The American Heritage Dictionary</i>. HarperCollins. 2022. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230903173017/https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=philosophy&submit.x=58&submit.y=14">Archived</a> from the original on 3 September 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Philosophy&rft.btitle=The+American+Heritage+Dictionary&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ahdictionary.com%2Fword%2Fsearch.html%3Fq%3Dphilosophy%26submit.x%3D58%26submit.y%3D14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAinley2005" class="citation book cs1">Ainley, Alison (2005). "Feminist Philosophy". In Honderich, Ted (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/HONTOC-2"><i>The Oxford Companion to Philosophy</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926479-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926479-7"><bdi>978-0-19-926479-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210129082636/https://philpapers.org/rec/HONTOC-2">Archived</a> from the original on 29 January 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 January</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Feminist+Philosophy&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+Philosophy&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-926479-7&rft.aulast=Ainley&rft.aufirst=Alison&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FHONTOC-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndreaOverfield2015" class="citation book cs1">Andrea, Alfred J.; Overfield, James H. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x5-aBAAAQBAJ"><i>The Human Record: Sources of Global History, Volume I: To 1500</i></a>. Cengage Learning. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-305-53746-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-305-53746-0"><bdi>978-1-305-53746-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Human+Record%3A+Sources+of+Global+History%2C+Volume+I%3A+To+1500&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-305-53746-0&rft.aulast=Andrea&rft.aufirst=Alfred+J.&rft.au=Overfield%2C+James+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dx5-aBAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnshakovGergely2010" class="citation book cs1">Anshakov, Oleg M.; Gergely, Tamás (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OuyQgE_gf2QC&pg=PA128"><i>Cognitive Reasoning: A Formal Approach</i></a>. Springer Science & Business Media. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-68875-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-68875-4"><bdi>978-3-540-68875-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cognitive+Reasoning%3A+A+Formal+Approach&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-3-540-68875-4&rft.aulast=Anshakov&rft.aufirst=Oleg+M.&rft.au=Gergely%2C+Tam%C3%A1s&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOuyQgE_gf2QC%26pg%3DPA128&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnsteyVanzo2023" class="citation book cs1">Anstey, Peter R.; Vanzo, Alberto (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2LytEAAAQBAJ"><i>Experimental Philosophy and the Origins of Empiricism</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-009-03467-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-009-03467-8"><bdi>978-1-009-03467-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Experimental+Philosophy+and+the+Origins+of+Empiricism&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-009-03467-8&rft.aulast=Anstey&rft.aufirst=Peter+R.&rft.au=Vanzo%2C+Alberto&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2LytEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArola2011" class="citation book cs1">Arola, Adam (2011). "40 Native American Philosophy". In Garfield, Jay L.; Edelglass, William (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/28241/chapter-abstract/213354161?redirectedFrom=fulltext"><i>The Oxford Handbook of World Philosophy</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780195328998.003.0048">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195328998.003.0048</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-532899-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-532899-8"><bdi>978-0-19-532899-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231114095255/https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/28241/chapter-abstract/213354161?redirectedFrom=fulltext">Archived</a> from the original on 14 November 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/philosophy"><i>Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 7: Oakeshott - Presupposition</i></a> (2. ed.). Thomson Gale, Macmillan Reference. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865787-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865787-5"><bdi>978-0-02-865787-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220214235128/https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/philosophy">Archived</a> from the original on 14 February 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Atlantic Publishers & Dist. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7156-291-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7156-291-6"><bdi>978-81-7156-291-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life+and+Philosophy+of+Swami+Vivekananda&rft.pub=Atlantic+Publishers+%26+Dist&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-81-7156-291-6&rft.aulast=Banhatti&rft.aufirst=G.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjK5862eV7_EC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBanicki2014" class="citation journal cs1">Banicki, Konrad (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/BANPAT">"Philosophy As Therapy: Towards a Conceptual Model"</a>. <i>Philosophical Papers</i>. <b>43</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">7–</span>31. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F05568641.2014.901692">10.1080/05568641.2014.901692</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0556-8641">0556-8641</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144901869">144901869</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220213125130/https://philpapers.org/rec/BANPAT">Archived</a> from the original on 13 February 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Papers&rft.atitle=Philosophy+As+Therapy%3A+Towards+a+Conceptual+Model&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E7-%3C%2Fspan%3E31&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144901869%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0556-8641&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F05568641.2014.901692&rft.aulast=Banicki&rft.aufirst=Konrad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FBANPAT&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarsky2009" class="citation book cs1">Barsky, Allan E. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jqIzhD2lzj0C&pg=PA3"><i>Ethics and Values in Social Work: An Integrated Approach for a Comprehensive Curriculum</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-971758-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-971758-3"><bdi>978-0-19-971758-3</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethics+and+Values+in+Social+Work%3A+An+Integrated+Approach+for+a+Comprehensive+Curriculum&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-971758-3&rft.aulast=Barsky&rft.aufirst=Allan+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjqIzhD2lzj0C%26pg%3DPA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBayne2018" class="citation book cs1">Bayne, Tim (2018). <i>The Philosophy of Religion: A Very Short Introduction</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-875496-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-875496-1"><bdi>978-0-19-875496-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Philosophy+of+Religion%3A+A+Very+Short+Introduction&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-19-875496-1&rft.aulast=Bayne&rft.aufirst=Tim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeaney2013" class="citation book cs1">Beaney, Michael (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eMZoAgAAQBAJ"><i>The Oxford Handbook of The History of Analytic Philosophy</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-166266-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-166266-9"><bdi>978-0-19-166266-9</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-94866-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-94866-5"><bdi>978-1-135-94866-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+African+Philosophy%3A+A+Cross-cultural+Approach+to+Classical+and+Contemporary+Issues&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-135-94866-5&rft.aulast=Bell&rft.aufirst=Richard+H.&rft.au=Fernback%2C+Jan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1NuSAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBiletzkiMatar2021" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Biletzki, Anat; Matar, Anat (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/wittgenstein/#LateNatuPhil">"Ludwig Wittgenstein"</a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 3.7 The Nature of Philosophy. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180908083428/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/wittgenstein/#LateNatuPhil">Archived</a> from the original on 8 September 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-30976-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-30976-9"><bdi>978-0-415-30976-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Indian+Philosophy&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-415-30976-9&rft.aulast=Bilimoria&rft.aufirst=Puru%E1%B9%A3ottama&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBird2010" class="citation journal cs1">Bird, Alexander (2010). "The Epistemology of Science—a Bird's-eye View". <i>Synthese</i>. <b>175</b> (S1): <span class="nowrap">5–</span>16. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11229-010-9740-4">10.1007/s11229-010-9740-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15228491">15228491</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Synthese&rft.atitle=The+Epistemology+of+Science%E2%80%94a+Bird%27s-eye+View&rft.volume=175&rft.issue=S1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E5-%3C%2Fspan%3E16&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11229-010-9740-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A15228491%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Bird&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBirner2012" class="citation book cs1">Birner, Betty J. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9pQ3KPKY1hkC&pg=PT33"><i>Introduction to Pragmatics</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-34830-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-34830-7"><bdi>978-1-118-34830-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-954143-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-954143-0"><bdi>978-0-19-954143-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-954143-0&rft.aulast=Blackburn&rft.aufirst=Simon+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlackson2011" class="citation book cs1">Blackson, Thomas A. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=89zzlbsG1KgC"><i>Ancient Greek Philosophy: From the Presocratics to the Hellenistic Philosophers</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-9608-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-9608-9"><bdi>978-1-4443-9608-9</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Greek+Philosophy%3A+From+the+Presocratics+to+the+Hellenistic+Philosophers&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4443-9608-9&rft.aulast=Blackson&rft.aufirst=Thomas+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D89zzlbsG1KgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlackwell2013" class="citation book cs1">Blackwell, Kenneth (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rRrfO14H5i0C&pg=PA148"><i>The Spinozistic Ethics of Bertrand Russell</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-10711-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-10711-6"><bdi>978-1-135-10711-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Spinozistic+Ethics+of+Bertrand+Russell&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-135-10711-6&rft.aulast=Blackwell&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrRrfO14H5i0C%26pg%3DPA148&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlairJohnson2000" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/J._Anthony_Blair" title="J. Anthony Blair">Blair, J. Anthony</a>; Johnson, Ralph H. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/BLAILA-3">"Informal Logic: An Overview"</a>. <i>Informal Logic</i>. <b>20</b> (2). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.22329%2Fil.v20i2.2262">10.22329/il.v20i2.2262</a></span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211209195317/https://philpapers.org/rec/BLAILA-3">Archived</a> from the original on 9 December 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 December</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Informal+Logic&rft.atitle=Informal+Logic%3A+An+Overview&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.22329%2Fil.v20i2.2262&rft.aulast=Blair&rft.aufirst=J.+Anthony&rft.au=Johnson%2C+Ralph+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FBLAILA-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBondurant1988" class="citation book cs1">Bondurant, Joan Valérie (1988). <i>Conquest of Violence: The Gandhian Philosophy of Conflict</i> (New rev. ed.). Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-02281-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-02281-9"><bdi>978-0-691-02281-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conquest+of+Violence%3A+The+Gandhian+Philosophy+of+Conflict&rft.edition=New+rev.&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-691-02281-9&rft.aulast=Bondurant&rft.aufirst=Joan+Val%C3%A9rie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBottin1993" class="citation book cs1">Bottin, Francesco (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FJ7UBP_jYeMC&pg=PA151"><i>Models of the History of Philosophy: From Its Origins in the Renaissance to the 'Historia Philosophica': Volume I: From Its Origins in the Renaissance to the 'Historia Philosophica'<span></span></i></a>. Springer Science & Business Media. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-2200-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-2200-9"><bdi>978-0-7923-2200-9</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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State University of New York Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-9453-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-9453-1"><bdi>978-1-4384-9453-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-258407-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-258407-6"><bdi>978-0-19-258407-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Virtues%3A+A+Very+Short+Introduction&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-19-258407-6&rft.aulast=Boyd&rft.aufirst=Craig+A.&rft.au=Timpe%2C+Kevin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOIskEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrenner1993" class="citation book cs1">Brenner, William H. 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Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-59546-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-59546-5"><bdi>978-1-317-59546-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Is+This+Thing+Called+Philosophy+of+Religion%3F&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-317-59546-5&rft.aulast=Burns&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYWU9DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChalmers2015" class="citation journal cs1">Chalmers, David J. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/CHAWIT-15">"Why Isn't There More Progress in Philosophy?"</a>. <i>Philosophy</i>. <b>90</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">3–</span>31. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0031819114000436">10.1017/s0031819114000436</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1885%2F57201">1885/57201</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170974260">170974260</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220213124652/https://philpapers.org/rec/CHAWIT-15">Archived</a> from the original on 13 February 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy&rft.atitle=Why+Isn%27t+There+More+Progress+in+Philosophy%3F&rft.volume=90&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3-%3C%2Fspan%3E31&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1885%2F57201&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A170974260%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0031819114000436&rft.aulast=Chalmers&rft.aufirst=David+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FCHAWIT-15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChamankhah2019" class="citation book cs1">Chamankhah, Leila (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2GGtDwAAQBAJ"><i>The Conceptualization of Guardianship in Iranian Intellectual History (1800–1989): Reading Ibn ʿArabī's Theory of Wilāya in the Shīʿa World</i></a>. Springer Nature. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-22692-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-030-22692-3"><bdi>978-3-030-22692-3</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Conceptualization+of+Guardianship+in+Iranian+Intellectual+History+%281800%E2%80%931989%29%3A+Reading+Ibn+%CA%BFArab%C4%AB%27s+Theory+of+Wil%C4%81ya+in+the+Sh%C4%AB%CA%BFa+World&rft.pub=Springer+Nature&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-3-030-22692-3&rft.aulast=Chamankhah&rft.aufirst=Leila&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2GGtDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChambreMaurerStrollMcLellan2023" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Chambre, Henri; Maurer, Armand; Stroll, Avrum; McLellan, David T.; Levi, Albert William; Wolin, Richard; Fritz, Kurt von (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Western-philosophy">"Western Philosophy"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210513135159/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Western-philosophy">Archived</a> from the original on 13 May 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Uchenna (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-72445-0_8">"Toward an African Theory of Knowledge"</a>. <i>African Metaphysics, Epistemology and a New Logic</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-030-72445-0_8">10.1007/978-3-030-72445-0_8</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783030724474" title="Special:BookSources/9783030724474"><bdi>9783030724474</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Toward+an+African+Theory+of+Knowledge&rft.btitle=African+Metaphysics%2C+Epistemology+and+a+New+Logic&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-030-72445-0_8&rft.isbn=9783030724474&rft.aulast=Chimakonam&rft.aufirst=Johnathan+O.&rft.au=Ogbonnaya%2C+L.+Uchenna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Fchapter%2F10.1007%2F978-3-030-72445-0_8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClark2022" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Clark, Kelly James (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/relig-ep/">"Religious Epistemology"</a>. <i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220921184650/https://iep.utm.edu/relig-ep/">Archived</a> from the original on 21 September 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Psychology Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-18905-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-18905-7"><bdi>978-0-415-18905-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-953406-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-953406-7"><bdi>978-0-19-953406-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230330090713/https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095705926;jsessionid=A19D30BFCF6E02A0F21A87B805F10DEE">Archived</a> from the original on 30 March 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Continuum. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-6895-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-6895-6"><bdi>978-0-8264-6895-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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World Scientific. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78634-378-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78634-378-9"><bdi>978-1-78634-378-9</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 August</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Physics+and+Culture&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-78634-378-9&rft.aulast=Cotterell&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhpA4DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA458&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoughlin2012" class="citation book cs1">Coughlin, John J. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QPFoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA15"><i>Law, Person, and Community: Philosophical, Theological, and Comparative Perspectives on Canon Law</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-987718-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-987718-8"><bdi>978-0-19-987718-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Routledge. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230801213535/https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/overview/metaphysics/v-1">Archived</a> from the original on 1 August 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Metaphysics&rft.btitle=Routledge+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Craig&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rep.routledge.com%2Farticles%2Foverview%2Fmetaphysics%2Fv-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrary2013" class="citation book cs1">Crary, Alice (2013). "13. Eating and Experimenting on Animals". In Petrus, Klaus; Wild, Markus (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/transcript.9783839424629.321/pdf"><i>Animal Minds & Animal Ethics</i></a>. transcript Verlag. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Ftranscript.9783839424629.321">10.1515/transcript.9783839424629.321</a> (inactive 1 November 2024). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-8394-2462-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-8394-2462-9"><bdi>978-3-8394-2462-9</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=13.+Eating+and+Experimenting+on+Animals&rft.btitle=Animal+Minds+%26+Animal+Ethics&rft.pub=transcript+Verlag&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Ftranscript.9783839424629.321&rft.isbn=978-3-8394-2462-9&rft.aulast=Crary&rft.aufirst=Alice&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fdocument%2Fdoi%2F10.1515%2Ftranscript.9783839424629.321%2Fpdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCropper1997" class="citation news cs1">Cropper, Carol Marie (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1997/12/26/business/philosophers-find-the-degree-pays-off-in-life-and-in-work.html">"Philosophers Find the Degree Pays Off in Life and in Work"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170128202946/http://www.nytimes.com/1997/12/26/business/philosophers-find-the-degree-pays-off-in-life-and-in-work.html">Archived</a> from the original on 28 January 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 May</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Philosophers+Find+the+Degree+Pays+Off+in+Life+and+in+Work&rft.date=1997&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Cropper&rft.aufirst=Carol+Marie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1997%2F12%2F26%2Fbusiness%2Fphilosophers-find-the-degree-pays-off-in-life-and-in-work.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrumley2006" class="citation book cs1">Crumley, Jack S (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Yf4eAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2"><i>A Brief Introduction to the Philosophy of Mind</i></a>. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-7212-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-7212-6"><bdi>978-0-7425-7212-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Brief+Introduction+to+the+Philosophy+of+Mind&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield+Publishers&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7425-7212-6&rft.aulast=Crumley&rft.aufirst=Jack+S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYf4eAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCua2009" class="citation book cs1">Cua, Antonio S. (2009). "The Emergence of the History of Chinese Philosophy". In Mou, Bo (ed.). <i>History of Chinese Philosophy</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-00286-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-00286-5"><bdi>978-0-203-00286-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Emergence+of+the+History+of+Chinese+Philosophy&rft.btitle=History+of+Chinese+Philosophy&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-203-00286-5&rft.aulast=Cua&rft.aufirst=Antonio+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDalal2021" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Dalal, Neil (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/shankara/">"Śaṅkara"</a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. 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Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>30. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9781137344557_1">10.1057/9781137344557_1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-34455-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-137-34455-7"><bdi>978-1-137-34455-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220501081115/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9781137344557_1">Archived</a> from the original on 1 May 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Broadview Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55111-934-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55111-934-2"><bdi>978-1-55111-934-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Philosophical+Methods&rft.pub=Broadview+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-55111-934-2&rft.aulast=Daly&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwilaDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaniels2020" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Daniels, Norman (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/reflective-equilibrium/">"Reflective Equilibrium"</a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220222215102/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/reflective-equilibrium/">Archived</a> from the original on 22 February 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Reflective+Equilibrium&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Daniels&rft.aufirst=Norman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Freflective-equilibrium%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavis2022" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Davis, Bret W. (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kyoto-school/">"The Kyoto School"</a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230928152229/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kyoto-school/">Archived</a> from the original on 28 September 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Kyoto+School&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2022&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=Bret+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fkyoto-school%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDefoortStandaert2013" class="citation book cs1">Defoort, Carine; Standaert, Nicolas (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Vdl0smlDVtEC"><i>The Mozi as an Evolving Text: Different Voices in Early Chinese Thought</i></a>. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-23434-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-23434-5"><bdi>978-90-04-23434-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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"What Is Philosophical Methodology?". In Cappelen, Herman; Gendler, Tamar Szabó; Hawthorne, John (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199668779.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199668779-e-34"><i>The Oxford Handbook of Philosophical Methodology</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">3–</span>24. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199668779.013.34">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199668779.013.34</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-966877-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-966877-9"><bdi>978-0-19-966877-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201205194742/https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199668779.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199668779-e-34">Archived</a> from the original on 5 December 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ethics%2C+Applied&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Dittmer&rft.aufirst=Joel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiep.utm.edu%2Fapplied-ethics%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDougherty2014" class="citation journal cs1">Dougherty, Trent (2014). "Faith, Trust, and Testimony". <i>Religious Faith and Intellectual Virtue</i>: <span class="nowrap">97–</span>123. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780199672158.003.0005">10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199672158.003.0005</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-967215-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-967215-8"><bdi>978-0-19-967215-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Religious+Faith+and+Intellectual+Virtue&rft.atitle=Faith%2C+Trust%2C+and+Testimony&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E97-%3C%2Fspan%3E123&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780199672158.003.0005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-967215-8&rft.aulast=Dougherty&rft.aufirst=Trent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDouven2022" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Douven, Igor (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195396577/obo-9780195396577-0385.xml">"Abduction and Explanatory Reasoning"</a>. <i>Oxford Bibliographies</i>. Oxford University Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230210114239/https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195396577/obo-9780195396577-0385.xml">Archived</a> from the original on 10 February 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Abduction+and+Explanatory+Reasoning&rft.btitle=Oxford+Bibliographies&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.aulast=Douven&rft.aufirst=Igor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordbibliographies.com%2Fdisplay%2Fdocument%2Fobo-9780195396577%2Fobo-9780195396577-0385.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDowden2023" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Dowden, Bradley H. (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/fallacy/">"Fallacies"</a>. <i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190603000334/https://www.iep.utm.edu/fallacy/">Archived</a> from the original on 3 June 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Fallacies&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=2023&rft.aulast=Dowden&rft.aufirst=Bradley+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiep.utm.edu%2Ffallacy%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDowden2020" class="citation book cs1">Dowden, Bradley H. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.csus.edu/indiv/d/dowdenb/4/logical-reasoning-archives/Logical-Reasoning-2020-05-15.pdf"><i>Logical Reasoning</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230602004345/https://www.csus.edu/indiv/d/dowdenb/4/logical-reasoning-archives/Logical-Reasoning-2020-05-15.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2 June 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Logical+Reasoning&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Dowden&rft.aufirst=Bradley+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.csus.edu%2Findiv%2Fd%2Fdowdenb%2F4%2Flogical-reasoning-archives%2FLogical-Reasoning-2020-05-15.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span> (for an earlier version, see: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Dowden, Bradley H. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gzMQAQAAIAAJ"><i>Logical Reasoning</i></a>. Wadsworth Publishing Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-534-17688-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-534-17688-4"><bdi>978-0-534-17688-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Logical+Reasoning&rft.pub=Wadsworth+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-534-17688-4&rft.aulast=Dowden&rft.aufirst=Bradley+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgzMQAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuignan2009" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Duignan, Brian (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/intuitionism-ethics">"Intuitionism (Ethics)"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220307123948/https://www.britannica.com/topic/intuitionism-ethics">Archived</a> from the original on 7 March 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Intuitionism+%28Ethics%29&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Duignan&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fintuitionism-ethics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuignan2010" class="citation book cs1">Duignan, Brian (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MfBS-RXJ5RsC"><i>Ancient Philosophy: From 600 BCE to 500 CE</i></a>. The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61530-141-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61530-141-6"><bdi>978-1-61530-141-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Philosophy%3A+From+600+BCE+to+500+CE&rft.pub=The+Rosen+Publishing+Group%2C+Inc&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-61530-141-6&rft.aulast=Duignan&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMfBS-RXJ5RsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuignan2012" class="citation book cs1">Duignan, Brian, ed. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ye-cAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA5"><i>The Science and Philosophy of Politics</i></a>. Britannica Educational Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61530-748-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61530-748-7"><bdi>978-1-61530-748-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Science+and+Philosophy+of+Politics&rft.pub=Britannica+Educational+Publishing&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-61530-748-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dye-cAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEB_Staff2017" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Chinese-philosophy">"Chinese Philosophy"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150502233005/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/112694/Chinese-philosophy">Archived</a> from the original on 2 May 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Philosophy&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2023&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fphilosophy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEB_Staff2007" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-common-sense">"Philosophy of Common Sense"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220307123948/https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-common-sense">Archived</a> from the original on 7 March 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Philosophy+of+Common+Sense&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fphilosophy-of-common-sense&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEB_Staff2022" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/ordinary-language-analysis">"Ordinary Language Analysis"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. 2022. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220307123949/https://www.britannica.com/topic/ordinary-language-analysis">Archived</a> from the original on 7 March 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ordinary+Language+Analysis&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fordinary-language-analysis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEderLawlervan_Riel2020" class="citation journal cs1">Eder, Anna-Maria A.; Lawler, Insa; van Riel, Raphael (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11229-018-02051-2">"Philosophical Methods Under Scrutiny: Introduction to the Special Issue Philosophical Methods"</a>. <i>Synthese</i>. <b>197</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">915–</span>923. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11229-018-02051-2">10.1007/s11229-018-02051-2</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1573-0964">1573-0964</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:54631297">54631297</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Synthese&rft.atitle=Philosophical+Methods+Under+Scrutiny%3A+Introduction+to+the+Special+Issue+Philosophical+Methods&rft.volume=197&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E915-%3C%2Fspan%3E923&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A54631297%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1573-0964&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11229-018-02051-2&rft.aulast=Eder&rft.aufirst=Anna-Maria+A.&rft.au=Lawler%2C+Insa&rft.au=van+Riel%2C+Raphael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs11229-018-02051-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEspínNickoloff2007" class="citation book cs1">Espín, Orlando O.; Nickoloff, James B. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=k85JKr1OXcQC&pg=PA8"><i>An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies</i></a>. Liturgical Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8146-5856-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8146-5856-7"><bdi>978-0-8146-5856-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-512559-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-512559-7"><bdi>978-0-19-512559-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+Islam&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-512559-7&rft.aulast=Esposito&rft.aufirst=John+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6VeCWQfVNjkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFischerCollins2015" class="citation book cs1">Fischer, Eugen; Collins, John (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4VuhCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA4"><i>Experimental Philosophy, Rationalism, and Naturalism: Rethinking Philosophical Method</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-50027-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-50027-8"><bdi>978-1-317-50027-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Experimental+Philosophy%2C+Rationalism%2C+and+Naturalism%3A+Rethinking+Philosophical+Method&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-317-50027-8&rft.aulast=Fischer&rft.aufirst=Eugen&rft.au=Collins%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4VuhCAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFisherSytsma2023" class="citation book cs1">Fisher, Eugen; Sytsma, Justin (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=C83bEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT9">"Projects and Methods of Experimental Philosophy"</a>. In Bauer, Alexander Max; Kornmesser, Stephan (eds.). <i>The Compact Compendium of Experimental Philosophy</i>. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-071702-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-071702-0"><bdi>978-3-11-071702-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Projects+and+Methods+of+Experimental+Philosophy&rft.btitle=The+Compact+Compendium+of+Experimental+Philosophy&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter+GmbH+%26+Co+KG&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-3-11-071702-0&rft.aulast=Fisher&rft.aufirst=Eugen&rft.au=Sytsma%2C+Justin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DC83bEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFiet2022" class="citation book cs1">Fiet, James O. (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nK1jEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA133"><i>The Theoretical World of Entrepreneurship</i></a>. Edward Elgar Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-80037-147-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-80037-147-7"><bdi>978-1-80037-147-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Bloomsbury Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-350-16814-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-350-16814-5"><bdi>978-1-350-16814-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220710182220/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/religion-epistemology/">Archived</a> from the original on 10 July 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Macmillan Reference. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865594-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865594-9"><bdi>978-0-02-865594-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Philosophy+of+Education&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Education&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Macmillan+Reference&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-02-865594-9&rft.aulast=Frankena&rft.aufirst=William+K.&rft.au=Raybeck%2C+Nathan&rft.au=Burbules%2C+Nicholas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrede2022" class="citation book cs1">Frede, Michael (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cy9VEAAAQBAJ"><i>The Historiography of Philosophy</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-884072-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-884072-5"><bdi>978-0-19-884072-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Springer International Publishing. pp. <span class="nowrap">97–</span>105. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-030-29357-4_6">10.1007/978-3-030-29357-4_6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-29357-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-030-29357-4"><bdi>978-3-030-29357-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:213082313">213082313</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220302082534/http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-29357-4_6">Archived</a> from the original on 2 March 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-351-73106-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-351-73106-5"><bdi>978-1-351-73106-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Brill: <span class="nowrap">165–</span>191. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2Fej.9789004201767.i-233.35">10.1163/ej.9789004201767.i-233.35</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-20177-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-20177-4"><bdi>978-90-04-20177-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:260640180">260640180</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211030152653/https://philpapers.org/rec/GOFOTV">Archived</a> from the original on 30 October 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Thought+Experiments+in+Methodological+and+Historical+Contexts&rft.atitle=On+the+Very+Idea+of+a+Thought+Experiment&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E165-%3C%2Fspan%3E191&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A260640180%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2Fej.9789004201767.i-233.35&rft.isbn=978-90-04-20177-4&rft.aulast=Goffi&rft.aufirst=Jean-Yves&rft.au=Roux%2C+Sophie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FGOFOTV&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGorisse2023" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Gorisse, Marie-Hélène (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/jaina-philosophy/">"Jaina Philosophy"</a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230217095842/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/jaina-philosophy/">Archived</a> from the original on 17 February 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Jaina+Philosophy&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2023&rft.aulast=Gorisse&rft.aufirst=Marie-H%C3%A9l%C3%A8ne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fjaina-philosophy%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGracia1999" class="citation book cs1">Gracia, Jorge J. E. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PrUkAQAAMAAJ"><i>Metaphysics and Its Task: The Search for the Categorial Foundation of Knowledge</i></a>. State University of New York Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-4214-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-4214-2"><bdi>978-0-7914-4214-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180611112950/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/latin-american-philosophy/">Archived</a> from the original on 11 June 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Latin+American+Philosophy&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Gracia&rft.aufirst=Jorge+J.+E.&rft.au=Vargas%2C+Manuel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Flatin-american-philosophy%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraham2023" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Graham, Jacob N. 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Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-86931-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-86931-7"><bdi>978-0-521-86931-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Natural+Philosophy%3A+From+the+Ancient+World+to+the+Nineteenth+Century&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-86931-7&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBxbLDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA318&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrayling2019" class="citation book cs1">Grayling, A. C. 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Why Philosophy as a Way of Life?"</a>. <i>European Journal of Philosophy</i>. <b>29</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">236–</span>251. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fejop.12562">10.1111/ejop.12562</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1468-0378">1468-0378</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:225504495">225504495</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220213124653/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ejop.12562">Archived</a> from the original on 13 February 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220112030519/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-informal/">Archived</a> from the original on 12 January 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 December</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Informal+Logic&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Groarke&rft.aufirst=Leo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Flogic-informal%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGutas2016" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Gutas, Dimitri (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ibn-sina/">"Ibn Sina [Avicenna]"</a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230427150147/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ibn-sina/">Archived</a> from the original on 27 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-989057-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-989057-6"><bdi>978-0-19-989057-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Categories+of+Being%3A+Essays+on+Metaphysics+and+Logic&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-19-989057-6&rft.aulast=Haaparanta&rft.aufirst=Leila&rft.au=Koskinen%2C+Heikki+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dyz8sko5zVyUC%26pg%3DPA454&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHacker2013" class="citation book cs1">Hacker, P. M. S. 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Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-18033-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-18033-3"><bdi>978-0-631-18033-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220214234651/https://philpapers.org/rec/HADPAA">Archived</a> from the original on 14 February 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210329182946/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/fallacies/">Archived</a> from the original on 29 March 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 March</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Fallacies&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Hansen&rft.aufirst=Hans&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Ffallacies%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeidemann2014" class="citation book cs1">Heidemann, Dietmar H. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6pTJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT140"><i>Kant and Non-conceptual Content</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-98155-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-98155-8"><bdi>978-1-317-98155-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kant+and+Non-conceptual+Content&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-317-98155-8&rft.aulast=Heidemann&rft.aufirst=Dietmar+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6pTJAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT140&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeil2013" class="citation book cs1">Heil, John Fergusson (2013). <i>Philosophy of Mind: A Contemporary Introduction</i> (3rd ed.). 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Springer Netherlands. pp. <span class="nowrap">8–</span>11. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-010-1689-6_3">10.1007/978-94-010-1689-6_3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-010-1689-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-010-1689-6"><bdi>978-94-010-1689-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220213124651/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-010-1689-6_3">Archived</a> from the original on 13 February 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926479-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926479-7"><bdi>978-0-19-926479-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210129082636/https://philpapers.org/rec/HONTOC-2">Archived</a> from the original on 29 January 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-252756-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-252756-1"><bdi>978-0-19-252756-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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CRC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-351-68402-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-351-68402-6"><bdi>978-1-351-68402-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Motilal Banarsidass. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-4299-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-4299-1"><bdi>978-81-208-4299-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Subaltern+Saints+in+India%3A+Women+and+Sudras+in+Bhakti+Movement&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-81-208-4299-1&rft.aulast=Jha&rft.aufirst=Meenakshi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4gdoEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA217&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJiang2009" class="citation book cs1">Jiang, Xinyan (2009). "Enlightenment Movement". 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Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-45632-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-45632-2"><bdi>978-3-540-45632-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Computational+Logic%3A+Logic+Programming+and+Beyond%3A+Essays+in+Honour+of+Robert+A.+Kowalski%2C+Part+II&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-3-540-45632-2&rft.aulast=Kakas&rft.aufirst=Antonis+C.&rft.au=Sadri%2C+Fariba&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwQVqCQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA588&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaminski2017" class="citation book cs1">Kaminski, Joseph J. 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Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511307-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511307-5"><bdi>978-0-19-511307-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Aesthetics&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-19-511307-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKenny2004" class="citation book cs1">Kenny, Anthony (2004). <i>A New History of Western Philosophy, vol.1: Ancient Philosophy</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-875272-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-875272-1"><bdi>978-0-19-875272-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+New+History+of+Western+Philosophy%2C+vol.1%3A+Ancient+Philosophy&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-19-875272-1&rft.aulast=Kenny&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKenny2006" class="citation book cs1">Kenny, Anthony (2006). <i>The Rise of Modern Philosophy</i>. A new history of Western philosophy. Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-875277-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-875277-6"><bdi>978-0-19-875277-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+Modern+Philosophy&rft.series=A+new+history+of+Western+philosophy&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-19-875277-6&rft.aulast=Kenny&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKenny2018" class="citation book cs1">Kenny, Anthony (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fn9xDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR20"><i>An Illustrated Brief History of Western Philosophy, 20th Anniversary Edition</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-119-45279-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-119-45279-9"><bdi>978-1-119-45279-9</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Illustrated+Brief+History+of+Western+Philosophy%2C+20th+Anniversary+Edition&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-119-45279-9&rft.aulast=Kenny&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dfn9xDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPR20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKim2019" class="citation book cs1">Kim, Sungmoon (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ckG8DwAAQBAJ"><i>Theorizing Confucian Virtue Politics: The Political Philosophy of Mencius and Xunzi</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-57739-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-57739-7"><bdi>978-1-108-57739-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theorizing+Confucian+Virtue+Politics%3A+The+Political+Philosophy+of+Mencius+and+Xunzi&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-108-57739-7&rft.aulast=Kim&rft.aufirst=Sungmoon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DckG8DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKitcher2023" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Kitcher, Philip S. (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-science">"Philosophy of Science"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230629122627/https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-science">Archived</a> from the original on 29 June 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Philosophy+of+Science&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2023&rft.aulast=Kitcher&rft.aufirst=Philip+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fphilosophy-of-science&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoslowski2017" class="citation book cs1">Koslowski, Barbara (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski">"Abductive Reasoning and Explanation"</a>. <i>International Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315725697">10.4324/9781315725697</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-315-72569-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-315-72569-7"><bdi>978-1-315-72569-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220108225144/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315725697-20/abductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski">Archived</a> from the original on 8 January 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Abductive+Reasoning+and+Explanation&rft.btitle=International+Handbook+of+Thinking+and+Reasoning&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781315725697&rft.isbn=978-1-315-72569-7&rft.aulast=Koslowski&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.taylorfrancis.com%2Fchapters%2Fedit%2F10.4324%2F9781315725697-20%2Fabductive-reasoning-explanation-barbara-koslowski&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuhlmann2010" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Kuhlmann, Meinard (2010). "Ontologie: 4.2.1 Einzeldinge und Universalien". In Sandkühler, Hans Jörg (ed.). <i>Enzyklopädie Philosophie</i> (in German). Meiner. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7873-3545-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-7873-3545-9"><bdi>978-3-7873-3545-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ontologie%3A+4.2.1+Einzeldinge+und+Universalien&rft.btitle=Enzyklop%C3%A4die+Philosophie&rft.pub=Meiner&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-3-7873-3545-9&rft.aulast=Kuhlmann&rft.aufirst=Meinard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKulkeRothermund1998" class="citation book cs1">Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V0GEtXp-GsUC&pg=PA139"><i>A History of India</i></a>. Psychology Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-15482-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-15482-6"><bdi>978-0-415-15482-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+India&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-415-15482-6&rft.aulast=Kulke&rft.aufirst=Hermann&rft.au=Rothermund%2C+Dietmar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DV0GEtXp-GsUC%26pg%3DPA139&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaerkeSmithSchliesser2013" class="citation book cs1">Laerke, Mogens; Smith, Justin E. H.; Schliesser, Eric (2013). <i>Philosophy and Its History: Aims and Methods in the Study of Early Modern Philosophy</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-985716-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-985716-6"><bdi>978-0-19-985716-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophy+and+Its+History%3A+Aims+and+Methods+in+the+Study+of+Early+Modern+Philosophy&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-19-985716-6&rft.aulast=Laerke&rft.aufirst=Mogens&rft.au=Smith%2C+Justin+E.+H.&rft.au=Schliesser%2C+Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLagerlund2020" class="citation book cs1">Lagerlund, Henrik, ed. (2020). <i>Encyclopedia of Medieval Philosophy: Philosophy Between 500 and 1500</i> (2nd ed.). Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-024-1663-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-024-1663-3"><bdi>978-94-024-1663-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Medieval+Philosophy%3A+Philosophy+Between+500+and+1500&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-94-024-1663-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLambert2023" class="citation book cs1">Lambert, Joseph (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gNytEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT26"><i>Translation Ethics</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-000-84163-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-000-84163-3"><bdi>978-1-000-84163-3</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Walter de Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-080708-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-080708-0"><bdi>978-3-11-080708-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201008130434/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pragmatism/">Archived</a> from the original on 8 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pragmatism&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Legg&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rft.au=Hookway%2C+Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fpragmatism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLi2014" class="citation book cs1">Li, Wei (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_ZQ9BQAAQBAJ&pg=PR9"><i>Mathematical Logic: Foundations for Information Science</i></a>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-0348-0862-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-0348-0862-0"><bdi>978-3-0348-0862-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mathematical+Logic%3A+Foundations+for+Information+Science&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-3-0348-0862-0&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Wei&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_ZQ9BQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPR9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLippert-Rasmussen2017" class="citation book cs1">Lippert-Rasmussen, Kasper (2017). "The Nature of Applied Philosophy". 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John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-86911-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-86911-6"><bdi>978-1-118-86911-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Nature+of+Applied+Philosophy&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Applied+Philosophy&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-118-86911-6&rft.aulast=Lippert-Rasmussen&rft.aufirst=Kasper&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLittle1984" class="citation journal cs1">Little, Daniel (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/LITREA-2">"Reflective Equilibrium and Justification"</a>. <i>Southern Journal of Philosophy</i>. <b>22</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">373–</span>387. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.2041-6962.1984.tb00354.x">10.1111/j.2041-6962.1984.tb00354.x</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220501081117/https://philpapers.org/rec/LITREA-2">Archived</a> from the original on 1 May 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Routledge. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231114123505/https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/overview/twentieth-century-philosophy/v-1/sections/analytic-and-continental-philosophy">Archived</a> from the original on 14 November 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Philosophers%27+Magazine&rft.atitle=Is+Philosophy+Useless%3F&rft.issue=71&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E24-%3C%2Fspan%3E28&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5840%2Ftpm20157197&rft.aulast=Lockie&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frepository.uwl.ac.uk%2Fid%2Feprint%2F1759%2F1%2F71%2520opinion%2520Is%2520Philosophy%2520Useless%2520Lockie%2520jg.doc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLong1986" class="citation book cs1">Long, A. A. (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3s6DILqP1MwC"><i>Hellenistic Philosophy: Stoics, Epicureans, Sceptics</i></a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-05808-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-05808-8"><bdi>978-0-520-05808-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-870055-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-870055-5"><bdi>978-0-19-870055-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-65428-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-65428-9"><bdi>978-0-521-65428-9</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+the+Philosophy+of+Mind&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-521-65428-9&rft.aulast=Lowe&rft.aufirst=E.+Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmH12kYm1RKAC%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLowe2005" class="citation book cs1">Lowe, E. Jonathan (2005). "Particulars and Non-particulars". In Honderich, Ted (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/HONTOC-2"><i>The Oxford Companion to Philosophy</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926479-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926479-7"><bdi>978-0-19-926479-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210129082636/https://philpapers.org/rec/HONTOC-2">Archived</a> from the original on 29 January 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-750885-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-750885-5"><bdi>978-0-19-750885-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Feminist+Philosophy&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=McAfee&rft.aufirst=No%C3%ABlle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Ffeminist-philosophy%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcAfeeGarrySupersonGrasswick2023" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/No%C3%ABlle_McAfee" title="Noëlle McAfee">McAfee, Noëlle</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ann_Garry" title="Ann Garry">Garry, Ann</a>; <a href="/wiki/Anita_Superson" title="Anita Superson">Superson, Anita</a>; Grasswick, Heidi; <a href="/wiki/Serene_Khader" title="Serene Khader">Khader, Serene</a> (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminist-philosophy/">"Feminist Philosophy"</a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230622032832/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminist-philosophy/">Archived</a> from the original on 22 June 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-49166-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-49166-8"><bdi>978-1-317-49166-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Gale Research Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7876-4004-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7876-4004-0"><bdi>978-0-7876-4004-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220430192230/https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/methodology-philosophy">Archived</a> from the original on 30 April 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Bloomsbury Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-09339-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-137-09339-4"><bdi>978-1-137-09339-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Key+Concepts+in+Philosophy&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-137-09339-4&rft.aulast=McQueen&rft.aufirst=Paddy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dho5KEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA162&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcQuillan2015" class="citation book cs1">McQuillan, J. 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Meiner. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7873-3545-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-7873-3545-9"><bdi>978-3-7873-3545-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220320211323/https://meiner.de/enzyklopadie-philosophie-14071.html">Archived</a> from the original on 20 March 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Parker, Son, and Bourn. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/78070085">78070085</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221105093037/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Utilitarianism/Chapter_4">Archived</a> from the original on 5 November 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Springer Nature. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-97385-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-030-97385-8"><bdi>978-3-030-97385-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Metzler. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-476-02107-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-476-02107-6"><bdi>978-3-476-02107-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211020080039/https://www.springer.com/de/book/9783476021083">Archived</a> from the original on 20 October 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-53333-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-53333-9"><bdi>978-0-226-53333-9</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Prentice Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-600652-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-600652-7"><bdi>978-0-13-600652-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Classical+Philosophical+Questions&rft.edition=13th&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-13-600652-7&rft.aulast=Mulvaney&rft.aufirst=Robert+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurphy2018" class="citation book cs1">Murphy, P. Karen (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qmUPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA138"><i>Rediscovering the Philosophical Roots of Educational Psychology: A Special Issue of educational Psychologist</i></a>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/philosophy">the original</a> on 28 March 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 March</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Philosophy&rft.btitle=Lexico&rft.pub=University+of+Oxford+Press&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.oxforddictionaries.com%2Fdefinition%2Fphilosophy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOvergaardD'Oro2017" class="citation book cs1">Overgaard, Søren; D'Oro, Giuseppina (2017). "Introduction". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-companion-to-philosophical-methodology/introduction/03C3CBE35E1E1FD54E29AD2D5E1C4D48"><i>The Cambridge Companion to Philosophical Methodology</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-54736-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-54736-0"><bdi>978-1-107-54736-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220501081115/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-companion-to-philosophical-methodology/introduction/03C3CBE35E1E1FD54E29AD2D5E1C4D48">Archived</a> from the original on 1 May 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Philosophical+Methodology&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-107-54736-0&rft.aulast=Overgaard&rft.aufirst=S%C3%B8ren&rft.au=D%27Oro%2C+Giuseppina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Fabs%2Fcambridge-companion-to-philosophical-methodology%2Fintroduction%2F03C3CBE35E1E1FD54E29AD2D5E1C4D48&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOvergaardGilbertBurwood2013" class="citation book cs1">Overgaard, Søren; Gilbert, Paul; Burwood, Stephen (2013). "What Is Philosophy?". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/an-introduction-to-metaphilosophy/what-is-philosophy/9D6F6F1186D1FF68A23B97B17CC810EE"><i>An Introduction to Metaphilosophy</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-19341-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-19341-2"><bdi>978-0-521-19341-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220214234944/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/an-introduction-to-metaphilosophy/what-is-philosophy/9D6F6F1186D1FF68A23B97B17CC810EE">Archived</a> from the original on 14 February 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=What+Is+Philosophy%3F&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Metaphilosophy&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-521-19341-2&rft.aulast=Overgaard&rft.aufirst=S%C3%B8ren&rft.au=Gilbert%2C+Paul&rft.au=Burwood%2C+Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Fabs%2Fan-introduction-to-metaphilosophy%2Fwhat-is-philosophy%2F9D6F6F1186D1FF68A23B97B17CC810EE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalmquist2010" class="citation book cs1">Palmquist, Stephen (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NOKjGp7NHtUC&pg=PA800"><i>Cultivating Personhood: Kant and Asian Philosophy</i></a>. Walter de Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-022623-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-022623-2"><bdi>978-3-11-022623-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cultivating+Personhood%3A+Kant+and+Asian+Philosophy&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-3-11-022623-2&rft.aulast=Palmquist&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNOKjGp7NHtUC%26pg%3DPA800&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPapineau2005" class="citation book cs1">Papineau, David (2005). "Science, Problems of the Philosophy of". In Honderich, Ted (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199264797.001.0001/acref-9780199264797-e-2279"><i>The Oxford Companion to Philosophy</i></a> (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926479-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926479-7"><bdi>978-0-19-926479-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231123161944/https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199264797.001.0001/acref-9780199264797-e-2279">Archived</a> from the original on 23 November 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180426123419/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/naturalism/#MetNat">Archived</a> from the original on 26 April 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Naturalism&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2023&rft.aulast=Papineau&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fnaturalism%2F%23MetNat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParker-Ryan" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Parker-Ryan, Sally. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/ord-lang/">"Ordinary Language Philosophy"</a>. <i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220307123951/https://iep.utm.edu/ord-lang/">Archived</a> from the original on 7 March 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ordinary+Language+Philosophy&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Parker-Ryan&rft.aufirst=Sally&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiep.utm.edu%2Ford-lang%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParkinson2005" class="citation book cs1">Parkinson, G. H. R., ed. (2005). <i>IV. The Renaissance and Seventeenth-Century Rationalism</i>. Routledge History of Philosophy. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-02914-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-02914-5"><bdi>978-0-203-02914-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=IV.+The+Renaissance+and+Seventeenth-Century+Rationalism&rft.series=Routledge+History+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-203-02914-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerkins2013" class="citation book cs1">Perkins, Dorothy (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KMQeAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA486"><i>Encyclopedia of China: History and Culture</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-93562-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-93562-7"><bdi>978-1-135-93562-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+China%3A+History+and+Culture&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-135-93562-7&rft.aulast=Perkins&rft.aufirst=Dorothy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKMQeAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA486&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerrett2016" class="citation book cs1">Perrett, Roy W. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Indian+Philosophy&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-521-85356-9&rft.aulast=Perrett&rft.aufirst=Roy+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dq7wwCwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerryBratmanFischer2010" class="citation book cs1">Perry, John; Bratman, Michael; Fischer, John Martin (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0ndAAQAAIAAJ"><i>Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings</i></a> (5th ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-539036-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-539036-0"><bdi>978-0-19-539036-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Philosophy%3A+Classical+and+Contemporary+Readings&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-19-539036-0&rft.aulast=Perry&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Bratman%2C+Michael&rft.au=Fischer%2C+John+Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0ndAAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillips2010" class="citation book cs1">Phillips, D. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 August</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=What+Is+Philosophy+of+Education%3F&rft.btitle=The+SAGE+Handbook+of+Philosophy+of+Education&rft.pub=SAGE&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4462-0697-3&rft.aulast=Phillips&rft.aufirst=D.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFI02oTvjkV8C%26pg%3DPA16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillips1998" class="citation book cs1">Phillips, Stephen H. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z02WEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA324"><i>Classical Indian Metaphysics: Refutations of Realism and the Emergence of New Logic</i></a>. Motilal Banarsidass. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1488-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1488-2"><bdi>978-81-208-1488-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Bloomsbury Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-350-03743-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-350-03743-4"><bdi>978-1-350-03743-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Reflections+on+the+Russian+Revolution&rft.btitle=Readings+on+the+Russian+Revolution&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-350-03743-4&rft.aulast=Pipes&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaXX0DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlato2023" class="citation book cs1">Plato (2023) [1871]. "Apology". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/plato/dialogues/benjamin-jowett/text/apology#apology-text"><i>Dialogues</i></a>. Translated by Jowett, Benjamin. Standard Ebooks. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231114084819/https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/plato/dialogues/benjamin-jowett/text/apology#apology-text">Archived</a> from the original on 14 November 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-998108-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-998108-3"><bdi>978-0-19-998108-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=I.+What+Is+Philosophy%3F&rft.btitle=Philosophy%3A+The+Quest+for+Truth&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-998108-3&rft.aulast=Pojman&rft.aufirst=Louis+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPolger" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Polger, Thomas W. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/functism/">"Functionalism"</a>. <i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190519120233/https://www.iep.utm.edu/functism/">Archived</a> from the original on 19 May 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-29073-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-29073-6"><bdi>978-1-118-29073-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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In Grant, Alec (ed.). <i>Writing Philosophical Autoethnography</i>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-000-95761-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-000-95761-7"><bdi>978-1-000-95761-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-69162-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-69162-3"><bdi>978-1-134-69162-3</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Globalized+Knowledge+Flows+and+Chinese+Social+Theory&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-134-69162-3&rft.aulast=Qi&rft.aufirst=Xiaoying&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnxWkAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuinton2005" class="citation book cs1">Quinton, Anthony Meredith (2005). "Philosophy". 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University of Hawaii Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1542-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1542-4"><bdi>978-0-8248-1542-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Limits+of+Scripture%3A+Vivekananda%27s+Reinterpretation+of+the+Vedas&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-1542-4&rft.aulast=Rambachan&rft.aufirst=Anantanand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Db9EJBQG3zqUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRamos2004" class="citation book cs1">Ramos, Christine Carmela R. 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Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-30258-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-30258-7"><bdi>978-90-04-30258-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Lexington Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-9978-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-9978-7"><bdi>978-0-7391-9978-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Metaphilosophy%3A+Philosophy+in+Philosophical+Perspective&rft.pub=Lexington+Books&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-7391-9978-7&rft.aulast=Rescher&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2yEvBQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRescher2013" class="citation book cs1">Rescher, Nicholas (2013). "1. 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State University of New York Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88706-521-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88706-521-7"><bdi>978-0-88706-521-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Postmodernism+and+Continental+Philosophy&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-88706-521-7&rft.aulast=Silverman&rft.aufirst=Hugh+J.&rft.au=Welton%2C+Donn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpHd0VtVBn1UC%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimpson2002" class="citation book cs1">Simpson, John A. (2002). 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Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-429-78275-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-429-78275-6"><bdi>978-0-429-78275-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=More+Critical+Approaches+to+Comics%3A+Theories+and+Methods&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-429-78275-6&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Matthew+J.&rft.au=Brown%2C+Matthew&rft.au=Duncan%2C+Randy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQkmqDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT174&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSolomonHiggins2003" class="citation book cs1">Solomon, Robert C.; Higgins, Kathleen M. 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Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-909480-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-909480-8"><bdi>978-0-02-909480-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230630162728/https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/philosophy-overview">Archived</a> from the original on 30 June 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231123162439/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2023/entries/philosophy-religion/">Archived</a> from the original on 23 November 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 September</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Philosophy+of+Religion&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2023&rft.aulast=Taliaferro&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fsum2023%2Fentries%2Fphilosophy-religion%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTen1999" class="citation book cs1">Ten, C. L. 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Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83782-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83782-8"><bdi>978-0-521-83782-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Springer Science & Business Media. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-277-2098-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-277-2098-6"><bdi>978-90-277-2098-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science%2C+Action%2C+and+Reality&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-90-277-2098-6&rft.aulast=Tuomela&rft.aufirst=Raimo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2Hg9rKafnHsC%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUniacke2017" class="citation book cs1">Uniacke, Suzanne (2017). "The Value of Applied Philosophy". 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Northwestern University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8101-5197-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8101-5197-0"><bdi>978-0-8101-5197-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Philosophy%3A+A+Reader%27s+Guide&rft.pub=Northwestern+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-8101-5197-0&rft.aulast=Verene&rft.aufirst=Donald+Phillip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhkDX-dxMHpoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVickers2022" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Vickers, John M. 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(2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/lang-phi/">"Philosophy of Language"</a>. <i>The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230615132016/https://iep.utm.edu/lang-phi/">Archived</a> from the original on 15 June 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Philosophy+of+Language&rft.btitle=The+Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=2023&rft.aulast=Wolf&rft.aufirst=Michael+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiep.utm.edu%2Flang-phi%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolffLeopold2021" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Wolff, Jonathan; Leopold, David (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/marx/">"Karl Marx"</a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200116010243/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/marx/">Archived</a> from the original on 16 January 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 September</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Karl+Marx&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Wolff&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft.au=Leopold%2C+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fmarx%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolff2006" class="citation book cs1">Wolff, Jonathan (2006). <i>An Introduction to Political Philosophy</i> (Rev. ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-965801-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-965801-5"><bdi>978-0-19-965801-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Political+Philosophy&rft.edition=Rev.&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-19-965801-5&rft.aulast=Wolff&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoollardHoward-Snyder2022" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Woollard, Fiona; Howard-Snyder, Frances (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/doing-allowing/#TrolProb">"Doing vs. Allowing Harm"</a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. 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colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Skepticism">Academic Skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_the_Sextii" title="School of the Sextii">School of the Sextii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivadā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika and Prasangika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Edo neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Anti-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaardianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krausism" title="Krausism">Krausism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzscheanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactionalism" title="Transactionalism">Transactionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Developments_in_the_20th_century" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_historicism" title="New historicism">New Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">Posthumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_region269" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>By region</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africana_philosophy" title="Africana philosophy">Africana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Taiwan" title="Philosophy in Taiwan">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_philosophy" title="Middle Eastern philosophy">Middle Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_philosophy" title="Pakistani philosophy">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Turkish_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Turkish philosophers">Turkish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_philosophy" title="Australian philosophy">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_philosophy" title="Scottish philosophy">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Canada" title="Philosophy in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_philosophy" title="Czech philosophy">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_philosophy" title="Danish philosophy">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_philosophy" title="Dutch philosophy">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy_in_Finland" title="History of philosophy in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Malta" title="Philosophy in Malta">Maltese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy_in_Poland" title="History of philosophy in Poland">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Slovene_philosophers" title="List of Slovene philosophers">Slovene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_philosophy" title="Spanish philosophy">Spanish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Amerindian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_philosophy" title="Romanian philosophy">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_philosophy" title="Russian philosophy">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_philosophy" title="Yugoslav philosophy">Yugoslav</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/10px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/15px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/21px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></b></li> <li><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy" title="Category:Philosophy">Category</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Humanities54" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Humanities" title="Template:Humanities"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Humanities" title="Template talk:Humanities"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Humanities" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Humanities"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Humanities54" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;height:2.5em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">Classical studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_arts#Literary_arts" title="The arts">Language arts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performing_arts" title="Performing arts">Performing arts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dance" title="Dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musicology" title="Musicology">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre" title="Theatre">Theatre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_studies" title="Religious studies">Religious studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_arts" title="Visual arts">Visual arts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Filmmaking" title="Filmmaking">Filmmaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Painting" title="Painting">Painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sculpture" title="Sculpture">Sculpture</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Interdisciplinary_fields24" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdisciplinary fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_humanities" title="Digital humanities">Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_humanities" title="Environmental humanities">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_humanities" title="Health humanities">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_humanities" title="Medical humanities">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_humanities" title="Public humanities">Public</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Themes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abductive_reasoning" title="Abductive reasoning">Abductive reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_arts" title="The arts">The arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beauty" title="Beauty">Beauty</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Belles-lettres" title="Belles-lettres">Belles-lettres</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bildung" title="Bildung">Bildung</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">Creativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism" title="Criticism">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_literacy" title="Cultural literacy">Cultural literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/High_culture" title="High culture">High</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_culture" title="Popular culture">Pop</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_knowledge" title="General knowledge">General knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_condition" title="Human condition">Human condition</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Humanitas" title="Humanitas">Humanitas</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_arts_education" title="Liberal arts education">Liberal arts education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trivium" title="Trivium">Trivium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrivium" title="Quadrivium">Quadrivium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_character" title="Moral character">Moral character</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-realization" title="Self-realization">Self-realization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-reflection" title="Self-reflection">Self-reflection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisdom" title="Wisdom">Wisdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_of_art" title="Work of art">Work of art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Journals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Journal_of_Archaeology" title="American Journal of Archaeology">American Journal of Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daedalus_(journal)" title="Daedalus (journal)">Daedalus</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Humanities" title="History of Humanities">History of Humanities</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanitas_(journal)" title="Humanitas (journal)">Humanitas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities_and_Social_Sciences_Communications" title="Humanities and Social Sciences Communications">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Controversial_Ideas" title="Journal of Controversial Ideas">Journal of Controversial Ideas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_Royal_Asiatic_Society" title="Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society">Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_(journal)" title="Leonardo (journal)">Leonardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nova_Religio" title="Nova Religio">Nova Religio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revue_des_%C3%89tudes_Arm%C3%A9niennes" title="Revue des Études Arméniennes">Revue des Études Arméniennes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teaching_Philosophy" title="Teaching Philosophy">Teaching Philosophy</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_humanities_journals" title="List of humanities journals">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arts_and_Humanities_Research_Council" title="Arts and Humanities Research Council">Arts and Humanities Research Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_science" title="Human science">Human science</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Geisteswissenschaft" title="Geisteswissenschaft">Geisteswissenschaft</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities,_arts,_and_social_sciences" title="Humanities, arts, and social sciences">Humanities, arts, and social sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_of_Humanities" title="Master of Humanities">Master of Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moscow_University_for_the_Humanities" title="Moscow University for the Humanities">Moscow University for the Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Endowment_for_the_Humanities" title="National Endowment for the Humanities">National Endowment for the Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Humanities_Medal" title="National Humanities Medal">National Humanities Medal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Antihumanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philistinism" title="Philistinism">Philistinism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_culture#Criticism" title="Popular culture">Criticism of mass culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_essentialism" title="Educational essentialism">Educational essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities_in_the_United_States" title="Humanities in the United States">Humanities in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_considered_a_founder_in_a_humanities_field" title="List of people considered a founder in a humanities field">List of people considered a founder in a humanities field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_humanities" title="Outline of the humanities">Outline of the humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Latin_school#Studia_Humanitatis" title="Latin school">Studia Humanitatis</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236088147">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 2em}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;padding:0.2em 0;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px;line-height:22px}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;align-items:baseline;padding:0.2em 0;column-gap:1em;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{display:flex;align-items:baseline;margin:0.15em 0;min-height:24px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-logo{width:22px;line-height:22px;margin:0 0.2em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-link{margin:0 0.2em;text-align:left}@media screen and (max-width:960px){.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{flex-flow:column wrap;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{flex:0 1}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{flex:1;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{flex:0 0 20em;min-width:20em}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.portal-bar{margin-top:-1px}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header"><b>Philosophy</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects" style="white-space:nowrap;">sister projects</span></a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/19px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/29px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/38px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Philosophy" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/Philosophy">Definitions</a></b> from Wiktionary</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" 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mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-7f7b9dd5f8-wm8cw","wgBackendResponseTime":156,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"4.577","walltime":"4.915","ppvisitednodes":{"value":26274,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":994130,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":5312,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":14,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":22,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":937941,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 4289.542 1 -total"," 33.73% 1446.679 189 Template:Cite_book"," 17.01% 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[\"CITEREFBanhatti1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBanicki2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarsky2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBayne2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeaney2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBellFernback2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBiletzkiMatar2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBilimoria2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBird2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBirner2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlackburn2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlackburn2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlackson2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlackwell2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlairJohnson2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBondurant1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBottin1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBotz-Bornstein2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBowleArneson2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoydTimpe2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrenner1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBristow2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrownFehige2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurns2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChalmers2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChamankhah2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChambreMaurerStrollMcLellan2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChimakonam2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChimakonamOgbonnaya2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClark2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoetzeeRoux1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCogan\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFColman2009a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCopleston2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCotterell2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoughlin2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCraig1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrary2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCropper1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrumley2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCua2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDalal2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDaly2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDaly2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDaniels2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavis2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDefoortStandaert2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDehsen2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDellsénLawlerNorton2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDever2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDittmer\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDougherty2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDouven2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDowden2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDowden2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDuignan2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDuignan2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDuignan2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEB_Staff2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEB_Staff2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEB_Staff2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEB_Staff2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEB_Staff2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEB_Staff2023a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEderLawlervan_Riel2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEsposito2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEspínNickoloff2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFiet2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFischerCollins2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFisherSytsma2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlavelRobbiano2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFForrest2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrankenaRaybeckBurbules2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrede2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGelan2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGlenneySilva2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoffiRoux2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGorisse2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGracia1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGraciaVargas2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGraham2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrant2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrayling2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreco2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGriffel2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrimmCohoe2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGroarke2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGutas2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuyer2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaack1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaaparantaKoskinen2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHacker2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHadot1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHansen2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeidemann2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeil2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHerbjørnsrud2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHerbjørnsrud2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHetherington\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHintikka2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHirschmann2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoad1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoward2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHursthousePettigrove2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHyltonKemp2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIchikawa2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIchikawaSteup2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIfantidou2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIngarden1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJacobs2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJanaway2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJaroszyński2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJeanes2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJenicek2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJha2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJiang2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnson-Laird2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnson1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnstone1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoll\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJonesBos2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKakasSadri2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaminski2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKane2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKane2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKant1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKant1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKasulis1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKasulis2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKelly1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKenny2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKenny2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKenny2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKim2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKitcher2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoslowski2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuhlmann2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKulkeRothermund1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaerkeSmithSchliesser2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLagerlund2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLambert2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLazerowitzAmbrose2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeggHookway2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLi2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLippert-Rasmussen2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLittle1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLittlejohn2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLivingston2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLockie2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLong1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLosee2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLouthThielicke2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLowe2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLowe2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMa2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacDonaldKretzmann1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaddy2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaffie\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMakeham2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMangena\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarenbon2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarshev2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartinichStroll2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMasud2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcAfee2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcAfeeGarrySupersonGrasswick2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCutcheon2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcDermid\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcKeon2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcQueen2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcQuillan2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMehrtens2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeister\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMenon\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMill1863\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMitias2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMittelstraß2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoaddel2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMolefeAllsobrook2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorujãoDimasRelvas2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoseley\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMulvaney2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMurphy2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNado2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNagel2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNanay2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNasr2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNasrLeaman2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNewton-Smith2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNievergelt2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNunes2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNuttall2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOED_staff2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOUP_Staff2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlsson2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOvergaardD\u0026#039;Oro2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOvergaardGilbertBurwood2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPalmquist2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPapineau2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPapineau2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParker-Ryan\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParkinson2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPerkins2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPerrett2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPerryBratmanFischer2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhillips1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhillips2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPipes2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlato2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPojman2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPolger\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPooleyRothenbuhler2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPratt2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQi2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQuinton2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRambachan1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRamos2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRanganathan\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRedse2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRegenbogen2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRescher2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRescher2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReynolds2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRickles2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRiedel1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRini\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRivera_Berruz2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRizvi2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobertson_IshiiAtkins2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosenberg2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRuether2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRussell1912\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRussellFara2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSafi2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSantinelloPiaia2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSartwell2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSayre-McCord2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScharfstein1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchroeder2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSeshadri1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShaffer2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShand2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSharpeUre2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShaw2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShields2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShiraev2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSilvermanWelton1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimpson2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSinger1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSingh2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSlingerland2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmart2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmithBrownDuncan2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSolomonHiggins2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStambaugh1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStehn\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteupNeta2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaliaferro2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTen1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTian2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTieszen2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTruncellito\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTully2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTuomela1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUniacke2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVallely2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_Norden2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVelleman2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVenturinha2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVerene2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVickers2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVintiadis2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVleet2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWaithe1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalshTeoBaydala2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalton1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWei-Ming\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWei2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeir2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeisberg\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliamson2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWiredu2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWolf2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWolff2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWolffLeopold2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoollardHoward-Snyder2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_InwagenSullivanBernstein2023\"] = 1,\n [\"Historical_overview\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Anchor\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Cbignore\"] = 129,\n [\"Circa\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 189,\n [\"Cite dictionary\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 89,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 22,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 1,\n [\"Colend\"] = 1,\n [\"Cols\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 4,\n [\"Featured article\"] = 1,\n [\"Gloss\"] = 2,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 449,\n [\"Humanities\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 4,\n [\"Library resources box\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 12,\n [\"Multiref\"] = 156,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Other uses\"] = 1,\n [\"Philosophy sidebar\"] = 1,\n [\"Philosophy topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-move\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-semi-indef\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 3,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 38,\n [\"Sfnref\"] = 9,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Subject bar\"] = 1,\n [\"Toclimit\"] = 1,\n [\"Transl\"] = 2,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","500","15.2"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","340","10.4"],["recursiveClone 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type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Philosophy","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philosophy","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q5891","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q5891","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-10-31T05:49:04Z","dateModified":"2025-02-19T15:29:33Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/a\/a4\/Le_Penseur_by_Rodin_%28Kunsthalle_Bielefeld%29_2014-04-10.JPG","headline":"study of the truths and principles of being, schools of thought, knowledge, or conduct"}</script> </body> </html>