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Virsnieres — Vikipēdija

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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">paslēpt</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigācija </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/S%C4%81kumlapa" title="Iet uz sākumlapu [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Sākumlapa</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Vikip%C4%93dija:Kopienas_port%C4%81ls" title="Šeit Tu vari uzdot sev interesējošus jautājumus"><span>Kopienas portāls</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Vikip%C4%93dija:Aktualit%C4%81tes" title="Uzzini, kas nesen noticis Vikipēdijā"><span>Aktualitātes</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="Izmaiņas, kas nesen izdarītas Vikipēdijā [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Pēdējās izmaiņas</span></a></li><li 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</div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Izskats"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page&#039;s font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Izskats" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Izskats</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="//donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&amp;utm_medium=sidebar&amp;utm_campaign=C13_lv.wikipedia.org&amp;uselang=lv" class=""><span>Ziedojumi</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&amp;returnto=Virsnieres" title="Ieteicams izveidot kontu un pieslēgties; tomēr tas nav obligāti." class=""><span>Izveidot jaunu Vikipēdijas kontu</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&amp;returnto=Virsnieres" title="Aicinām tevi ieiet Vikipēdijā, tomēr tas nav obligāti. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Ieiet Vikipēdijā</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Vairāk iespēju" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Dalībnieka rīki" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Dalībnieka rīki</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="Dalībnieka izvēlne" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="//donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&amp;utm_medium=sidebar&amp;utm_campaign=C13_lv.wikipedia.org&amp;uselang=lv"><span>Ziedojumi</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&amp;returnto=Virsnieres" title="Ieteicams izveidot kontu un pieslēgties; tomēr tas nav obligāti."><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Izveidot jaunu Vikipēdijas kontu</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&amp;returnto=Virsnieres" title="Aicinām tevi ieiet Vikipēdijā, tomēr tas nav obligāti. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Ieiet Vikipēdijā</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Lapas redaktoriem, kuri nav pieslēgušies <a href="/wiki/Vikip%C4%93dija:Ievads" aria-label="Uzzini vairāk par rediģēšanu"><span>uzzināt vairāk</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="Labojumi, kas veikti no šīs IP adreses [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Devums</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Diskusija par labojumiem, kas izdarīti no šīs IP adreses [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Diskusijas</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"><!-- CentralNotice --></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Vietne"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Saturs" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Saturs</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">pārvietot uz sānjoslu</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">paslēpt</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">Sākums</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Uzbūve_un_fizioloģija" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uzbūve_un_fizioloģija"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Uzbūve un fizioloģija</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Uzbūve_un_fizioloģija-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Pārslēgt Uzbūve un fizioloģija apakšsadaļu</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Uzbūve_un_fizioloģija-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Asinsapgāde" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asinsapgāde"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Asinsapgāde</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asinsapgāde-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Garoza" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Garoza"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Garoza</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Garoza-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ārējā_zona" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ārējā_zona"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Ārējā zona</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ārējā_zona-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Funkcijas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Funkcijas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1</span> <span>Funkcijas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Funkcijas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vidējā_zona" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vidējā_zona"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Vidējā zona</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vidējā_zona-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Funkcijas_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Funkcijas_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.1</span> <span>Funkcijas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Funkcijas_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dziļā_zona" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dziļā_zona"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Dziļā zona</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dziļā_zona-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Funkcijas_3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Funkcijas_3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5.1</span> <span>Funkcijas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Funkcijas_3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Serde" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Serde"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Serde</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Serde-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Funkcijas_4" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Funkcijas_4"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6.1</span> <span>Funkcijas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Funkcijas_4-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Virsnieru_dziedzeru_slimības" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Virsnieru_dziedzeru_slimības"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Virsnieru dziedzeru slimības</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Virsnieru_dziedzeru_slimības-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Pārslēgt Virsnieru dziedzeru slimības apakšsadaļu</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Virsnieru_dziedzeru_slimības-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Kortikosteroīdu_pārprodukcija" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kortikosteroīdu_pārprodukcija"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Kortikosteroīdu pārprodukcija</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kortikosteroīdu_pārprodukcija-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Kušinga_sindroms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kušinga_sindroms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Kušinga sindroms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kušinga_sindroms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Primārais_aldosteronisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primārais_aldosteronisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Primārais aldosteronisms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primārais_aldosteronisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Virsnieru_mazspēja" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Virsnieru_mazspēja"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Virsnieru mazspēja</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Virsnieru_mazspēja-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Adisona_slimība" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adisona_slimība"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Adisona slimība</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adisona_slimība-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sekundārā_nieru_mazspēja" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sekundārā_nieru_mazspēja"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Sekundārā nieru mazspēja</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sekundārā_nieru_mazspēja-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Virsnieru_audzēji" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Virsnieru_audzēji"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Virsnieru audzēji</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Virsnieru_audzēji-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vēsture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vēsture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Vēsture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vēsture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Atsauces" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Atsauces"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Atsauces</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Atsauces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Saturs" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Pārslēgt satura rādītāju" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Pārslēgt satura rādītāju</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Virsnieres</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Pāriet uz rakstu citā valodā. Pieejams 80 valodās" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-80" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">80 valodas</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bynier" title="Bynier – afrikandu" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Bynier" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="afrikandu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%BA%D8%AF%D8%A9_%D9%83%D8%B8%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="غدة كظرية – arābu" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="غدة كظرية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="arābu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%B6yr%C9%99k%C3%BCst%C3%BC_v%C9%99zil%C9%99r" title="Böyrəküstü vəzilər – azerbaidžāņu" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Böyrəküstü vəzilər" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="azerbaidžāņu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%96" title="Наднырачнікі – baltkrievu" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Наднырачнікі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="baltkrievu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B1%D1%8A%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B6%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Надбъбречна жлеза – bulgāru" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Надбъбречна жлеза" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="bulgāru" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A1%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2_%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%BF" title="অ্যাড্রিনাল গ্রন্থি – bengāļu" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অ্যাড্রিনাল গ্রন্থি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="bengāļu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%98%E0%BD%81%E0%BD%A3%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%98%E0%BD%A0%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BE%A8%E0%BD%BA%E0%BD%93%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%96%E0%BD%B4%E0%BC%8D" title="མཁལ་མའི་རྨེན་བུ། – tibetiešu" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="མཁལ་མའི་རྨེན་བུ།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="tibetiešu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nadbubre%C5%BEna_%C5%BElijezda" title="Nadbubrežna žlijezda – bosniešu" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Nadbubrežna žlijezda" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="bosniešu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gl%C3%A0ndula_suprarenal" title="Glàndula suprarenal – katalāņu" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Glàndula suprarenal" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="katalāņu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%D8%A7%DA%B5%DA%AF%DB%8C_%D8%A6%DB%95%D8%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%A7%DA%B5" title="ئاڵگی ئەدریناڵ – centrālkurdu" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئاڵگی ئەدریناڵ" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="centrālkurdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nadledvina" title="Nadledvina – čehu" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Nadledvina" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="čehu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chwarren_adrenal" title="Chwarren adrenal – velsiešu" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Chwarren adrenal" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="velsiešu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binyre" title="Binyre – dāņu" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Binyre" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="dāņu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nebenniere" title="Nebenniere – vācu" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Nebenniere" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="vācu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%87%DE%AC%DE%91%DE%B0%DE%83%DE%A9%DE%82%DE%A6%DE%8D%DE%B0_%DE%8E%DE%B0%DE%8D%DE%AD%DE%82%DE%B0%DE%91%DE%B0" title="އެޑްރީނަލް ގްލޭންޑް – maldīviešu" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="އެޑްރީނަލް ގްލޭންޑް" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="maldīviešu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ދިވެހިބަސް</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CF%80%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%B5%CF%86%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B4%CE%B9%CE%B1" title="Επινεφρίδια – grieķu" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Επινεφρίδια" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="grieķu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="labs raksts"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenal_gland" title="Adrenal gland – angļu" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Adrenal gland" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="angļu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surrena_glando" title="Surrena glando – esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Surrena glando" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gl%C3%A1ndula_suprarrenal" title="Glándula suprarrenal – spāņu" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Glándula suprarrenal" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="spāņu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neerupealis" title="Neerupealis – igauņu" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Neerupealis" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="igauņu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giltzurrun_gaineko_guruin" title="Giltzurrun gaineko guruin – basku" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Giltzurrun gaineko guruin" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="basku" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%BA%D8%AF%D9%87_%D9%81%D9%88%D9%82_%DA%A9%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%88%DB%8C" title="غده فوق کلیوی – persiešu" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="غده فوق کلیوی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="persiešu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lis%C3%A4munuainen" title="Lisämunuainen – somu" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Lisämunuainen" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="somu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glande_surr%C3%A9nale" title="Glande surrénale – franču" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Glande surrénale" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="franču" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faireog_aidr%C3%A9ineach" title="Faireog aidréineach – īru" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Faireog aidréineach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="īru" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gl%C3%A1ndula_suprarrenal" title="Glándula suprarrenal – galisiešu" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Glándula suprarrenal" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="galisiešu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%98%D7%AA_%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA%D7%A8%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%9B%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%94" title="בלוטת יותרת הכליה – ivrits" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="בלוטת יותרת הכליה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="ivrits" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%BF" title="अधिवृक्क ग्रंथि – hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अधिवृक्क ग्रंथि" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nadbubre%C5%BEna_%C5%BElijezda" title="Nadbubrežna žlijezda – horvātu" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Nadbubrežna žlijezda" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="horvātu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glann_sirenal" title="Glann sirenal – haitiešu" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Glann sirenal" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="haitiešu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mell%C3%A9kvese" title="Mellékvese – ungāru" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Mellékvese" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="ungāru" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B4" title="Մակերիկամ – armēņu" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մակերիկամ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="armēņu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glandula_adrenal" title="Glandula adrenal – interlingva" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Glandula adrenal" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="interlingva" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelenjar_adrenal" title="Kelenjar adrenal – indonēziešu" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kelenjar adrenal" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="indonēziešu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BDrnahettur" title="Nýrnahettur – islandiešu" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Nýrnahettur" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="islandiešu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surrene" title="Surrene – itāļu" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Surrene" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="itāļu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%89%AF%E8%85%8E" title="副腎 – japāņu" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="副腎" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="japāņu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klanjer_adr%C3%A9nal" title="Klanjer adrénal – javiešu" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Klanjer adrénal" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="javiešu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%99%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%96%E1%83%94%E1%83%93%E1%83%90_%E1%83%AF%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%99%E1%83%95%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="თირკმელზედა ჯირკვალი – gruzīnu" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="თირკმელზედა ჯირკვალი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="gruzīnu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D2%AF%D0%B9%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BA%D2%AF%D1%81%D1%82%D1%96_%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B7%D1%96" title="Бүйрекүсті безі – kazahu" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Бүйрекүсті безі" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="kazahu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%85%E0%B2%A1%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%97%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%A5%E0%B2%BF" title="ಅಡ್ರೀನಲ್ ಗ್ರಂಥಿ – kannadu" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಅಡ್ರೀನಲ್ ಗ್ರಂಥಿ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="kannadu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B6%80%EC%8B%A0" title="부신 – korejiešu" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="부신" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="korejiešu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D3%A9%D0%B9%D1%80%D3%A9%D0%BA_%D2%AF%D1%81%D1%82%D2%AF%D0%BD%D0%B4%D3%A9%D0%B3%D2%AF_%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B7" title="Бөйрөк үстүндөгү без – kirgīzu" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Бөйрөк үстүндөгү без" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="kirgīzu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glandula_adrenalis" title="Glandula adrenalis – latīņu" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Glandula adrenalis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="latīņu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niewennier" title="Niewennier – luksemburgiešu" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Niewennier" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="luksemburgiešu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bieneer" title="Bieneer – limburgiešu" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Bieneer" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="limburgiešu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antinkstis" title="Antinkstis – lietuviešu" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Antinkstis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="lietuviešu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B6%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Надбубрежна жлезда – maķedoniešu" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Надбубрежна жлезда" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="maķedoniešu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%A7%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%83%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%BE" title="അധിവൃക്കാഗ്രന്ഥികൾ – malajalu" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അധിവൃക്കാഗ്രന്ഥികൾ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="malajalu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A5%E0%A5%80" title="अधिवृक्क ग्रंथी – marathu" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="अधिवृक्क ग्रंथी" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="marathu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelenjar_adrenal" title="Kelenjar adrenal – malajiešu" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kelenjar adrenal" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="malajiešu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bijnier" title="Bijnier – holandiešu" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Bijnier" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="holandiešu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binyre" title="Binyre – jaunnorvēģu" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Binyre" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="jaunnorvēģu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binyre" title="Binyre – norvēģu bukmols" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Binyre" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="norvēģu bukmols" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nadnercze" title="Nadnercze – poļu" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Nadnercze" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="poļu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gl%C3%A2ndula_suprarrenal" title="Glândula suprarrenal – portugāļu" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Glândula suprarrenal" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="portugāļu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gland%C4%83_suprarenal%C4%83" title="Glandă suprarenală – rumāņu" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Glandă suprarenală" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="rumāņu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Надпочечники – krievu" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Надпочечники" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="krievu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nadbubre%C5%BEna_%C5%BElijezda" title="Nadbubrežna žlijezda – serbu–horvātu" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Nadbubrežna žlijezda" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="serbu–horvātu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenal_gland" title="Adrenal gland – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Adrenal gland" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nadobli%C4%8Dka" title="Nadoblička – slovāku" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Nadoblička" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="slovāku" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nadledvi%C4%8Dna_%C5%BEleza" title="Nadledvična žleza – slovēņu" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Nadledvična žleza" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="slovēņu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hormonet_e_gj%C3%ABndrave_mbiveshkore" title="Hormonet e gjëndrave mbiveshkore – albāņu" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Hormonet e gjëndrave mbiveshkore" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="albāņu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B6%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Надбубрежна жлезда – serbu" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Надбубрежна жлезда" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="serbu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelenjar_adr%C3%A9nal" title="Kelenjar adrénal – zundu" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Kelenjar adrénal" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="zundu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binjure" title="Binjure – zviedru" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Binjure" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="zviedru" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF" title="அண்ணீரகச் சுரப்பி – tamilu" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அண்ணீரகச் சுரப்பி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="tamilu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%85%E0%B0%A7%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%B5%E0%B1%83%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%95_%E0%B0%97%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%A7%E0%B0%BF" title="అధివృక్క గ్రంధి – telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="అధివృక్క గ్రంధి" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%81%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%95" title="ต่อมหมวกไต – taju" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ต่อมหมวกไต" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="taju" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glandulang_adrenal" title="Glandulang adrenal – tagalu" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Glandulang adrenal" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="tagalu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%B6brek_%C3%BCst%C3%BC_bezleri" title="Böbrek üstü bezleri – turku" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Böbrek üstü bezleri" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="turku" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%86%D8%B1%DB%95%D9%83_%D8%A6%DB%88%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%89_%D8%A8%DB%90%D8%B2%D9%89" title="بۆرەك ئۈستى بېزى – uiguru" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="بۆرەك ئۈستى بېزى" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="uiguru" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Надниркова залоза – ukraiņu" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Надниркова залоза" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="ukraiņu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%B8%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%BA%D8%AF%DB%81" title="کظری غدہ – urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="کظری غدہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buyrak_usti_bezlari" title="Buyrak usti bezlari – uzbeku" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Buyrak usti bezlari" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="uzbeku" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuy%E1%BA%BFn_th%C6%B0%E1%BB%A3ng_th%E1%BA%ADn" title="Tuyến thượng thận – vjetnamiešu" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tuyến thượng thận" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="vjetnamiešu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glandula_adrenal" title="Glandula adrenal – varaju" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Glandula adrenal" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="varaju" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%82%BE%E4%B8%8A%E8%85%BA" title="肾上腺 – vu ķīniešu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="肾上腺" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="vu ķīniešu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%85%8E%E4%B8%8A%E8%85%BA" title="腎上腺 – ķīniešu" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="腎上腺" data-language-autonym="中文" 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title="Visas Vikipēdijas lapas, kurās ir saites uz šejieni [j]" accesskey="j"><span>Norādes uz šo rakstu</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Virsnieres" rel="nofollow" title="Izmaiņas, kas nesen izdarītas lapās, kurās ir saites uz šo lapu [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Saistītās izmaiņas</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="Visu īpašo lapu uzskaitījums [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Īpašās lapas</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virsnieres&amp;oldid=4089682" title="Paliekoša saite uz šo lapas versiju"><span>Pastāvīgā saite</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virsnieres&amp;action=info" title="Vairāk informācijas par šo lapu"><span>Lapas informācija</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a 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href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q712294" title="Saistītais Vikidatu ieraksts [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Ieraksts Vikidatos</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Lapas rīki"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Izskats"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Izskats</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">pārvietot uz sānjoslu</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">paslēpt</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-good-article" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Vikip%C4%93dija:Labi_raksti" title="Šis ir labs raksts. Uzklikšķiniet šeit, lai iegūtu vairāk informācijas."><img alt="Labs raksts" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/14px-Yes_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/21px-Yes_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/28px-Yes_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">Vikipēdijas lapa</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="lv" dir="ltr"><table class="infobox" style="width:22em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" style="text-align:center;font-size:125%;font-weight:bold;background-color:dimgray; color: white"><i>Virsnieru dziedzeri</i></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center"> <span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/Att%C4%93ls:Virsnieru_dziedzeri.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/lv/2/23/Virsnieru_dziedzeri.jpg" decoding="async" width="206" height="240" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="206" data-file-height="240" /></a></span><div>Nieres un virsnieru dziedzeri</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center"> <span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/Att%C4%93ls:1801_The_Endocrine_System.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/1801_The_Endocrine_System.jpg/250px-1801_The_Endocrine_System.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/1801_The_Endocrine_System.jpg/375px-1801_The_Endocrine_System.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/1801_The_Endocrine_System.jpg/500px-1801_The_Endocrine_System.jpg 2x" data-file-width="928" data-file-height="831" /></a></span><div><a href="/wiki/Endokr%C4%ABn%C4%81_sist%C4%93ma" title="Endokrīnā sistēma">Endokrīnā sistēma</a></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="text-align:center;background-color: #efefef">Detaļas</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em;text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Org%C4%81nu_sist%C4%93ma" title="Orgānu sistēma">Sistēma</a></th><td> <a href="/wiki/Endokr%C4%ABn%C4%81_sist%C4%93ma" title="Endokrīnā sistēma">Endokrīnā sistēma</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em;text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/V%C4%93na" class="mw-redirect" title="Vēna">Vēna</a></th><td> Suprarenālā vēna</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="text-align:center;background-color: #efefef">Identifikatori</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em;text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Lat%C4%AB%C5%86u_valoda" title="Latīņu valoda">Latīņu</a></th><td> <i>Glandula supralienalis</i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em;text-align:left"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medical_Subject_Headings&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Medical Subject Headings (vēl nav uzrakstīts)">MeSH</a></th><td> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000311">D000311</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em;text-align:left"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Terminologia_Anatomica&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Terminologia Anatomica (vēl nav uzrakstīts)">TA98</a></th><td> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unifr.ch/ifaa/Public/EntryPage/TA98%20Tree/Entity%20TA98%20EN/11.5.00.001%20Entity%20TA98%20EN.htm">A11.5.00.001</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em;text-align:left"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Terminologia_Anatomica&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Terminologia Anatomica (vēl nav uzrakstīts)">TA2</a></th><td> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ta2viewer.openanatomy.org/?id=3874">3874</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em;text-align:left"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foundational_Model_of_Anatomy&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Foundational Model of Anatomy (vēl nav uzrakstīts)">FMA</a></th><td> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bioportal.bioontology.org/ontologies/FMA/?p=classes&amp;conceptid=http%3A%2F%2Fpurl.org%2Fsig%2Font%2Ffma%2Ffma9604">9604</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center"> <b><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anatomisk%C4%81_terminolo%C4%A3ija&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Anatomiskā terminoloģija (vēl nav uzrakstīts)">Anatomiskā terminoloģija</a></i></b><div style="text-align: right;"><small class="noprint">&#91;<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q712294" class="extiw" title="d:Q712294">Labot iekš Wikidata</a>]</small></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Virsnieres</b> jeb <b>virsnieru dziedzeri</b> (<a href="/wiki/Lat%C4%AB%C5%86u_valoda" title="Latīņu valoda">latīņu</a>: <span lang="la"><i>glandula adrenalis</i></span>) ir pāra iekšējās sekrēcijas <a href="/wiki/Dziedzeris" title="Dziedzeris">dziedzeri</a>, kas atrodas virs <a href="/wiki/Nieres" title="Nieres">nierēm</a> un ražo dažādus hormonus, tostarp adrenalīnu un steroīdus aldosteronu un kortizolu. Virsnieres ir visiem <a href="/wiki/Mugurkaulnieki" title="Mugurkaulnieki">mugurkaulniekiem</a>, tostarp cilvēkam. </p><p>Cilvēka virsnierei izšķir serdi un garozu, kuru veido trīs slāņi. Ārējo slāni (<i>zona glomerulosa</i>) veido kamoliņu zona, vidējo&#160;(<i>zona fasciculata</i>) — pavedienu zona, iekšējo&#160;(<i>zona reticularis</i>) — tīklveida zona. </p><p>Virsnieru dziedzeru garozas trīs galvenie ražotie steroīdu hormoni ir <a href="/wiki/Kortizols" title="Kortizols">kortizols</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Aldosterons&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Aldosterons (vēl nav uzrakstīts)">aldosterons</a> un <a href="/wiki/Dzimumhormoni" title="Dzimumhormoni">dzimumhormoni</a> (<a href="/wiki/Anaboliskie_stero%C4%ABdi" title="Anaboliskie steroīdi">androgēni</a> un <a href="/wiki/Estrog%C4%93ns" title="Estrogēns">estrogēni</a>). Minerālkortikoīdi (aldosterons un <a href="/w/index.php?title=Deoksikortikosterons&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Deoksikortikosterons (vēl nav uzrakstīts)">deoksikortikosterons</a>) tiek ražoti kamoliņu zonā (<i>zona glomerulosa</i>) un piedalās asinsspiediena un elektrolītu regulēšanā. Pavedienu zonā (<i>zona fasciculata</i>) ražotie <a href="/wiki/Glikokortiko%C4%ABdi" title="Glikokortikoīdi">glikokortikoīdi</a> (kortizols un kortikosterons) atbild par vielmaiņas un imūnās sistēmas regulēšanu. Tīklveida zona (<i>zona reticularis</i>) atbild par androgēnu veidošanu.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-1"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Virsnieru serdes daļā veidojas <a href="/wiki/Kateholam%C4%ABns" class="mw-redirect" title="Kateholamīns">kateholamīni</a> (<a href="/wiki/Adrenal%C4%ABns" title="Adrenalīns">adrenalīns</a> un <a href="/wiki/Noradrenal%C4%ABns" title="Noradrenalīns">noradrenalīns</a>), kas tiek pastiprināti izdalīti <a href="/wiki/Stress" title="Stress">stresa</a> situācijās un nepieciešami ķermeņa adaptācijai, mainoties ārējiem apstākļiem. </p><p>Virsnieres var skart dažādas endokrīnās slimības. Kortizola pārlieku liela veidošanās var novest pie <a href="/wiki/Ku%C5%A1inga_sindroms" title="Kušinga sindroms">Kušinga sindroma</a> attīstības, bet samazināta veidošanās pie <a href="/w/index.php?title=Adisona_slim%C4%ABba&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Adisona slimība (vēl nav uzrakstīts)">Adisona slimības</a>. Virsnierēs var tikt atrasti dažādi audzēji, visbiežāk tos konstatē nejauši, radioloģiski izmeklējot citus orgānus.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Uzbūve_un_fizioloģija"><span id="Uzb.C5.ABve_un_fiziolo.C4.A3ija"></span>Uzbūve un fizioloģija</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virsnieres&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=1" title="Labot sadaļu: Uzbūve un fizioloģija" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>labot šo sadaļu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virsnieres&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Labot sadaļas vikikodu: Uzbūve un fizioloģija"><span>labot pirmkodu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cilvēka virsnieres veido biezāka garoza, kas ir dzeltenīga ārpusē, bet sarkanbrūna iekšpusē, un daudzkārt plānāka pelēcīga serde. Katra virsniere sver aptuveni 7—10 gramus, taču atsevišķu, ilgstošu slimību dēļ tās var palielināties. Cilvēkiem virsnieres ir 3–5&#160;cm garas un platas, bet tikai ap 5&#160;mm biezas.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-3"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Virsnieres apņem bieza saistaudu kapsula, kurā atrodas <a href="/wiki/Asinsvadi" title="Asinsvadi">asinsvadi</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Limfvadi&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Limfvadi (vēl nav uzrakstīts)">limfvadi</a>, nervi un nervu mezgli. Virsnieres ir labi inervētas. Simpātiskās nervu sistēmas postganglionārās nemielinētās nervu šķiedras inervē garozas endokrinocītus. Preganglionārās mielinētās holīnerģiskās nervu šķiedras šķērso garozu un inervē serdes hromafīnās šūnas.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asinsapgāde"><span id="Asinsapg.C4.81de"></span>Asinsapgāde</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virsnieres&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=2" title="Labot sadaļu: Asinsapgāde" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>labot šo sadaļu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virsnieres&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Labot sadaļas vikikodu: Asinsapgāde"><span>labot pirmkodu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Virsnieres salīdzinoši ir vieni no visapasiņotākajiem audiem ķermenī. Virsnieres apasiņo trīs galvenās artērijas:<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Augšējā virsnieres artērija (<i>a. suprarenalis superior</i>), kas ir apakšējās diafragmas artērijas (<i>a. diaphragmatica/phrenica inferior</i>) zars;</li> <li>Vidējā virsnieres artērija (<i>a. suprarenalis media</i>), kas atiet no <a href="/wiki/Aorta" title="Aorta">aortas</a> vēdera daļas;</li> <li>Apakšējā virsnieres artērija (<i>a. suprarenalis inferior</i>), kas ir nieres artērijas (<i>a. renalis</i>) zars.</li></ul> <p>Šie asinsvadi sazarojas mazās artērijās, kas caurvij virsnieru kapsulu. No kapsulas savukārt atiet saistaudu pavedieni ar mazākiem asinsvadiem, kas apasiņo dziedzerus. </p><p>Venozās asinis aizplūst pa virsnieres vēnām: </p> <ul><li>Labā virsnieres vēna ieplūst <i>v. cava inferior</i>.</li> <li>Kreisā virsnieres vēna ieplūst kreisajā nieres vai kreisajā diafragmālajā vēnā.</li></ul> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Att%C4%93ls:1818_The_Adrenal_Glands.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/1818_The_Adrenal_Glands.jpg/600px-1818_The_Adrenal_Glands.jpg" decoding="async" width="600" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/1818_The_Adrenal_Glands.jpg/900px-1818_The_Adrenal_Glands.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/1818_The_Adrenal_Glands.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1102" data-file-height="316" /></a><figcaption>Atšķirīgi hormoni tiek ražoti katrā virsnieres zonā<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Garoza">Garoza</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virsnieres&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=3" title="Labot sadaļu: Garoza" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>labot šo sadaļu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virsnieres&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Labot sadaļas vikikodu: Garoza"><span>labot pirmkodu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Zem virsnieres kapsulas ir biezs garozas slānis (80% no tilpuma). </p><p>Garozā (<i>cortex</i>) izšķir trīs zonas: ārējo jeb kamoliņu zonu, vidējo jeb pavedienu zonu, iekšējo jeb tīklveida zonu. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ārējā_zona"><span id=".C4.80r.C4.93j.C4.81_zona"></span>Ārējā zona</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virsnieres&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=4" title="Labot sadaļu: Ārējā zona" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>labot šo sadaļu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virsnieres&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Labot sadaļas vikikodu: Ārējā zona"><span>labot pirmkodu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ārējā jeb kamoliņu zonā (<i>zona glomerulosa</i>) atrodas sīkas šūnas, kas sagrupētas pavedienos un veido kamoliņus. Kamoliņus veido sīkas cilindriskās vai piramidālās šūnas ar apaļiem kodoliem. Šīs šūnas savā starpā veido komunikācijas (spraugveida) kontaktus. Starp šiem blīvi izvietotajiem kamoliņiem ir plānas saistaudu josliņas jeb septas, kas veido tīklveida balstu (stromu) dziedzera audiem. Septās ir artērijas, sinusoīdi ar fenestrēto endotēliju un nervi. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Funkcijas">Funkcijas</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virsnieres&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=5" title="Labot sadaļu: Funkcijas" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>labot šo sadaļu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virsnieres&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Labot sadaļas vikikodu: Funkcijas"><span>labot pirmkodu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ārējās zonas šūnas sekretē <a href="/w/index.php?title=Miner%C4%81lkortiko%C4%ABdi&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Minerālkortikoīdi (vēl nav uzrakstīts)">minerālkortikoīdus</a>, regulējot <a href="/wiki/N%C4%81trijs" title="Nātrijs">nātrija</a>, <a href="/wiki/K%C4%81lijs" title="Kālijs">kālija</a> un ūdens <a href="/wiki/Homeost%C4%81ze" title="Homeostāze">homeostāzi</a> organismā. Piemēram, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Aldosterons&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Aldosterons (vēl nav uzrakstīts)">aldosterons</a> ietekmē distālos nefrona kanāliņus, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ku%C5%86%C4%A3a_g%C4%BCot%C4%81da&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Kuņģa gļotāda (vēl nav uzrakstīts)">kuņģa gļotādu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sviedru_dziedzeri" title="Sviedru dziedzeri">sviedru</a> un <a href="/wiki/Siekalu_dziedzeri" title="Siekalu dziedzeri">siekalu dziedzerus</a>, veicinot kālija izdalīšanu, nātrija <a href="/w/index.php?title=Reabsorbcija&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Reabsorbcija (vēl nav uzrakstīts)">reabsorbciju</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vidējā_zona"><span id="Vid.C4.93j.C4.81_zona"></span>Vidējā zona</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virsnieres&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=6" title="Labot sadaļu: Vidējā zona" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>labot šo sadaļu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virsnieres&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="Labot sadaļas vikikodu: Vidējā zona"><span>labot pirmkodu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Vidējā jeb pavedienu zonā (<i>zona fasciculata</i>) atrodas lielo poligonālo šūnu veidotie taisnie pavedieni (1—2 šūnu rindas), kuri novietoti perpendikulāri serdei. </p><p>Starp pavedieniem stiepjas septas, kas uzskatāmas par ārējās zonas septu turpinājumu. Šos endokrinocītus sauc arī par spongiocītiem.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> To <a href="/wiki/Mitohondrijs" title="Mitohondrijs">mitohondrijos</a> ir tubulārās kristas, daudz tauku ieslēgumu (<a href="/wiki/Holester%C4%ABns" title="Holesterīns">holesterīns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fosfolip%C4%ABdi" title="Fosfolipīdi">fosfolipīdi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tauksk%C4%81bes" title="Taukskābes">taukskābes</a>), no kā tiek veidoti steroīdhormoni. Uz robežas starp kamoliņu zonu un pavedienu zonu endokrinocītu pavedieni satur <a href="/wiki/Cilmes_%C5%A1%C5%ABnas" class="mw-redirect" title="Cilmes šūnas">cilmes šūnas</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Funkcijas_2">Funkcijas</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virsnieres&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=7" title="Labot sadaļu: Funkcijas" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>labot šo sadaļu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virsnieres&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="Labot sadaļas vikikodu: Funkcijas"><span>labot pirmkodu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Vidējā zona sekretē <a href="/wiki/Glikokortiko%C4%ABdi" title="Glikokortikoīdi">glikokortikoīdus</a> (nedaudz arī gonadokortikoīdus). Viens no tiem ir kortizols. Kortizola ietekme uz <a href="/wiki/Vielmai%C5%86a" title="Vielmaiņa">vielmaiņu</a> izpaužas šādi: </p> <ul><li>paaugstina <a href="/wiki/Glikoze" title="Glikoze">glikozes</a>, taukskābju līmeni asinīs;</li> <li>kavē olbaltumvielu sintēzi, un tā rezultātā aminoskābes var tikt izmantotas <a href="/w/index.php?title=Glikoneo%C4%A3en%C4%93ze&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Glikoneoģenēze (vēl nav uzrakstīts)">glikoneoģenēzē</a>;</li> <li>veicina <a href="/wiki/Glikog%C4%93ns" title="Glikogēns">glikogēna</a> sintēzi hepatocītos, kā arī <a href="/wiki/Sirds" title="Sirds">sirds</a> un <a href="/wiki/Skeleta_%C5%A1%C4%B7%C4%93rssv%C4%ABtrot%C4%81_muskulat%C5%ABra" title="Skeleta šķērssvītrotā muskulatūra">skeleta muskuļaudos</a>;</li> <li>kortizola ietekmē asinīs no <a href="/wiki/Tauk%C5%A1%C5%ABnas" title="Taukšūnas">taukšūnām</a> atbrīvojas taukskābes.</li></ul> <p>Citi glikokortikoīdi ir <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kortikosterons&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Kortikosterons (vēl nav uzrakstīts)">kortikosterons</a> un <a href="/wiki/Kortizons" title="Kortizons">kortizons</a>. Glikokortikoīdi samazina iekaisuma procesus, palēnina limfoblastu mitozi. Savas antiproliferatīvās darbības dēļ tie palēnina dzīšanu.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <p><a href="/wiki/Adrenokortikotropais_hormons" title="Adrenokortikotropais hormons">Adrenokortikotropais hormons</a> no <a href="/wiki/Hipof%C4%ABze" title="Hipofīze">adenohipofīzes</a> regulē glikokortikoīdu sekrēciju un sintēzi. Adrenokortikotropais hormons ir nepieciešams šūnu augšanai, stimulē steroīdu sintēzi un palielina asins caurplūdi šai zonai.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Att%C4%93ls:Adrenal_cortex_labelled.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Adrenal_cortex_labelled.jpg/220px-Adrenal_cortex_labelled.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Adrenal_cortex_labelled.jpg/330px-Adrenal_cortex_labelled.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Adrenal_cortex_labelled.jpg/440px-Adrenal_cortex_labelled.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2112" /></a><figcaption>Virsnieres šķērsgriezumā. Histoloģiskais preparāts hematoksilīna un eozīna krāsojumā. Redzami vairāki slāņi. Virzienā no virsmas uz centru: kamoliņu zona (<i>zona glomerulosa</i>), pavedienu zona (<i>zona fasciculata</i>), tīklveida zona (<i>zona reticularis</i>), serde (<i>medulla</i>). Serdē redzama centrālā adrenomedulārā vēna</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dziļā_zona"><span id="Dzi.C4.BC.C4.81_zona"></span>Dziļā zona</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virsnieres&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=8" title="Labot sadaļu: Dziļā zona" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>labot šo sadaļu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virsnieres&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="Labot sadaļas vikikodu: Dziļā zona"><span>labot pirmkodu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Dziļajā zonā (<i>zona reticularis</i>) endokrinocīti ir mazāki nekā pavedienu zonas endokrinocīti. Izšķir gaišās šūnas un tumšās šūnas. Tumšās šūnas satur vairāk pigmenta <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lipofusc%C4%ABns&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Lipofuscīns (vēl nav uzrakstīts)">lipofuscīna</a> ieslēgumu un histoloģiski labi krāsojas. Raksturīgas steroīdsintezējošas šūnu uzbūves īpašības&#160;— vājš graudainais <a href="/wiki/Endoplazmatiskais_t%C4%ABkls" title="Endoplazmatiskais tīkls">endoplazmatiskais tīkls</a> un <a href="/wiki/Mitohondrijs" title="Mitohondrijs">mitohondriji</a> ar tubulārām kristām. Steroīdu hormoni neuzkrājas sekretorajās granulās, bet pēc sintēzes nekavējoties izdalās no šūnas. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Funkcijas_3">Funkcijas</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virsnieres&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=9" title="Labot sadaļu: Funkcijas" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>labot šo sadaļu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virsnieres&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9" title="Labot sadaļas vikikodu: Funkcijas"><span>labot pirmkodu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Tās sintezē vājus androgēnus&#160;— dehidroepiandrosteronu (DHEA) un androstendiolu. Citos audos šie hormoni var pārvērsties par aktīvu androgēnu&#160;— <a href="/wiki/Testosterons" title="Testosterons">testosteronu</a> vai arī par <a href="/wiki/Estrog%C4%93ni" class="mw-redirect" title="Estrogēni">estrogēniem</a>. Sievietēm virsnieres ir galvenais androgēnu avots, tādēļ pubertātes periodā parādās, piemēram, padušu un kaunuma apmatojums. Turklāt androgēni veicina muskulatūras masas palielināšanos. Organismam novecojot, DHEA sintēze samazinās.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Serde">Serde</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virsnieres&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=10" title="Labot sadaļu: Serde" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>labot šo sadaļu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virsnieres&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10" title="Labot sadaļas vikikodu: Serde"><span>labot pirmkodu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Serdi (<i>medulla</i>) no visām pusēm apņem garoza. Tajā atrodas lielas hromafīnās šūnas, kas izkārtotas pavedienos. Tās pēc izcelsmes ir modificēti <a href="/wiki/Neirons" title="Neirons">neironi</a>. Izpētīts, ka audu kultūrās tās veido aksoniem līdzīgus izaugumus. Aptuveni 20% noradrenalīna (norepinefrīns) un 80% adrenalīna (epinefrīns) tiek izdalīts serdē.<sup id="cite_ref-Kaplan.Physio_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaplan.Physio-11"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Funkcijas_4">Funkcijas</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virsnieres&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=11" title="Labot sadaļu: Funkcijas" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>labot šo sadaļu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virsnieres&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11" title="Labot sadaļas vikikodu: Funkcijas"><span>labot pirmkodu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Stresa situācijās, pienākot impulsam pa preganglionārajām mielinētajām holīnerģiskajām šķiedrām, šūnas izdala sintezētos kateholamīnus. Izšķir 2 šūnu tipus, atkarībā no tā, ko tās sekretē. </p> <ul><li>Viens šūnu tips (lielākā daļa) sekretē <a href="/wiki/Adrenal%C4%ABns" title="Adrenalīns">adrenalīnu</a>. To sekretorās granulas ir mazākas un ar gaišāku serdi. Adrenalīns, stimulējot beta adrenerģiskos receptorus, paātrina un pastiprina sirdsdarbību, paaugstina vielmaiņu un glikozes līmeni asinīs, kā arī izraisa bronhu un skeleta muskulatūras asinsvadu gludo miocītu atslābumu. Adrenalīna izraisītie efekti ir plaši, kas ir noderīgi smaga stresa situācijās, piemēram, asu <a href="/wiki/S%C4%81pes" title="Sāpes">sāpju</a> gadījumā.</li> <li>Otrs šūnu tips veido <a href="/wiki/Noradrenal%C4%ABns" title="Noradrenalīns">noradrenalīnu</a>. Tajās ir lielas sekretorās granulas ar tumšu serdi un gaišu apmali. Noradrenalīns ietekmē galvenokārt alfa adrenerģiskos receptorus un izraisa, piemēram, perifēro asinsvadu gludo miocītu saraušanos, tādējādi paaugstinot asinsspiedienu. Noradrenalīns izdalās neliela stresa situācijās, piemēram, psihoemocionālā <a href="/wiki/Stress" title="Stress">stresa</a> gadījumā.</li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Kateholam%C4%ABni" title="Kateholamīni">Kateholamīni</a> veicina arī lipolīzi, kuras rezultātā asinīs no tauku šūnām atbrīvojas <a href="/wiki/Tauksk%C4%81bes" title="Taukskābes">taukskābes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Virsnieru_dziedzeru_slimības"><span id="Virsnieru_dziedzeru_slim.C4.ABbas"></span>Virsnieru dziedzeru slimības</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virsnieres&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=12" title="Labot sadaļu: Virsnieru dziedzeru slimības" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>labot šo sadaļu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virsnieres&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12" title="Labot sadaļas vikikodu: Virsnieru dziedzeru slimības"><span>labot pirmkodu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Virsnieru normāla darbība var tikt traucēta dažādu iemeslu dēļ, piemēram, <a href="/wiki/Infekcijas_slim%C4%ABba" title="Infekcijas slimība">infekciju</a>, <a href="/wiki/Audz%C4%93js" title="Audzējs">audzēju</a>, ģenētisko, <a href="/wiki/Autoim%C5%ABna_slim%C4%ABba" title="Autoimūna slimība">autoimūno slimību</a> rezultātā. Šie traucējumi var skart gan virsnieru struktūras (autoimūno slimību gadījumā), kā arī izdalīto hormonu daudzumu (Kušinga sindroma gadījumā). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kortikosteroīdu_pārprodukcija"><span id="Kortikostero.C4.ABdu_p.C4.81rprodukcija"></span>Kortikosteroīdu pārprodukcija</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virsnieres&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=13" title="Labot sadaļu: Kortikosteroīdu pārprodukcija" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>labot šo sadaļu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virsnieres&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13" title="Labot sadaļas vikikodu: Kortikosteroīdu pārprodukcija"><span>labot pirmkodu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kušinga_sindroms"><span id="Ku.C5.A1inga_sindroms"></span>Kušinga sindroms</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virsnieres&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=14" title="Labot sadaļu: Kušinga sindroms" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>labot šo sadaļu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virsnieres&amp;action=edit&amp;section=14" title="Labot sadaļas vikikodu: Kušinga sindroms"><span>labot pirmkodu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Ku%C5%A1inga_sindroms" title="Kušinga sindroms">Kušinga sindroms</a> ir simptomu un pazīmju kopums, kas radies ilgstoši paaugstināta hormona <a href="/wiki/Kortizols" title="Kortizols">kortizola</a> līmeņa dēļ. Biežākie simptomi ir vēdera aptaukošanās, tievi <a href="/wiki/Loceklis_(anatomija)" title="Loceklis (anatomija)">locekļi</a>, apaļa seja, vāji muskuļi un kauli, <a href="/wiki/Pinnes" title="Pinnes">pinnes</a>, strijas u. c. pazīmes. </p><p>Tas var rasties gan paildzinātas glikokortikoīdu lietošanas gadījumos, gan arī, ja tiek skarta hipotalāma-hipofīzes ass un pastiprināti veidojas kortizols. Pēdējā gadījumā izšķir AKTH (adrenokortikotropā hormona)&#160;— atkarīgos un AKTH&#160;— neatkarīgos iemeslus. Visbiežākais Kušinga sindroma iemesls ir <a href="/wiki/Hipof%C4%ABze" title="Hipofīze">hipofīzes</a> adenoma, kad pastiprināti veidojas AKTH un tiek stimulētas virsnieres. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Primārais_aldosteronisms"><span id="Prim.C4.81rais_aldosteronisms"></span>Primārais aldosteronisms</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virsnieres&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=15" title="Labot sadaļu: Primārais aldosteronisms" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>labot šo sadaļu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virsnieres&amp;action=edit&amp;section=15" title="Labot sadaļas vikikodu: Primārais aldosteronisms"><span>labot pirmkodu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Primārais aldosteronisms veidojas, ja kamoliņu zona ražo pārlieku daudz <a href="/w/index.php?title=Aldosterons&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Aldosterons (vēl nav uzrakstīts)">aldosterona</a>. Biežākie iemesli ir aldestoronu producējošās adenomas (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kona_sindroms&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Kona sindroms (vēl nav uzrakstīts)">Kona sindroms</a>), kā arī bilaterāla (abpusēja) virsnieru hiperplāzija. Primārais aldosteronisms izraisa jonu disbalansu un paaugstinātu <a href="/wiki/Asinsspiediens" title="Asinsspiediens">asinsspiedienu</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Virsnieru_mazspēja"><span id="Virsnieru_mazsp.C4.93ja"></span>Virsnieru mazspēja</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virsnieres&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=16" title="Labot sadaļu: Virsnieru mazspēja" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>labot šo sadaļu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virsnieres&amp;action=edit&amp;section=16" title="Labot sadaļas vikikodu: Virsnieru mazspēja"><span>labot pirmkodu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Virsnieru mazspēja jeb samazināta spēja veidot glikokortikoīdus ir sastopama 5 cilvēkiem no 10 000.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Pie primārām virsnieru slimībām pieder Adisona slimība un ģenētiskās slimības, kad tiek skarta tieši virsnieru struktūra. Ja bojājums ir hipotalāma-hipofīzes ass regulējošā sistēmā, tad tā ir sekundāra virsnieru mazspēja. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Adisona_slimība"><span id="Adisona_slim.C4.ABba"></span>Adisona slimība</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virsnieres&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=17" title="Labot sadaļu: Adisona slimība" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>labot šo sadaļu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virsnieres&amp;action=edit&amp;section=17" title="Labot sadaļas vikikodu: Adisona slimība"><span>labot pirmkodu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Att%C4%93ls:T._Addison;_On...supra-renal_capsules_Wellcome_L0018484.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/T._Addison%3B_On...supra-renal_capsules_Wellcome_L0018484.jpg/220px-T._Addison%3B_On...supra-renal_capsules_Wellcome_L0018484.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/T._Addison%3B_On...supra-renal_capsules_Wellcome_L0018484.jpg/330px-T._Addison%3B_On...supra-renal_capsules_Wellcome_L0018484.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/T._Addison%3B_On...supra-renal_capsules_Wellcome_L0018484.jpg/440px-T._Addison%3B_On...supra-renal_capsules_Wellcome_L0018484.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1571" data-file-height="2101" /></a><figcaption>Raksturīgā hiperpigmentācija Adisona slimības gadījumā</figcaption></figure> <p>Adisona slimībai raksturīgs glikokortikoīdu un minerālkortikoīdu trūkums. Rietumu pasaulē Adisona slimību lielākoties izraisa autoimūnas slimības, taču citur tā visbiežāk rodas infekciju, sevišķi <a href="/wiki/Tuberkuloze" title="Tuberkuloze">tuberkulozes</a> gadījumā. Adisona slimībai raksturīga ādas hiperpigmentācija un citi nespecifiski simptomi, piemēram, nogurums. Neārstējot Adisona slimību, glikokortikoīdu un minerālkortikoīdu trūkums var novest pie hipovolēmiskiem simptomiem, <a href="/wiki/Vem%C5%A1ana" title="Vemšana">vemšanas</a>, drudža un <a href="/wiki/Koma" title="Koma">komas</a>. Krīžu laikā tiek lietotas hidrokortizona injekcijas.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sekundārā_nieru_mazspēja"><span id="Sekund.C4.81r.C4.81_nieru_mazsp.C4.93ja"></span>Sekundārā nieru mazspēja</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virsnieres&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=18" title="Labot sadaļu: Sekundārā nieru mazspēja" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>labot šo sadaļu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virsnieres&amp;action=edit&amp;section=18" title="Labot sadaļas vikikodu: Sekundārā nieru mazspēja"><span>labot pirmkodu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ja tiek bojāta hipotalāma-hipofīzes ass regulējošā sistēma, tad attīstās sekundāra virsnieru mazspēja. Šīs mazspējas gadījumā netiek skarta minerālkortikoīdu veidošanās, jo to regulē renīna-angiotenzīna sistēma, nevis hipofīzes ražotais AKTH.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-1"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Virsnieru_audzēji"><span id="Virsnieru_audz.C4.93ji"></span>Virsnieru audzēji</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virsnieres&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=19" title="Labot sadaļu: Virsnieru audzēji" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>labot šo sadaļu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virsnieres&amp;action=edit&amp;section=19" title="Labot sadaļas vikikodu: Virsnieru audzēji"><span>labot pirmkodu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Virsnieru audzēji lielākoties tiek atklāti kā incidentalomas&#160;— asimptomātiski audzēji, kas atrasti radioloģisko izmeklējumu laikā. Tās tiek atrastas aptuveni 3% datortomogrāfijas izmeklējumu gadījumos un lielākoties tās ir labdabīgas <a href="/w/index.php?title=Adenoma&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Adenoma (vēl nav uzrakstīts)">adenomas</a>. Ļaundabīgais audzējs&#160;— virsnieru karcinoma ir reta slimība, kuras sastopamības biežums ASV ir divi gadījumi uz vienu miljonu iedzīvotāju gadā. Novērots, ka virsnieru karcinoma izpaužas dzīves pirmajā un ceturtajā desmitgadē, turklāt bērniem pēc ķirurģiskas ārstēšanas ir labāka prognoze.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-3"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feohromocitoma&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Feohromocitoma (vēl nav uzrakstīts)">Feohromocitoma</a> ir neiroendokrīns kateholamīnus producējošs audzējs, kas veidojas no hromafīnajām šūnām. Tās var radīt dažādus nespecifiskus simptomus, piemēram, <a href="/wiki/Galvass%C4%81pes" title="Galvassāpes">galvassāpes</a>, svīšanu, uztraukumu, paātrinātu sirdsdarbību un paaugstinātu asinsspiedienu.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vēsture"><span id="V.C4.93sture"></span>Vēsture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virsnieres&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=20" title="Labot sadaļu: Vēsture" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>labot šo sadaļu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virsnieres&amp;action=edit&amp;section=20" title="Labot sadaļas vikikodu: Vēsture"><span>labot pirmkodu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cilvēka virsnieru uzbūvi pirmo reizi aprakstīja <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bartolomeo_Eistahijs&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Bartolomeo Eistahijs (vēl nav uzrakstīts)">Bartolomeo Eistahijs</a> 1563.—1564. gadā, taču šie apraksti atradās <a href="/wiki/Vatik%C4%81ns" title="Vatikāns">Vatikāna</a> bibliotēkā un ilgu laiku tā arī nenonāca līdz sabiedrībai. Tikai 1611. gadā K. Bartolīni tos izmantoja, lai ilustrētu virsnieres.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Virsnieru mazspējas klīnisko ainu 1855. gadā aprakstīja <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tomass_Adisons&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Tomass Adisons (vēl nav uzrakstīts)">Tomass Adisons</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> 1866. gadā Frenkels pirmo reizi aprakstīja virsnieru audzēju, ko mūsdienās sauc par feohromocitomu. 1932. gadā <a href="/w/index.php?title=Viljams_Ku%C5%A1ings&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Viljams Kušings (vēl nav uzrakstīts)">Viljams Kušings</a> aprakstīja sindromu, kurš tagad ir nosaukts viņa vārdā&#160;— Kušinga sindroms.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-3"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Atsauces">Atsauces</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virsnieres&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=21" title="Labot sadaļu: Atsauces" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>labot šo sadaļu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virsnieres&amp;action=edit&amp;section=21" title="Labot sadaļas vikikodu: Atsauces"><span>labot pirmkodu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="references-small" style="list-style-type: decimal;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:4-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-:4_1-0">1,0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-:4_1-1">1,1</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">Melmed, S; Polonsky, KS; Larsen, PR; Kronenberg, HM (2011). <i>Williams Textbook of Endocrinology</i>(12th ed.). Saunders. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1437703245" title="Special:BookSources/978-1437703245">ISBN 978-1437703245</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-2">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Nieman, LK (2010). "Approach to the patient with an adrenal incidentaloma.". <i>The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism</i> <b>95</b>(9): 4106—13. doi:10.1210/jc.2010-0457. PMC 2936073.<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20823463">PMID 20823463</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-:3_3-0">3,0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-:3_3-1">3,1</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-:3_3-2">3,2</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">Jānis Gardovskis, Ralfs Kolītis, Jāzeps Baško, Antoņina Sondore u. c. <i>Ķirurģija</i>. Rīga&#160;: Rīgas Stradiņa universitāte, 2013. 1013. lpp. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9984-793-28-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-9984-793-28-3">ISBN 978-9984-793-28-3</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-:0_4-0">4,0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-:0_4-1">4,1</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-:0_4-2">4,2</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-:0_4-3">4,3</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-:0_4-4">4,4</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Aina Dālmane. <i>Histoloģija</i>. Rīga&#160;: LU Akadēmiskais apgāds, 2004. 319.&#160;lpp. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9984-770-42-7" title="Special:BookSources/9984-770-42-7">9984-770-42-7</a>.</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-5">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas, edited by Paul; Molecular, School of; Australia, Biomedical Science, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, (2013). <i>Endocrine Gland Development and Disease</i>. Burlington: Elsevier Science. p. 241.<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780123914545" title="Special:BookSources/9780123914545">ISBN 9780123914545</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-6">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cnx.org/contents/14fb4ad7-39a1-4eee-ab6e-3ef2482e3e22@7.28:112/Anatomy-&amp;-Physiology">«OpenStax CNX»</a>. <i>cnx.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Skatīts: <span class="nowrap">2015-08-01</span></span>.</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-:1_7-0">7,0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-:1_7-1">7,1</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-:1_7-2">7,2</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-:1_7-3">7,3</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">Ross M, Pawlina W (2011). <i>Histology: A Text and Atlas</i> (6th ed.). Lippincott Williams &amp; Wilkins. p. 780. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7817-7200-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7817-7200-6">ISBN 978-0-7817-7200-6</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-:2_8-0">8,0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-:2_8-1">8,1</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-:2_8-2">8,2</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Jurijs_Markovs" title="Jurijs Markovs">Jurijs Markovs</a>. <i>Medicīniskā histoloģija II</i>. Rīga&#160;: SIA J.T. Group, 2005. 212.&#160;lpp. <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9984-716-76-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-9984-716-76-3">978-9984-716-76-3</a>.</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-9">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web">Agnis Štifts. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304211739/http://iaptieka.lv/?lapa=doctus2&amp;id=468">«Glikokortikoīdi terapijā. Vēlreiz par 50 gadu senu tēmu.»</a>, 2002. Arhivēts no <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://iaptieka.lv/?lapa=doctus2&amp;id=468">oriģināla</a>, laiks: 2016.&#160;gada 4.&#160;martā<span class="reference-accessdate">. Skatīts: 2015.&#160;gada 1.&#160;novembrī</span>.</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-10">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Young B, Woodford P, O'Dowd G (2013). <i>Wheater's Functional Histology: A Text and Colour Atlas</i> (6th ed.). Elsevier. p. 329. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0702047473" title="Special:BookSources/978-0702047473">ISBN 978-0702047473</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kaplan.Physio-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Kaplan.Physio_11-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Dunn R. B., Kudrath W., Passo S.S., Wilson L.B. «10». <i>Kaplan USMLE Step 1 Physiology Lecture Notes</i>, 2011. 263–289.&#160;lpp.</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-12">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Longo, D; Fauci, A; Kasper, D; Hauser, S; Jameson, J; Loscalzo, J (2012). <i>Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine</i>(18th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0071748896" title="Special:BookSources/978-0071748896">ISBN 978-0071748896</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-13">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pituitary.org.uk/media/134894/Factsheet-for-Ambulance-Personnel.pdf">Hydrocortisone Emergency Factsheet for Ambulance Personnel</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150924073703/http://www.pituitary.org.uk/media/134894/Factsheet-for-Ambulance-Personnel.pdf">Arhivēts</a> 2015.&#160;gada 24.&#160;septembrī, <i><a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i> vietnē. The Pituitary Foundation</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-14">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Martucci, VL; Pacak, K (2014). "Pheochromocytoma and paraganglioma: diagnosis, genetics, management, and treatment.". <i>Current Problems in Cancer</i> <b>38</b> (1): 7—41. doi:10.1016/j.currproblcancer.2014.01.001. PMC 3992879.<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24636754">PMID 24636754</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-15">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">O'Hare, A. Munro Neville, Michael J. (2012). <i>The Human Adrenal Cortex Pathology and Biology&#160;— An Integrated Approach</i>. London: Springer London. pp. Chapter 2: Historical Aspects. <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1447113179" title="Special:BookSources/1447113179">ISBN 1447113179</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-16">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Pearce, JM (2004). "Thomas Addison (1793—1860)". <i>Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine</i> <b>97</b> (6): 297—300.doi:10.1258/jrsm.97.6.297. PMC 1079500.<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15173338">PMID 15173338</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div> <table cellspacing="0" class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:2px;"><table cellspacing="0" class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:lightgrey;;"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-skatīt"><a href="/wiki/Veidne:Anatomija" title="Veidne:Anatomija"><abbr title="Skatīt šo veidni" style=";;background-color:lightgrey;;background:none transparent;border:none;">s</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-diskusija"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Veidnes_diskusija:Anatomija&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Veidnes diskusija:Anatomija (vēl nav uzrakstīts)"><abbr title="Diskusija par šo veidni" style="color:#002bb8;;;background-color:lightgrey;;background:none transparent;border:none;">d</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-labot"><a class="external text" href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Veidne:Anatomija&amp;action=edit"><abbr title="Labot šo veidni" style=";;background-color:lightgrey;;background:none transparent;border:none;">l</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div style="font-size:110%;"><a href="/wiki/Anatomija" title="Anatomija">Anatomija</a></div></th></tr><tr style="height:2px;"><td colspan="2"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:lightgrey;;"><a href="/wiki/Org%C4%81nu_sist%C4%93ma" title="Orgānu sistēma">Orgānu sistēmas</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asinsrites_org%C4%81nu_sist%C4%93ma" title="Asinsrites orgānu sistēma">Asinsrites orgānu sistēma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balsta_un_kust%C4%ABbu_org%C4%81nu_sist%C4%93ma" title="Balsta un kustību orgānu sistēma">Balsta un kustību orgānu sistēma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elpo%C5%A1anas_org%C4%81nu_sist%C4%93ma" title="Elpošanas orgānu sistēma">Elpošanas orgānu sistēma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endokr%C4%ABn%C4%81_sist%C4%93ma" title="Endokrīnā sistēma">Endokrīnā sistēma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gremo%C5%A1anas_org%C4%81nu_sist%C4%93ma" title="Gremošanas orgānu sistēma">Gremošanas orgānu sistēma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Im%C5%ABnsist%C4%93ma" title="Imūnsistēma">Imūnsistēma</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Limf%C4%81tisk%C4%81_sist%C4%93ma" title="Limfātiskā sistēma">Limfātiskā sistēma</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izvadorg%C4%81nu_sist%C4%93ma" title="Izvadorgānu sistēma">Izvadorgānu sistēma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma%C5%86u_org%C4%81nu_sist%C4%93ma" title="Maņu orgānu sistēma">Maņu orgānu sistēma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nervu_sist%C4%93ma" title="Nervu sistēma">Nervu sistēma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reprodukt%C4%ABv%C4%81_sist%C4%93ma" title="Reproduktīvā sistēma">Reproduktīvā sistēma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segaudi" class="mw-redirect" title="Segaudi">Segaudi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ur%C4%ABnorg%C4%81nu_sist%C4%93ma" title="Urīnorgānu sistēma">Urīnorgānu sistēma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr style="height:2px;"><td colspan="2"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:lightgrey;;">Orgāni</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acs" title="Acs">Acs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aknas" title="Aknas">Aknas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auss" title="Auss">Auss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80da" title="Āda">Āda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balsene" title="Balsene">Balsene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deguns" title="Deguns">Deguns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzimumorg%C4%81ni" title="Dzimumorgāni">Dzimumorgāni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku%C5%86%C4%A3is" title="Kuņģis">Kuņģis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liesa" title="Liesa">Liesa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%93le" title="Mēle">Mēle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nieres" title="Nieres">Nieres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oln%C4%ABca" title="Olnīca">Olnīca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placenta" title="Placenta">Placenta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plau%C5%A1as" title="Plaušas">Plaušas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sirds" title="Sirds">Sirds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smadzenes" title="Smadzenes">Smadzenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vairogdziedzeris" title="Vairogdziedzeris">Vairogdziedzeris</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Virsnieres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarnas" title="Zarnas">Zarnas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr style="height:2px;"><td colspan="2"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:lightgrey;;">Kauli</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atsl%C4%93gas_kauls" title="Atslēgas kauls">Atslēgas kauls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aug%C5%A1delma_kauls" title="Augšdelma kauls">Augšdelma kauls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aug%C5%A1stilba_kauls" title="Augšstilba kauls">Augšstilba kauls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elko%C5%86a_kauls" title="Elkoņa kauls">Elkoņa kauls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cilv%C4%93ka_galvaskauss" title="Cilvēka galvaskauss">Galvaskauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C5%AB%C5%BEas_kauls" title="Gūžas kauls">Gūžas kauls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kr%C5%AB%C5%A1u_kauls" title="Krūšu kauls">Krūšu kauls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C4%81psti%C5%86a" title="Lāpstiņa">Lāpstiņa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lielais_lielkauls&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Lielais lielkauls (vēl nav uzrakstīts)">Lielais 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style="height:2px;"><td colspan="2"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:lightgrey;;">Ķermeņa daļas</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galva" title="Galva">Galva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iegurnis" title="Iegurnis">Iegurnis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kakls" title="Kakls">Kakls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C4%81ja" title="Kāja">Kāja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cilv%C4%93ka_kr%C5%AB%C5%A1kurvis" title="Cilvēka krūškurvis">Krūškurvis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mugura" title="Mugura">Mugura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mute" title="Mute">Mute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roka" title="Roka">Roka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seja" title="Seja">Seja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C4%93ders" title="Vēders">Vēders</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr style="height:2px;"><td colspan="2"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:lightgrey;;">Citas vienības</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art%C4%93rija" title="Artērija">Artērijas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diafragma" title="Diafragma">Diafragma</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gremo%C5%A1anas_trakts&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Gremošanas trakts (vēl nav uzrakstīts)">Gremošanas trakts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C5%ABpas" title="Lūpas">Lūpas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mati" title="Mati">Mati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nervs" title="Nervs">Nervs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pleira" title="Pleira">Pleira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cilv%C4%93ka_skelets" title="Cilvēka skelets">Skelets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C4%93dera_dobums" title="Vēdera dobums">Vēdera dobums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C4%93derpl%C4%93ve" title="Vēderplēve">Vēderplēve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C4%93nas" title="Vēnas">Vēnas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> <table cellspacing="0" class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:2px;"><table cellspacing="0" class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/wiki/Autoritat%C4%ABv%C4%81_vad%C4%ABba" title="Autoritatīvā vadība">Autoritatīvā vadība</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em;"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/identities/lccn-sh85-000998">WorldCat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kongresa_bibliot%C4%93ka" title="Kongresa bibliotēka">LCCN</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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