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id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Politics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Politics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Politics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Politics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Women_in_Ottoman_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women_in_Ottoman_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Women in Ottoman law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women_in_Ottoman_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Inheritance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inheritance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Inheritance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inheritance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Economic life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slavery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Slavery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slavery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prostitution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prostitution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Prostitution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prostitution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Women in the Ottoman Empire</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 10 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-10" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">10 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%85%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%AB%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="النساء في الإمبراطورية العثمانية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="النساء في الإمبراطورية العثمانية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDeny_v_Osmansk%C3%A9_%C5%99%C3%AD%C5%A1i" title="Ženy v Osmanské říši – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ženy v Osmanské říši" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mujeres_en_el_Imperio_otomano" title="Mujeres en el Imperio otomano – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Mujeres en el Imperio otomano" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%B9%D8%AB%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="زنان در امپراتوری عثمانی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زنان در امپراتوری عثمانی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%B5%D6%84_%D5%95%D5%BD%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%BD%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Կանայք Օսմանյան կայսրությունում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կանայք Օսմանյան կայսրությունում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA_%D8%B9%D8%AB%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%DB%81_%D9%88%DA%86_%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C%D9%86" title="سلطنت عثمانیہ وچ خواتین – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="سلطنت عثمانیہ وچ خواتین" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%9A%DA%81%DB%90_%D9%BE%D9%87_%D8%B9%D8%AB%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8D_%DA%A9%DB%90" title="ښځې په عثماني امپراتورۍ کې – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ښځې په عثماني امپراتورۍ کې" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvinnor_i_Osmanska_riket" title="Kvinnor i Osmanska riket – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kvinnor i Osmanska riket" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmanl%C4%B1_%C4%B0mparatorlu%C4%9Fu%27nda_kad%C4%B1n%C4%B1n_toplumdaki_yeri" title="Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nda kadının toplumdaki yeri – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nda kadının toplumdaki yeri" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA_%D8%B9%D8%AB%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%DB%81_%D9%85%DB%8C%DA%BA_%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C%D9%86" title="سلطنت عثمانیہ میں خواتین – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="سلطنت 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Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a good article. Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:French_School_-_Enjoying_Coffee_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/French_School_-_Enjoying_Coffee_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/300px-French_School_-_Enjoying_Coffee_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="328" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/French_School_-_Enjoying_Coffee_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/450px-French_School_-_Enjoying_Coffee_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/French_School_-_Enjoying_Coffee_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/600px-French_School_-_Enjoying_Coffee_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2924" data-file-height="3194" /></a><figcaption>Ottoman women enjoying coffee in a harem.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, women enjoyed a diverse range of rights and were limited in diverse ways depending on the time period, as well as their religion and class. The empire, first as a <a href="/wiki/Turkoman_(ethnonym)" title="Turkoman (ethnonym)">Turkoman</a> <a href="/wiki/Anatolian_beyliks" title="Anatolian beyliks">beylik</a>, and then a multi-ethnic, multi-religious empire, was ruled in accordance to the <a href="/wiki/Qanun_(law)" title="Qanun (law)"><i>qanun</i></a>, the semi-secular body of law enacted by <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman sultans</a>. Furthermore, the relevant religious scriptures of its many <a href="/wiki/Millet_(Ottoman_Empire)" title="Millet (Ottoman Empire)">confessional communities</a> played a major role in the legal system, for the majority of Ottoman women, these were the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">Hadith</a> as interpreted by <a href="/wiki/Faq%C4%ABh" title="Faqīh">Islamic jurists</a>, often termed <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">sharia</a>. Most Ottoman women were permitted to participate in the legal system, purchase and sell property, inherit and <a href="/wiki/Bequest" class="mw-redirect" title="Bequest">bequeath</a> wealth, and participate in other financial activities, rights which were unusual in the rest of Europe until the 19th century. </p><p>Women's social life was often one of relative seclusion. The extent of seclusion changed, sometimes drastically, depending on class. Urban women lived in some amount of sex segregation during most of the empire's history, as many social gatherings were segregated, and many upper-class urban women veiled in public areas; rural women, on the other hand, often did not have the same restrictions placed on them. Veiling and sex segregation customs were therefore seen as a sign of status, privilege and class until Westernization; afterwards, it was seen as a sign of Ottoman and <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islamic</a> values.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Women" title="Sultanate of Women">Sultanate of Women</a>, an era that dates back to the 1520s, was a period during which high-ranking women wielded considerable political power and public importance through their engagement in domestic politics, foreign negotiations, and <a href="/wiki/Regent" title="Regent">regency</a>. <a href="/wiki/Valide_sultan" title="Valide sultan"><i>Valide sultans</i></a>, mothers of the <a href="/wiki/Padishah" title="Padishah">sultan</a>, gained considerable influence through harem politics. Some of the most influential <i>valide sultans</i> were <a href="/wiki/Nurbanu_Sultan" title="Nurbanu Sultan">Nurbanu Sultan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Safiye_Sultan_(wife_of_Murad_III)" class="mw-redirect" title="Safiye Sultan (wife of Murad III)">Safiye Sultan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Handan_Sultan" title="Handan Sultan">Handan Sultan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Halime_Sultan" title="Halime Sultan">Halime Sultan</a>, <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6sem_Sultan" title="Kösem Sultan">Kösem Sultan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Turhan_Sultan" title="Turhan Sultan">Turhan Sultan</a>. Although <a href="/wiki/H%C3%BCrrem_Sultan" class="mw-redirect" title="Hürrem Sultan">Hürrem Sultan</a> was not a valide she is believed to be the starter of the era by being the first concubine married to a sultan and given the title <a href="/wiki/Haseki" class="mw-redirect" title="Haseki">Haseki</a>, meaning favourite. </p><p>Later periods saw serious political and religious opposition to further expansion of women's rights, until clear developments in women's rights in Europe and North America started to influence the Ottomans. The <a href="/wiki/Tanzimat" title="Tanzimat">Tanzimat</a> reforms of the nineteenth century created additional rights for women, in line with these developments. These reforms were far-reaching particularly in the field of education, with the first schools for girls starting in 1858. However, the curriculum of these schools were largely focused on teaching women to become wives and mothers, and structural reform, such as universal <a href="/wiki/Suffrage" title="Suffrage">suffrage</a>, would only take place in the early years of the <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkish Republic</a>, the empire's successor state. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="14th_and_15th_centuries">14th and 15th centuries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: 14th and 15th centuries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Women in the early Ottoman Empire exercised considerable personal and economic rights according to the <a href="/wiki/Hanafi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanafi">Hanafi</a> interpretation of <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">sharia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Qanun_(law)" title="Qanun (law)">qanun</a>, as well as other documents in certain religious contexts.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaroqhiMcGowanPamuk1994[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_March_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(March_2023)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaroqhiMcGowanPamuk1994[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_March_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(March_2023)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, women were in large part absent from the political sphere, as the state's expansionist character placed military might first and foremost, and men were thought of as more competent in the largely coincident spheres of military and politics.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sex segregation in certain contexts was common in the early empire; women were in many cases segregated from men in intimate but non-sexual environments.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="16th_century">16th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: 16th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roxelana.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Roxelana.jpg/220px-Roxelana.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Roxelana.jpg/330px-Roxelana.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/Roxelana.jpg 2x" data-file-width="370" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/H%C3%BCrrem" class="mw-redirect" title="Hürrem">Hürrem</a> (Roxelana), the <i><a href="/wiki/Haseki_sultan" title="Haseki sultan">haseki sultan</a></i> during <a href="/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent" title="Suleiman the Magnificent">Suleiman</a>'s reign.</figcaption></figure><p>The 16th century was marked by <a href="/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent" title="Suleiman the Magnificent">Suleiman</a>'s rule, in which he created the title of <i><a href="/wiki/Haseki_sultan" title="Haseki sultan">haseki sultan</a></i>, the chief consort or wife of the sultan, and further expanded the role of royal women in politics by contributing to the creation of the second most powerful position in the Ottoman Empire, <a href="/wiki/Valide_sultan" title="Valide sultan">valide sultan</a>, the mother of the sultan.<sup id="cite_ref-:14_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:14-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:16_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:16-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Davis_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davis-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Women" title="Sultanate of Women">Sultanate of Women</a>, where women were, for the first time in the empire's history, active in the political sphere, and the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Imperial_Harem" title="Ottoman Imperial Harem">Imperial Harem</a> wielded immense political power.<sup id="cite_ref-:16_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:16-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, clashes between the relatively egalitarian public, the <a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufi</a> orders they followed (many of which included female <a href="/wiki/Sheikh" title="Sheikh">sheikhs</a>), and the more conservative <a href="/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama">Ulema</a> continued.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A manifestation of this was the case of kaymak shops, in which women and men would meet regularly, regardless of marital status. Many scholars from the <a href="/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama">Ulema</a> saw this as a sign of wavering religious devotion and appealed for a ban on women entering <a href="/wiki/Kaymak" title="Kaymak">kaymak</a> shops, which, while later repealed, was implemented in 1573.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="17th_and_18th_centuries">17th and 18th centuries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: 17th and 18th centuries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The 17th and 18th centuries are often regarded as the last two centuries of pre-<a href="/wiki/Westernization" title="Westernization">Westernized</a> Ottoman culture. Women's rights were still seen by European visitors, such as <a href="/wiki/Lady_Mary_Wortley_Montagu" title="Lady Mary Wortley Montagu">Lady Mary Wortley Montagu</a>, as relatively robust at the time, as a woman's right to divorce, own property and refuse conjugal sex were not commonplace in the rest of Europe until the late 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was also during this period that Ottoman society harbored a relatively open view of most forms of sexuality,<sup id="cite_ref-:10_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and many authors, such as <a href="/wiki/Ender%C3%BBnlu_F%C3%A2z%C4%B1l" title="Enderûnlu Fâzıl">Enderunlu Fazıl</a>, who published books about both men's and women's sexuality, marked a departure from the largely male-oriented view of sexuality in the early empire.<sup id="cite_ref-:11_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, this new genre of erotic work concerning women often received significant backlash, as unlike discussions of the sexuality of and in between men, which were often accepted and even celebrated, women's sexuality was often seen as a private matter.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This resulted in the regulation and censorship of certain books, most famously <a href="/wiki/Ender%C3%BBnlu_F%C3%A2z%C4%B1l" title="Enderûnlu Fâzıl">Enderunlu Fazıl</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Zenanname" title="Zenanname">Zenanname</a></i> (lit. The Book of Women).<sup id="cite_ref-:11_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, some sultans, such as <a href="/wiki/Osman_III" title="Osman III">Osman III</a>, were known for their negative attitude towards women. Osman III, while alone among sultans in the severity of action he took in this pursuit, prohibited women in <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> from going out in the streets in fancy clothes, and ordered them to dress plainly and in a veiled fashion,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while punishing those who did not respect these laws, sometimes with death.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="19th_and_20th_centuries">19th and 20th centuries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: 19th and 20th centuries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pontian_Greek_women.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Pontian_Greek_women.JPG/260px-Pontian_Greek_women.JPG" decoding="async" width="260" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Pontian_Greek_women.JPG/390px-Pontian_Greek_women.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Pontian_Greek_women.JPG/520px-Pontian_Greek_women.JPG 2x" data-file-width="822" data-file-height="598" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pontic_Greeks" title="Pontic Greeks">Pontic Greek</a> women in Western clothing</figcaption></figure> <p>The 19th century was, in large part, a century of Westernization for the empire. Because of the relative stagnation of women's rights in the Ottoman Empire; European observers, as well as secret societies such as the <a href="/wiki/Young_Ottomans" title="Young Ottomans">Young Ottomans</a>, stated a need for major reform.<sup id="cite_ref-:17_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:17-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Young_Ottomans" title="Young Ottomans">Young Ottomans</a> criticized Ottoman customs that prevented developments in women's rights and talked about the importance of women in society, all while synthesizing said changes with Islamic values.<sup id="cite_ref-Finkel,_475_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Finkel,_475-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result of all these efforts, in the second half of the 19th century, midwife schools and secondary schools were opened.<sup id="cite_ref-:04_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:04-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These changes had many opponents, particularly conservatives such as <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Hamid_II" title="Abdul Hamid II">Abdul Hamid II</a> and many members of the <a href="/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama">Ulema</a>, but also others; many scholars and authors, such as <a href="/wiki/Ahmet_Mithat" title="Ahmet Mithat">Ahmet Mithat Efendi</a>, agreed with most of these changes, but resisted the sentiment that Ottomans should "implicitly accept Western superiority", while "explicitly rejecting" it, according to Ussama Makdisi.<sup id="cite_ref-:17_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:17-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To this day, the effect of <a href="/wiki/Westernization" title="Westernization">Westernization</a> on women's rights in the Ottoman Empire remains controversial among scholars.<sup id="cite_ref-:17_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:17-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>World War I also caused various developments in terms of women's rights. In this period, legal regulations were made to <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">sharia</a>-based laws; polygamy was left to the woman's consent, and marriage was subjected to state control. This regulation could only survive for a year, as it was later abolished by the <a href="/wiki/Freedom_and_Accord_Party" title="Freedom and Accord Party">Freedom and Accord Party</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Partition of the Ottoman Empire">Allied partition of the Ottoman Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Social_life">Social life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Social life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Belly0091919.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Belly0091919.jpg/170px-Belly0091919.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Belly0091919.jpg/255px-Belly0091919.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Belly0091919.jpg 2x" data-file-width="291" data-file-height="416" /></a><figcaption>Turkish women smoking <a href="/wiki/Hookah" title="Hookah">hookah</a> around 1910</figcaption></figure> <p>During most of the Ottoman Empire, many women's interactions were limited to socialization among fellow women, and members of their family. Women socialized with each other at their homes and also at bathhouses.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> High society women, particularly those who did not live in the palace, visited one another at each other's homes, however, those who lived in the palace were subject to strict etiquette that prevented ease of socializing. Women would often bring their finest bathing accessories, such as embroidered towels and high, wooden sandals, to social events.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaroqhi2005106_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaroqhi2005106-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As with any society, style of dress played an important role in the social lives of Ottoman women. According to the wife of the British ambassador to Istanbul during the 18th century, <a href="/wiki/Lady_Mary_Wortley_Montagu" title="Lady Mary Wortley Montagu">Lady Mary Wortley Montagu</a>, the attire of Ottoman women "reflected their dignity and rights".<sup id="cite_ref-:02_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The way an Ottoman woman dressed indicated not only her status in society but also the occasion. There were two categories to dress: the clothing for daily dress and the attire for special occasions.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On these special occasions, such as weddings and engagements, women would socialize outside their family and surroundings.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the spread of Western influence during the 19th century, Ottoman women had increased interactions with European women. The interactions with Westerners during this period changed the social lives of many Ottoman and Western women, and it became normal for Ottoman women to invite and accept European acquaintances into their homes and their lives.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Harem">Harem</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Harem"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jean-Baptiste_van_Mour_010.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Jean-Baptiste_van_Mour_010.jpg/220px-Jean-Baptiste_van_Mour_010.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Jean-Baptiste_van_Mour_010.jpg/330px-Jean-Baptiste_van_Mour_010.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Jean-Baptiste_van_Mour_010.jpg 2x" data-file-width="392" data-file-height="460" /></a><figcaption>An 18th-century painting of the harem of Sultan <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_III" title="Ahmed III">Ahmed III</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Jean_Baptiste_Vanmour" title="Jean Baptiste Vanmour">Jean Baptiste Vanmour</a></figcaption></figure> <p>While <a href="/wiki/Harem" title="Harem">harem</a> has many different descriptions, and could describe any sex segregated space reserved for women, its most literal usage is to describe the part of a house reserved for women in many Islamic cultures, a custom comparable to (and according to Nikki Keddie, possibly borrowed from) the Greek-Byzantine <a href="/wiki/Gynaeceum" title="Gynaeceum">gynaeceum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the context of the Ottoman Empire, however, the word '<a href="/wiki/Harem" title="Harem">harem</a>' is inextricably linked to the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Imperial_Harem" title="Ottoman Imperial Harem">Imperial Harem</a>, where female members of the Ottoman court spent a considerable amount of their time. Turkish popular history of the Imperial Harem is based on the memoirs, personal letters, and travel accounts by foreign women, and one of the best ways to have a look inside the Imperial Harem is with the help of people who have personal experiences with the Harem. The Sultan's Harem is described as a very diverse place, with the majority of women there being enslaved Christians.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cavidan, <a href="/wiki/Abbas_II_of_Egypt" title="Abbas II of Egypt">Abbas Hilmi II</a>’s wife and a convert to Islam, is one of the women that have shared her analyses of the Imperial Harem. She said that the Harem was preserved in a manner that was desired by what she called a false version of <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, giving rise to a ruling class that was full of jealousies and was not in accordance with the principles and the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>. She compared it to the Harem from Muhammad’s time and claimed that women had every right in the Harem of his time and they possessed genuine freedom. </p><p>However, different people with Harem experiences often had different points of view. Cavidan expressed criticism of the religion and culture she embraced, whereas others, such as <a href="/wiki/Leyla_Saz" title="Leyla Saz">Leyla Saz</a>, conveyed her childhood and young adulthood memories within the Ottoman Harem in very positive terms.<sup id="cite_ref-:20_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:20-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Education">Education</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Prior to the nineteenth century, there did not exist any formal public education for Ottoman women. Young Ottoman girls were taught through <a href="/wiki/Harem" title="Harem">harem</a> education; they learned skills such as "sewing, embroidery, playing the [Ottoman] harp (<a href="/wiki/%C3%87eng" title="Çeng">çeng</a>), singing, and memorizing the customs and ceremonies".<sup id="cite_ref-:04_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:04-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Tanzimat" title="Tanzimat">Tanzimat</a> brought additional rights to women, particularly in education. Some of the first schools for girls, called <i>Rüştiyes</i>, opened in 1858, followed by a boom in 1869 when elementary education was rendered mandatory.<sup id="cite_ref-:04_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:04-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the 1860s, many new educational opportunities existed for Ottoman women. This decade saw the first middle-level schools, a teacher training college and industrial schools, called <i>İnas Sanayi Mektepleri</i>, which were created concurrently with industrial schools for boys.<sup id="cite_ref-:04_23-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:04-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whereas men's education focused on job training, women's education focused on shaping girls to evolve into better wives and mothers with refined social graces.<sup id="cite_ref-:18_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:18-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women that began their education during their adolescence started by focusing on formal skills, their manner to speak, reading and writing. The schools taught a variety of subjects and incorporated harem education into the modernized public education system.<sup id="cite_ref-:04_23-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:04-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The movement for women's education was sparked in large part by women's magazines, the most recognized among them being the Ottoman Turkish <i>Hanımlara Mahsus Gazette</i> (<i>The Gazette for Ladies</i>), which ran for fourteen years and was successful enough to have established its own press. With a female dominated staff, the magazine aimed to enable women to evolve into better mothers, wives, and Muslims. Its topics varied between discussions of feminism, fashion, economic imperialism and autonomy, comparisons of Ottoman modernization with Japanese modernization, and technology. The magazine also included the usual content of a middle-class women's magazine of the nineteenth century: royal gossip, the science of being a housewife, health, improving fiction, and child-rearing.<sup id="cite_ref-:18_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:18-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Politics">Politics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Politics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EmperorSuleiman.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/EmperorSuleiman.jpg/220px-EmperorSuleiman.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/EmperorSuleiman.jpg/330px-EmperorSuleiman.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/EmperorSuleiman.jpg/440px-EmperorSuleiman.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1810" data-file-height="2117" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent" title="Suleiman the Magnificent">Suleiman</a>, whose rule marked the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Women" title="Sultanate of Women">Sultanate of Women</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Prior to the sixteenth century, women did not hold considerable political influence, until <a href="/wiki/Suleiman" title="Suleiman">Suleiman</a> ascended the throne in 1520, which marked the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Women" title="Sultanate of Women">Sultanate of Women</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:14_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:14-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mother of the Sultan, who would herself have likely been a slave in the Imperial Harem, would garner the special status of <i><a href="/wiki/Valide_sultan" title="Valide sultan">valide sultan</a></i> and could enjoy enormous political influence.<sup id="cite_ref-:05_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:05-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Valide_sultan" title="Valide sultan"><i>Valide sultans</i></a> and leading concubines aided in the creation of domestic political factions, in negotiation with foreign ambassadors and as advisers to the sultan. The importance of the Imperial Harem grew as women became more politically influential; with this growth, more opportunities for women were opened as well.<sup id="cite_ref-:05_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:05-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During this era, high-ranking women were politically influential and two of them granted public importance. Two important figures that modeled this public importance were <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6sem_Sultan" title="Kösem Sultan">Kösem Sultan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Turhan_Sultan" title="Turhan Sultan">Turhan Sultan</a>: with their roles, they transitioned the relationship of the <i>valide sultan</i> and her son from a strictly private one to one that incorporated the empire.<sup id="cite_ref-:16_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:16-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:05_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:05-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the new prominence of the Imperial Harem, most of the women remained constricted to its wall.<sup id="cite_ref-:16_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:16-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only the <i>valide sultan</i> exercised mobility outside the Imperial Harem: even this mobility was limited. The <i>valide sultan</i> would attend public ceremonies and even meetings with high ranking government officials, all the while remaining heavily veiled.<sup id="cite_ref-:05_31-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:05-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to their confinement, the women of the Imperial Harem had many networks that aided in their political influence, and this granted them considerable control; the <i><a href="/wiki/Valide_sultan" title="Valide sultan">valide sultan</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Haseki_sultan" title="Haseki sultan">haseki sultan</a></i> and leading concubines had the capability to shape the careers of all harem officials by arranging marriages of princesses or of manumitted slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-:05_31-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:05-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Women_in_Ottoman_law">Women in Ottoman law</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Women in Ottoman law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Haseki_Hurrem_Sultan_Rossa_Solimanni.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Haseki_Hurrem_Sultan_Rossa_Solimanni.jpg/170px-Haseki_Hurrem_Sultan_Rossa_Solimanni.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Haseki_Hurrem_Sultan_Rossa_Solimanni.jpg/255px-Haseki_Hurrem_Sultan_Rossa_Solimanni.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Haseki_Hurrem_Sultan_Rossa_Solimanni.jpg/340px-Haseki_Hurrem_Sultan_Rossa_Solimanni.jpg 2x" data-file-width="735" data-file-height="735" /></a><figcaption>Haseki Hürrem Sultan, also known as Roxelana, was the legal wife of Sultan Süleyman I and mother of Sultan Selim II. (9 January 1561)</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Qanun_(law)" title="Qanun (law)">qanun</a> was the semi-secular legal system that applied to all citizens of the Empire, and would contain laws enacted by the Ottoman sultan. Its stated purpose was to supplement religious (particularly Islamic) law, however, it was also often used to supersede religious law if said law was deemed unenforceable or otherwise undesirable.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Religious laws also played a very large role in the Ottoman Empire. <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a> shaped the laws of Muslims in the empire, and had some influence over the secular <a href="/wiki/Qanun_(law)" title="Qanun (law)">qanun</a>; the Orthodox <a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">canon law</a> and the Jewish <a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Halakha</a> played similar roles for their respective communities, although in inter-faith cases involving a Muslim, Islamic religious law was most often used.<sup id="cite_ref-Benton_109-110_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Benton_109-110-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Within the scope of these laws, women possessed rights that were regarded as being unusual from a European perspective.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_14-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These rights included, but were not limited to, the ability to own property, to approach the judicial system on their own without consulting a male (including bringing divorce claims to court), to acquire informal education in religious and scholarly fields, and to be financially independent.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaroqhiMcGowanPamuk1994[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_March_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(March_2023)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaroqhiMcGowanPamuk1994[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_March_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(March_2023)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite this, men and women were not considered truly equal by the court, and were subject to separate codes of law and procedures.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Crimes required a minimum number of witnesses to be presented before the court. Yet, women were largely unable to take this oath to testify to the court, and since they spent much of their time in the presence of other women, it was often impossible to find male witnesses to testify on their behalf.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Furthermore, young women generally had little say over her marriage. If the family of the girl agreed, the parents would settle the matter among themselves. Once the matter had been settled, a marriage contract would be made. Both the bridegroom and the bride were socially expected to show consent concerning the contract. The agreement would have witnesses, but the bride and groom would consent separately.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, the first case studies showed the impact of the death of one or both of the child's parents. Female children married before the age of 14 seem to have been orphans more often. It seems to be a voluntary position, which also had a negative impact on the dowry amount.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rape laws, while strict, did not always protect female victims, as the laws that were meant to protect them in the instance of rape could have been turned against them in practice. For example, in the case of a young girl's rape, the perpetrator's defense could have been the assertion that the victim's family was to blame instead of him because they let the girl leave their home in the first place.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Regarding divorce, the Ottomans believed that a troubled and unhappy family relationship would harm the union and society at large. Women would be allowed to divorce under certain conditions. However, men did not have to provide a reason and could expect to be compensated and to compensate their wives, whereas women had to provide a reason, such as “there is a lack of good understanding between us.” Upon divorce, women would lose any financial benefit received courtesy of the marriage and would sometimes have to pay the husband.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaroqhi2005103_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaroqhi2005103-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If a woman was to be widowed, she would have to go to court and request permission to remarry. This as well required a number of testimonies to explain the circumstances of her husband's death. If the testimonies and evidence show that the woman is not at fault for her husband's death, then she would be allowed to remarry. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Inheritance">Inheritance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Inheritance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Women in the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> could inherit property from their deceased parents or husbands, although often to a lesser extent to their male relatives. Records are "quite clear" that at least as far as Islamic courts were concerned, the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_inheritance_jurisprudence" title="Islamic inheritance jurisprudence">law of inheritance</a> was always applied in accordance with <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">sharia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This means that wherever a woman is mentioned as an heir of the deceased, she would also be on the list of those receiving shares, and her share would be indicated. However, succession documents drawn up by a <a href="/wiki/Qadi" title="Qadi">qadi</a> are not sufficient proof that the property actually passed into the hands of the women, as there are records implying that through "establishment of family waqfs" and "gifts to male members", women would, in some cases, be disinherited contrary to Islamic law.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other records of seventeenth-century Bursa contain a large number of documents which, in effect, describe legal disputes involving women over estates and inheritances showing that in many, although not all cases, women did inherit property, even if said property was less than what succession documents had originally drawn up.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_41-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Women in the Ottoman Empire could also inherit agricultural land, but, the divergence between religious law and practice involving agricultural property has been viewed as the most flagrant.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was largely because of the Timar system, where agricultural land was not "inheritable" in the same sense that other property would be, and holders of these lands were merely proprietors who were conditionally given the land in exchange for continuous loyalty and profit. This kept the issue in the scope of <a href="/wiki/Qanun_(law)" title="Qanun (law)">qanun</a> law instead of Islamic law, and the imperial law dictated that there was direct succession of agricultural land, only from a deceased male to his male sons. If the deceased had only daughters and a wife (or wives), those successors had to pay a <a href="/wiki/Tapu_resmi" title="Tapu resmi">tapu tax</a> (a sort of entry fine) to the landowner in order to get the land.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_41-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economic_life">Economic life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Economic life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Egyptian_fellah_woman_(1872_painting).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Egyptian_fellah_woman_%281872_painting%29.jpg/280px-Egyptian_fellah_woman_%281872_painting%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Egyptian_fellah_woman_%281872_painting%29.jpg/420px-Egyptian_fellah_woman_%281872_painting%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Egyptian_fellah_woman_%281872_painting%29.jpg/560px-Egyptian_fellah_woman_%281872_painting%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7494" data-file-height="5748" /></a><figcaption>An Egyptian <i><a href="/wiki/Fellah" title="Fellah">fellah</a></i> woman, a peasant or farmer, distinguished from the <i><a href="/wiki/Effendi" title="Effendi">effendi</a></i> land-owning class, painted by <a href="/wiki/Elisabeth_Jerichau-Baumann" title="Elisabeth Jerichau-Baumann">Elisabeth Jerichau-Baumann</a> in 1878. Jerichau-Baumann based this and similar works on her experiences travelling the Ottoman Empire in 1869–1870 and 1874–1875. Unlike many of her contemporaries, she had access to the region's harems and could base her paintings on personal observation. Many of her subjects insisted on being painted in the latest Paris fashions.</figcaption></figure> <p>Women played many roles in the Ottoman Empire, per their designated social position. While women from less affluent families would be limited to doing housework chores, in wealthy families, they were the in-charge of the household.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wealthy families possessed huge properties, such as many houses, animals, vast lands, and large numbers of servants. The women would control activities in these farms, while, in some cases, also taking care of the children.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Wealthier women played a vital role in the economy of the Ottoman Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-:19_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:19-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These women possessed a considerable influence, and Muslim women in particular bought and sold property, inherited and bequeathed wealth, established <a href="/wiki/Waqf" title="Waqf">waqfs</a> (endowments), borrowed and lent money, and at times served as holders of <a href="/wiki/Timar" title="Timar">Timars</a> (a sort of fiefdom given to <a href="/wiki/Janissaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Janissaries">Ottoman cavalry</a> and the lower nobility). Women also held <a href="/wiki/Usufruct" title="Usufruct">usufruct</a> rights on state land, as tax farmers and in business partnerships. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Waqf" title="Waqf">Waqfs</a> during the Ottoman period were commonly used as institutions for public improvement in order to create and maintain institutions like <a href="/wiki/Bimaristan" title="Bimaristan">bimaristans</a> or <a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa">madrasas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many Ottoman women were among the founders of waqfs, with the existence of their allotments being pivotal in their communities’ economic life; of the 491 public fountains in Istanbul that were constructed during the Ottoman period and survived until the 1930s, nearly 30% of them were registered under waqfs that belonged to women.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further analysis of waqfs in Ottoman cities have found that a considerable number of waqfs are under the name of women, and in some places, close to 50% of waqfs.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Owing to their leverage in <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">sharia</a> courts and the importance of these courts in the empire, non-Muslim women, who were judged by other courts according to the <a href="/wiki/Millet_(Ottoman_Empire)" title="Millet (Ottoman Empire)">Millet system</a> or its predecessors, often viewed conversion as a way to attain greater autonomy.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women also had access to the justice system and could access a judge, as well as be taken to court themselves. </p><p>Because women had access to the legal system, much of the information about their role in Ottoman society is sourced from court records.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaroqhi2005101_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaroqhi2005101-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In cities, such as <a href="/wiki/Bursa" title="Bursa">Bursa</a>, women freely appeared in court during the seventeenth century. One example documents a court record from 1683 in which a woman sued someone who allegedly seized a shop that she technically inherited after her husband died. In a separate case, a woman sued someone who allegedly broke into her home and robbed her of various items. While these two examples demonstrate the active role that women held in Ottoman courts, many other instances were also documented.<sup id="cite_ref-:19_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:19-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:20_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:20-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women also openly sued male members of their family in Ottoman courts. One instance presents a case where a woman sued her own husband due to the fact that he built an addition on their house, with this addition being on a portion of the house that she states belonged to her. Her request for demolition of the new portion of the house was granted.<sup id="cite_ref-:19_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:19-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another way in which women held economic power was through property ownership. A review of <i>qadi</i> records in the Ottoman city of <a href="/wiki/Bursa" title="Bursa">Bursa</a> found that one-third of women with estates also owned their own home.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_41-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Besides owning homes in their own names, women also commonly sold or leased their property. In urban areas, women owned or rented shops, sometimes even owning artisanal workshops; urban women often owned plots just outside the city like vineyards and mills, as well.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_41-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women also regularly bought and sold agricultural land, despite an Ottoman state law that prevented women from inheriting agricultural land unless a state tax was paid. Stemming from this ownership is the fact that women were an active part of agricultural life, usually taking over the cultivation of fields and orchards in the absence of their husbands, and records indicate that some women maintained agricultural property separate from that of their husband's.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_41-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Women were actively involved in credit transactions, both giving and receiving money loans. Reviews of some estates in the city of Bursa reveal that many men received loans from their wives, although the circumstances under which these loans were created are ambiguous.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_41-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is also evidence of women lending money to multiple different people at a time, indicating that they could serve as semi-professional <a href="/wiki/Moneylenders" class="mw-redirect" title="Moneylenders">moneylenders</a>. Women were involved in investment, as well, although their level of participation in this area is partially obscured by the practice by some women of appointing male relatives to carry out their business and investments on their behalf.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even so, there are records of women investing directly in businesses, merchants, and other commercial ventures. While women could participate in trade indirectly through investing in merchants and trade ventures, there is little evidence of women working in trade themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_41-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One aspect of economic life in which women had limited involvement was artisanship; there is little archival evidence showing that women were themselves members of <a href="/wiki/Guild" title="Guild">craft guilds</a> of various cities.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_43-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in some areas it has been observed that women had a complementary relationship with artisans by providing capital and tools, as well as by renting out buildings to be used by artisans in everything from baking to textile work.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_43-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other contexts, women often had an adversarial relationship with guilds, with most archival evidence of women's involvement in guilds found in lawsuits. Women could inherit the right to participate in guilds, in the form of a document called <i>hisse</i>, from their relatives, but there are certain cases of guilds suing women for trying to participate in guild life. In one such case, litigation was brought forth against Fatma Hatun by Bursa's candlemakers guild; their claim was that there had never been a woman in this guild before, therefore her participation in the guild must have been illegal. In response, Fatma Hatun answered that it was within her right as she inherited the rights to produce candlemaking from her father.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_41-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite their limited participation in the dominant guild system, it is likely that women established their own organizations, particularly for primarily women-led services like singing, dancing, washing, and nursing.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_43-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A subset of women artisans in the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> worked entirely on their own, producing goods in their homes and selling them in the streets, eschewing the support of labor organizations, middlemen, and traditional shops.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_41-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Slavery">Slavery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Slavery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For broader coverage of this topic, see <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Slavery in the Ottoman Empire">Slavery in the Ottoman Empire</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Inspecting_New_Arrivals_by_Giulio_Rosati_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Inspecting_New_Arrivals_by_Giulio_Rosati_2.jpg/310px-Inspecting_New_Arrivals_by_Giulio_Rosati_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Inspecting_New_Arrivals_by_Giulio_Rosati_2.jpg/465px-Inspecting_New_Arrivals_by_Giulio_Rosati_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Inspecting_New_Arrivals_by_Giulio_Rosati_2.jpg/620px-Inspecting_New_Arrivals_by_Giulio_Rosati_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1430" data-file-height="854" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Giulio_Rosati" title="Giulio Rosati">Giulio Rosati</a>, <i>Inspection of New Arrivals</i>, 1858–1917, <a href="/wiki/Circassian_beauties" class="mw-redirect" title="Circassian beauties">Circassian beauties</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Slavery was a considerable part of the Ottoman economy, and for enslaved women, this was frequently in sexual roles, including marriage at a young age in the unpaid labor market.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Still, the slave trade was not an exclusive one, as people of all races and gender identities could have been thrust into the market, one exception being those who were classified as <i>dhimmis</i>, or non-Muslims who submit to Ottoman law.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Owners, too, were male, female, Muslim and non-Muslim.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Circassians" title="Circassians">Circassians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syrian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian people">Syrians</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nubians" title="Nubians">Nubians</a> were the three primary ethnicities of women who were sold as sex slaves. Circassian girls were frequently enslaved by <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Tatars" title="Crimean Tatars">Crimean Tatars</a> then sold to Ottomans via the <a href="/wiki/Circassian_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Circassian slave trade">Circassian slave trade</a>. They were the most expensive, reaching up to 500 <a href="/wiki/Pounds_sterling" class="mw-redirect" title="Pounds sterling">pounds sterling</a> and the most popular with the Ottomans. Second in popularity were Syrian girls, largely from coastal regions in <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>. Their price could reach up to 30 pounds sterling. Nubian girls were the cheapest and least popular: according to a contemporary report of the <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>, Nubian girls were fetching up to 20 pounds sterling.<sup id="cite_ref-Schierbrand1886_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schierbrand1886-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Harem" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Harem">concubines of the Ottoman Sultan</a> consisted chiefly of purchased slaves, which were generally of Christian origin. The concubines were guarded by enslaved <a href="/wiki/Eunuchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Eunuchs">eunuchs</a>, themselves often from pagan Africa. The eunuchs were headed by the <a href="/wiki/Kizlar_Agha" class="mw-redirect" title="Kizlar Agha">Kizlar Agha</a> ("<a href="/wiki/Agha_(Ottoman_Empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="Agha (Ottoman Empire)">agha</a> of the [slave] girls"). While Islamic law forbade the emasculation of a man, Ethiopian Christians had no such compunctions; thus, they enslaved and emasculated members of territories to the south and sold the resulting eunuchs to the <a href="/wiki/Sublime_Porte" title="Sublime Porte">Ottoman Porte</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gcam_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gcam-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prostitution">Prostitution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Prostitution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Prostitution" title="Prostitution">Prostitution</a> was prevalent in the Ottoman Empire, with both men and women, as well as Christians, Jews, and Muslims, engaging in the practice. Prostitutes met clients in a variety of public spaces, and they often served sailors and military members, particularly in their lodgings. To evade detection, some female prostitutes disguised themselves as men, and certain pimps married their prostitutes to remain under the radar.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the late Ottoman Empire, Istanbul became a central hub for the trafficking of women, with networks operating both domestically and internationally. Both men and women were involved in trafficking and procuring prostitutes.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While people of all religions in the Ottoman Empire engaged in prostitution, the experiences of prostitutes differed by their religious identity. In the Ottoman Empire, it was illegal for Muslim women to marry or engage sexually with non-Muslim men, while Muslim men could marry non-Muslim women. Accordingly, the law imposed more severe punishments for Muslim women than non-Muslim women accused of prostitution.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nonetheless, many Muslim women engaged in prostitution, mainly working in their homes and public spaces rather than in brothels. Female prostitutes generally attempted to limit their sexual interactions to “confessional lines” since cases were more likely to be brought to court when religious boundaries were crossed.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Records show that male prostitutes were also present in the Ottoman Empire. Most male prostitutes were registered with the state, and they often worked in public bathhouses.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Economic necessity drove many into prostitution, particularly those lacking a support system due to divorce, widowhood, or economic downturns. Poor women, previously enslaved women, women from rural areas, and immigrants were noted to enter prostitution out of financial necessity. Engaging in prostitution often tainted these women as “disreputable,” which led to their alienation and further limited their economic opportunities.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Ottoman Empire had a complex and ambiguous legal approach to prostitution. While Islamic law prescribes harsh punishments, such as lashes and stoning, for crimes of illicit sex, most prostitutes did not face capital punishment. Instead, prostitutes were typically banished from their neighborhood or city or forced to pay a fine.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholars attribute this gap between legal theory and practice to the difficulty of proving sexual misconduct, the incentives faced by the state to permit prostitution, and the ambiguity embedded in legal theory on prostitution, given its legal equivalence to the broader category of <i><a href="/wiki/Zina" title="Zina">zinā</a></i> (fornication).<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Islam" title="Women in Islam">Women in Islam</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:12-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:12_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:12_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px 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"Before the Odalisque: Renaissance Representations of Elite Ottoman Women". <i>Early Modern Women</i>. <b>6</b>: <span class="nowrap">1–</span>41. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2FEMW23617325">10.1086/EMW23617325</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23617325">23617325</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:164805076">164805076</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Early+Modern+Women&rft.atitle=Before+the+Odalisque%3A+Renaissance+Representations+of+Elite+Ottoman+Women&rft.volume=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E41&rft.date=2011-09-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A164805076%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23617325%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2FEMW23617325&rft.aulast=Madar&rft.aufirst=Heather&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:20-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:20_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:20_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarzilai-Lumbroso2009" class="citation journal cs1">Barzilai-Lumbroso, Ruth (1 July 2009). 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"Beyond Harem Walls: Ottoman Royal Women and the Exercise of Power". <i>Servants of the Dynasty: Palace Women in World History</i>. pp. <span class="nowrap">81–</span>94. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fcalifornia%2F9780520254435.003.0004">10.1525/california/9780520254435.003.0004</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-25443-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-25443-5"><bdi>978-0-520-25443-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Beyond+Harem+Walls%3A+Ottoman+Royal+Women+and+the+Exercise+of+Power&rft.btitle=Servants+of+the+Dynasty%3A+Palace+Women+in+World+History&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E81-%3C%2Fspan%3E94&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Fcalifornia%2F9780520254435.003.0004&rft.isbn=978-0-520-25443-5&rft.aulast=Peirce&rft.aufirst=Leslie+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKatz2009" class="citation book cs1">Katz, Stanley Nider (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195134056.001.0001/acref-9780195134056-e-601"><i>Ottoman Empire: Islamic Law in Asia Minor (Turkey) and the Ottoman Empire - Oxford Reference</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195134056" title="Special:BookSources/9780195134056"><bdi>9780195134056</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-11-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ottoman+Empire%3A+Islamic+Law+in+Asia+Minor+%28Turkey%29+and+the+Ottoman+Empire+-+Oxford+Reference&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780195134056&rft.aulast=Katz&rft.aufirst=Stanley+Nider&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780195134056.001.0001%2Facref-9780195134056-e-601&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Benton_109-110-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Benton_109-110_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenton2001" class="citation book cs1">Benton, Lauren (3 December 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rZtjR9JnwYwC&pg=109"><i>Law and Colonial Cultures: Legal Regimes in World History, 1400–1900</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">109–</span>110. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-00926-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-00926-3"><bdi>978-0-521-00926-3</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 February</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Law+and+Colonial+Cultures%3A+Legal+Regimes+in+World+History%2C+1400%E2%80%931900&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E109-%3C%2Fspan%3E110&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2001-12-03&rft.isbn=978-0-521-00926-3&rft.aulast=Benton&rft.aufirst=Lauren&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrZtjR9JnwYwC%26pg%3D109&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSugar1977" class="citation book cs1">Sugar, Peter F. (1977). <i>Southeastern Europe under Ottoman rule, 1354–1804</i>. Seattle, USA: University of Washington Press. pp. 5 to 7.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Southeastern+Europe+under+Ottoman+rule%2C+1354%E2%80%931804&rft.place=Seattle%2C+USA&rft.pages=5+to+7&rft.pub=University+of+Washington+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.aulast=Sugar&rft.aufirst=Peter+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195390155/obo-9780195390155-0082.xml">"The Hanafi School - Islamic Studies - Oxford Bibliographies - obo"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-03-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Hanafi+School+-+Islamic+Studies+-+Oxford+Bibliographies+-+obo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordbibliographies.com%2Fview%2Fdocument%2Fobo-9780195390155%2Fobo-9780195390155-0082.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeirce2003" class="citation book cs1">Peirce, Leslie (2003). <i>Morality Tales: Law and Gender in the Ottoman Court of Aintab</i>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-22892-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-22892-4"><bdi>978-0-520-22892-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Morality+Tales%3A+Law+and+Gender+in+the+Ottoman+Court+of+Aintab&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-520-22892-4&rft.aulast=Peirce&rft.aufirst=Leslie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (March 2023)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKermeli2013" class="citation journal cs1">Kermeli, Eugenia (2013). "Marriage and Divorce of Christians and New Muslims in Early Modern Ottoman Empire: Crete 1645-1670". <i>Oriente Moderno</i>. <b>93</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">495–</span>514. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F22138617-12340029">10.1163/22138617-12340029</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11693%2F38283">11693/38283</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159636156">159636156</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oriente+Moderno&rft.atitle=Marriage+and+Divorce+of+Christians+and+New+Muslims+in+Early+Modern+Ottoman+Empire%3A+Crete+1645-1670&rft.volume=93&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E495-%3C%2Fspan%3E514&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11693%2F38283&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159636156%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F22138617-12340029&rft.aulast=Kermeli&rft.aufirst=Eugenia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBüssow2025" class="citation web cs1">Büssow, Sarah (2025-01-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kritarab.hypotheses.org/1102">"Children in vulnerable positions in the 19th century Ottoman Empire"</a>. <i>Krit:Arab</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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BRILL. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-10804-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-10804-2"><bdi>978-90-04-10804-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/906739828">906739828</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+in+the+Ottoman+Empire%3A+Middle+Eastern+Women+in+the+Early+Modern+Era&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F906739828&rft.isbn=978-90-04-10804-2&rft.aulast=Zilfi&rft.aufirst=Madeline+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (March 2023)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaroqhi2005103-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaroqhi2005103_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFaroqhi2005">Faroqhi 2005</a>, p. 103.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_41-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_41-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_41-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_41-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_41-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_41-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_41-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_41-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_41-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGerber1980" class="citation journal cs1">Gerber, Haim (November 1980). 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SUNY Press. p. 52. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-5993-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-5993-5"><bdi>978-0-7914-5993-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kurdish+notables+and+the+Ottoman+state%3A+evolving+identities%2C+competing+loyalties%2C+and+shifting+boundaries&rft.pages=52&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-5993-5&rft.aulast=%C3%96zo%C4%9Flu&rft.aufirst=Hakan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCttLWEaTrJUC%26pg%3DPA52&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeirce1993" class="citation book cs1">Peirce, Leslie P. 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Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-508677-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-508677-5"><bdi>978-0-19-508677-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Imperial+Harem%3A+Women+and+Sovereignty+in+the+Ottoman+Empire&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-19-508677-5&rft.aulast=Peirce&rft.aufirst=Leslie+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DL6-VRgVzRcUC%26dq%3Dwomen%2Bin%2Bthe%2Bottoman%2Bempire%26pg%3DPR7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDalkesen2007" class="citation news cs1">Dalkesen (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://etd.lib.metu.edu.tr/upload/12608663/index.pdf">"Gender roles and Women's Status in Central Asia and Anatolia Between Thirteenth and Sixteenth Centuries"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 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"Islamic Conversion Narratives of Women: Social Change and Gendered Religious Hierarchy in Early Modern Ottoman Istanbul". <i>Gender & History</i>. <b>16</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">425–</span>458. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.0953-5233.2004.00347.x">10.1111/j.0953-5233.2004.00347.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145552242">145552242</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Gender+%26+History&rft.atitle=Islamic+Conversion+Narratives+of+Women%3A+Social+Change+and+Gendered+Religious+Hierarchy+in+Early+Modern+Ottoman+Istanbul&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E425-%3C%2Fspan%3E458&rft.date=2004-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.0953-5233.2004.00347.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145552242%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Baer&rft.aufirst=Marc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaroqhi2005101-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaroqhi2005101_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFaroqhi2005">Faroqhi 2005</a>, p. 101.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToledano2011" class="citation book cs1">Toledano, Ehud R. 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"Enslavement in the Ottoman Empire in the Early Modern Period". <i>The Cambridge World History of Slavery</i>. pp. <span class="nowrap">25–</span>46. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fchol9780521840682.004">10.1017/chol9780521840682.004</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-511-97540-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-511-97540-0"><bdi>978-0-511-97540-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Enslavement+in+the+Ottoman+Empire+in+the+Early+Modern+Period&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+World+History+of+Slavery&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E25-%3C%2Fspan%3E46&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fchol9780521840682.004&rft.isbn=978-0-511-97540-0&rft.aulast=Toledano&rft.aufirst=Ehud+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZilfi2012" class="citation book cs1">Zilfi, Madeline (2012). <i>Women and Slavery in the Late Ottoman Empire: The Design of Difference</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-41145-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-41145-6"><bdi>978-1-107-41145-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/934950848">934950848</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+and+Slavery+in+the+Late+Ottoman+Empire%3A+The+Design+of+Difference&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F934950848&rft.isbn=978-1-107-41145-6&rft.aulast=Zilfi&rft.aufirst=Madeline&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (March 2023)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schierbrand1886-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Schierbrand1886_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on an unreliable source. (February 2025)">unreliable source?</span></a></i>]</sup><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1886/03/28/archives/slaves-sold-to-the-turk-how-the-vile-traffic-is-still-carried-on-in.html">"SLAVES SOLD TO THE TURK; HOW THE VILE TRAFFIC IS STILL CARRIED ON IN THE EAST. SIGHTS OUR CORRESPONDENT SAW FOR TWENTY DOLLARS--IN THE HOUSE OF A GRAND OLD TURK OF A DEALER"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. 28 March 1886.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=SLAVES+SOLD+TO+THE+TURK%3B+HOW+THE+VILE+TRAFFIC+IS+STILL+CARRIED+ON+IN+THE+EAST.+SIGHTS+OUR+CORRESPONDENT+SAW+FOR+TWENTY+DOLLARS--IN+THE+HOUSE+OF+A+GRAND+OLD+TURK+OF+A+DEALER&rft.date=1886-03-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1886%2F03%2F28%2Farchives%2Fslaves-sold-to-the-turk-how-the-vile-traffic-is-still-carried-on-in.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gcam-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gcam_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gwyn Campbell, <i>The Structure of Slavery in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia</i>, 1 edition, (Routledge: 2003), p. ix</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Çoban Döşkaya, Füsun and Aksın, Ahmet (2015). "Prostitutes in Ottoman Archival Sources." International Conference on Knowledge and Politics in Gender and Women’s Studies. METU GWS Conference. pp. 456–65.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Acar, Kezban (2018). "Procuring and Trafficking In Women in the Late Ottoman Empire." <i>Turcica</i>, 48, pp. 271-299.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_59-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_59-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Baldwin, James E. (2012). "Prostitution, Islamic Law and Ottoman Societies." <i>Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient</i>, 55(1), pp. 117-152.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wyers, Mark David (2017). "Selling Sex in Istanbul," in <i>Selling Sex in the City: A Global History of Prostitution, 1600s-2000s</i>. Brill. pp. 278-305.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sabev, Orlin (2021). "How to Manage the Unmanageable: Inconsistent Ottoman Strategies to Prevent Prostitution." <i>Turkish Historical Review</i>, 12(1), pp. 19-46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hock, Stefan (2019). "To Bring about a ‘Moral of Renewal’: The Deportation of Sex Workers in the Ottoman Empire during the First World War." <i>Journal of the History of Sexuality</i>, 28(3), pp. 457-482.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gerber, Haim (2015). "Law in the Ottoman Empire," in <i>The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Law</i>, edited by Anver M. Emon and Rumee Ahmed. Oxford Academic, pp. 475-492.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gerber, Haim (2015). "Law in the Ottoman Empire," in <i>The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Law</i>, edited by Anver M. Emon and Rumee Ahmed. Oxford Academic, pp. 278-305.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrews1898" class="citation journal cs1">Andrews, Edmund (22 January 1898). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/1927066">"The Oriental Eunuchs"</a>. <i>JAMA</i>. <b>30</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">173–</span>177. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1001%2Fjama.1898.72440560001001">10.1001/jama.1898.72440560001001</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=JAMA&rft.atitle=The+Oriental+Eunuchs&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E173-%3C%2Fspan%3E177&rft.date=1898-01-22&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1001%2Fjama.1898.72440560001001&rft.aulast=Andrews&rft.aufirst=Edmund&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1927066&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAhmadBibiMahmood2012" class="citation journal cs1">Ahmad, Eatzaz; Bibi, Anbereen; Mahmood, Tahir (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.30541%2Fv51i3pp.197-217">"Attitudes Towards Women's Rights to Inheritance in District Lakki Marwat, Pakistan"</a>. <i>The Pakistan Development Review</i>. <b>51</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">197–</span>217. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.30541%2Fv51i3pp.197-217">10.30541/v51i3pp.197-217</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24397947">24397947</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Pakistan+Development+Review&rft.atitle=Attitudes+Towards+Women%27s+Rights+to+Inheritance+in+District+Lakki+Marwat%2C+Pakistan&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E197-%3C%2Fspan%3E217&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.30541%2Fv51i3pp.197-217&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24397947%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Ahmad&rft.aufirst=Eatzaz&rft.au=Bibi%2C+Anbereen&rft.au=Mahmood%2C+Tahir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.30541%252Fv51i3pp.197-217&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAkşit2016" class="citation book cs1">Akşit, Elif (2016). "Being a Girl in Ottoman Novels". <i>Childhood in the Late Ottoman Empire and After</i>. pp. <span class="nowrap">91–</span>114. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004305809_006">10.1163/9789004305809_006</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004305809" title="Special:BookSources/9789004305809"><bdi>9789004305809</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Being+a+Girl+in+Ottoman+Novels&rft.btitle=Childhood+in+the+Late+Ottoman+Empire+and+After&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E91-%3C%2Fspan%3E114&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004305809_006&rft.isbn=9789004305809&rft.aulast=Ak%C5%9Fit&rft.aufirst=Elif&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAral2004" class="citation journal cs1">Aral, Berdal (2004). "The Idea of Human Rights as Perceived in the Ottoman Empire". <i>Human Rights Quarterly</i>. <b>26</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">454–</span>482. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fhrq.2004.0015">10.1353/hrq.2004.0015</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20069734">20069734</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144160150">144160150</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Human+Rights+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+Idea+of+Human+Rights+as+Perceived+in+the+Ottoman+Empire&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E454-%3C%2Fspan%3E482&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144160150%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20069734%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fhrq.2004.0015&rft.aulast=Aral&rft.aufirst=Berdal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Ayşe Özakbaş, Hürrem Sultan, Tarih Dergisi, Sayı 36, 2000 Archived 2012-01-13 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarzilai-Lumbroso2009" class="citation journal cs1">Barzilai-Lumbroso, Ruth (1 July 2009). "Turkish Men and the History of Ottoman Women". <i>Journal of Middle East Women's Studies</i>. <b>5</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">53–</span>82. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2979%2FMEW.2009.5.2.53">10.2979/MEW.2009.5.2.53</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162393180">162393180</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Middle+East+Women%27s+Studies&rft.atitle=Turkish+Men+and+the+History+of+Ottoman+Women&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E53-%3C%2Fspan%3E82&rft.date=2009-07-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2979%2FMEW.2009.5.2.53&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162393180%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Barzilai-Lumbroso&rft.aufirst=Ruth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOmer2006" class="citation journal cs1">Omer, Duzbakar (2006). "Charitable women and their pious foundations in the Ottoman Empire: the hospital of the senior mother, Nurbanu Valide Sultan". <i>Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine</i>. <b>5</b> (10): <span class="nowrap">11–</span>20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+International+Society+for+the+History+of+Islamic+Medicine&rft.atitle=Charitable+women+and+their+pious+foundations+in+the+Ottoman+Empire%3A+the+hospital+of+the+senior+mother%2C+Nurbanu+Valide+Sultan&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E11-%3C%2Fspan%3E20&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Omer&rft.aufirst=Duzbakar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Esposito, John (2001), Women in Muslim family law, Syracuse University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0815629085" title="Special:BookSources/978-0815629085">978-0815629085</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaroqhiMcGowanPamuk1994" class="citation book cs1">Faroqhi, Suraiya; McGowan, Bruce; Pamuk, Sevket (1994). <i>An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300-1914</i>. 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id="Ottoman_Empire323" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="History of the Ottoman Empire">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Osman%27s_Dream" title="Osman's Dream">Osman's Dream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Rise of the Ottoman Empire">Rise</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghaza_thesis" title="Ghaza thesis">Ghaza thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Interregnum" title="Ottoman Interregnum">Interregnum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Constantinople</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Age_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Classical Age of the Ottoman Empire">Classical Age</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Women" title="Sultanate of Women">Sultanate of Women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformation_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Transformation of the Ottoman Empire">Transformation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_decline_thesis" title="Ottoman decline thesis">Decline thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6pr%C3%BCl%C3%BC_era" title="Köprülü era">Köprülü</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Old_Regime" title="Ottoman Old Regime">Stagnation and reform</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tulip_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Tulip period">Tulip</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_and_modernization_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire">Decline and modernization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tanzimat" title="Tanzimat">Tanzimat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Constitutional_Era" title="First Constitutional Era">1st Constitutional</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire">Dissolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Constitutional_Era" title="Second Constitutional Era">2nd Constitutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Partition of the Ottoman Empire">Partition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_the_Ottoman_sultanate" title="Abolition of the Ottoman sultanate">Abolition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims_during_the_Ottoman_contraction" title="Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction">Persecution of Ottoman Muslims</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Foreign relations of the Ottoman Empire">Foreign relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs_(Ottoman_Empire)" title="Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Ottoman Empire)">Foreign Affairs Ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Safavid_relations" title="Ottoman–Safavid relations">Safavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Ottoman Empire–United States relations">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_treaties_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="List of treaties of the Ottoman Empire">Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="List of wars involving the Ottoman Empire">Wars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_constitution_of_1876" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman constitution of 1876">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_National_Constitution" title="Armenian National Constitution">Armenian Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_electoral_law" title="Ottoman electoral law">Electoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_family_law" title="Ottoman family law">Family law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%BCstur" title="Düstur">Düstur</a></li></ul></li> <li>Civil codes <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mecelle" title="Mecelle">Mecelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Halakha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translation_Office_(Ottoman_Empire)" title="Translation Office (Ottoman Empire)">Translation Office</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/State_organisation_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="State organisation of the Ottoman Empire">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">House of Osman</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_dynasty" title="Ottoman dynasty">Ottoman dynasty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sultans_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire">List of Ottoman sultans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_claim_to_Roman_succession" title="Ottoman claim to Roman succession">Roman succession claim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Caliphate" title="Ottoman Caliphate">Ottoman Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Custodian_of_the_Two_Holy_Mosques" title="Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques">Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Imperial_Harem" title="Ottoman Imperial Harem">Imperial Harem</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Valide_sultan" title="Valide sultan">Valide sultan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haseki_sultan" title="Haseki sultan">Haseki sultan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kad%C4%B1n_(title)" title="Kadın (title)">Kadınefendi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ikbal_(title)" title="Ikbal (title)">Hanımefendi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mothers_of_the_Ottoman_sultans" title="List of mothers of the Ottoman sultans">List of Ottoman sultans' mothers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_consorts_of_the_Ottoman_sultans" class="mw-redirect" title="List of consorts of the Ottoman sultans">List of Ottoman sultans' consorts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kizlar_Agha" class="mw-redirect" title="Kizlar Agha">Kizlar Agha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ender%C3%BBn" title="Enderûn">Inner Palace Service</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kapi_Agha" title="Kapi Agha">Kapi Agha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palace_School" title="Palace School">Palace Schools</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central (<a href="/wiki/Sublime_Porte" title="Sublime Porte">Porte</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Council_(Ottoman_Empire)" title="Imperial Council (Ottoman Empire)">Imperial Council</a> <br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(classic period)</i></span> </div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Ottoman_Grand_Viziers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Ottoman Grand Viziers">Grand Vizier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vizier" title="Vizier">Viziers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazasker" title="Kazasker">Kazaskers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Ottoman_Ministers_of_Finance" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Ottoman Ministers of Finance">Defterdars/Ministers of Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ni%C5%9Fanc%C4%B1" title="Nişancı">Nişancı</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reis_%C3%BCl-K%C3%BCttab" title="Reis ül-Küttab">Reis ül-Küttab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dragoman_of_the_Porte" title="Dragoman of the Porte">Dragoman of the Porte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bir%C3%BBn" title="Birûn">Outer Palace Service</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Government_(Ottoman_Empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Government (Ottoman Empire)">Imperial Government</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(reform and constitutional period)</i></span> </div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_Assembly_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="General Assembly of the Ottoman Empire">Assembly</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Senate_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Senate of the Ottoman Empire">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamber_of_Deputies_(Ottoman_Empire)" title="Chamber of Deputies (Ottoman Empire)">Chamber of Deputies</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Millet_(Ottoman_Empire)" title="Millet (Ottoman Empire)">Millets</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Islam in the Ottoman Empire">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shaykh_al-Isl%C4%81m" title="Shaykh al-Islām">Shaykh al-Islām</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Christianity in the Ottoman Empire">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rum_Millet" class="mw-redirect" title="Rum Millet">Rūm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ullah_millet" title="Ullah millet">Ullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Millet" class="mw-redirect" title="Bulgarian Millet">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_millet" title="Armenian millet">Armenian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hakham_Bashi" title="Hakham Bashi">Hakham Bashi</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Provincial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eyalet" title="Eyalet">Eyalets</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beylerbey" title="Beylerbey">Beylerbeys</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilayet" title="Vilayet">Vilayets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanjak" title="Sanjak">Sanjaks</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sanjakbey" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanjakbey">Sanjakbeys</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutasarr%C4%B1f" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutasarrıf">Mutasarrifates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaza" title="Kaza">Kazas</a>/<a href="/wiki/Kadiluk" title="Kadiluk">Kadiluks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vassal_and_tributary_states_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Vassal and tributary states of the Ottoman Empire">Vassal and tributary states</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Military of the Ottoman Empire">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Army</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_army_in_the_15th%E2%80%9319th_centuries" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman army in the 15th–19th centuries">Classic period army</a></b>: <a href="/wiki/Janissaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Janissaries">Janissaries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agha_of_the_Janissaries" title="Agha of the Janissaries">Agha of the Janissaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six_Divisions_of_Cavalry" title="Six Divisions of Cavalry">Six Divisions of Cavalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timariots" title="Timariots">Timariots</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_military_reforms" title="Ottoman military reforms">Reform period</a></b>: <a href="/wiki/Nizam-i_Djedid_Army" title="Nizam-i Djedid Army">Nizam-i Djedid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sekban-i_Djedid_Army" title="Sekban-i Djedid Army">Sekban-i Djedid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asakir-i_Mansure-i_Muhammediye" title="Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye">Mansure Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamidieh" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamidieh">Hamidieh</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Army_(1861%E2%80%931922)" title="Ottoman Army (1861–1922)">Modernized army</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Navy" title="Ottoman Navy">Navy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kapudan_Pasha" title="Kapudan Pasha">Kapudan Pasha</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Kapudan_Pashas" title="List of Kapudan Pashas">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dragoman_of_the_Fleet" title="Dragoman of the Fleet">Dragoman of the Fleet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Arsenal" title="Imperial Arsenal">Imperial Arsenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ottoman_Empire_admirals" title="Category:Ottoman Empire admirals">Admirals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Naval_battles_involving_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Category:Naval battles involving the Ottoman Empire">Naval battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Naval_ships_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Category:Naval ships of the Ottoman Empire">Ships</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Aviation_Squadrons" title="Ottoman Aviation Squadrons">Aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Conscription in the Ottoman Empire">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_weapons" title="Ottoman weapons">Weapons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Economic history of the Ottoman Empire">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>By era <ul><li>Enlargement</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Socioeconomics_of_the_Ottoman_reformation_era&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Socioeconomics of the Ottoman reformation era (page does not exist)">Reformation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ottoman_agriculture&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ottoman agriculture (page does not exist)">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Bank" title="Ottoman Bank">Central bank</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ottoman_currency&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ottoman currency (page does not exist)">Currency</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ak%C3%A7e" title="Akçe">Akçe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Para_(currency)" title="Para (currency)">Para</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultani" title="Sultani">Sultani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuru%C5%9F" title="Kuruş">Kuruş</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_lira" title="Ottoman lira">Lira</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Science and technology in the Ottoman Empire">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Taxation in the Ottoman Empire">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Transport in the Ottoman Empire">Transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Category:Society of the Ottoman Empire">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_structure_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Social structure of the Ottoman Empire">Social structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devshirme" title="Devshirme">Devshirme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottomanism" title="Ottomanism">Ottomanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_court" title="Ottoman court">Ottoman court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Languages of the Ottoman Empire">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turkish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Turkish language">Ottoman Turkish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Slavery in the Ottoman Empire">Slavery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Culture of the Ottoman Empire">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_architecture" title="Ottoman architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mosques_commissioned_by_the_Ottoman_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosques commissioned by the Ottoman dynasty">Mosques</a></li></ul></li> <li>Art <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_illumination" title="Ottoman illumination">Illumination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_miniature" title="Ottoman miniature">Miniature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_music" title="Ottoman music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karag%C3%B6z_and_Hacivat" title="Karagöz and Hacivat">Shadow play</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_clothing" title="Ottoman clothing">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_cuisine" title="Ottoman cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prose_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Prose of the Ottoman Empire">Prose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_poetry" title="Ottoman poetry">Poetry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Education in the Ottoman Empire">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="List of schools in the Ottoman Empire">Schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_education_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Armenian education in the Ottoman Empire">of Armenians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Media of the Ottoman Empire">Media</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Demographics of the Ottoman Empire">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armenians_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Armenians in the Ottoman Empire">Armenians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Greeks" title="Ottoman Greeks">Greeks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire">Jews</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#Religion" title="Ottoman Empire">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Islam in the Ottoman Empire">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Christianity in the Ottoman Empire">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaism in the Ottoman Empire">Judaism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Symbols</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_anthems_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Imperial anthems of the Ottoman Empire">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Coat of arms of the Ottoman Empire">Coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flags_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Flags of the Ottoman Empire">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tughra" title="Tughra">Tughra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star_and_crescent" class="mw-redirect" title="Star and crescent">Star and crescent</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> 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