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class="page-heading"> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Ottoman Empire</h1> <div class="tagline"></div> </div> <ul id="p-associated-pages" class="minerva__tab-container"> <li class="minerva__tab selected"> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" rel="" data-event-name="tabs.subject">Article</a> </li> <li class="minerva__tab "> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Talk:Ottoman_Empire" rel="discussion" data-event-name="tabs.talk">Talk</a> </li> </ul> <nav class="page-actions-menu"> <ul id="p-views" class="page-actions-menu__list"> <li id="language-selector" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" href="#p-lang" data-mw="interface" data-event-name="menu.languages" title="Language" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet language-selector"> Language </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-watch" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-watch" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Ottoman+Empire" data-event-name="menu.watch" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet menu__item--page-actions-watch"> Watch </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-viewsource" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-edit" href="/w/index.php?title=Ottoman_Empire&action=edit" data-event-name="menu.viewsource" data-mw="interface" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet edit-page menu__item--page-actions-viewsource"> View source </a> </li> </ul> </nav>  <div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="content"> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the empire. For the associated caliphate, see <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Caliphate" title="Ottoman Caliphate">Ottoman Caliphate</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1043282317">.mw-parser-output .ib-country{border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country td,.mw-parser-output .ib-country th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style>The Ottoman Empire<a href="#cite_note-34">[k]</a> (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈɒtəmən/</a>), also called the Turkish Empire,<a href="#cite_note-35">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[25]</a> was an <a href="/wiki/Empire" title="Empire">imperial realm</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[l]</a> that controlled much of <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Europe" title="Southeast Europe">Southeast Europe</a>, <a href="/wiki/West_Asia" title="West Asia">West Asia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central Europe</a>, between the early 16th and early 18th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-38">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[28]</a> <table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Sublime Ottoman State</div><div class="ib-country-names"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>دولت عليه عثمانیه</li><li>Devlet-i ʿAlīye-i ʿOsmānīye</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1299–1922</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="noresize" style="display:table; width:100%;"> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding-left:5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_(1844%E2%80%931922).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of Ottoman Empire"><img alt="Flag of Ottoman Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/125px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/188px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/250px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800"></a></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Flags_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Flags of the Ottoman Empire">Flag</a> (1844–1922)</div> </div> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding: 0px 5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_(1882%E2%80%931922).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281882%E2%80%931922%29.svg/70px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281882%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="84" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281882%E2%80%931922%29.svg/105px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281882%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281882%E2%80%931922%29.svg/140px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281882%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1595" data-file-height="1906"></a></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Coat of arms of the Ottoman Empire">Coat of arms</a> (1882–1922)</div> </div> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Motto: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>دولت ابدمدت</li><li>Devlet-i Ebed-müddet</li><li>"The Eternal State"<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data anthem">Anthem: <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>Various</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahmudiye_Mar%C5%9F%C4%B1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mahmudiye Marşı (page does not exist)">Mahmudiye Marşı</a>" (1829–1839, 1918–1922)<div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="96" data-mwtitle="Mahmudiye_Marşı.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Mahmudiye_Mar%C5%9F%C4%B1.ogg" type='audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"' data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/63/Mahmudiye_Mar%C5%9F%C4%B1.ogg/Mahmudiye_Mar%C5%9F%C4%B1.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source></audio></div> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">"<a href="/wiki/Mecidiye_Mar%C5%9F%C4%B1" title="Mecidiye Marşı">Mecidiye Marşı</a>" (1839–1861)<div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><audio id="mwe_player_1" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="147" data-mwtitle="Mecidiye_Marşı.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Mecidiye_Mar%C5%9F%C4%B1.ogg" type='audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"' data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/73/Mecidiye_Mar%C5%9F%C4%B1.ogg/Mecidiye_Mar%C5%9F%C4%B1.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source></audio></div> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">"<a href="/w/index.php?title=Aziziye_Mar%C5%9F%C4%B1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aziziye Marşı (page does not exist)">Aziziye Marşı</a>" (1861–1876)<div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"></div> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">"<a href="/wiki/Hamidiye_Mar%C5%9F%C4%B1" title="Hamidiye Marşı">Hamidiye Marşı</a>" (modified) (1876–1909)<div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><audio id="mwe_player_2" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="112" data-mwtitle="Hamidiye_Marşı.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Hamidiye_Mar%C5%9F%C4%B1.ogg" type='audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"' data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c9/Hamidiye_Mar%C5%9F%C4%B1.ogg/Hamidiye_Mar%C5%9F%C4%B1.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source></audio></div> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">"<a href="/wiki/Re%C5%9Fadiye_Mar%C5%9F%C4%B1" title="Reşadiye Marşı">Reşadiye Marşı</a>" (1909–1918)<div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><audio id="mwe_player_3" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="179" data-mwtitle="Marche_de_sa_Majesté_Impériale_Le_Sultan_Mohammed_V._par_Italo_Selvelli.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/2a/Marche_de_sa_Majest%C3%A9_Imp%C3%A9riale_Le_Sultan_Mohammed_V._par_Italo_Selvelli.ogg/Marche_de_sa_Majest%C3%A9_Imp%C3%A9riale_Le_Sultan_Mohammed_V._par_Italo_Selvelli.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/Marche_de_sa_Majest%C3%A9_Imp%C3%A9riale_Le_Sultan_Mohammed_V._par_Italo_Selvelli.ogg" type='audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"' data-width="0" data-height="0"></source></audio></div> </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div class="switcher-container"><div><a href="/wiki/File:OttomanEmpire1481.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/OttomanEmpire1481.png/250px-OttomanEmpire1481.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/OttomanEmpire1481.png/375px-OttomanEmpire1481.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/OttomanEmpire1481.png/500px-OttomanEmpire1481.png 2x" data-file-width="3596" data-file-height="2582"></a>The Ottoman Empire in 1481</div><div><a href="/wiki/File:OttomanEmpire1566.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/OttomanEmpire1566.png/250px-OttomanEmpire1566.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/OttomanEmpire1566.png/375px-OttomanEmpire1566.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/OttomanEmpire1566.png/500px-OttomanEmpire1566.png 2x" data-file-width="3596" data-file-height="2581"></a>The Ottoman Empire in 1566</div><div><a href="/wiki/File:OttomanEmpireMain.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/OttomanEmpireMain.png/250px-OttomanEmpireMain.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/OttomanEmpireMain.png/375px-OttomanEmpireMain.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/OttomanEmpireMain.png/500px-OttomanEmpireMain.png 2x" data-file-width="3597" data-file-height="2581"></a>The Ottoman Empire in 1683</div><div> <a href="/wiki/File:OttomanEmpire1739.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/OttomanEmpire1739.png/250px-OttomanEmpire1739.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/OttomanEmpire1739.png/375px-OttomanEmpire1739.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/OttomanEmpire1739.png/500px-OttomanEmpire1739.png 2x" data-file-width="3596" data-file-height="2581"></a>The Ottoman Empire in 1739</div><div><a href="/wiki/File:OttomanEmpire1914.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/OttomanEmpire1914.png/250px-OttomanEmpire1914.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/OttomanEmpire1914.png/375px-OttomanEmpire1914.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/OttomanEmpire1914.png/500px-OttomanEmpire1914.png 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1378"></a>The Ottoman Empire in 1914</div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Status</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Empire" title="Empire">Empire</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B6%C4%9F%C3%BCt" title="Söğüt">Söğüt</a><a href="#cite_note-Shaw-13-2">[2]</a></li> <li>(<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1299–1331)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicaea" title="Nicaea">Nicaea</a> (<a href="/wiki/%C4%B0znik" title="İznik">İznik</a>)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtasoyRaby198919%E2%80%9320-3">[3]</a></li> <li>(1331–1335)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bursa" title="Bursa">Bursa</a><a href="#cite_note-auto-4">[4]</a></li> <li>(1335–1360s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrianople" class="mw-redirect" title="Adrianople">Adrianople</a> (<a href="/wiki/Edirne" title="Edirne">Edirne</a>)<a href="#cite_note-6">[a]</a></li> <li>(1360s–1453)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> (<a href="/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a>)<a href="#cite_note-10">[b]</a></li> <li>(1453–1922)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Official languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turkish" title="Ottoman Turkish">Ottoman Turkish</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Co-official languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[c]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[d]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[e]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_language" title="Chagatai language">Chagatai</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[f]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[g]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Languages of the Ottoman Empire">many others</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni Islam</a> (<a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">state</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhab" class="mw-redirect" title="Madhab">School</a>: <a href="/wiki/Hanafi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanafi">Hanafi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Demonym" title="Demonym">Demonym(s)</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman people">Ottoman</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Government</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute monarchy</a></li> <li>(<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1299–1876; 1878–1908; 1920–1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitary_state" title="Unitary state">Unitary</a> <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_system" title="Parliamentary system">parliamentary</a> <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a></li> <li>(1876–1878; 1908–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Pashas" title="Three Pashas">Triumvirate dictatorship</a></li> <li>(1913–1918)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sultans_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire">Sultan</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1299–1323/4 (first) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Osman_I" title="Osman I">Osman I</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1918–1922 (last) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Mehmed_VI" title="Mehmed VI">Mehmed VI</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_caliphs#Ottoman_Caliphate_(1517%E2%80%931924)" title="List of caliphs">Caliph</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1517–1520 (first) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Selim_I" title="Selim I">Selim I</a><a href="#cite_note-Lambton-1995-26">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[h]</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1922–1924 (last) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Abdulmejid_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdulmejid II">Abdulmejid II</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Ottoman_grand_viziers" title="List of Ottoman grand viziers">Grand vizier</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1320–1331 (first) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Alaeddin_Pasha_(vizier)" title="Alaeddin Pasha (vizier)">Alaeddin Pasha</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1920–1922 (last) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ahmet_Tevfik_Pasha" title="Ahmet Tevfik Pasha">Ahmet Tevfik Pasha</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Legislature</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/General_Assembly_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="General Assembly of the Ottoman Empire">General Assembly</a> (1876–1878; 1908–1920)</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Upper house (unelected)</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Senate_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Senate of the Ottoman Empire">Chamber of Notables</a> (1876–1878; 1908–1920)</td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Lower house (elected)</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Chamber_of_Deputies_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Chamber of Deputies of the Ottoman Empire">Chamber of Deputies</a> (1876–1878; 1908–1920)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">History</th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Rise of the Ottoman Empire">Founded</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1299<a href="#cite_note-28">[20]</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Interregnum" title="Ottoman Interregnum">Interregnum</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1402–1413</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Conquest of Constantinople</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">29 May 1453</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/First_Constitutional_Era_(Ottoman_Empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="First Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)">Constitutional Era I</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1876–1878</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Second_Constitutional_Era_(Ottoman_Empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)">Constitutional Era II</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1908–1920</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Raid_on_the_Sublime_Porte" class="mw-redirect" title="Raid on the Sublime Porte">Ottoman coup d'état</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">23 January 1913</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_the_Ottoman_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Abolition of the Ottoman Sultanate">Sultanate abolished</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1 November 1922<a href="#cite_note-29">[i]</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Republic of Turkey</a> established </div></th><td class="infobox-data">29 October 1923<a href="#cite_note-30">[j]</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_the_Caliphate" title="Abolition of the Caliphate">Caliphate abolished</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">3 March 1924</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Area</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">1481<a href="#cite_note-Taagepera-1997-31">[21]</a></th><td class="infobox-data">1,220,000 km2 (470,000 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">1521<a href="#cite_note-Taagepera-1997-31">[21]</a></th><td class="infobox-data">3,400,000 km2 (1,300,000 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">1683<a href="#cite_note-32">[22]</a></th><td class="infobox-data">5,200,000 km2 (2,000,000 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">1913<a href="#cite_note-Taagepera-1997-31">[21]</a></th><td class="infobox-data">2,550,000 km2 (980,000 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Population</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1912<a href="#cite_note-Erickson2003-33">[23]</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">24,000,000</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ak%C3%A7e" title="Akçe">Akçe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sultani" title="Sultani">sultani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Para_(currency)" title="Para (currency)">para</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kuru%C5%9F" title="Kuruş">kuruş</a> (<a href="/wiki/Piastre" title="Piastre">piastre</a>), <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_lira" title="Ottoman lira">lira</a> </td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"> <table class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="; ; width:100%;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" style="line-height:normal; padding:0.2em; ;"><div style="text-align: center; padding: 0 0.4em; margin: 0 3.3em">Predecessor states and successor states</div></th> </tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> Preceded by</td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;">Succeeded by </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Rum" title="Sultanate of Rum">Sultanate of Rum</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_beyliks" title="Anatolian beyliks">Anatolian beyliks</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_the_Morea" title="Despotate of the Morea">Despotate of the Morea</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Empire of Trebizond</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Theodoro" title="Principality of Theodoro">Principality of Theodoro</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second Bulgarian Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Vidin" title="Tsardom of Vidin">Tsardom of Vidin</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_Dobruja" title="Despotate of Dobruja">Despotate of Dobruja</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_Lovech" title="Despotate of Lovech">Despotate of Lovech</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Despotate" title="Serbian Despotate">Serbian Despotate</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bosnia" title="Kingdom of Bosnia">Kingdom of Bosnia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Zeta_under_the_Crnojevi%C4%87i" title="Zeta under the Crnojevići">Zeta</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary" title="Kingdom of Hungary">Kingdom of Hungary</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Croatia_in_union_with_Hungary" class="mw-redirect" title="Croatia in union with Hungary">Kingdom of Croatia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/League_of_Lezh%C3%AB" title="League of Lezhë">League of Lezhë</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate_(Cairo)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)">Mamluk Sultanate</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Hafsid_dynasty" title="Hafsid dynasty">Hafsid Kingdom</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Aq_Qoyunlu" title="Aq Qoyunlu">Aq Qoyunlu</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Hospitaller_Tripoli" title="Hospitaller Tripoli">Hospitaller Tripoli</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tlemcen" title="Kingdom of Tlemcen">Kingdom of Tlemcen</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Grand_National_Assembly" title="Government of the Grand National Assembly">State of Turkey</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/First_Hellenic_Republic" title="First Hellenic Republic">Hellenic Republic</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Caucasus_Viceroyalty_(1801%E2%80%931917)" title="Caucasus Viceroyalty (1801–1917)">Caucasus Viceroyalty</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Bulgaria" title="Principality of Bulgaria">Principality of Bulgaria</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Rumelia" title="Eastern Rumelia">Eastern Rumelia</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Independent_Albania" title="Independent Albania">Albania</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Romania" title="Kingdom of Romania">Kingdom of Romania</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Serbia" title="Revolutionary Serbia">Revolutionary Serbia</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_rule_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Austro-Hungarian rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Montenegro" title="Principality of Montenegro">Principality of Montenegro</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Idrisid_Emirate_of_Asir" title="Idrisid Emirate of Asir">Emirate of Asir</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hejaz" title="Kingdom of Hejaz">Kingdom of Hejaz</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Occupied_Enemy_Territory_Administration" title="Occupied Enemy Territory Administration">OETA</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Iraq" title="Mandatory Iraq">Mandatory Iraq</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/French_Algeria" title="French Algeria">French Algeria</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/British_Cyprus" title="British Cyprus">British Cyprus</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/French_protectorate_of_Tunisia" title="French protectorate of Tunisia">French Tunisia</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Italian_Tripolitania" title="Italian Tripolitania">Italian Tripolitania</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Italian_Cyrenaica" title="Italian Cyrenaica">Italian Cyrenaica</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Sheikhdom_of_Kuwait" title="Sheikhdom of Kuwait">Sheikhdom of Kuwait</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Mutawakkilite_Kingdom_of_Yemen" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen">Kingdom of Yemen</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Egypt" title="Sultanate of Egypt">Sultanate of Egypt</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> The empire emerged from a <a href="/wiki/Anatolian_beyliks" title="Anatolian beyliks">beylik</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Principality" title="Principality">principality</a>, founded in northwestern <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> in <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1299 by the <a href="/wiki/Turkoman_(ethnonym)" title="Turkoman (ethnonym)">Turkoman</a> tribal leader <a href="/wiki/Osman_I" title="Osman I">Osman I</a>. His successors <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_wars_in_Europe" title="Ottoman wars in Europe">conquered</a> much of Anatolia and expanded into the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a> by the mid-14th century, transforming their <a href="/wiki/Petty_kingdom" title="Petty kingdom">petty kingdom</a> into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">conquest of Constantinople</a> in 1453 by <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_II" title="Mehmed II">Mehmed II</a>, which marked the Ottomans' emergence as a major regional power. Under <a href="/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent" title="Suleiman the Magnificent">Suleiman the Magnificent</a> (1520–1566), the empire reached the peak of its power, prosperity, and political development. By the start of the 17th century, the Ottomans presided over <a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Administrative divisions of the Ottoman Empire">32 provinces</a> and numerous <a href="/wiki/Vassal_and_tributary_states_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Vassal and tributary states of the Ottoman Empire">vassal states</a>, which over time were either absorbed into the Empire or granted various degrees of autonomy.<a href="#cite_note-42">[m]</a> With its capital at <a href="/wiki/History_of_Istanbul#Ottoman_Empire" title="History of Istanbul">Constantinople</a> (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a>) and control over a significant portion of the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean Basin">Mediterranean Basin</a>, the Ottoman Empire was at the centre of interactions between the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> and Europe for six centuries. While the Ottoman Empire was once thought to have entered a <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Decline_Thesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Decline Thesis">period of decline</a> after the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, modern academic consensus posits that the empire continued to maintain a flexible and strong economy, society and military into much of the 18th century. However, during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768, the Ottoman military system fell behind those of its chief European rivals, the <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian</a> empires. The Ottomans consequently suffered severe military defeats in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, culminating in the loss of both territory and <a href="/wiki/Sick_man_of_Europe" title="Sick man of Europe">global prestige</a>. This prompted a comprehensive process of reform and modernization known as the <a href="/wiki/Tanzimat" title="Tanzimat">Tanzimat</a>; over the course of the 19th century, the Ottoman state became vastly more powerful and organized internally, despite suffering further territorial losses, especially in the Balkans, where a number of new states emerged. Beginning in the late 19th century, <a href="/wiki/Young_Ottomans" title="Young Ottomans">various Ottoman intellectuals</a> sought to further liberalize society and politics along European lines, culminating in the <a href="/wiki/Young_Turk_Revolution" title="Young Turk Revolution">Young Turk Revolution</a> of 1908 led by the <a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Union_and_Progress" title="Committee of Union and Progress">Committee of Union and Progress</a> (CUP), which established the <a href="/wiki/Second_Constitutional_Era" title="Second Constitutional Era">Second Constitutional Era</a> and introduced <a href="/wiki/Elections_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Elections in the Ottoman Empire">competitive multi-party elections</a> under a constitutional monarchy. However, following the disastrous <a href="/wiki/Balkan_Wars" title="Balkan Wars">Balkan Wars</a>, the CUP became increasingly radicalized and nationalistic, <a href="/wiki/1913_Ottoman_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1913 Ottoman coup d'état">leading a coup d'état</a> in 1913 that established a one-party regime. The CUP allied with the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a> hoping to escape from the diplomatic isolation that had contributed to its recent territorial losses; it thus joined <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> on the side of the <a href="/wiki/Central_Powers" title="Central Powers">Central Powers</a>. While the empire was able to largely hold its own during the conflict, it struggled with internal dissent, especially the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Revolt" title="Arab Revolt">Arab Revolt</a>. During this period, the Ottoman government engaged in <a href="/wiki/Late_Ottoman_genocides" title="Late Ottoman genocides">genocide</a> against <a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian genocide">Assyrians</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Greek_genocide" title="Greek genocide">Greeks</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_I" title="Aftermath of World War I">aftermath of World War I</a>, the victorious <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Allied Powers</a> occupied and <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Partition of the Ottoman Empire">partitioned</a> the Ottoman Empire, which lost its southern territories to the <a href="/wiki/Sykes%E2%80%93Picot_Agreement" title="Sykes–Picot Agreement">United Kingdom and France</a>. The successful <a href="/wiki/Turkish_War_of_Independence" title="Turkish War of Independence">Turkish War of Independence</a>, led by <a href="/wiki/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk" title="Mustafa Kemal Atatürk">Mustafa Kemal Atatürk</a> against the occupying Allies, led to the emergence of the <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Republic of Turkey</a> in the Anatolian heartland and the <a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_the_Ottoman_sultanate" title="Abolition of the Ottoman sultanate">abolition of the Ottoman monarchy</a> in 1922, formally ending the Ottoman Empire. <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Name">1 Name</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#History">2 History</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Rise_(c._1299%E2%80%931453)">2.1 Rise (c. 1299–1453)</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Expansion_and_peak_(1453%E2%80%931566)">2.2 Expansion and peak (1453–1566)</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Stagnation_and_reform_(1566%E2%80%931827)">2.3 Stagnation and reform (1566–1827)</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-6"><a href="#Revolts,_reversals,_and_revivals_(1566%E2%80%931683)">2.3.1 Revolts, reversals, and revivals (1566–1683)</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-7"><a href="#Military_defeats">2.3.2 Military defeats</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Decline_and_modernisation_(1828%E2%80%931908)">2.4 Decline and modernisation (1828–1908)</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Defeat_and_dissolution_(1908%E2%80%931922)">2.5 Defeat and dissolution (1908–1922)</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-10"><a href="#Young_Turk_movement">2.5.1 Young Turk movement</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-11"><a href="#World_War_I">2.5.2 World War I</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-12"><a href="#Genocides">2.5.2.1 Genocides</a></li> <li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-13"><a href="#Arab_Revolt">2.5.2.2 Arab Revolt</a></li> <li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-14"><a href="#Treaty_of_S%C3%A8vres_and_Turkish_War_of_Independence">2.5.2.3 Treaty of Sèvres and Turkish War of Independence</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#Historiographical_debate_on_the_Ottoman_state">3 Historiographical debate on the Ottoman state</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#Government">4 Government</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Law">4.1 Law</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Military">4.2 Military</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#Administrative_divisions">5 Administrative divisions</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#Economy">6 Economy</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#Demographics">7 Demographics</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Language">7.1 Language</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#Religion">7.2 Religion</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-24"><a href="#Islam">7.2.1 Islam</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-25"><a href="#Christianity_and_Judaism">7.2.2 Christianity and Judaism</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="#Social-political-religious_structure">7.3 Social-political-religious structure</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-27"><a href="#Culture">8 Culture</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-28"><a href="#Education">8.1 Education</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-29"><a href="#Literature">8.2 Literature</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-30"><a href="#Media">8.3 Media</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-31"><a href="#Architecture">8.4 Architecture</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-32"><a href="#Decorative_arts">8.5 Decorative arts</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-33"><a href="#Music_and_performing_arts">8.6 Music and performing arts</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-34"><a href="#Cuisine">8.7 Cuisine</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-35"><a href="#Sports">8.8 Sports</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-36"><a href="#Science_and_technology">9 Science and technology</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-37"><a href="#See_also">10 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-38"><a href="#References">11 References</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-39"><a href="#Footnotes">11.1 Footnotes</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-40"><a href="#Citations">11.2 Citations</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-41"><a href="#Sources">11.3 Sources</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-42"><a href="#Further_reading">12 Further reading</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-43"><a href="#General_surveys">12.1 General surveys</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-44"><a href="#Early_Ottomans">12.2 Early Ottomans</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-45"><a href="#Diplomatic_and_military">12.3 Diplomatic and military</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-46"><a href="#Specialty_studies">12.4 Specialty studies</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-47"><a href="#Historiography">12.5 Historiography</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-48"><a href="#External_links">13 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Name">Name</h2></div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Osman_I#Name" title="Osman I">Osman I § Name</a></div> The word Ottoman is a historical <a href="/wiki/Anglicisation" title="Anglicisation">anglicisation</a> of the name of <a href="/wiki/Osman_I" title="Osman I">Osman I</a>, the founder of the Empire and of the ruling <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_dynasty" title="Ottoman dynasty">House of Osman</a> (also known as the Ottoman dynasty). Osman's name in turn was the Turkish form of the Arabic name <a href="/wiki/Uthman_(name)" title="Uthman (name)">ʿUthmān</a> (عثمان). In <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turkish" title="Ottoman Turkish">Ottoman Turkish</a>, the empire was referred to as Devlet-i ʿAlīye-yi ʿOsmānīye (دولت عليه عثمانیه), <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'Sublime Ottoman State', or simply Devlet-i ʿOsmānīye (دولت عثمانيه‎), <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'Ottoman State'. The Turkish word for "Ottoman" (Osmanlı) originally referred to the tribal followers of Osman in the fourteenth century. The word subsequently came to be used to refer to the empire's military-administrative elite. In contrast, the term "Turk" (Türk) was used to refer to the Anatolian peasant and tribal population and was seen as a disparaging term when applied to urban, educated individuals.<a href="#cite_note-43">[30]</a>: 26 <a href="#cite_note-44">[31]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern period</a>, an educated, urban-dwelling Turkish speaker who was not a member of the military-administrative class typically referred to themselves neither as an Osmanlı nor as a Türk, but rather as a Rūmī (رومى), or "Roman", meaning an inhabitant of the territory of the former <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> in the Balkans and Anatolia. The term Rūmī was also used to refer to Turkish speakers by the other Muslim peoples of the empire and beyond.<a href="#cite_note-45">[32]</a>: 11 As applied to Ottoman Turkish speakers, this term began to fall out of use at the end of the seventeenth century, and instead the word increasingly became associated with the Greek population of the empire, a meaning that it still bears in Turkey today.<a href="#cite_note-46">[33]</a>: 51 In Western Europe, the names Ottoman Empire, Turkish Empire and Turkey were often used interchangeably, with Turkey being increasingly favoured both in formal and informal situations. This dichotomy was officially ended in 1920–1923, when the newly established <a href="/wiki/Ankara" title="Ankara">Ankara</a>-based <a href="/wiki/Grand_National_Assembly_of_Turkey" title="Grand National Assembly of Turkey">Turkish government</a> chose Turkey as the sole official name. At present, most scholarly historians avoid the terms "Turkey", "Turks", and "Turkish" when referring to the Ottomans, due to the empire's multinational character.<a href="#cite_note-Soucek-2015-47">[34]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="History of the Ottoman Empire">History of the Ottoman Empire</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Territorial evolution of the Ottoman Empire">Territorial evolution of the Ottoman Empire</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rise_(c._1299–1453)">Rise (c. 1299–1453)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Rise of the Ottoman Empire">Rise of the Ottoman Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sultan_Uthman_I.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Sultan_Uthman_I.jpg/170px-Sultan_Uthman_I.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="240" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="689" data-file-height="974"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 240px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Sultan_Uthman_I.jpg/170px-Sultan_Uthman_I.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="240" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Sultan_Uthman_I.jpg/255px-Sultan_Uthman_I.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Sultan_Uthman_I.jpg/340px-Sultan_Uthman_I.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_miniature" title="Ottoman miniature">Ottoman miniature</a> of <a href="/wiki/Osman_I" title="Osman I">Osman I</a> by Yahya Bustanzâde (18th Century)</figcaption></figure> As the <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Rum" title="Sultanate of Rum">Rum Sultanate</a> declined in the 13th century, <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> was divided into a patchwork of independent Turkish principalities known as the <a href="/wiki/Anatolian_Beyliks" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatolian Beyliks">Anatolian Beyliks</a>. One of these, in the region of <a href="/wiki/Bithynia" title="Bithynia">Bithynia</a> on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire, was led by the Turkish<a href="#cite_note-48">[35]</a> tribal leader <a href="/wiki/Osman_I" title="Osman I">Osman I</a> (<abbr title="died">d.</abbr> 1323/4),<a href="#cite_note-49">[36]</a> a figure of obscure origins from whom the name Ottoman is derived.<a href="#cite_note-50">[37]</a>: 444 Osman's early followers consisted of Turkish tribal groups and Byzantine renegades, with many but not all converts to Islam.<a href="#cite_note-51">[38]</a>: 59 <a href="#cite_note-52">[39]</a>: 127 Osman extended control of his principality by conquering Byzantine towns along the <a href="/wiki/Sakarya_River" title="Sakarya River">Sakarya River</a>. A Byzantine defeat at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bapheus" title="Battle of Bapheus">Battle of Bapheus</a> in 1302 contributed to Osman's rise. It is not well understood how the early Ottomans came to dominate their neighbors, due to the lack of sources surviving. The <a href="/wiki/Ghaza_thesis" title="Ghaza thesis">Ghaza thesis</a> popular during the 20th century credited their success to rallying religious warriors to fight for them in the name of <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, but it is no longer generally accepted. No other hypothesis has attracted broad acceptance.<a href="#cite_note-53">[40]</a>: 5, 10 <a href="#cite_note-54">[41]</a>: 104 In the century after Osman I, Ottoman rule had begun to extend over Anatolia and the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Balkans" title="History of the Balkans">Balkans</a>. The earliest conflicts began during the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Ottoman_wars" title="Byzantine–Ottoman wars">Byzantine–Ottoman wars</a>, waged in Anatolia in the late 13th century before entering Europe in the mid-14th century, followed by the <a href="/wiki/Bulgarian%E2%80%93Ottoman_wars" title="Bulgarian–Ottoman wars">Bulgarian–Ottoman wars</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Serbian%E2%80%93Ottoman_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Serbian–Ottoman wars">Serbian–Ottoman wars</a> in the mid-14th century. Much of this period was characterised by <a href="/wiki/Rumelia" title="Rumelia">Ottoman expansion into the Balkans</a>. Osman's son, <a href="/wiki/Orhan" title="Orhan">Orhan</a>, captured the northwestern Anatolian city of <a href="/wiki/Bursa" title="Bursa">Bursa</a> in 1326, making it the new capital and supplanting Byzantine control in the region. The important port of <a href="/wiki/Thessaloniki" title="Thessaloniki">Thessaloniki</a> was captured from the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venetians</a> in 1387 and sacked. The Ottoman victory in <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kosovo" title="Battle of Kosovo">Kosovo in 1389</a> effectively marked the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Serbian_Empire" title="Fall of the Serbian Empire">end of Serbian power</a> in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe.<a href="#cite_note-55">[42]</a>: 95–96 The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nicopolis" title="Battle of Nicopolis">Battle of Nicopolis</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Bulgarian</a> <a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Vidin" title="Tsardom of Vidin">Tsardom of Vidin</a> in 1396, regarded as the last large-scale <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">crusade</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, failed to stop the advance of the victorious Ottomans.<a href="#cite_note-56">[43]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_Nicopolis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Battle_of_Nicopolis.jpg/180px-Battle_of_Nicopolis.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="263" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2018" data-file-height="2943"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 180px;height: 263px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Battle_of_Nicopolis.jpg/180px-Battle_of_Nicopolis.jpg" data-width="180" data-height="263" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Battle_of_Nicopolis.jpg/270px-Battle_of_Nicopolis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Battle_of_Nicopolis.jpg/360px-Battle_of_Nicopolis.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nicopolis" title="Battle of Nicopolis">Battle of Nicopolis</a> in 1396, as depicted in an <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_miniature" title="Ottoman miniature">Ottoman miniature</a> from 1523</figcaption></figure> As the Turks expanded into the Balkans, the <a href="/wiki/Sieges_of_Constantinople#Ottoman_Sieges" class="mw-redirect" title="Sieges of Constantinople">conquest of Constantinople</a> became a crucial objective. The Ottomans had already wrested control of nearly all former Byzantine lands surrounding the city, but the strong defense of Constantinople's strategic position on the <a href="/wiki/Bosporus" title="Bosporus">Bosporus</a> Strait made it difficult to conquer. In 1402, the Byzantines were temporarily relieved when the <a href="/wiki/Turco-Mongol" class="mw-redirect" title="Turco-Mongol">Turco-Mongol</a> leader <a href="/wiki/Timur" title="Timur">Timur</a>, founder of the <a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid Empire</a>, invaded Ottoman Anatolia from the east. In the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ankara" title="Battle of Ankara">Battle of Ankara</a> in 1402, Timur defeated Ottoman forces and took Sultan <a href="/wiki/Bayezid_I" title="Bayezid I">Bayezid I</a> as prisoner, throwing the empire into disorder. The <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Interregnum" title="Ottoman Interregnum">ensuing civil war</a> lasted from 1402 to 1413 as Bayezid's sons fought over succession. It ended when <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_I" title="Mehmed I">Mehmed I</a> emerged as the sultan and restored Ottoman power.<a href="#cite_note-57">[44]</a>: 363 The Balkan territories lost by the Ottomans after 1402, including Thessaloniki, Macedonia, and Kosovo, were later recovered by <a href="/wiki/Murad_II" title="Murad II">Murad II</a> between the 1430s and 1450s. On 10 November 1444, Murad repelled the <a href="/wiki/Crusade_of_Varna" title="Crusade of Varna">Crusade of Varna</a> by defeating the Hungarian, Polish, and <a href="/wiki/Wallachia" title="Wallachia">Wallachian</a> armies under <a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_III_of_Poland" title="Władysław III of Poland">Władysław III of Poland</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Hunyadi" title="John Hunyadi">John Hunyadi</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Varna" title="Battle of Varna">Battle of Varna</a>, although Albanians under <a href="/wiki/Skanderbeg" title="Skanderbeg">Skanderbeg</a> continued to resist. Four years later, John Hunyadi prepared another army of Hungarian and Wallachian forces to attack the Turks, but was again defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kosovo_(1448)" title="Battle of Kosovo (1448)">Second Battle of Kosovo</a> in 1448.<a href="#cite_note-58">[45]</a>: 29 According to modern historiography, there is a direct connection between the rapid Ottoman military advance and the consequences of the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> from the mid-fourteenth century onwards. Byzantine territories, where the initial Ottoman conquests were carried out, were exhausted demographically and militarily due to the plague, which facilitated Ottoman expansion. In addition, slave hunting was the main economic driving force behind Ottoman conquest. Some 21st-century authors re-periodize conquest of the Balkans into the akıncı phase, which spanned 8 to 13 decades, characterized by continuous slave hunting and destruction, followed by administrative integration into the Empire.<a href="#cite_note-Schmitt-Kiprovska-59">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-N%C3%BCkhet_Varlik-60">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ayalon-2014-61">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Expansion_and_peak_(1453–1566)">Expansion and peak (1453–1566)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Classical_Age_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Classical Age of the Ottoman Empire">Classical Age of the Ottoman Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zonaro_GatesofConst.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Zonaro_GatesofConst.jpg/180px-Zonaro_GatesofConst.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="244" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="903" data-file-height="1224"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 180px;height: 244px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Zonaro_GatesofConst.jpg/180px-Zonaro_GatesofConst.jpg" data-width="180" data-height="244" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Zonaro_GatesofConst.jpg/270px-Zonaro_GatesofConst.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Zonaro_GatesofConst.jpg/360px-Zonaro_GatesofConst.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Sultan <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_II" title="Mehmed II">Mehmed the Conqueror</a>'s entry into <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>; painting by <a href="/wiki/Fausto_Zonaro" title="Fausto Zonaro">Fausto Zonaro</a> (1854–1929)</figcaption></figure> The son of Murad II, <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_the_Conqueror" class="mw-redirect" title="Mehmed the Conqueror">Mehmed the Conqueror</a>, reorganized both state and military, and on 29 May 1453 conquered <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Constantinople</a>, ending the Byzantine Empire.<a href="#cite_note-Quataert2005-63">[50]</a> Mehmed allowed the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox Church</a> to maintain its autonomy and land in exchange for accepting Ottoman authority.<a href="#cite_note-books.google-64">[51]</a> Due to tension between the states of western Europe and the later Byzantine Empire, most of the Orthodox population accepted Ottoman rule, as preferable to Venetian rule.<a href="#cite_note-books.google-64">[51]</a> Albanian resistance was a major obstacle to Ottoman expansion on the Italian peninsula.<a href="#cite_note-65">[52]</a> In the 15th and 16th centuries, the Ottoman Empire entered a <a href="/wiki/Growth_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Growth of the Ottoman Empire">period of expansion</a>. The Empire prospered under the rule of a line of committed and effective <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Dynasty">Sultans</a>. It flourished economically due to its control of the major overland trade routes between Europe and Asia.<a href="#cite_note-66">[53]</a>: 111 <a href="#cite_note-67">[n]</a> Sultan <a href="/wiki/Selim_I" title="Selim I">Selim I</a> (1512–1520) dramatically expanded the eastern and southern frontiers by defeating <a href="/wiki/Ismail_I" title="Ismail I">Shah Ismail</a> of <a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid Iran</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chaldiran" title="Battle of Chaldiran">Battle of Chaldiran</a>.<a href="#cite_note-68">[54]</a>: 91–105 Selim I established <a href="/wiki/Egypt_Eyalet" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt Eyalet">Ottoman rule in Egypt</a> by defeating and annexing the <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate" title="Mamluk Sultanate">Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt</a> and created a naval presence on the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a>. After this Ottoman expansion, competition began between the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a> and the Ottomans to become the dominant power in the region.<a href="#cite_note-69">[55]</a>: 55–76 <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:260px;max-width:260px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:134px;max-width:134px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:EmperorSuleiman.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/EmperorSuleiman.jpg/132px-EmperorSuleiman.jpg" decoding="async" width="132" height="154" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1810" data-file-height="2117"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 132px;height: 154px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/EmperorSuleiman.jpg/132px-EmperorSuleiman.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="132" data-height="154" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/EmperorSuleiman.jpg/198px-EmperorSuleiman.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/EmperorSuleiman.jpg/264px-EmperorSuleiman.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:122px;max-width:122px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Tizian_123.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Tizian_123.jpg/120px-Tizian_123.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="154" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="684" data-file-height="875"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 120px;height: 154px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Tizian_123.jpg/120px-Tizian_123.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="120" data-height="154" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Tizian_123.jpg/180px-Tizian_123.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Tizian_123.jpg/240px-Tizian_123.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent" title="Suleiman the Magnificent">Suleiman the Magnificent</a> and his wife <a href="/wiki/Hurrem_Sultan" class="mw-redirect" title="Hurrem Sultan">Hürrem Sultan</a>, by 16th century <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venetian</a> <a href="/wiki/Venetian_painting" title="Venetian painting">painter</a> <a href="/wiki/Titian" title="Titian">Titian</a></div></div></div></div> <a href="/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent" title="Suleiman the Magnificent">Suleiman the Magnificent</a> (1520–1566)<a href="#cite_note-70">[56]</a> captured <a href="/wiki/Belgrade" title="Belgrade">Belgrade</a> in 1521, conquered the southern and central parts of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary" title="Kingdom of Hungary">Kingdom of Hungary</a> as part of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Hungarian_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman–Hungarian Wars">Ottoman–Hungarian Wars</a>, and, after his historic victory in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Moh%C3%A1cs" title="Battle of Mohács">Battle of Mohács</a> in 1526, he established Ottoman rule in the territory of present-day Hungary and other Central European territories. He then laid <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Vienna_(1529)" title="Siege of Vienna (1529)">siege to Vienna</a> in 1529, but failed to take the city.<a href="#cite_note-71">[57]</a>: 50 In 1532, he made another <a href="/wiki/Habsburg%E2%80%93Ottoman_wars_in_Hungary_(1526%E2%80%931568)" title="Habsburg–Ottoman wars in Hungary (1526–1568)">attack</a> on Vienna, but was repulsed in the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_G%C3%BCns" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Güns">siege of Güns</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Thompson442-72">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-%C3%81goston_and_Alan_Masters583-73">[59]</a> <a href="/wiki/Transylvania" title="Transylvania">Transylvania</a>, Wallachia and, intermittently, <a href="/wiki/Moldavia" title="Moldavia">Moldavia</a>, became tributary principalities of the Empire. In the east, the Ottoman Turks <a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Safavid_War_(1532%E2%80%931555)" title="Ottoman–Safavid War (1532–1555)">took</a> <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> from the Persians in 1535, gaining control of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> and naval access to the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a>. In 1555, the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> became partitioned for the first time between the Safavids and the Ottomans, a <a href="/wiki/Status_quo" title="Status quo">status quo</a> that remained until the end of the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1768%E2%80%931774)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)">Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)</a>. By this partitioning as signed in the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Amasya" title="Peace of Amasya">Peace of Amasya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Western_Armenia" title="Western Armenia">Western Armenia</a>, western <a href="/wiki/Kurdistan" title="Kurdistan">Kurdistan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Imereti" title="Kingdom of Imereti">Western Georgia</a> fell into Ottoman hands,<a href="#cite_note-74">[60]</a> while southern <a href="/wiki/Dagestan" title="Dagestan">Dagestan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Armenia" title="Eastern Armenia">Eastern Armenia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Georgia_(country)" title="Eastern Georgia (country)">Eastern Georgia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a> remained Persian.<a href="#cite_note-75">[61]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_Moh%C3%A1cs,_with_Suleiman_I_in_the_middle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Battle_of_Moh%C3%A1cs%2C_with_Suleiman_I_in_the_middle.jpg/170px-Battle_of_Moh%C3%A1cs%2C_with_Suleiman_I_in_the_middle.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="249" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2160" data-file-height="3159"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 249px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Battle_of_Moh%C3%A1cs%2C_with_Suleiman_I_in_the_middle.jpg/170px-Battle_of_Moh%C3%A1cs%2C_with_Suleiman_I_in_the_middle.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="249" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Battle_of_Moh%C3%A1cs%2C_with_Suleiman_I_in_the_middle.jpg/255px-Battle_of_Moh%C3%A1cs%2C_with_Suleiman_I_in_the_middle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Battle_of_Moh%C3%A1cs%2C_with_Suleiman_I_in_the_middle.jpg/340px-Battle_of_Moh%C3%A1cs%2C_with_Suleiman_I_in_the_middle.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Ottoman miniature of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Moh%C3%A1cs" title="Battle of Mohács">Battle of Mohács</a> in 1526<a href="#cite_note-76">[62]</a></figcaption></figure> In 1539, a 60,000-strong Ottoman army besieged the <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Spain" title="Habsburg Spain">Spanish</a> garrison of <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Castelnuovo" title="Siege of Castelnuovo">Castelnuovo</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Adriatic_coast" class="mw-redirect" title="Adriatic coast">Adriatic coast</a>; the successful siege cost the Ottomans 8,000 casualties,<a href="#cite_note-77">[63]</a> but <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a> agreed to terms in 1540, surrendering most of its empire in the <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Morea" title="Morea">Morea</a>. <a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Modern France">France</a> and the Ottoman Empire, united by mutual opposition to <a href="/wiki/Habsburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Habsburg">Habsburg</a> rule,<a href="#cite_note-AksanOW-78">[64]</a> became allies. The French conquests of <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Nice" title="Siege of Nice">Nice</a> (1543) and <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Corsica_(1553)" title="Invasion of Corsica (1553)">Corsica</a> (1553) occurred as a joint venture between French king <a href="/wiki/Francis_I_of_France" title="Francis I of France">Francis I</a> and Suleiman, and were commanded by the Ottoman admirals <a href="/wiki/Hayreddin_Barbarossa" title="Hayreddin Barbarossa">Hayreddin Barbarossa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dragut" title="Dragut">Dragut</a>.<a href="#cite_note-79">[65]</a> France supported the Ottomans with an artillery unit during the 1543 Ottoman <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Esztergom_(1543)" title="Siege of Esztergom (1543)">conquest of Esztergom</a> in northern Hungary. After further advances by the Turks, the Habsburg ruler <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor">Ferdinand</a> officially recognized Ottoman ascendancy in Hungary in 1547. Suleiman died of natural causes during the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Szigetv%C3%A1r" title="Siege of Szigetvár">siege of Szigetvár</a> in 1566. Following his death, the Ottomans were said to be declining, although this has been rejected by many scholars.<a href="#cite_note-decline-80">[66]</a> By the end of Suleiman's reign, the Empire spanned approximately 877,888 sq mi (2,273,720 km2), extending over three continents.<a href="#cite_note-81">[67]</a>: 545 <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IAN_0137_Urrabieta_y_Ortiz_1859_Preveza.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/IAN_0137_Urrabieta_y_Ortiz_1859_Preveza.jpg/220px-IAN_0137_Urrabieta_y_Ortiz_1859_Preveza.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="5206" data-file-height="3545"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 150px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/IAN_0137_Urrabieta_y_Ortiz_1859_Preveza.jpg/220px-IAN_0137_Urrabieta_y_Ortiz_1859_Preveza.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="150" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/IAN_0137_Urrabieta_y_Ortiz_1859_Preveza.jpg/330px-IAN_0137_Urrabieta_y_Ortiz_1859_Preveza.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/IAN_0137_Urrabieta_y_Ortiz_1859_Preveza.jpg/440px-IAN_0137_Urrabieta_y_Ortiz_1859_Preveza.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Ottoman admiral <a href="/wiki/Hayreddin_Barbarossa" title="Hayreddin Barbarossa">Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha</a> defeated the <a href="/wiki/Holy_League_(1538)" title="Holy League (1538)">Holy League</a> of <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V</a> under the command of <a href="/wiki/Andrea_Doria" title="Andrea Doria">Andrea Doria</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Preveza" title="Battle of Preveza">Battle of Preveza</a> in 1538.</figcaption></figure> The Empire became a dominant naval force, controlling much of the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-82">[68]</a>: 61 The Empire was now a major part of European politics. The Ottomans became involved in multi-continental religious wars when Spain and Portugal were united under the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Union" title="Iberian Union">Iberian Union</a>. The Ottomans were holders of the Caliph title, meaning they were the leaders of Muslims worldwide. The Iberians were leaders of the Christian crusaders, and so the two fought in a worldwide conflict. There were zones of operations in the Mediterranean<a href="#cite_note-83">[69]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>,<a href="#cite_note-84">[70]</a> where Iberians circumnavigated Africa to reach India and, on their way, wage war upon the Ottomans and their local Muslim allies. Likewise, the Iberians passed through newly-Christianized <a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin America</a> and <a href="/wiki/Juan_de_Salcedo" title="Juan de Salcedo">had sent expeditions</a> that traversed the Pacific to Christianize the formerly Muslim Philippines and use it as a base to attack the Muslims in the <a href="/wiki/Far_East" title="Far East">Far East</a>.<a href="#cite_note-85">[71]</a> In this case, the Ottomans sent armies to aid its easternmost vassal and territory, the <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Aceh" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultanate of Aceh">Sultanate of Aceh</a> in Southeast Asia.<a href="#cite_note-86">[72]</a>: 84 <a href="#cite_note-87">[73]</a> During the 1600s, the world conflict between the Ottoman Caliphate and Iberian Union was a stalemate since <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_population_in_1600" title="List of countries by population in 1600">both were at similar population</a>, technology and economic levels. Nevertheless, the success of the Ottoman political and military establishment was compared to the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, despite the difference in size, by the likes of contemporary Italian scholar <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Sansovino" title="Francesco Sansovino">Francesco Sansovino</a> and French political philosopher <a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Jean Bodin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-deringil709-88">[74]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stagnation_and_reform_(1566–1827)">Stagnation and reform (1566–1827)</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Revolts,_reversals,_and_revivals_(1566–1683)">Revolts, reversals, and revivals (1566–1683)</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Transformation_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Transformation of the Ottoman Empire">Transformation of the Ottoman Empire</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_decline_thesis" title="Ottoman decline thesis">Ottoman decline thesis</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IstanbulNavalMuseum38.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/IstanbulNavalMuseum38.JPG/220px-IstanbulNavalMuseum38.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3696" data-file-height="2448"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 146px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/IstanbulNavalMuseum38.JPG/220px-IstanbulNavalMuseum38.JPG" data-width="220" data-height="146" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/IstanbulNavalMuseum38.JPG/330px-IstanbulNavalMuseum38.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/IstanbulNavalMuseum38.JPG/440px-IstanbulNavalMuseum38.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Late 16th or early 17th century <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Navy" title="Ottoman Navy">Ottoman</a> <a href="/wiki/Galley" title="Galley">galley</a> known as <a href="/wiki/Tarihi_Kad%C4%B1rga" title="Tarihi Kadırga">Tarihi Kadırga</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Istanbul_Naval_Museum" title="Istanbul Naval Museum">Istanbul Naval Museum</a>, built in the period between the reigns of Sultan <a href="/wiki/Murad_III" title="Murad III">Murad III</a> (1574–1595) and Sultan <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_IV" title="Mehmed IV">Mehmed IV</a> (1648–1687)<a href="#cite_note-kadirga1-89">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-kadirga2-90">[76]</a></figcaption></figure> In the second half of the sixteenth century, the Ottoman Empire came under increasing strain from inflation and the rapidly rising costs of warfare that were impacting both Europe and the Middle East.<a href="#cite_note-91">[77]</a> These pressures led to a series of crises around the year 1600, placing great strain upon the Ottoman system of government.<a href="#cite_note-92">[78]</a>: 413–414 The empire underwent a series of transformations of its political and military institutions in response to these challenges, enabling it to successfully adapt to the new conditions of the seventeenth century and remain powerful, both militarily and economically.<a href="#cite_note-decline-80">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[79]</a>: 10 Historians of the mid-twentieth century once characterised this period as one of stagnation and decline, but this view is now rejected by the majority of academics.<a href="#cite_note-decline-80">[66]</a> The discovery of new maritime trade routes by Western European states allowed them to avoid the Ottoman trade monopoly. The <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Portuguese</a> discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Cape_of_Good_Hope" title="Cape of Good Hope">Cape of Good Hope</a> in 1488 initiated <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_naval_expeditions_in_the_Indian_Ocean" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman naval expeditions in the Indian Ocean">a series of Ottoman-Portuguese naval wars</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> throughout the 16th century. Despite the growing European presence in the Indian Ocean, Ottoman trade with the east continued to flourish. Cairo, in particular, benefitted from the rise of Yemeni coffee as a popular consumer commodity. As coffeehouses appeared in cities and towns across the empire, Cairo developed into a major center for its trade, contributing to its continued prosperity throughout the seventeenth and much of the eighteenth century.<a href="#cite_note-94">[80]</a>: 507–508 Under <a href="/wiki/Ivan_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Ivan IV">Ivan IV</a> (1533–1584), the <a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsardom of Russia</a> expanded into the Volga and Caspian regions at the expense of the Tatar khanates. In 1571, the Crimean khan <a href="/wiki/Devlet_I_Giray" title="Devlet I Giray">Devlet I Giray</a>, commanded by the Ottomans, <a href="/wiki/Fire_of_Moscow_(1571)" title="Fire of Moscow (1571)">burned Moscow</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Davies2007-95">[81]</a> The next year, the invasion was repeated but repelled at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Molodi" title="Battle of Molodi">Battle of Molodi</a>. The Ottoman Empire continued to invade Eastern Europe in a series of <a href="/wiki/List_of_conflicts_in_Europe_during_Turco-Mongol_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="List of conflicts in Europe during Turco-Mongol rule">slave raids</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Subtelny2000-96">[82]</a> and remained a significant power in Eastern Europe until the end of the 17th century.<a href="#cite_note-97">[83]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Giorgio-vasari-battle-of-lepanto.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Giorgio-vasari-battle-of-lepanto.jpg/220px-Giorgio-vasari-battle-of-lepanto.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="249" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2649" data-file-height="3000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 249px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Giorgio-vasari-battle-of-lepanto.jpg/220px-Giorgio-vasari-battle-of-lepanto.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="249" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Giorgio-vasari-battle-of-lepanto.jpg/330px-Giorgio-vasari-battle-of-lepanto.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Giorgio-vasari-battle-of-lepanto.jpg/440px-Giorgio-vasari-battle-of-lepanto.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Order of battle of the two fleets in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto" title="Battle of Lepanto">Battle of Lepanto</a>, with an allegory of the three powers of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_League_(1571)" title="Holy League (1571)">Holy League</a> in the foreground, fresco by <a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Vasari" title="Giorgio Vasari">Giorgio Vasari</a></figcaption></figure> The Ottomans decided to conquer <a href="/wiki/Venetian_Cyprus" title="Venetian Cyprus">Venetian Cyprus</a> and on 22 July 1570, Nicosia was besieged; 50,000 Christians died, and 180,000 were enslaved.<a href="#cite_note-98">[84]</a>: 67 On 15 September 1570, the Ottoman cavalry appeared before the last Venetian stronghold in Cyprus, Famagusta. The Venetian defenders held out for 11 months against a force that at its peak numbered 200,000 men with 145 cannons; 163,000 cannonballs struck the walls of Famagusta before it fell to the Ottomans in August 1571. The <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Famagusta" title="Siege of Famagusta">Siege of Famagusta</a> claimed 50,000 Ottoman casualties.<a href="#cite_note-99">[85]</a>: 328 Meanwhile, the <a href="/wiki/Holy_League_(1571)" title="Holy League (1571)">Holy League</a> consisting of mostly Spanish and Venetian fleets won a victory over the Ottoman fleet at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto" title="Battle of Lepanto">Battle of Lepanto</a> (1571), off southwestern Greece; Catholic forces killed over 30,000 Turks and destroyed 200 of their ships.<a href="#cite_note-100">[86]</a>: 24 It was a startling, if mostly symbolic,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinross1979272-101">[87]</a> blow to the image of Ottoman invincibility, an image which the victory of the Knights of Malta over the Ottoman invaders in the 1565 <a href="/wiki/Great_Siege_of_Malta" title="Great Siege of Malta">siege of Malta</a> had recently set about eroding.<a href="#cite_note-102">[88]</a> The battle was far more damaging to the Ottoman navy in sapping experienced manpower than the loss of ships, which were rapidly replaced.<a href="#cite_note-103">[89]</a>: 53 The Ottoman navy recovered quickly, persuading Venice to sign a peace treaty in 1573, allowing the Ottomans to expand and consolidate their position in North Africa.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEItzkowitz198067-104">[90]</a> By contrast, the Habsburg frontier had settled somewhat, a stalemate caused by a stiffening of the Habsburg defenses.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEItzkowitz198071-105">[91]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Long_Turkish_War" title="Long Turkish War">Long Turkish War</a> against Habsburg Austria (1593–1606) created the need for greater numbers of Ottoman infantry equipped with firearms, resulting in a relaxation of recruitment policy. This contributed to problems of indiscipline and outright rebelliousness within the corps, which were never fully solved.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEItzkowitz198090%E2%80%9392-106">[92]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:AGE_MATTERS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:AGE MATTERS">obsolete source</a>] Irregular sharpshooters (<a href="/wiki/Sekban" title="Sekban">Sekban</a>) were also recruited, and on demobilisation turned to <a href="/wiki/Brigandage" title="Brigandage">brigandage</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Celali_rebellions" title="Celali rebellions">Celali rebellions</a> (1590–1610), which engendered widespread anarchy in <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> in the late 16th and early 17th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-107">[93]</a>: 24 With the Empire's population reaching 30 million people by 1600, the shortage of land placed further pressure on the government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinross1979281-108">[94]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:AGE_MATTERS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:AGE MATTERS">obsolete source</a>] In spite of these problems, the Ottoman state remained strong, and its army did not collapse or suffer crushing defeats. The only exceptions were campaigns against the <a href="/wiki/Safavid_dynasty" title="Safavid dynasty">Safavid dynasty</a> of Persia, where many of the Ottoman eastern provinces were lost, some permanently. This <a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Safavid_War_(1603%E2%80%931618)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman–Safavid War (1603–1618)">1603–1618 war</a> eventually resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nasuh_Pasha" title="Treaty of Nasuh Pasha">Treaty of Nasuh Pasha</a>, which ceded the entire Caucasus, except westernmost Georgia, back into the possession of <a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid Iran</a>.<a href="#cite_note-109">[95]</a> The treaty ending the <a href="/wiki/Cretan_War_(1645%E2%80%931669)" title="Cretan War (1645–1669)">Cretan War</a> cost Venice much of <a href="/wiki/Venetian_Dalmatia" title="Venetian Dalmatia">Dalmatia</a>, its Aegean island possessions, and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Candia" title="Kingdom of Candia">Crete</a>. (Losses from the war totalled 30,985 Venetian soldiers and 118,754 Turkish soldiers.)<a href="#cite_note-110">[96]</a>: 33 During his brief majority reign, <a href="/wiki/Murad_IV" title="Murad IV">Murad IV</a> (1623–1640) reasserted central authority and recaptured <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> (1639) from the Safavids.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEItzkowitz198073-111">[97]</a> The resulting <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Zuhab" title="Treaty of Zuhab">Treaty of Zuhab</a> of that same year decisively divided the Caucasus and adjacent regions between the two neighbouring empires as it had already been defined in the 1555 Peace of Amasya.<a href="#cite_note-112">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[99]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Women" title="Sultanate of Women">Sultanate of Women</a> (1533–1656) was a period in which the mothers of young sultans exercised power on behalf of their sons. The most prominent women of this period were <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6sem_Sultan" title="Kösem Sultan">Kösem Sultan</a> and her daughter-in-law <a href="/wiki/Turhan_Hatice" class="mw-redirect" title="Turhan Hatice">Turhan Hatice</a>, whose political rivalry culminated in Kösem's murder in 1651.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEItzkowitz198074%E2%80%9375-114">[100]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6pr%C3%BCl%C3%BC_era" title="Köprülü era">Köprülü era</a> (1656–1703), effective control of the Empire was exercised by a sequence of <a href="/wiki/Grand_vizier" title="Grand vizier">grand viziers</a> from the Köprülü family. The Köprülü Vizierate saw renewed military success with authority restored in Transylvania, the conquest of <a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a> completed in 1669, and expansion into <a href="/wiki/History_of_Ukraine#Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="History of Ukraine">Polish southern Ukraine</a>, with the strongholds of <a href="/wiki/Khotyn" title="Khotyn">Khotyn</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kamianets-Podilskyi" title="Kamianets-Podilskyi">Kamianets-Podilskyi</a> and the territory of <a href="/wiki/Podolia" title="Podolia">Podolia</a> ceding to Ottoman control in 1676.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEItzkowitz198080%E2%80%9381-115">[101]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vienna_Battle_1683.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Vienna_Battle_1683.jpg/220px-Vienna_Battle_1683.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2783" data-file-height="1842"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 146px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Vienna_Battle_1683.jpg/220px-Vienna_Battle_1683.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="146" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Vienna_Battle_1683.jpg/330px-Vienna_Battle_1683.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Vienna_Battle_1683.jpg/440px-Vienna_Battle_1683.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vienna" title="Battle of Vienna">Second Siege of Vienna</a> in 1683, by <a href="/wiki/Frans_Geffels" title="Frans Geffels">Frans Geffels</a> (1624–1694)</figcaption></figure> This period of renewed assertiveness came to a calamitous end in 1683 when Grand Vizier <a href="/wiki/Kara_Mustafa_Pasha" title="Kara Mustafa Pasha">Kara Mustafa Pasha</a> led a huge army to attempt a second Ottoman siege of <a href="/wiki/History_of_Vienna" title="History of Vienna">Vienna</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Turkish_War" title="Great Turkish War">Great Turkish War</a> of 1683–1699. The final assault being fatally delayed, the Ottoman forces were swept away by allied Habsburg, German, and Polish forces spearheaded by the Polish king <a href="/wiki/John_III_Sobieski" title="John III Sobieski">John III Sobieski</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vienna" title="Battle of Vienna">Battle of Vienna</a>. The alliance of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_League_(1684)" title="Holy League (1684)">Holy League</a> pressed home the advantage of the defeat at Vienna, culminating in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Karlowitz" title="Treaty of Karlowitz">Treaty of Karlowitz</a> (26 January 1699), which ended the Great Turkish War.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinross1979357-116">[102]</a> The Ottomans surrendered control of significant territories, many permanently.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEItzkowitz198084-117">[103]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mustafa_II" title="Mustafa II">Mustafa II</a> (1695–1703) led the counterattack of 1695–1696 against the Habsburgs in Hungary, but was undone at the disastrous defeat at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zenta" title="Battle of Zenta">Zenta</a> (in modern Serbia), 11 September 1697.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEItzkowitz198083%E2%80%9384-118">[104]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Military_defeats">Military defeats</h4></div> Aside from the loss of the <a href="/wiki/Banat" title="Banat">Banat</a> and the temporary loss of <a href="/wiki/History_of_Belgrade" title="History of Belgrade">Belgrade</a> (1717–1739), the Ottoman border on the <a href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sava" title="Sava">Sava</a> remained stable during the eighteenth century. <a href="/wiki/Expansion_of_Russia_1500%E2%80%931800" class="mw-redirect" title="Expansion of Russia 1500–1800">Russian expansion</a>, however, presented a large and growing threat.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinross1979371-119">[105]</a> Accordingly, King <a href="/wiki/Charles_XII_of_Sweden" title="Charles XII of Sweden">Charles XII of Sweden</a> was welcomed as an ally in the Ottoman Empire following his defeat by the Russians at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Poltava" title="Battle of Poltava">Battle of Poltava</a> of 1709 in central Ukraine (part of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Northern_War" title="Great Northern War">Great Northern War</a> of 1700–1721).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinross1979371-119">[105]</a> Charles XII persuaded the Ottoman Sultan <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_III" title="Ahmed III">Ahmed III</a> to declare war on Russia, which resulted in an Ottoman victory in the <a href="/wiki/Pruth_River_Campaign" title="Pruth River Campaign">Pruth River Campaign</a> of 1710–1711, in Moldavia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinross1979372-120">[106]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1720_Huchtenburg_Eroberungs_Belgrads_1717_anagoria.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/1720_Huchtenburg_Eroberungs_Belgrads_1717_anagoria.JPG/220px-1720_Huchtenburg_Eroberungs_Belgrads_1717_anagoria.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4752" data-file-height="3168"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 147px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/1720_Huchtenburg_Eroberungs_Belgrads_1717_anagoria.JPG/220px-1720_Huchtenburg_Eroberungs_Belgrads_1717_anagoria.JPG" data-width="220" data-height="147" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/1720_Huchtenburg_Eroberungs_Belgrads_1717_anagoria.JPG/330px-1720_Huchtenburg_Eroberungs_Belgrads_1717_anagoria.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/1720_Huchtenburg_Eroberungs_Belgrads_1717_anagoria.JPG/440px-1720_Huchtenburg_Eroberungs_Belgrads_1717_anagoria.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Austrian troops led by <a href="/wiki/Prince_Eugene_of_Savoy" title="Prince Eugene of Savoy">Prince Eugene of Savoy</a> capture <a href="/wiki/Belgrade" title="Belgrade">Belgrade</a> in 1717. Austrian control in Serbia lasted until the Turkish victory in the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1735%E2%80%931739)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1735–1739)">Austro-Russian–Turkish War (1735–1739)</a>. With the 1739 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Belgrade" title="Treaty of Belgrade">Treaty of Belgrade</a>, the Ottoman Empire regained northern <a href="/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Serbia_(1718%E2%80%931739)" title="Kingdom of Serbia (1718–1739)">Habsburg Serbia</a> (including Belgrade), <a href="/wiki/Oltenia" title="Oltenia">Oltenia</a> and the southern parts of the <a href="/wiki/Banat_of_Temeswar" title="Banat of Temeswar">Banat of Temeswar</a>.</figcaption></figure> After the <a href="/wiki/Austro-Turkish_War_(1716%E2%80%931718)" title="Austro-Turkish War (1716–1718)">Austro-Turkish War</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Passarowitz" title="Treaty of Passarowitz">Treaty of Passarowitz</a> confirmed the loss of the Banat, Serbia, and <a href="/wiki/Oltenia" title="Oltenia">"Little Walachia" (Oltenia)</a> to Austria. The Treaty also revealed that the Ottoman Empire was on the defensive and unlikely to present any further aggression in Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinross1979376-121">[107]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Austro-Russian%E2%80%93Turkish_War_(1735%E2%80%931739)" class="mw-redirect" title="Austro-Russian–Turkish War (1735–1739)">Austro-Russian–Turkish War</a> (1735–1739), which was ended by the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Belgrade" title="Treaty of Belgrade">Treaty of Belgrade</a> in 1739, resulted in the Ottoman recovery of northern <a href="/wiki/Bosnia" class="mw-redirect" title="Bosnia">Bosnia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Serbia_(1718%E2%80%931739)" title="Kingdom of Serbia (1718–1739)">Habsburg Serbia</a> (including Belgrade), <a href="/wiki/Oltenia" title="Oltenia">Oltenia</a> and the southern parts of the <a href="/wiki/Banat_of_Temeswar" title="Banat of Temeswar">Banat of Temeswar</a>; but the Empire lost the port of <a href="/wiki/Azov" title="Azov">Azov</a>, north of the Crimean Peninsula, to the Russians. After this treaty the Ottoman Empire was able to enjoy a generation of peace in Europe, as Austria and Russia were forced to deal with the rise of <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinross1979392-122">[108]</a> <a href="/wiki/Science_and_Technology_in_the_Ottoman_Empire#Education" class="mw-redirect" title="Science and Technology in the Ottoman Empire">Educational and technological reforms</a> came about, including the establishment of higher education institutions such as the <a href="/wiki/Istanbul_Technical_University" title="Istanbul Technical University">Istanbul Technical University</a>.<a href="#cite_note-123">[109]</a> In 1734 an artillery school was established to impart Western-style artillery methods, but the Islamic clergy successfully objected under the grounds of <a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">theodicy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-books.google_a-124">[110]</a> In 1754 the artillery school was reopened on a semi-secret basis.<a href="#cite_note-books.google_a-124">[110]</a> In 1726, <a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_Muteferrika" title="Ibrahim Muteferrika">Ibrahim Muteferrika</a> convinced the Grand Vizier <a href="/wiki/Nev%C5%9Fehirli_Damat_Ibrahim_Pasha" title="Nevşehirli Damat Ibrahim Pasha">Nevşehirli Damat Ibrahim Pasha</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Mufti" title="Grand Mufti">Grand Mufti</a>, and the clergy on the efficiency of the printing press, and Muteferrika was later granted by Sultan Ahmed III permission to publish non-religious books (despite opposition from some <a href="/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy" title="Islamic calligraphy">calligraphers</a> and religious leaders).<a href="#cite_note-katip_celebi-125">[111]</a> Muteferrika's press published its first book in 1729 and, by 1743, issued 17 works in 23 volumes, each having between 500 and 1,000 copies.<a href="#cite_note-katip_celebi-125">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-watson-126">[112]</a> In North Africa, Spain <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Oran_(1732)" title="Spanish conquest of Oran (1732)">conquered Oran</a> from the autonomous <a href="/wiki/Deylik_of_Algiers" class="mw-redirect" title="Deylik of Algiers">Deylik of Algiers</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Beylik_of_Oran" class="mw-redirect" title="Beylik of Oran">Bey of Oran</a> received an army from Algiers, but it failed to recapture <a href="/wiki/Oran" title="Oran">Oran</a>; the siege caused the deaths of 1,500 Spaniards, and even more Algerians. The Spanish also massacred many Muslim soldiers.<a href="#cite_note-127">[113]</a> In 1792, Spain abandoned Oran, selling it to the Deylik of Algiers. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:January_Suchodolski_-_Ochakiv_siege.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/January_Suchodolski_-_Ochakiv_siege.jpg/220px-January_Suchodolski_-_Ochakiv_siege.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1203"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 147px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/January_Suchodolski_-_Ochakiv_siege.jpg/220px-January_Suchodolski_-_Ochakiv_siege.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="147" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/January_Suchodolski_-_Ochakiv_siege.jpg/330px-January_Suchodolski_-_Ochakiv_siege.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/January_Suchodolski_-_Ochakiv_siege.jpg/440px-January_Suchodolski_-_Ochakiv_siege.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Ottoman troops attempting to halt the advancing Russians during the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Ochakov_(1788)" title="Siege of Ochakov (1788)">Siege of Ochakov</a> in 1788</figcaption></figure> In 1768 Russian-backed Ukrainian <a href="/wiki/Haidamaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Haidamaka">Haidamakas</a>, pursuing Polish confederates, entered <a href="/wiki/Balta,_Ukraine" title="Balta, Ukraine">Balta</a>, an Ottoman-controlled town on the border of Bessarabia in Ukraine, massacred its citizens, and burned the town to the ground. This action provoked the Ottoman Empire into the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1768%E2%80%931774)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)">Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_K%C3%BC%C3%A7%C3%BCk_Kaynarca" title="Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca">Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca</a> of 1774 ended the war and provided freedom of worship for the Christian citizens of the Ottoman-controlled provinces of Wallachia and Moldavia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinross1979405-128">[114]</a> By the late 18th century, after a number of defeats in the wars with Russia, some people in the Ottoman Empire began to conclude that the reforms of <a href="/wiki/Peter_the_Great" title="Peter the Great">Peter the Great</a> had given the Russians an edge, and the Ottomans would have to keep up with Western technology in order to avoid further defeats.<a href="#cite_note-books.google_a-124">[110]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ottoman_Sultan_Selim_III_(1789).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Ottoman_Sultan_Selim_III_%281789%29.jpg/220px-Ottoman_Sultan_Selim_III_%281789%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2311" data-file-height="1712"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 163px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Ottoman_Sultan_Selim_III_%281789%29.jpg/220px-Ottoman_Sultan_Selim_III_%281789%29.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="163" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Ottoman_Sultan_Selim_III_%281789%29.jpg/330px-Ottoman_Sultan_Selim_III_%281789%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Ottoman_Sultan_Selim_III_%281789%29.jpg/440px-Ottoman_Sultan_Selim_III_%281789%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Selim_III" title="Selim III">Selim III</a> receiving dignitaries during an audience at the Gate of Felicity, <a href="/wiki/Topkap%C4%B1_Palace" title="Topkapı Palace">Topkapı Palace</a>. Painting by <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Kap%C4%B1da%C4%9Fl%C4%B1" title="Konstantin Kapıdağlı">Konstantin Kapıdağlı</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Selim_III" title="Selim III">Selim III</a> (1789–1807) made the first major attempts to <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_military_reform_efforts" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman military reform efforts">modernise the army</a>, but his reforms were hampered by the religious leadership and the <a href="/wiki/Janissary" title="Janissary">Janissary</a> corps. Jealous of their privileges and firmly opposed to change, the Janissary <a href="/wiki/Janissary_revolts" class="mw-redirect" title="Janissary revolts">revolted</a>. Selim's efforts cost him his throne and his life, but were resolved in spectacular and bloody fashion by his successor, the dynamic <a href="/wiki/Mahmud_II" title="Mahmud II">Mahmud II</a>, who <a href="/wiki/Auspicious_Incident" title="Auspicious Incident">eliminated the Janissary corps</a> in 1826. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Si%C3%A8ge_de_l%27Acropoles.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Si%C3%A8ge_de_l%27Acropoles.jpg/220px-Si%C3%A8ge_de_l%27Acropoles.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="537"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 131px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Si%C3%A8ge_de_l%27Acropoles.jpg/220px-Si%C3%A8ge_de_l%27Acropoles.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="131" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Si%C3%A8ge_de_l%27Acropoles.jpg/330px-Si%C3%A8ge_de_l%27Acropoles.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Si%C3%A8ge_de_l%27Acropoles.jpg/440px-Si%C3%A8ge_de_l%27Acropoles.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The siege of the Acropolis in 1826–1827 during the <a href="/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence" title="Greek War of Independence">Greek War of Independence</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Serbian_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Serbian revolution">Serbian revolution</a> (1804–1815) marked the beginning of an era of <a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_under_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire">national awakening</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Question" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Question">Eastern Question</a>. In 1811, the fundamentalist Wahhabis of Arabia, led by the al-Saud family, revolted against the Ottomans. Unable to defeat the Wahhabi rebels, the Sublime Porte had <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_of_Egypt" title="Muhammad Ali of Egypt">Muhammad Ali Pasha</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kavala" title="Kavala">Kavala</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Wali" title="Wali">vali</a> (governor) of the <a href="/wiki/Egypt_Eyalet" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt Eyalet">Eyalet of Egypt</a>, tasked with retaking Arabia, which ended with the destruction of the <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Diriyah" title="Emirate of Diriyah">Emirate of Diriyah</a> in 1818. The <a href="/wiki/Suzerainty" title="Suzerainty">suzerainty</a> of Serbia as a hereditary monarchy under its own <a href="/wiki/Obrenovi%C4%87_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Obrenović dynasty">dynasty</a> was acknowledged <a href="/wiki/De_jure" title="De jure">de jure</a> in 1830.<a href="#cite_note-129">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-Berend2003-130">[116]</a> In 1821, the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Greece" title="Ottoman Greece">Greeks</a> <a href="/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence" title="Greek War of Independence">declared war</a> on the Sultan. A rebellion that originated in Moldavia as a diversion was followed by the main revolution in the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnese" title="Peloponnese">Peloponnese</a>, which, along with the northern part of the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Corinth" title="Gulf of Corinth">Gulf of Corinth</a>, became the first parts of the Ottoman Empire to achieve independence (in 1829). In 1830, the French invaded the <a href="/wiki/Deylik_of_Algiers" class="mw-redirect" title="Deylik of Algiers">Deylik of Algiers</a>. <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Algiers_in_1830" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasion of Algiers in 1830">The campaign</a> that took 21 days, resulted in over 5,000 Algerian military casualties,<a href="#cite_note-De_Quatrebarbes-1831-131">[117]</a> and about 2,600 French ones.<a href="#cite_note-De_Quatrebarbes-1831-131">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[118]</a> Before the French invasion the total population of Algeria was most likely between 3,000,000 and 5,000,000.<a href="#cite_note-133">[119]</a> By 1873, the population of Algeria (excluding several hundred thousand newly arrived French settlers) had decreased to 2,172,000.<a href="#cite_note-134">[120]</a> In 1831, <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_of_Egypt" title="Muhammad Ali of Egypt">Muhammad Ali of Egypt</a> revolted against Sultan <a href="/wiki/Mahmud_II" title="Mahmud II">Mahmud II</a> due to the latter's refusal to grant him the governorships of <a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Greater Syria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a>, which the Sultan had promised him in exchange for sending military assistance to put down the <a href="/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence" title="Greek War of Independence">Greek revolt</a> (1821–1829) that ultimately ended with the formal <a href="/wiki/London_Protocol_(1830)" title="London Protocol (1830)">independence of Greece</a> in 1830. It was a costly enterprise for Muhammad Ali, who had lost his fleet at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Navarino" title="Battle of Navarino">Battle of Navarino</a> in 1827. Thus began the first <a href="/wiki/Egyptian%E2%80%93Ottoman_War_(1831%E2%80%931833)" title="Egyptian–Ottoman War (1831–1833)">Egyptian–Ottoman War (1831–1833)</a>, during which the French-trained army of Muhammad Ali, under the command of his son <a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_Pasha_of_Egypt" title="Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt">Ibrahim Pasha</a>, defeated the Ottoman Army as it marched into <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>, reaching the city of <a href="/wiki/K%C3%BCtahya" title="Kütahya">Kütahya</a> within 320 km (200 mi) of the capital, Constantinople.<a href="#cite_note-Effraim-135">[121]</a>: 95 In desperation, Sultan <a href="/wiki/Mahmud_II" title="Mahmud II">Mahmud II</a> appealed to the empire's traditional arch-rival Russia for help, asking Emperor <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_I_of_Russia" title="Nicholas I of Russia">Nicholas I</a> to send an expeditionary force to assist him.<a href="#cite_note-Effraim-135">[121]</a>: 96 In return for signing the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_H%C3%BCnk%C3%A2r_%C4%B0skelesi" title="Treaty of Hünkâr İskelesi">Treaty of Hünkâr İskelesi</a>, the Russians sent the expeditionary force which deterred Ibrahim Pasha from marching any further towards Constantinople.<a href="#cite_note-Effraim-135">[121]</a>: 96 Under the terms of the <a href="/wiki/Convention_of_K%C3%BCtahya" title="Convention of Kütahya">Convention of Kütahya</a>, signed on 5 May 1833, Muhammad Ali agreed to abandon his campaign against the Sultan, in exchange for which he was made the <a href="/wiki/Wali" title="Wali">vali</a> (governor) of the <a href="/wiki/Vilayet" title="Vilayet">vilayets</a> (provinces) of <a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tripoli,_Lebanon" title="Tripoli, Lebanon">Tripoli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidon</a> (the latter four comprising modern <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>), and given the right to collect taxes in <a href="/wiki/Adana" title="Adana">Adana</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Effraim-135">[121]</a>: 96 Had it not been for the Russian intervention, Sultan <a href="/wiki/Mahmud_II" title="Mahmud II">Mahmud II</a> could have faced the risk of being overthrown and Muhammad Ali could have even become the new Sultan. These events marked the beginning of a recurring pattern where the Sublime Porte needed the help of foreign powers to protect itself.<a href="#cite_note-Effraim-135">[121]</a>: 95–96 In 1839, the <a href="/wiki/Sublime_Porte" title="Sublime Porte">Sublime Porte</a> attempted to take back what it lost to the <a href="/wiki/De_facto" title="De facto">de facto</a> autonomous, but <a href="/wiki/De_jure" title="De jure">de jure</a> still Ottoman <a href="/wiki/Egypt_Eyalet" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt Eyalet">Eyalet of Egypt</a>, but its forces were initially defeated, which led to the <a href="/wiki/Oriental_Crisis_of_1840" title="Oriental Crisis of 1840">Oriental Crisis of 1840</a>. Muhammad Ali had close relations with <a href="/wiki/July_Monarchy" title="July Monarchy">France</a>, and the prospect of him becoming the Sultan of Egypt was widely viewed as putting the entire <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> into the French sphere of influence.<a href="#cite_note-Effraim-135">[121]</a>: 96 As the Sublime Porte had proved itself incapable of defeating Muhammad Ali,<a href="#cite_note-136">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-137">[123]</a> the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian Empire</a> provided military assistance, and the second <a href="/wiki/Egyptian%E2%80%93Ottoman_War_(1839%E2%80%931841)" title="Egyptian–Ottoman War (1839–1841)">Egyptian–Ottoman War (1839–1841)</a> ended with Ottoman victory and the restoration of Ottoman suzerainty over <a href="/wiki/Egypt_Eyalet" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt Eyalet">Egypt Eyalet</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Effraim-135">[121]</a>: 96 By the mid-19th century, the Ottoman Empire was called the "<a href="/wiki/Sick_man_of_Europe" title="Sick man of Europe">sick man of Europe</a>". Three suzerain states – the <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Serbia" title="Principality of Serbia">Principality of Serbia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wallachia" title="Wallachia">Wallachia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moldavia" title="Moldavia">Moldavia</a> – moved towards de jure independence during the 1860s and 1870s. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decline_and_modernisation_(1828–1908)">Decline and modernisation (1828–1908)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Decline of the Ottoman Empire">Decline of the Ottoman Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Opening_ceremony_of_the_First_Ottoman_Parliament_at_the_Dolmabahce_Palace_in_1876.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Opening_ceremony_of_the_First_Ottoman_Parliament_at_the_Dolmabahce_Palace_in_1876.jpg/220px-Opening_ceremony_of_the_First_Ottoman_Parliament_at_the_Dolmabahce_Palace_in_1876.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="85" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1405" data-file-height="542"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 85px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Opening_ceremony_of_the_First_Ottoman_Parliament_at_the_Dolmabahce_Palace_in_1876.jpg/220px-Opening_ceremony_of_the_First_Ottoman_Parliament_at_the_Dolmabahce_Palace_in_1876.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="85" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Opening_ceremony_of_the_First_Ottoman_Parliament_at_the_Dolmabahce_Palace_in_1876.jpg/330px-Opening_ceremony_of_the_First_Ottoman_Parliament_at_the_Dolmabahce_Palace_in_1876.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Opening_ceremony_of_the_First_Ottoman_Parliament_at_the_Dolmabahce_Palace_in_1876.jpg/440px-Opening_ceremony_of_the_First_Ottoman_Parliament_at_the_Dolmabahce_Palace_in_1876.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Opening ceremony of the First <a href="/wiki/General_Assembly_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="General Assembly of the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Parliament</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Dolmabah%C3%A7e_Palace" title="Dolmabahçe Palace">Dolmabahçe Palace</a> in 1876. The <a href="/wiki/First_Constitutional_Era" title="First Constitutional Era">First Constitutional Era</a> lasted only two years until 1878. The Ottoman Constitution and Parliament were <a href="/wiki/Second_Constitutional_Era" title="Second Constitutional Era">restored 30 years later</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Young_Turk_Revolution" title="Young Turk Revolution">Young Turk Revolution</a> in 1908.</figcaption></figure> During the <a href="/wiki/Tanzimat" title="Tanzimat">Tanzimat</a> period (1839–1876), the government's series of constitutional reforms led to a fairly modern <a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Conscription in the Ottoman Empire">conscripted army</a>, banking system reforms, the decriminalization of homosexuality, the replacement of religious law with secular law,<a href="#cite_note-138">[124]</a> and guilds with modern factories. The Ottoman Ministry of Post was established in Istanbul in 1840. American inventor <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Morse" title="Samuel Morse">Samuel Morse</a> received an Ottoman patent for the telegraph in 1847, issued by Sultan <a href="/wiki/Abd%C3%BClmecid_I" title="Abdülmecid I">Abdülmecid</a>, who personally tested the invention.<a href="#cite_note-139">[125]</a> The reformist period peaked with the Constitution, called the <a href="/wiki/Kan%C3%BBn-u_Es%C3%A2s%C3%AE" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanûn-u Esâsî">Kanûn-u Esâsî</a>. The empire's <a href="/wiki/First_Constitutional_Era_(Ottoman_Empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="First Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)">First Constitutional era</a> was short-lived. The parliament survived for only two years before the sultan suspended it. The empire's Christian population, owing to their higher educational levels, started to pull ahead of the Muslim majority, leading to much resentment.<a href="#cite_note-books.google_b-140">[126]</a> In 1861, there were 571 primary and 94 secondary schools for Ottoman Christians, with 140,000 pupils in total, a figure that vastly exceeded the number of Muslim children in school at the time, who were further hindered by the amount of time spent learning Arabic and Islamic theology.<a href="#cite_note-books.google_b-140">[126]</a> Author Norman Stone suggests that the Arabic alphabet, in which Turkish was written <a href="/wiki/Turkish_alphabet_reform" title="Turkish alphabet reform">until 1928</a>, was ill-suited to reflect the sounds of Turkish (which is a Turkic as opposed to Semitic language), which imposed further difficulty on Turkish children.<a href="#cite_note-books.google_b-140">[126]</a> In turn, Christians' higher educational levels allowed them to play a larger role in the economy, with the rise in prominence of groups such as the <a href="/wiki/Sursock_family" title="Sursock family">Sursock family</a> indicative of this.<a href="#cite_note-141">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-books.google_b-140">[126]</a> In 1911, of the 654 wholesale companies in Istanbul, 528 were owned by ethnic Greeks.<a href="#cite_note-books.google_b-140">[126]</a> In many cases, Christians and Jews gained protection from European consuls and citizenship, meaning they were protected from Ottoman law and not subject to the same economic regulations as their Muslim counterparts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogan201193-142">[128]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Turkish_troops_storming_Fort_Shefketil_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Turkish_troops_storming_Fort_Shefketil_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Turkish_troops_storming_Fort_Shefketil_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1026" data-file-height="788"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 169px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Turkish_troops_storming_Fort_Shefketil_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Turkish_troops_storming_Fort_Shefketil_%28cropped%29.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="169" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Turkish_troops_storming_Fort_Shefketil_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Turkish_troops_storming_Fort_Shefketil_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Turkish_troops_storming_Fort_Shefketil_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Turkish_troops_storming_Fort_Shefketil_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Ottoman troops storming <a href="/wiki/Shekvetili" title="Shekvetili">Fort Shefketil</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a> of 1853–1856</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a> (1853–1856) was part of a long-running contest between the major European powers for influence over territories of the declining Ottoman Empire. The financial burden of the war led the Ottoman state to issue <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_public_debt" title="Ottoman public debt">foreign loans</a> amounting to 5 million pounds sterling on 4 August 1854.<a href="#cite_note-143">[129]</a>: 32 <a href="#cite_note-144">[130]</a>: 71 The war caused an exodus of the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Tatars" title="Crimean Tatars">Crimean Tatars</a>, about 200,000 of whom moved to the Ottoman Empire in continuing waves of emigration.<a href="#cite_note-145">[131]</a>: 79–108 Toward the end of the <a href="/wiki/Caucasian_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Caucasian Wars">Caucasian Wars</a>, 90% of the <a href="/wiki/Circassians" title="Circassians">Circassians</a> were <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing_of_Circassians" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic cleansing of Circassians">ethnically cleansed</a><a href="#cite_note-146">[132]</a> and exiled from their homelands in the Caucasus, fleeing to the Ottoman Empire,<a href="#cite_note-147">[133]</a> resulting in the settlement of 500,000 to 700,000 Circassians in the Ottoman Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamed-Troyansky202449-148">[134]</a> Crimean Tatar refugees in the late 19th century played an especially notable role in seeking to modernise Ottoman education and in first promoting both <a href="/wiki/Pan-Turkism" title="Pan-Turkism">Pan-Turkism</a> and a sense of Turkish nationalism.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-149">[135]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Charles_Porion_-_The_kings_of_Europe_in_Paris_for_the_opening_of_the_Exposition_of_1867.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Charles_Porion_-_The_kings_of_Europe_in_Paris_for_the_opening_of_the_Exposition_of_1867.jpg/290px-Charles_Porion_-_The_kings_of_Europe_in_Paris_for_the_opening_of_the_Exposition_of_1867.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="118" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="624"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 290px;height: 118px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Charles_Porion_-_The_kings_of_Europe_in_Paris_for_the_opening_of_the_Exposition_of_1867.jpg/290px-Charles_Porion_-_The_kings_of_Europe_in_Paris_for_the_opening_of_the_Exposition_of_1867.jpg" data-width="290" data-height="118" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Charles_Porion_-_The_kings_of_Europe_in_Paris_for_the_opening_of_the_Exposition_of_1867.jpg/435px-Charles_Porion_-_The_kings_of_Europe_in_Paris_for_the_opening_of_the_Exposition_of_1867.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Charles_Porion_-_The_kings_of_Europe_in_Paris_for_the_opening_of_the_Exposition_of_1867.jpg/580px-Charles_Porion_-_The_kings_of_Europe_in_Paris_for_the_opening_of_the_Exposition_of_1867.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The Kings of Europe are in <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a> (<a href="/wiki/Napoleon_III" title="Napoleon III">Napoleon III</a> is at the centre, Sultan <a href="/wiki/Abdulaziz" title="Abdulaziz">Abdulaziz</a> is second from right) for the opening of the <a href="/wiki/Exposition_Universelle_(1867)" title="Exposition Universelle (1867)">Universal Exposition of 1867</a></figcaption></figure> In this period, the Ottoman Empire spent only small amounts of public funds on education; for example, in 1860–1861 only 0.2% of the total budget was invested in education.<a href="#cite_note-150">[136]</a>: 50 As the Ottoman state attempted to modernize its infrastructure and army in response to outside threats, it opened itself up to a different kind of threat: that of creditors. As the historian Eugene Rogan has written, "the single greatest threat to the independence of the Middle East" in the 19th century "was not the armies of Europe but its banks".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogan2011105-151">[137]</a> The Ottoman state, which had begun taking on debt with the Crimean War, was forced to declare bankruptcy in 1875.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogan2011106-152">[138]</a> By 1881, the Ottoman Empire agreed to have its debt controlled by the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Public_Debt_Administration" title="Ottoman Public Debt Administration">Ottoman Public Debt Administration</a>, a council of European men with presidency alternating between France and Britain. The body controlled swaths of the Ottoman economy, and used its position to ensure that European capital continued to penetrate the empire, often to the detriment of local Ottoman interests.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogan2011106-152">[138]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ottomans_1875.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Ottomans_1875.png/220px-Ottomans_1875.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="244" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="5384" data-file-height="5976"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 244px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Ottomans_1875.png/220px-Ottomans_1875.png" data-width="220" data-height="244" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Ottomans_1875.png/330px-Ottomans_1875.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Ottomans_1875.png/440px-Ottomans_1875.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The Ottoman Empire in 1875 under Sultan <a href="/wiki/Abdulaziz" title="Abdulaziz">Abdulaziz</a></figcaption></figure> The Ottoman <a href="/wiki/Bashi-bazouk" title="Bashi-bazouk">bashi-bazouks</a> suppressed the <a href="/wiki/April_Uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="April Uprising">Bulgarian uprising</a> of 1876, massacring up to 100,000 people in the process.<a href="#cite_note-153">[139]</a>: 139 The <a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)">Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)</a> ended with a decisive victory for Russia. As a result, Ottoman holdings in Europe declined sharply: <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Bulgaria" title="Principality of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a> was established as an independent principality inside the Ottoman Empire; <a href="/wiki/United_Principalities" class="mw-redirect" title="United Principalities">Romania</a> achieved full independence; and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Serbia" title="History of Serbia">Serbia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Montenegro" title="Montenegro">Montenegro</a> finally gained complete independence, but with smaller territories. In 1878, <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a> unilaterally occupied the Ottoman provinces of <a href="/wiki/Bosnia_Vilayet" class="mw-redirect" title="Bosnia Vilayet">Bosnia-Herzegovina</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sanjak_of_Novi_Pazar" title="Sanjak of Novi Pazar">Novi Pazar</a>. British Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Disraeli" title="Benjamin Disraeli">Benjamin Disraeli</a> advocated restoring the Ottoman territories on the Balkan Peninsula during the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Berlin" title="Congress of Berlin">Congress of Berlin</a>, and in return, Britain assumed the administration of <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a> in 1878.<a href="#cite_note-154">[140]</a>: 228–254 Britain later sent troops to <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> in 1882 to put down the <a href="/wiki/Urabi_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Urabi Revolt">Urabi Revolt</a> (Sultan <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Hamid_II" title="Abdul Hamid II">Abdul Hamid II</a> was too paranoid to mobilize his own army, fearing this would result in a coup d'état), effectively gaining control in both territories. Abdul Hamid II was so fearful of a coup that he did not allow his army to conduct war games, lest this serve as cover for a coup, but he did see the need for military mobilization. In 1883, a German military mission under General Baron <a href="/wiki/Colmar_Freiherr_von_der_Goltz" title="Colmar Freiherr von der Goltz">Colmar von der Goltz</a> arrived to train the Ottoman Army, leading to the so-called "Goltz generation" of German-trained officers, who played a notable role in the politics of the empire's last years.<a href="#cite_note-155">[141]</a>: 24 From 1894 to 1896, between 100,000 and 300,000 Armenians living throughout the empire were killed in what became known as the <a href="/wiki/Hamidian_massacres" title="Hamidian massacres">Hamidian massacres</a>.<a href="#cite_note-156">[142]</a>: 42 In 1897 the population was 19 million, of whom 14 million (74%) were Muslim. An additional 20 million lived in provinces that remained under the sultan's nominal suzerainty but were entirely outside his actual power. One by one the Porte lost nominal authority. They included Egypt, Tunisia, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Lebanon.<a href="#cite_note-157">[143]</a> As the Ottoman Empire gradually shrank, 7–9 million Muslims from its former territories in the Caucasus, <a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</a>, Balkans, and the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a> islands migrated to Anatolia and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Thrace" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Thrace">Eastern Thrace</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Karpat2004-158">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-159">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-161">[147]</a> After the Empire lost the <a href="/wiki/First_Balkan_War" title="First Balkan War">First Balkan War</a> (1912–1913), it lost all its <a href="/wiki/Balkan_peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Balkan peninsula">Balkan</a> territories except <a href="/wiki/East_Thrace" title="East Thrace">East Thrace</a> (European Turkey). This resulted in around 400,000 Muslims fleeing with the retreating Ottoman armies (with many dying from <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a> brought by the soldiers), and 400,000 non-Muslims fled territory still under Ottoman rule.<a href="#cite_note-162">[148]</a> <a href="/wiki/Justin_McCarthy_(American_historian)" title="Justin McCarthy (American historian)">Justin McCarthy</a> estimates that from 1821 to 1922, 5.5 million Muslims died in southeastern Europe, with the expulsion of 5 million.<a href="#cite_note-McCarthy1995-163">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-Carmichael2012-164">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-Buturovic2010-165">[151]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Defeat_and_dissolution_(1908–1922)">Defeat and dissolution (1908–1922)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire">Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire_in_World_War_I" title="Ottoman Empire in World War I">Ottoman Empire in World War I</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Young_Turk_movement">Young Turk movement</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Declaration_of_the_1908_Revolution_in_Ottoman_Empire.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Declaration_of_the_1908_Revolution_in_Ottoman_Empire.png/220px-Declaration_of_the_1908_Revolution_in_Ottoman_Empire.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="587" data-file-height="393"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 147px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Declaration_of_the_1908_Revolution_in_Ottoman_Empire.png/220px-Declaration_of_the_1908_Revolution_in_Ottoman_Empire.png" data-width="220" data-height="147" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Declaration_of_the_1908_Revolution_in_Ottoman_Empire.png/330px-Declaration_of_the_1908_Revolution_in_Ottoman_Empire.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Declaration_of_the_1908_Revolution_in_Ottoman_Empire.png/440px-Declaration_of_the_1908_Revolution_in_Ottoman_Empire.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Declaration of the <a href="/wiki/Young_Turk_Revolution" title="Young Turk Revolution">Young Turk Revolution</a> by the leaders of the Ottoman <a href="/wiki/Millet_(Ottoman_Empire)" title="Millet (Ottoman Empire)">millets</a> in 1908</figcaption></figure> The defeat and <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire">dissolution of the Ottoman Empire</a> (1908—1922) began with the <a href="/wiki/Second_Constitutional_Era" title="Second Constitutional Era">Second Constitutional Era</a>, a moment of hope and promise established with the <a href="/wiki/Young_Turk_Revolution" title="Young Turk Revolution">Young Turk Revolution</a>. It restored the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Constitution of the Ottoman Empire">Constitution of the Ottoman Empire</a> and brought in <a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="List of political parties in the Ottoman Empire">multi-party politics</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Elections_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Elections in the Ottoman Empire">two-stage electoral system</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ottoman_electoral_law" title="Ottoman electoral law">electoral law</a>) under the <a href="/wiki/General_Assembly_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="General Assembly of the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman parliament</a>. The constitution offered hope by freeing the empire's citizens to modernise the state's institutions, rejuvenate its strength, and enable it to hold its own against outside powers. Its guarantee of liberties promised to dissolve inter-communal tensions and transform the empire into a more harmonious place.<a href="#cite_note-166">[152]</a> Instead, this period became the story of the twilight struggle of the Empire. Members of <a href="/wiki/Young_Turks" title="Young Turks">Young Turks</a> movement who had once gone underground now established their parties.<a href="#cite_note-167">[153]</a> Among them "<a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Union_and_Progress" title="Committee of Union and Progress">Committee of Union and Progress</a>", and "<a href="/wiki/Freedom_and_Accord_Party" title="Freedom and Accord Party">Freedom and Accord Party</a>" were major parties. On the other end of the spectrum were ethnic parties, which included <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party_in_Palestine_(Poale_Zion)" title="Jewish Social Democratic Labour Party in Palestine (Poale Zion)">Poale Zion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Fatat" title="Al-Fatat">Al-Fatat</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Armenian_national_movement" title="Armenian national movement">Armenian national movement</a> organised under <a href="/wiki/Armenian_Revolutionary_Federation" title="Armenian Revolutionary Federation">Armenian Revolutionary Federation</a>. Profiting from the civil strife, Austria-Hungary officially annexed <a href="/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a> in 1908. The last of the <a href="/wiki/Census_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Census in the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman censuses</a> was performed in <a href="/wiki/1914_population_statistics_for_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="1914 population statistics for the Ottoman Empire">1914</a>. Despite <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_military_reforms" title="Ottoman military reforms">military reforms</a> which reconstituted the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Modern_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Modern Army">Ottoman Modern Army</a>, the Empire lost its North African territories and the Dodecanese in the <a href="/wiki/Italo-Turkish_War" title="Italo-Turkish War">Italo-Turkish War</a> (1911) and almost all of its European territories in the <a href="/wiki/Balkan_Wars" title="Balkan Wars">Balkan Wars</a> (1912–1913). The Empire faced continuous unrest in the years leading up to <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/31_March_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="31 March Incident">31 March Incident</a> and two further coups in <a href="/wiki/1912_Ottoman_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1912 Ottoman coup d'état">1912</a> and <a href="/wiki/1913_Ottoman_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1913 Ottoman coup d'état">1913</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="World_War_I">World War I</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Ottoman entry into World War I">Ottoman entry into World War I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire_in_World_War_I" title="Ottoman Empire in World War I">Ottoman Empire in World War I</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:M_113_5_amiral_Souchon_et_ses_officiers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/M_113_5_amiral_Souchon_et_ses_officiers.jpg/220px-M_113_5_amiral_Souchon_et_ses_officiers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1684" data-file-height="1222"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 160px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/M_113_5_amiral_Souchon_et_ses_officiers.jpg/220px-M_113_5_amiral_Souchon_et_ses_officiers.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="160" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/M_113_5_amiral_Souchon_et_ses_officiers.jpg/330px-M_113_5_amiral_Souchon_et_ses_officiers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/M_113_5_amiral_Souchon_et_ses_officiers.jpg/440px-M_113_5_amiral_Souchon_et_ses_officiers.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Admiral <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Souchon" title="Wilhelm Souchon">Wilhelm Souchon</a>, who commanded the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea_raid" title="Black Sea raid">Black Sea raid</a> on 29 October 1914, and his officers in Ottoman naval uniforms</figcaption></figure> The Ottoman Empire entered <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> on the side of the <a href="/wiki/Central_Powers" title="Central Powers">Central Powers</a> and was ultimately defeated.<a href="#cite_note-168">[154]</a> The Ottoman participation in the war began with the combined <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea_Raid" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Sea Raid">German-Ottoman surprise attack</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> coast of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> on 29 October 1914. Following the attack, the Russian Empire (2 November 1914)<a href="#cite_note-oxfordreference-timeline-169">[155]</a> and its allies <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">France</a> (5 November 1914)<a href="#cite_note-oxfordreference-timeline-169">[155]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> (5 November 1914)<a href="#cite_note-oxfordreference-timeline-169">[155]</a> declared war on the Ottoman Empire. Also on 5 November 1914, the British government changed the status of the <a href="/wiki/Khedivate_of_Egypt" title="Khedivate of Egypt">Khedivate of Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cyprus_Convention" title="Cyprus Convention">Cyprus</a>, which were <a href="/wiki/De_jure" title="De jure">de jure</a> Ottoman territories prior to the war, to <a href="/wiki/British_protectorate" title="British protectorate">British protectorates</a>. The Ottomans successfully defended the <a href="/wiki/Dardanelles" title="Dardanelles">Dardanelles</a> strait during the <a href="/wiki/Gallipoli_campaign" title="Gallipoli campaign">Gallipoli campaign</a> (1915–1916) and achieved initial victories against British forces in the first two years of the <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_campaign" title="Mesopotamian campaign">Mesopotamian campaign</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Kut" title="Siege of Kut">Siege of Kut</a> (1915–1916); but the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Revolt" title="Arab Revolt">Arab Revolt</a> (1916–1918) turned the tide against the Ottomans in the Middle East. In the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus_campaign" title="Caucasus campaign">Caucasus campaign</a>, however, the Russian forces had the upper hand from the beginning, especially after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sarikamish" title="Battle of Sarikamish">Battle of Sarikamish</a> (1914–1915). Russian forces advanced into northeastern <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> and controlled the major cities there until retreating from World War I with the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk" title="Treaty of Brest-Litovsk">Treaty of Brest-Litovsk</a> following the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a> in 1917. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Genocides">Genocides</h5></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Late_Ottoman_genocides" title="Late Ottoman genocides">Late Ottoman genocides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenian genocide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greek_genocide" title="Greek genocide">Greek genocide</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Seyfo" class="mw-redirect" title="Seyfo">Seyfo</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Column_of_deportees_walking_through_Harput_vilayet_during_the_Armenian_genocide.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Column_of_deportees_walking_through_Harput_vilayet_during_the_Armenian_genocide.jpg/220px-Column_of_deportees_walking_through_Harput_vilayet_during_the_Armenian_genocide.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="288" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1362" data-file-height="1784"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 288px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Column_of_deportees_walking_through_Harput_vilayet_during_the_Armenian_genocide.jpg/220px-Column_of_deportees_walking_through_Harput_vilayet_during_the_Armenian_genocide.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="288" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Column_of_deportees_walking_through_Harput_vilayet_during_the_Armenian_genocide.jpg/330px-Column_of_deportees_walking_through_Harput_vilayet_during_the_Armenian_genocide.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Column_of_deportees_walking_through_Harput_vilayet_during_the_Armenian_genocide.jpg/440px-Column_of_deportees_walking_through_Harput_vilayet_during_the_Armenian_genocide.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenian genocide</a> was the result of the Ottoman government's <a href="/wiki/Temporary_Law_of_Deportation" title="Temporary Law of Deportation">deportation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">ethnic cleansing</a> policies regarding its <a href="/wiki/Armenians_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Armenians in the Ottoman Empire">Armenian</a> citizens after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sarikamish" title="Battle of Sarikamish">Battle of Sarikamish</a> (1914–1915) and the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus_campaign" title="Caucasus campaign">Caucasus Front</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Russian_Army" title="Imperial Russian Army">Imperial Russian Army</a> and <a href="/wiki/Armenian_volunteer_units" title="Armenian volunteer units">Armenian volunteer units</a> during <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>. An estimated 600,000<a href="#cite_note-britannica-ag-170">[156]</a> to more than 1 million,<a href="#cite_note-britannica-ag-170">[156]</a> or up to 1.5 million<a href="#cite_note-171">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-172">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-173">[159]</a> people were killed.</figcaption></figure> In 1915 the Ottoman government and Kurdish tribes in the region started the extermination of its ethnic Armenian population, resulting in the deaths of up to 1.5 million Armenians in the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenian genocide</a>.<a href="#cite_note-174">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-175">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-176">[162]</a> The genocide was carried out during and after World War I and implemented in two phases: the wholesale killing of the able-bodied male population through massacre and subjection of army conscripts to forced labour, followed by the deportation of women, children, the elderly and infirm on <a href="/wiki/Death_march" title="Death march">death marches</a> leading to the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_desert" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian desert">Syrian desert</a>. Driven forward by military escorts, the deportees were deprived of food and water and subjected to periodic robbery, <a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_Armenian_Genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Rape during the Armenian Genocide">rape</a>, and systematic massacre.<a href="#cite_note-177">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-178">[164]</a> Large-scale massacres were also committed against the Empire's <a href="/wiki/Greek_genocide" title="Greek genocide">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian genocide">Assyrian</a> minorities as part of the same campaign of ethnic cleansing.<a href="#cite_note-179">[165]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Arab_Revolt">Arab Revolt</h5></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_theatre_of_World_War_I" title="Middle Eastern theatre of World War I">Middle Eastern theatre of World War I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arab_Revolt" title="Arab Revolt">Arab Revolt</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Arab_Revolt" title="Arab Revolt">Arab Revolt</a> began in 1916 with British support. It turned the tide against the Ottomans on the Middle Eastern front, where they seemed to have the upper hand during the first two years of the war. On the basis of the <a href="/wiki/McMahon%E2%80%93Hussein_Correspondence" class="mw-redirect" title="McMahon–Hussein Correspondence">McMahon–Hussein Correspondence</a>, an agreement between the British government and <a href="/wiki/Hussein_bin_Ali,_Sharif_of_Mecca" class="mw-redirect" title="Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca">Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca</a>, the revolt was officially initiated at Mecca on 10 June 1916.<a href="#cite_note-181">[o]</a> The Arab nationalist goal was to create a single unified and independent <a href="/wiki/Arab_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab state">Arab state</a> stretching from <a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Aden" title="Aden">Aden</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a>, which the British promised to recognise. The <a href="/wiki/Sharifian_Army" title="Sharifian Army">Sharifian Army</a>, led by Hussein and the <a href="/wiki/Hashemites" title="Hashemites">Hashemites</a>, with military backing from the British <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Expeditionary_Force" title="Egyptian Expeditionary Force">Egyptian Expeditionary Force</a>, successfully fought and expelled the Ottoman military presence from much of the <a href="/wiki/Hejaz" title="Hejaz">Hejaz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Transjordan_(region)" title="Transjordan (region)">Transjordan</a>. The rebellion eventually took <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> and set up a short-lived monarchy led by <a href="/wiki/Faisal_I_of_Iraq" title="Faisal I of Iraq">Faisal</a>, a son of Hussein. Following the terms of the 1916 <a href="/wiki/Sykes%E2%80%93Picot_Agreement" title="Sykes–Picot Agreement">Sykes–Picot Agreement</a>, the British and French later partitioned the Middle East into <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations_mandate" title="League of Nations mandate">mandate territories</a>. There was no unified Arab state, much to Arab nationalists' anger. Palestine, Iraq, Lebanon and Syria became British and French mandates.<a href="#cite_note-182">[167]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Treaty_of_Sèvres_and_Turkish_War_of_Independence">Treaty of Sèvres and Turkish War of Independence</h5></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sultanvahideddin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Sultanvahideddin.jpg/220px-Sultanvahideddin.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="521"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 143px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Sultanvahideddin.jpg/220px-Sultanvahideddin.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="143" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Sultanvahideddin.jpg/330px-Sultanvahideddin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Sultanvahideddin.jpg/440px-Sultanvahideddin.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mehmed_VI" title="Mehmed VI">Mehmed VI</a>, the last Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, leaving the country after the abolition of the Ottoman sultanate, 17 November 1922</figcaption></figure> Defeated in World War I, the Ottoman Empire signed the <a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Mudros" title="Armistice of Mudros">Armistice of Mudros</a> on 30 October 1918. <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Istanbul" title="Occupation of Istanbul">Istanbul was occupied</a> by combined British, French, Italian, and Greek forces. In May 1919, Greece also <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Smyrna" title="Occupation of Smyrna">took control of the area around Smyrna</a> (now İzmir). The <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Partition of the Ottoman Empire">partition of the Ottoman Empire</a> was finalized under the terms of the 1920 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_S%C3%A8vres" title="Treaty of Sèvres">Treaty of Sèvres</a>. This treaty, as designed in the <a href="/wiki/Conference_of_London_(1920)" title="Conference of London (1920)">Conference of London</a>, allowed the Sultan to retain his position and title. Anatolia's status was problematic given the occupied forces. A nationalist opposition arose in the <a href="/wiki/Turkish_national_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkish national movement">Turkish national movement</a>. It won the <a href="/wiki/Turkish_War_of_Independence" title="Turkish War of Independence">Turkish War of Independence</a> (1919–1923) under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk" title="Mustafa Kemal Atatürk">Mustafa Kemal</a> (later given the surname "Atatürk"). The sultanate was abolished on 1 November 1922, and the last sultan, <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_VI" title="Mehmed VI">Mehmed VI</a> (reigned 1918–1922), left the country on 17 November 1922. The <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Republic of Turkey</a> was <a href="/wiki/History_of_Turkey#Republic_of_Turkey" title="History of Turkey">established</a> in its place on 29 October 1923, in the new capital city of <a href="/wiki/Ankara" title="Ankara">Ankara</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Caliphate" title="Ottoman Caliphate">caliphate</a> was abolished on 3 March 1924.<a href="#cite_note-Ozoglu-183">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-184">[169]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Historiographical_debate_on_the_Ottoman_state">Historiographical debate on the Ottoman state</h2></div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ghaza_thesis" title="Ghaza thesis">Ghaza thesis</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"> Several historians, such as British historian <a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Edward Gibbon</a> and the Greek historian <a href="/wiki/Dimitri_Kitsikis" title="Dimitri Kitsikis">Dimitri Kitsikis</a>, have argued that after the fall of Constantinople, the Ottoman state took over the machinery of the Byzantine (Roman) state and that the Ottoman Empire was in essence a continuation of the Eastern Roman Empire under a <a href="/wiki/Turkish_people" title="Turkish people">Turkish</a> <a href="/wiki/Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslim</a> guise.<a href="#cite_note-185">[170]</a> The American historian <a href="/wiki/Speros_Vryonis" title="Speros Vryonis">Speros Vryonis</a> writes that the Ottoman state centered on "a Byzantine-Balkan base with a veneer of the Turkish language and the Islamic religion".<a href="#cite_note-Stone,_pp._86-100-186">[171]</a> Kitsikis and the American historian <a href="/wiki/Heath_Lowry" class="mw-redirect" title="Heath Lowry">Heath Lowry</a> posit that the early Ottoman state was a predatory confederacy open to both Byzantine Christians and Turkish Muslims whose primary goal was attaining booty and slaves, rather than spreading Islam, and that Islam only later became the empire's primary characteristic.<a href="#cite_note-187">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-188">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-189">[174]</a> Other historians have followed the lead of the Austrian historian <a href="/wiki/Paul_Wittek" title="Paul Wittek">Paul Wittek</a>, who emphasizes the early Ottoman state's Islamic character, seeing it as a "<a href="/wiki/Jihad" title="Jihad">jihad</a> state" dedicated to expanding the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Stone,_pp._86-100-186">[171]</a> Many historians led in 1937 by the Turkish historian <a href="/wiki/Mehmet_Fuat_K%C3%B6pr%C3%BCl%C3%BC" title="Mehmet Fuat Köprülü">Mehmet Fuat Köprülü</a> championed the <a href="/wiki/Ghaza_thesis" title="Ghaza thesis">Ghaza thesis</a>, according to which the early Ottoman state was a continuation of the way of life of the nomadic <a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turkic tribes</a> who had come from East Asia to Anatolia via Central Asia and the Middle East on a much larger scale. They argued that the most important cultural influences on the Ottoman state came from <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Persia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-190">[175]</a> The British historian <a href="/wiki/Norman_Stone" title="Norman Stone">Norman Stone</a> suggests many continuities between the Eastern Roman and Ottoman empires, such as that the zeugarion tax of Byzantium became the Ottoman <a href="/wiki/Resm-i_%C3%A7ift" title="Resm-i çift">Resm-i çift</a> tax, that the <a href="/wiki/Pronoia" title="Pronoia">pronoia</a> land-holding system that linked the amount of land one owned with one's ability to raise cavalry became the Ottoman <a href="/wiki/Timar" title="Timar">timar</a> system, and that the Ottoman land measurement the <a href="/wiki/D%C3%B6n%C3%BCm" class="mw-redirect" title="Dönüm">dönüm</a> was the same as the Byzantine <a href="/wiki/Stremma" title="Stremma">stremma</a>. Stone also argues that although Sunni Islam was the state religion, the Ottoman state supported and controlled the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox Church</a>, which in return for accepting that control became the Ottoman Empire's largest land-holder. Despite the similarities, Stone argues that a crucial difference is that the land grants under the timar system were not hereditary at first. Even after they became inheritable, land ownership in the Ottoman Empire remained highly insecure, and the sultan revoked land grants whenever he wished. Stone argued this insecurity in land tenure strongly discouraged <a href="/wiki/Timariot" class="mw-redirect" title="Timariot">Timariots</a> from seeking long-term development of their land, and instead led them to adopt a strategy of short-term exploitation, which had deleterious effects on the Ottoman economy.<a href="#cite_note-191">[176]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Government">Government</h2></div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/State_organisation_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="State organisation of the Ottoman Empire">State organisation of the Ottoman Empire</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:224px;max-width:224px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Topkap%C4%B1_-_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Topkap%C4%B1_-_01.jpg/220px-Topkap%C4%B1_-_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3635" data-file-height="1817"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 110px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Topkap%C4%B1_-_01.jpg/220px-Topkap%C4%B1_-_01.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="220" data-height="110" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Topkap%C4%B1_-_01.jpg/330px-Topkap%C4%B1_-_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Topkap%C4%B1_-_01.jpg/440px-Topkap%C4%B1_-_01.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Dolmabah%C3%A7e_Palace,_Istanbul_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Dolmabah%C3%A7e_Palace%2C_Istanbul_cropped.jpg/220px-Dolmabah%C3%A7e_Palace%2C_Istanbul_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="115" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4740" data-file-height="2484"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 115px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Dolmabah%C3%A7e_Palace%2C_Istanbul_cropped.jpg/220px-Dolmabah%C3%A7e_Palace%2C_Istanbul_cropped.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="220" data-height="115" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Dolmabah%C3%A7e_Palace%2C_Istanbul_cropped.jpg/330px-Dolmabah%C3%A7e_Palace%2C_Istanbul_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Dolmabah%C3%A7e_Palace%2C_Istanbul_cropped.jpg/440px-Dolmabah%C3%A7e_Palace%2C_Istanbul_cropped.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Topkap%C4%B1_Palace" title="Topkapı Palace">Topkapı Palace</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dolmabah%C3%A7e_Palace" title="Dolmabahçe Palace">Dolmabahçe Palace</a> were the primary residences of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_sultans_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman sultans</a> in <a href="/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a> between 1465 and 1856<a href="#cite_note-nytimes-192">[177]</a> and 1856 to 1922,<a href="#cite_note-dolmabahcepalace-193">[178]</a> respectively.</div></div></div></div></div> Before the reforms of the 19th and 20th centuries, the <a href="/wiki/State_organisation_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="State organisation of the Ottoman Empire">state organisation of the Ottoman Empire</a> was a system with two main dimensions, the military administration, and the civil administration. The Sultan was in the highest position in the system. The civil system was based on local administrative units based on the region's characteristics. The state had control over the clergy. Certain pre-Islamic Turkish traditions that had survived the adoption of administrative and legal practices from Islamic <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> remained important in Ottoman administrative circles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEItzkowitz198038-194">[179]</a> According to Ottoman understanding, the state's primary responsibility was to defend and extend the land of the Muslims and to ensure security and harmony within its borders in the overarching context of <a href="/wiki/Sunni" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunni">orthodox</a> Islamic practice and dynastic sovereignty.<a href="#cite_note-Kapucu-2008-195">[180]</a> The Ottoman Empire, or as a dynastic institution, the House of Osman, was unprecedented and unequaled in the Islamic world for its size and duration.<a href="#cite_note-196">[181]</a> In Europe, only the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Habsburg" title="House of Habsburg">House of Habsburg</a> had a similarly unbroken line of sovereigns (kings/emperors) from the same family who ruled for so long, and during the same period, between the late 13th and early 20th centuries. The Ottoman dynasty was Turkish in origin. On eleven occasions, the sultan was deposed (replaced by another sultan of the Ottoman dynasty, who were either the former sultan's brother, son or nephew) because he was perceived by his enemies as a threat to the state. There were only two attempts in Ottoman history to unseat the ruling Ottoman dynasty, both failures, which suggests a political system that for an extended period was able to manage its revolutions without unnecessary instability.<a href="#cite_note-Kapucu-2008-195">[180]</a> As such, the last Ottoman sultan Mehmed VI (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1918–1922) was a <a href="/wiki/List_of_sultans_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire">direct patrilineal (male-line) descendant</a> of the first Ottoman sultan <a href="/wiki/Osman_I" title="Osman I">Osman I</a> (<abbr title="died">d.</abbr> 1323/4), which was unparalleled in both Europe (e.g., the male line of the House of Habsburg became extinct in 1740) and in the Islamic world. The primary purpose of the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Harem" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Harem">Imperial Harem</a> was to ensure the birth of male heirs to the Ottoman throne and secure the continuation of the direct patrilineal (male-line) power of the Ottoman sultans in the future generations. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jean_Baptiste_Vanmour_-_Dinner_at_the_Palace_in_Honour_of_an_Ambassador_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Jean_Baptiste_Vanmour_-_Dinner_at_the_Palace_in_Honour_of_an_Ambassador_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/220px-Jean_Baptiste_Vanmour_-_Dinner_at_the_Palace_in_Honour_of_an_Ambassador_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3554" data-file-height="2630"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 163px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Jean_Baptiste_Vanmour_-_Dinner_at_the_Palace_in_Honour_of_an_Ambassador_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/220px-Jean_Baptiste_Vanmour_-_Dinner_at_the_Palace_in_Honour_of_an_Ambassador_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="163" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Jean_Baptiste_Vanmour_-_Dinner_at_the_Palace_in_Honour_of_an_Ambassador_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/330px-Jean_Baptiste_Vanmour_-_Dinner_at_the_Palace_in_Honour_of_an_Ambassador_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Jean_Baptiste_Vanmour_-_Dinner_at_the_Palace_in_Honour_of_an_Ambassador_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/440px-Jean_Baptiste_Vanmour_-_Dinner_at_the_Palace_in_Honour_of_an_Ambassador_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Ambassadors at the Topkapı Palace</figcaption></figure> The highest position in Islam, <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">caliph</a>, was claimed by the sultans starting with <a href="/wiki/Selim_I" title="Selim I">Selim I</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Lambton-1995-26">[19]</a> which was established as the Ottoman Caliphate. The Ottoman sultan, <a href="/wiki/Padishah" title="Padishah">pâdişâh</a> or "lord of kings", served as the Empire's sole regent and was considered to be the embodiment of its government, though he did not always exercise complete control. The Imperial Harem was one of the most important powers of the Ottoman court. It was ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Valide_sultan" title="Valide sultan">valide sultan</a>. On occasion, the valide sultan became involved in state politics. For a time, the women of the Harem effectively controlled the state in what was termed the "<a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_the_women" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultanate of the women">Sultanate of Women</a>". New sultans were always chosen from the sons of the previous sultan.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute">dubious</a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Ottoman_Empire#Dubious" title="Talk:Ottoman Empire">discuss</a>] The strong educational system of the <a href="/wiki/Palace_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Palace school">palace school</a> was geared towards eliminating the unfit potential heirs and establishing support among the ruling elite for a successor. The palace schools, which also educated the future administrators of the state, were not a single track. First, the <a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa">Madrasa</a> (Medrese) was designated for the Muslims, and educated scholars and state officials according to Islamic tradition. The financial burden of the Medrese was supported by <a href="/wiki/Waqf" title="Waqf">vakif</a>s, allowing children of poor families to move to higher social levels and income.<a href="#cite_note-197">[182]</a> The second track was a free <a href="/wiki/Boarding_school" title="Boarding school">boarding school</a> for the Christians, the <a href="/wiki/Ender%C3%BBn" title="Enderûn">Enderûn</a>,<a href="#cite_note-198">[183]</a> which recruited 3,000 students annually from Christian boys between eight and twenty years old from one in forty families among the communities settled in <a href="/wiki/Rumelia" title="Rumelia">Rumelia</a> or the Balkans, a process known as <a href="/wiki/Devshirme_in_the_Ottoman_Palace_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Devshirme in the Ottoman Palace School">Devshirme</a> (Devşirme).<a href="#cite_note-199">[184]</a> Though the sultan was the supreme monarch, the sultan's political and executive authority was delegated. The politics of the state had a number of advisors and ministers gathered around a council known as <a href="/wiki/Divan" title="Divan">Divan</a>. The Divan, in the years when the Ottoman state was still a <a href="/wiki/Bey" title="Bey">Beylik</a>, was composed of the elders of the tribe. Its composition was later modified to include military officers and local elites (such as religious and political advisors). Later still, beginning in 1320, a Grand Vizier was appointed to assume certain of the sultan's responsibilities. The Grand Vizier had considerable independence from the sultan with almost unlimited powers of appointment, dismissal, and supervision. Beginning with the late 16th century, sultans withdrew from politics and the Grand Vizier became the de facto head of state.<a href="#cite_note-Black-2001-200">[185]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yusuf_Ziya_Pa%C5%9Fa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Yusuf_Ziya_Pa%C5%9Fa.jpg/220px-Yusuf_Ziya_Pa%C5%9Fa.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="879"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 161px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Yusuf_Ziya_Pa%C5%9Fa.jpg/220px-Yusuf_Ziya_Pa%C5%9Fa.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="161" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Yusuf_Ziya_Pa%C5%9Fa.jpg/330px-Yusuf_Ziya_Pa%C5%9Fa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Yusuf_Ziya_Pa%C5%9Fa.jpg/440px-Yusuf_Ziya_Pa%C5%9Fa.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Yusuf_Ziya_Pasha" title="Yusuf Ziya Pasha">Yusuf Ziya Pasha</a>, Ottoman ambassador to the United States, in <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington DC</a>, 1913</figcaption></figure> Throughout Ottoman history, there were many instances in which local governors acted independently, and even in opposition to the ruler. After the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, the Ottoman state became a constitutional monarchy. The sultan no longer had executive powers. A parliament was formed, with representatives chosen from the provinces. The representatives formed the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Government_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Government of the Ottoman Empire">Imperial Government of the Ottoman Empire</a>. This eclectic administration was apparent even in the diplomatic correspondence of the Empire, which was initially undertaken in the <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek language</a> to the west.<a href="#cite_note-201">[186]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Tughra" title="Tughra">Tughra</a> were calligraphic monograms, or signatures, of the Ottoman Sultans, of which there were 35. Carved on the Sultan's seal, they bore the names of the Sultan and his father. The statement and prayer, "ever victorious", was also present in most. The earliest belonged to Orhan Gazi. The ornately stylized Tughra spawned a branch of Ottoman-Turkish <a href="/wiki/Calligraphy" title="Calligraphy">calligraphy</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Law">Law</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Law of the Ottoman Empire">Law of the Ottoman Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zibik.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Zibik.jpg/170px-Zibik.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="324" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1476" data-file-height="2810"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 324px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Zibik.jpg/170px-Zibik.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="324" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Zibik.jpg/255px-Zibik.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Zibik.jpg/340px-Zibik.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>An unhappy wife complaining to the <a href="/wiki/Qadi" title="Qadi">Qadi</a> about her husband's <a href="/wiki/Erectile_dysfunction" title="Erectile dysfunction">impotence</a>, as depicted in an Ottoman miniature. <a href="/wiki/Divorce" title="Divorce">Divorce</a> is <a href="/wiki/Religion_and_divorce#Islam" title="Religion and divorce">allowed</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Islamic law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Divorce_in_Islam" title="Divorce in Islam">can be initiated by either the husband or the wife</a>.<a href="#cite_note-202">[187]</a></figcaption></figure> The Ottoman legal system accepted the <a href="/wiki/Religious_law" title="Religious law">religious law</a> over its subjects. At the same time the <a href="/wiki/Qanun_(law)" title="Qanun (law)">Qanun</a> (or Kanun), dynastic law, co-existed with religious law or <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-otmkanun-203">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-204">[189]</a> The Ottoman Empire was always organized around a system of local <a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a>. Legal administration in the Ottoman Empire was part of a larger scheme of balancing central and local authority.<a href="#cite_note-Benton-2001-205">[190]</a> Ottoman power revolved crucially around the administration of the rights to land, which gave a space for the local authority to develop the needs of the local <a href="/wiki/Millet_(Ottoman_Empire)" title="Millet (Ottoman Empire)">millet</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Benton-2001-205">[190]</a> The jurisdictional complexity of the Ottoman Empire was aimed to permit the integration of culturally and religiously different groups.<a href="#cite_note-Benton-2001-205">[190]</a> The Ottoman system had three court systems: one for Muslims, one for non-Muslims, involving appointed Jews and Christians ruling over their respective religious communities, and the "trade court". The entire system was regulated from above by means of the administrative Qanun, i.e., laws, a system based upon the Turkic <a href="/wiki/Yassa" title="Yassa">Yassa</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=T%C3%B6re_(law)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Töre (law) (page does not exist)">Töre</a>, which were developed in the pre-Islamic era.<a href="#cite_note-206">[191]</a><a href="#cite_note-207">[192]</a> These court categories were not, however, wholly exclusive; for instance, the Islamic courts, which were the Empire's primary courts, could also be used to settle a trade conflict or disputes between litigants of differing religions, and Jews and Christians often went to them to obtain a more forceful ruling on an issue. The Ottoman state tended not to interfere with non-Muslim religious law systems, despite legally having a voice to do so through local governors. The Islamic Sharia law system had been developed from a combination of the <a href="/wiki/Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">Hadīth</a>, or words of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_in_Islam" title="Muhammad in Islam">Muhammad</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ijma" title="Ijma">ijmā'</a>, or consensus of the members of the <a href="/wiki/Ummah" title="Ummah">Muslim community</a>; <a href="/wiki/Qiyas" title="Qiyas">qiyas</a>, a system of analogical reasoning from earlier precedents; and local customs. Both systems were taught at the Empire's law schools, which were in <a href="/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bursa" title="Bursa">Bursa</a>. The Ottoman Islamic legal system was set up differently from traditional European courts. Presiding over Islamic courts was a Qadi, or judge. Since the closing of the <a href="/wiki/Ijtihad" title="Ijtihad">ijtihad</a>, or 'Gate of Interpretation', Qadis throughout the Ottoman Empire focused less on legal precedent, and more with local customs and traditions in the areas that they administered.<a href="#cite_note-Benton-2001-205">[190]</a> However, the Ottoman court system lacked an appellate structure, leading to jurisdictional case strategies where plaintiffs could take their disputes from one court system to another until they achieved a ruling that was in their favour. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1879-Ottoman_Court-from-NYL.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/1879-Ottoman_Court-from-NYL.png/290px-1879-Ottoman_Court-from-NYL.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="108" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="709" data-file-height="264"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 290px;height: 108px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/1879-Ottoman_Court-from-NYL.png/290px-1879-Ottoman_Court-from-NYL.png" data-width="290" data-height="108" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/1879-Ottoman_Court-from-NYL.png/435px-1879-Ottoman_Court-from-NYL.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/1879-Ottoman_Court-from-NYL.png/580px-1879-Ottoman_Court-from-NYL.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>An Ottoman trial, 1877</figcaption></figure> In the late 19th century, the Ottoman legal system saw substantial reform. This process of legal modernisation began with the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_G%C3%BClhane" title="Edict of Gülhane">Edict of Gülhane</a> of 1839.<a href="#cite_note-review-niza-208">[193]</a> These reforms included the "fair and public trial[s] of all accused regardless of religion", the creation of a system of "separate competences, religious and civil", and the validation of testimony on non-Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-int-handbook-209">[194]</a> Specific land codes (1858), civil codes (1869–1876), and a code of civil procedure also were enacted.<a href="#cite_note-int-handbook-209">[194]</a> These reforms were based heavily on French models, as indicated by the adoption of a three-tiered court system. Referred to as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nizamiye&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nizamiye (page does not exist)">Nizamiye</a>, this system was extended to the local magistrate level with the final promulgation of the <a href="/wiki/Mecelle" title="Mecelle">Mecelle</a>, a civil code that regulated marriage, divorce, alimony, will, and other matters of personal status.<a href="#cite_note-int-handbook-209">[194]</a> In an attempt to clarify the division of judicial competences, an administrative council laid down that religious matters were to be handled by religious courts, and statute matters were to be handled by the Nizamiye courts.<a href="#cite_note-int-handbook-209">[194]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military">Military</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Military of the Ottoman Empire">Military of the Ottoman Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Walka_o_sztandar_turecki.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Walka_o_sztandar_turecki.jpg/220px-Walka_o_sztandar_turecki.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="127" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="462"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 127px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Walka_o_sztandar_turecki.jpg/220px-Walka_o_sztandar_turecki.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="127" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Walka_o_sztandar_turecki.jpg/330px-Walka_o_sztandar_turecki.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Walka_o_sztandar_turecki.jpg/440px-Walka_o_sztandar_turecki.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Ottoman <a href="/wiki/Sipahi" title="Sipahi">sipahis</a> in battle, holding the crescent banner, by <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Brandt" title="Józef Brandt">Józef Brandt</a></figcaption></figure> The first military unit of the Ottoman State was an army that was organized by Osman I from the tribesmen inhabiting the hills of western Anatolia in the late 13th century. The military system became an intricate organization with the advance of the Empire. The Ottoman military was a complex system of recruiting and fief-holding. The main corps of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Army">Ottoman Army</a> included Janissary, <a href="/wiki/Sipahi" title="Sipahi">Sipahi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Akinji" title="Akinji">Akıncı</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_military_band" title="Ottoman military band">Mehterân</a>. The Ottoman army was once among the most advanced fighting forces in the world, being one of the first to use muskets and cannons. The Ottoman Turks began using <a href="/wiki/Falconet_(cannon)" title="Falconet (cannon)">falconets</a>, which were short but wide cannons, during the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(1422)" title="Siege of Constantinople (1422)">Siege of Constantinople</a>. The Ottoman cavalry depended on high speed and mobility rather than heavy armor, using bows and short swords on fast <a href="/wiki/Turkoman_horse" title="Turkoman horse">Turkoman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arabian_horse" title="Arabian horse">Arabian</a> horses (progenitors of the <a href="/wiki/Thoroughbred#Foundation_stallions" title="Thoroughbred">Thoroughbred</a> racing horse),<a href="#cite_note-210">[195]</a><a href="#cite_note-211">[196]</a> and often applied tactics similar to those of the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a>, such as pretending to retreat while surrounding the enemy forces inside a crescent-shaped formation and then making the real attack. The Ottoman army continued to be an effective fighting force throughout the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries,<a href="#cite_note-212">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-213">[198]</a> falling behind the empire's European rivals only during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768.<a href="#cite_note-AksanOW-78">[64]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Ertugrul_Cavalry_Regiment_crossing_the_Galata_Bridge.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/The_Ertugrul_Cavalry_Regiment_crossing_the_Galata_Bridge.jpg/220px-The_Ertugrul_Cavalry_Regiment_crossing_the_Galata_Bridge.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="2268"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 124px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/The_Ertugrul_Cavalry_Regiment_crossing_the_Galata_Bridge.jpg/220px-The_Ertugrul_Cavalry_Regiment_crossing_the_Galata_Bridge.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="124" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/The_Ertugrul_Cavalry_Regiment_crossing_the_Galata_Bridge.jpg/330px-The_Ertugrul_Cavalry_Regiment_crossing_the_Galata_Bridge.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/The_Ertugrul_Cavalry_Regiment_crossing_the_Galata_Bridge.jpg/440px-The_Ertugrul_Cavalry_Regiment_crossing_the_Galata_Bridge.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Modernised <a href="/wiki/Asakir-i_Mansure-i_Muhammediye" title="Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye">Ertugrul Cavalry Regiment</a> crossing the <a href="/wiki/Galata_Bridge" title="Galata Bridge">Galata Bridge</a> in 1901</figcaption></figure> The modernization of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century started with the military. In 1826 Sultan Mahmud II abolished the Janissary corps and established the modern Ottoman army. He named them as the <a href="/wiki/Nizam-%C4%B1_Cedid" class="mw-redirect" title="Nizam-ı Cedid">Nizam-ı Cedid</a> (New Order). The Ottoman army was also the first institution to hire foreign experts and send its officers for training in western European countries. Consequently, the Young Turks movement began when these relatively young and newly trained men returned with their education. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:OttomanNavy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/OttomanNavy.jpg/220px-OttomanNavy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="2268"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 124px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/OttomanNavy.jpg/220px-OttomanNavy.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="124" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/OttomanNavy.jpg/330px-OttomanNavy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/OttomanNavy.jpg/440px-OttomanNavy.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Navy" title="Ottoman Navy">Ottoman fleet</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Bosporus" title="Bosporus">Bosphorous</a> near <a href="/wiki/Ortak%C3%B6y" title="Ortaköy">Ortaköy</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Navy" title="Ottoman Navy">Ottoman Navy</a> vastly contributed to the expansion of the Empire's territories on the European continent. It initiated the conquest of North Africa, with the addition of <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a> and Egypt to the Ottoman Empire in 1517. Starting with the loss of Greece in 1821 and Algeria in 1830, Ottoman naval power and control over the Empire's distant overseas territories began to decline. Sultan <a href="/wiki/Abd%C3%BClaziz" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdülaziz">Abdülaziz</a> (reigned 1861–1876) attempted to reestablish a strong Ottoman navy, building the largest fleet after those of Britain and France. The shipyard at Barrow, England, built its first <a href="/wiki/Submarine" title="Submarine">submarine</a> in 1886 for the Ottoman Empire.<a href="#cite_note-first_submarine_at_shipyard-214">[199]</a> However, the collapsing Ottoman economy could not sustain the fleet's strength for long. Sultan <a href="/wiki/Abd%C3%BClhamid_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdülhamid II">Abdülhamid II</a> distrusted the admirals who sided with the reformist <a href="/wiki/Midhat_Pasha" title="Midhat Pasha">Midhat Pasha</a> and claimed that the large and expensive fleet was of no use against the Russians during the Russo-Turkish War. He locked most of the fleet inside the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Horn" title="Golden Horn">Golden Horn</a>, where the ships decayed for the next 30 years. Following the Young Turk Revolution in 1908, the Committee of Union and Progress sought to develop a strong Ottoman naval force. The Ottoman Navy Foundation was established in 1910 to buy new ships through public donations. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Turkish_pilots_in_1912.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Turkish_pilots_in_1912.jpg/220px-Turkish_pilots_in_1912.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 165px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Turkish_pilots_in_1912.jpg/220px-Turkish_pilots_in_1912.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="165" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Turkish_pilots_in_1912.jpg/330px-Turkish_pilots_in_1912.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Turkish_pilots_in_1912.jpg/440px-Turkish_pilots_in_1912.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Aviation_Squadrons" title="Ottoman Aviation Squadrons">Ottoman pilots</a> in early 1912</figcaption></figure> The establishment of <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Air_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Air Force">Ottoman military aviation</a> dates back to between June 1909 and July 1911.<a href="#cite_note-215">[200]</a><a href="#cite_note-216">[201]</a> The Ottoman Empire started preparing its first pilots and planes, and with the founding of the Aviation School (Tayyare Mektebi) in <a href="/wiki/Ye%C5%9Filk%C3%B6y" title="Yeşilköy">Yeşilköy</a> on 3 July 1912, the Empire began to tutor its own flight officers. The founding of the Aviation School quickened advancement in the military aviation program, increased the number of enlisted persons within it, and gave the new pilots an active role in the Ottoman Army and Navy. In May 1913, the world's first specialized Reconnaissance Training Program was started by the Aviation School, and the first separate reconnaissance division was established.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In June 1914 a new military academy, the Naval Aviation School (Bahriye Tayyare Mektebi) was founded. With the outbreak of World War I, the modernization process stopped abruptly. The <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Aviation_Squadrons" title="Ottoman Aviation Squadrons">Ottoman Aviation Squadrons</a> fought on many fronts during World War I, from <a href="/wiki/Galicia_(Central_Europe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Galicia (Central Europe)">Galicia</a> in the west to the Caucasus in the east and <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a> in the south. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Administrative_divisions">Administrative divisions</h2></div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Administrative divisions of the Ottoman Empire">Administrative divisions of the Ottoman Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ottoman_Empire_Administrative_Divisions.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Ottoman_Empire_Administrative_Divisions.png/220px-Ottoman_Empire_Administrative_Divisions.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="239" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4455" data-file-height="4840"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 239px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Ottoman_Empire_Administrative_Divisions.png/220px-Ottoman_Empire_Administrative_Divisions.png" data-width="220" data-height="239" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Ottoman_Empire_Administrative_Divisions.png/330px-Ottoman_Empire_Administrative_Divisions.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Ottoman_Empire_Administrative_Divisions.png/440px-Ottoman_Empire_Administrative_Divisions.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Administrative divisions of the Ottoman Empire in 1899 (year 1317 Hijri)</figcaption></figure> The Ottoman Empire was first subdivided into provinces, in the sense of fixed territorial units with governors appointed by the sultan, in the late 14th century.<a href="#cite_note-Imber-217">[202]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Eyalet" title="Eyalet">Eyalet</a> (also Pashalik or Beylerbeylik) was the territory of office of a <a href="/wiki/Beylerbey" title="Beylerbey">Beylerbey</a> ("lord of lords" or governor), and was further subdivided into <a href="/wiki/Sanjak" title="Sanjak">Sanjaks</a>.<a href="#cite_note-218">[203]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Vilayets" class="mw-redirect" title="Vilayets">Vilayets</a> were introduced with the promulgation of the "Vilayet Law" (Teskil-i Vilayet Nizamnamesi)<a href="#cite_note-219">[204]</a> in 1864, as part of the Tanzimat reforms.<a href="#cite_note-trt-220">[205]</a> Unlike the previous eyalet system, the 1864 law established a hierarchy of administrative units: the vilayet, <a href="/wiki/Liva_(sanjak)" class="mw-redirect" title="Liva (sanjak)">liva</a>/<a href="/wiki/Sanjak" title="Sanjak">sanjak</a>/<a href="/wiki/Mutasarrifate" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutasarrifate">mutasarrifate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kaza" title="Kaza">kaza</a> and <a href="/wiki/Town_council" title="Town council">village council</a>, to which the 1871 Vilayet Law added the <a href="/wiki/Nahiye" class="mw-redirect" title="Nahiye">nahiye</a>.<a href="#cite_note-jpn-221">[206]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="Economy">Economy</h2></div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Economic history of the Ottoman Empire">Economic history of the Ottoman Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ayd%C4%B1nArchaeologicalMuseum_(117).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Ayd%C4%B1nArchaeologicalMuseum_%28117%29.JPG/170px-Ayd%C4%B1nArchaeologicalMuseum_%28117%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="257" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2440" data-file-height="3690"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 257px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Ayd%C4%B1nArchaeologicalMuseum_%28117%29.JPG/170px-Ayd%C4%B1nArchaeologicalMuseum_%28117%29.JPG" data-width="170" data-height="257" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Ayd%C4%B1nArchaeologicalMuseum_%28117%29.JPG/255px-Ayd%C4%B1nArchaeologicalMuseum_%28117%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Ayd%C4%B1nArchaeologicalMuseum_%28117%29.JPG/340px-Ayd%C4%B1nArchaeologicalMuseum_%28117%29.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Coins of the Sultanate of Rûm and the Ottoman Empire at <a href="/wiki/Ayd%C4%B1n_Archaeological_Museum" title="Aydın Archaeological Museum">Aydın Archaeological Museum</a></figcaption></figure> Ottoman government deliberately pursued a policy for the development of Bursa, Edirne, and Istanbul, successive Ottoman capitals, into major commercial and industrial centers, considering that merchants and artisans were indispensable in creating a new metropolis.<a href="#cite_note-Inalcik1970209-222">[207]</a> To this end, Mehmed and his successor Bayezid, also encouraged and welcomed migration of the Jews from different parts of Europe, who were settled in Istanbul and other port cities like Salonica. In many places in Europe, Jews were suffering persecution at the hands of their Christian counterparts, such as in Spain, after the conclusion of the <a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a>. The tolerance displayed by the Turks was welcomed by the immigrants. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mehmed_the_Conqueror_(1432_%E2%80%931481).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Mehmed_the_Conqueror_%281432_%E2%80%931481%29.jpg/170px-Mehmed_the_Conqueror_%281432_%E2%80%931481%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="170" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1197"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 170px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Mehmed_the_Conqueror_%281432_%E2%80%931481%29.jpg/170px-Mehmed_the_Conqueror_%281432_%E2%80%931481%29.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="170" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Mehmed_the_Conqueror_%281432_%E2%80%931481%29.jpg/255px-Mehmed_the_Conqueror_%281432_%E2%80%931481%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Mehmed_the_Conqueror_%281432_%E2%80%931481%29.jpg/340px-Mehmed_the_Conqueror_%281432_%E2%80%931481%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A European bronze medal from the period of <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_II" title="Mehmed II">Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror</a>, 1481</figcaption></figure> The Ottoman economic mind was closely related to the basic concepts of state and society in the Middle East in which the ultimate goal of a state was consolidation and extension of the ruler's power, and the way to reach it was to get rich resources of revenues by making the productive classes prosperous.<a href="#cite_note-Inalcik1970217-223">[208]</a> The ultimate aim was to increase the state revenues without damaging the prosperity of subjects to prevent the emergence of social disorder and to keep the traditional organization of the society intact. The Ottoman economy greatly expanded during the early modern period, with particularly high growth rates during the first half of the eighteenth century. The empire's annual income quadrupled between 1523 and 1748, adjusted for inflation.<a href="#cite_note-224">[209]</a> The organization of the treasury and chancery were developed under the Ottoman Empire more than any other Islamic government and, until the 17th century, they were the leading organization among all their contemporaries.<a href="#cite_note-Black-2001-200">[185]</a> This organisation developed a scribal bureaucracy (known as "men of the pen") as a distinct group, partly highly trained ulama, which developed into a professional body.<a href="#cite_note-Black-2001-200">[185]</a> The effectiveness of this professional financial body stands behind the success of many great Ottoman statesmen.<a href="#cite_note-225">[210]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ottoman_Banks_Archives_and_Research_Centre.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Ottoman_Banks_Archives_and_Research_Centre.jpg/170px-Ottoman_Banks_Archives_and_Research_Centre.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="212" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1447" data-file-height="1801"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 212px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Ottoman_Banks_Archives_and_Research_Centre.jpg/170px-Ottoman_Banks_Archives_and_Research_Centre.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="212" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Ottoman_Banks_Archives_and_Research_Centre.jpg/255px-Ottoman_Banks_Archives_and_Research_Centre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Ottoman_Banks_Archives_and_Research_Centre.jpg/340px-Ottoman_Banks_Archives_and_Research_Centre.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Bank" title="Ottoman Bank">Ottoman Bank</a> was founded in 1856 in Constantinople. On 26 August 1896, the bank was <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Ottoman_Bank" title="Occupation of the Ottoman Bank">occupied</a> by members of the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_Revolutionary_Federation" title="Armenian Revolutionary Federation">Armenian Revolutionary Federation</a>.</figcaption></figure> Modern Ottoman studies indicate that the change in relations between the Ottoman Turks and central Europe was caused by the opening of the new sea routes. It is possible to see the decline in the significance of the land routes to the East as Western Europe opened the ocean routes that bypassed the Middle East and the Mediterranean as parallel to the decline of the Ottoman Empire itself.<a href="#cite_note-226">[211]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">failed verification</a>] The <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Ottoman_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Ottoman Treaty">Anglo-Ottoman Treaty</a>, also known as the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Balta_Liman" title="Treaty of Balta Liman">Treaty of Balta Liman</a> that opened the Ottoman markets directly to English and French competitors, can be seen as one of the staging posts along with this development. By developing commercial centers and routes, encouraging people to extend the area of cultivated land in the country and international trade through its dominions, the state performed basic economic functions in the Empire. But in all this, the financial and political interests of the state were dominant. Within the social and political system they were living in, Ottoman administrators could not see the desirability of the dynamics and principles of the capitalist and mercantile economies developing in Western Europe.<a href="#cite_note-Inalcik1970218-227">[212]</a> Economic historian <a href="/wiki/Paul_Bairoch" title="Paul Bairoch">Paul Bairoch</a> argues that <a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">free trade</a> contributed to <a href="/wiki/Deindustrialisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Deindustrialisation">deindustrialisation</a> in the Ottoman Empire. In contrast to the <a href="/wiki/Protectionism" title="Protectionism">protectionism</a> of China, Japan, and Spain, the Ottoman Empire had a <a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">liberal trade</a> policy, open to foreign imports. This has origins in <a href="/wiki/Capitulations_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire">capitulations of the Ottoman Empire</a>, dating back to the first commercial treaties signed with France in 1536 and taken further with <a href="/wiki/Capitulation_(treaty)" title="Capitulation (treaty)">capitulations</a> in 1673 and 1740, which lowered <a href="/wiki/Duty_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Duty (economics)">duties</a> to 3% for imports and exports. The liberal Ottoman policies were praised by British economists, such as <a href="/wiki/John_Ramsay_McCulloch" title="John Ramsay McCulloch">John Ramsay McCulloch</a> in his Dictionary of Commerce (1834), but later criticized by British politicians such as Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli, who cited the Ottoman Empire as "an instance of the injury done by unrestrained competition" in the 1846 <a href="/wiki/Corn_Laws" title="Corn Laws">Corn Laws</a> debate.<a href="#cite_note-228">[213]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="Demographics">Demographics</h2></div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Demographics of the Ottoman Empire">Demographics of the Ottoman Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ottoman_Smyrna.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Ottoman_Smyrna.jpg/220px-Ottoman_Smyrna.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="750"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 138px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Ottoman_Smyrna.jpg/220px-Ottoman_Smyrna.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="138" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Ottoman_Smyrna.jpg/330px-Ottoman_Smyrna.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Ottoman_Smyrna.jpg/440px-Ottoman_Smyrna.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Smyrna" title="Smyrna">Smyrna</a> under Ottoman rule in 1900</figcaption></figure> A population estimate for the empire of 11,692,480 for the 1520–1535 period was obtained by counting the households in Ottoman tithe registers, and multiplying this number by 5.<a href="#cite_note-Kabaday%C4%B1-229">[214]</a> For unclear reasons, the population in the 18th century was lower than that in the 16th century.<a href="#cite_note-230">[215]</a> An estimate of 7,230,660 for the first census held in 1831 is considered a serious undercount, as this census was meant only to register possible conscripts.<a href="#cite_note-Kabaday%C4%B1-229">[214]</a> Censuses of Ottoman territories only began in the early 19th century. Figures from 1831 onwards are available as official census results, but the censuses did not cover the whole population. For example, the 1831 census only counted men and did not cover the whole empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinross1979281-108">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kabaday%C4%B1-229">[214]</a> For earlier periods estimates of size and distribution of the population are based on observed demographic patterns.<a href="#cite_note-231">[216]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bridge_and_Galata_Area,_Istanbul,_Turkey_by_Abdullah_Fr%C3%A8res,_ca._1880-1893_(LOC).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Bridge_and_Galata_Area%2C_Istanbul%2C_Turkey_by_Abdullah_Fr%C3%A8res%2C_ca._1880-1893_%28LOC%29.jpg/220px-Bridge_and_Galata_Area%2C_Istanbul%2C_Turkey_by_Abdullah_Fr%C3%A8res%2C_ca._1880-1893_%28LOC%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="967" data-file-height="784"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 178px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Bridge_and_Galata_Area%2C_Istanbul%2C_Turkey_by_Abdullah_Fr%C3%A8res%2C_ca._1880-1893_%28LOC%29.jpg/220px-Bridge_and_Galata_Area%2C_Istanbul%2C_Turkey_by_Abdullah_Fr%C3%A8res%2C_ca._1880-1893_%28LOC%29.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="178" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Bridge_and_Galata_Area%2C_Istanbul%2C_Turkey_by_Abdullah_Fr%C3%A8res%2C_ca._1880-1893_%28LOC%29.jpg/330px-Bridge_and_Galata_Area%2C_Istanbul%2C_Turkey_by_Abdullah_Fr%C3%A8res%2C_ca._1880-1893_%28LOC%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Bridge_and_Galata_Area%2C_Istanbul%2C_Turkey_by_Abdullah_Fr%C3%A8res%2C_ca._1880-1893_%28LOC%29.jpg/440px-Bridge_and_Galata_Area%2C_Istanbul%2C_Turkey_by_Abdullah_Fr%C3%A8res%2C_ca._1880-1893_%28LOC%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>View of <a href="/wiki/Galata" title="Galata">Galata</a> (<a href="/wiki/Karak%C3%B6y" title="Karaköy">Karaköy</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Galata_Bridge" title="Galata Bridge">Galata Bridge</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Horn" title="Golden Horn">Golden Horn</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1880–1893</figcaption></figure> However, it began to rise to reach 25–32 million by 1800, with around 10 million in the European provinces (primarily in the Balkans), 11 million in the Asiatic provinces, and around 3 million in the African provinces. Population densities were higher in the European provinces, double those in Anatolia, which in turn were triple the population densities of Iraq and <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> and five times the population density of Arabia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuataertSpivey2000110%E2%80%93111-232">[217]</a> Towards the end of the empire's existence life expectancy was 49 years, compared to the mid-twenties in Serbia at the beginning of the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuataertSpivey2000112-233">[218]</a> Epidemic diseases and famine caused major disruption and demographic changes. In 1785 around one-sixth of the Egyptian population died from the plague and Aleppo saw its population reduced by twenty percent in the 18th century. Six famines hit Egypt alone between 1687 and 1731 and the last famine to hit Anatolia was four decades later.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuataertSpivey2000113-234">[219]</a> The rise of port cities saw the clustering of populations caused by the development of steamships and railroads. Urbanization increased from 1700 to 1922, with towns and cities growing. Improvements in health and sanitation made them more attractive to live and work in. Port cities like Salonica, in Greece, saw its population rise from 55,000 in 1800 to 160,000 in 1912 and İzmir which had a population of 150,000 in 1800 grew to 300,000 by 1914.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuataertSpivey2000114-235">[220]</a><a href="#cite_note-236">[221]</a> Some regions conversely had population falls—Belgrade saw its population drop from 25,000 to 8,000 mainly due to political strife.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuataertSpivey2000114-235">[220]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:20180107_Safranbolu_1945_(39101010504).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/20180107_Safranbolu_1945_%2839101010504%29.jpg/220px-20180107_Safranbolu_1945_%2839101010504%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="7952" data-file-height="5304"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 147px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/20180107_Safranbolu_1945_%2839101010504%29.jpg/220px-20180107_Safranbolu_1945_%2839101010504%29.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="147" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/20180107_Safranbolu_1945_%2839101010504%29.jpg/330px-20180107_Safranbolu_1945_%2839101010504%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/20180107_Safranbolu_1945_%2839101010504%29.jpg/440px-20180107_Safranbolu_1945_%2839101010504%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The town of <a href="/wiki/Safranbolu" title="Safranbolu">Safranbolu</a> is one of the best preserved Ottoman villages.</figcaption></figure> Economic and political migrations made an impact across the empire. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian</a> and Austria-Habsburg annexation of the Crimean and Balkan regions respectively saw large influxes of Muslim refugees—200,000 Crimean Tartars fleeing to Dobruja.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuataertSpivey2000115-237">[222]</a> Between 1783 and 1913, approximately 5–7 million refugees arrived into the Ottoman Empire. Between the 1850s and World War I, about a million North Caucasian Muslims arrived in the Ottoman Empire as refugees.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamed-Troyansky202449-148">[134]</a> Some migrations left indelible marks such as political tension between parts of the empire (e.g., Turkey and Bulgaria), whereas centrifugal effects were noticed in other territories, simpler demographics emerging from diverse populations. Economies were also impacted by the loss of artisans, merchants, manufacturers, and agriculturists.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuataertSpivey2000116-238">[223]</a> Since the 19th century, a large proportion of Muslim peoples from the Balkans emigrated to present-day Turkey. These people are called <a href="/wiki/Muhacir" title="Muhacir">Muhacir</a>.<a href="#cite_note-239">[224]</a> By the time the Ottoman Empire came to an end in 1922, half of the urban population of Turkey was descended from Muslim refugees from Russia.<a href="#cite_note-books.google_b-140">[126]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language">Language</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Languages of the Ottoman Empire">Languages of the Ottoman Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1911_Ottoman_Calendar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/1911_Ottoman_Calendar.jpg/170px-1911_Ottoman_Calendar.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="291" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="1026"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 291px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/1911_Ottoman_Calendar.jpg/170px-1911_Ottoman_Calendar.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="291" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/1911_Ottoman_Calendar.jpg/255px-1911_Ottoman_Calendar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/1911_Ottoman_Calendar.jpg/340px-1911_Ottoman_Calendar.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>1911 Ottoman calendar shown in several different languages such as: Ottoman Turkish, Greek, Armenian, Hebrew, Bulgarian and French</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turkish" title="Ottoman Turkish">Ottoman Turkish</a> was the official language of the Empire.<a href="#cite_note-240">[225]</a> It was an <a href="/wiki/Oghuz_languages" title="Oghuz languages">Oghuz</a> <a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic language</a> highly influenced by <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a>, though lower registries spoken by the common people had fewer influences from other languages compared to higher varieties used by upper classes and governmental authorities.<a href="#cite_note-241">[226]</a> Turkish, in its Ottoman variation, was a language of military and administration since the nascent days of the Ottomans. The Ottoman constitution of 1876 did officially cement the official imperial status of Turkish.<a href="#cite_note-242">[227]</a> The Ottomans had several influential languages: Turkish, spoken by the majority of the people in Anatolia and by the majority of Muslims of the Balkans except some regions such as <a href="/wiki/History_of_Albania" title="History of Albania">Albania</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Bosnia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Bosnia">Bosnia</a><a href="#cite_note-Bertold_Spuler_page_69-243">[228]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Megleno-Romanians" title="Megleno-Romanians">Megleno-Romanian</a>-inhabited <a href="/wiki/N%C3%A2nti" class="mw-redirect" title="Nânti">Nânti</a>;<a href="#cite_note-244">[229]</a> Persian, only spoken by the educated;<a href="#cite_note-Bertold_Spuler_page_69-243">[228]</a> Arabic, spoken mainly in Egypt, the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Arabia">Arabia</a>, Iraq, North Africa, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Kuwait" title="History of Kuwait">Kuwait</a> and parts of the <a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Berber_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Berber language">Berber</a> in North Africa. In the last two centuries, usage of these became limited, though, and specific: Persian served mainly as a literary language for the educated,<a href="#cite_note-Bertold_Spuler_page_69-243">[228]</a> while <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> was used for Islamic prayers. In the post-<a href="/wiki/Tanzimat" title="Tanzimat">Tanzimat</a> period French became the common Western language among the educated.<a href="#cite_note-Strauss-2010-24">[18]</a> Because of a low literacy rate among the public (about 2–3% until the early 19th century and just about 15% at the end of the 19th century), ordinary people had to hire <a href="/wiki/Scribe" title="Scribe">scribes</a> as "special request-writers" (arzuhâlcis) to be able to communicate with the government.<a href="#cite_note-245">[230]</a> Some ethnic groups continued to speak within their families and neighborhoods (<a href="/wiki/Mahalle" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahalle">mahalles</a>) with their own languages, though many non-Muslim minorities such as Greeks and Armenians only spoke Turkish.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavison196462-246">[231]</a> In villages where two or more populations lived together, the inhabitants often spoke each other's language. In cosmopolitan cities, people often spoke their family languages; many of those who were not ethnic <a href="/wiki/Turkish_people" title="Turkish people">Turks</a> spoke Turkish as a second language.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Millet_(Ottoman_Empire)" title="Millet (Ottoman Empire)">Millet (Ottoman Empire)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_Caliph_Abdulmecid_II.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Portrait_Caliph_Abdulmecid_II.jpg/220px-Portrait_Caliph_Abdulmecid_II.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="297" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1185" data-file-height="1600"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 297px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Portrait_Caliph_Abdulmecid_II.jpg/220px-Portrait_Caliph_Abdulmecid_II.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="297" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Portrait_Caliph_Abdulmecid_II.jpg/330px-Portrait_Caliph_Abdulmecid_II.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Portrait_Caliph_Abdulmecid_II.jpg/440px-Portrait_Caliph_Abdulmecid_II.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Abdulmejid_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdulmejid II">Abdülmecid II</a> was the last <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">caliph</a> of Islam and a member of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_dynasty" title="Ottoman dynasty">Ottoman dynasty</a>.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni Islam</a> was the prevailing <a href="/wiki/Din_(Arabic)" title="Din (Arabic)">Dīn</a> (customs, legal traditions, and religion) of the Ottoman Empire; the official <a href="/wiki/Madhhab" title="Madhhab">Madh'hab</a> (school of Islamic <a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a>) was <a href="/wiki/Hanafi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanafi">Hanafi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gunduz-247">[232]</a> From the early 16th century until the early 20th century, the Ottoman sultan also served as the <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">caliph</a>, or politico-religious leader, of the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a>. Most of the Ottoman Sultans adhered to <a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufism</a> and followed <a href="/wiki/Sufi_orders" class="mw-redirect" title="Sufi orders">Sufi orders</a>, and believed Sufism was the correct way to reach God.<a href="#cite_note-248">[233]</a> Non-Muslims, particularly Christians and Jews, were present throughout the empire's history. The Ottoman imperial system was charactised by an intricate combination of official Muslim hegemony over non-Muslims and a wide degree of religious tolerance. While religious minorities were never equal under the law, they were granted recognition, protection, and limited freedoms under both Islamic and Ottoman tradition.<a href="#cite_note-emigrnonm-249">[234]</a> Until the second half of the 15th century, the majority of Ottoman subjects were Christian.<a href="#cite_note-Benton-2001-205">[190]</a> Non-Muslims remained a significant and economically influential minority, albeit declining significantly by the 19th century, due largely to migration and <a href="/wiki/Secession" title="Secession">secession</a>.<a href="#cite_note-emigrnonm-249">[234]</a> The proportion of Muslims amounted to 60% in the 1820s, gradually increasing to 69% in the 1870s and 76% in the 1890s.<a href="#cite_note-emigrnonm-249">[234]</a> By 1914, less than a fifth of the empire's population (19.1%) was non-Muslim, mostly made up of Jews and Christian Greeks, Assyrians, and Armenians.<a href="#cite_note-emigrnonm-249">[234]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Islam">Islam</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Islam in the Ottoman Empire">Islam in the Ottoman Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Caliphate" title="Ottoman Caliphate">Ottoman Caliphate</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_persecution_of_Alevis" title="Ottoman persecution of Alevis">Ottoman persecution of Alevis</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Turkey" title="Islam in Turkey">Islam in Turkey</a></div><a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turkic peoples</a> practiced a form of <a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">shamanism</a> before adopting Islam. The <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Transoxiana" title="Muslim conquest of Transoxiana">Muslim conquest of Transoxiana</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasids</a> facilitated the spread of Islam into the Turkic heartland of Central Asia. Many Turkic tribes—including the <a href="/wiki/Oghuz_Turks" title="Oghuz Turks">Oghuz Turks</a>, who were the ancestors of both the Seljuks and the Ottomans—gradually converted to Islam and brought religion to Anatolia through their migrations beginning in the 11th century. From its founding, the Ottoman Empire officially supported the <a href="/wiki/Maturidi" class="mw-redirect" title="Maturidi">Maturidi school of</a> <a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Islamic_theology" title="Schools of Islamic theology">Islamic theology</a>, which emphasized <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">human reason</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">rationality</a>, the pursuit of science and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">philosophy</a> (falsafa).<a href="#cite_note-250">[235]</a><a href="#cite_note-251">[236]</a> The Ottomans were among the earliest and most enthusiastic adopters of the <a href="/wiki/Hanafi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanafi">Hanafi</a> school of Islamic jurisprudence,<a href="#cite_note-252">[237]</a> which was comparatively more flexible and discretionary in its rulings.<a href="#cite_note-253">[238]</a><a href="#cite_note-254">[239]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Istanbul_asv2021-10_img15_Y%C4%B1ld%C4%B1z_Hamidiye_Mosque.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Istanbul_asv2021-10_img15_Y%C4%B1ld%C4%B1z_Hamidiye_Mosque.jpg/220px-Istanbul_asv2021-10_img15_Y%C4%B1ld%C4%B1z_Hamidiye_Mosque.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4734" data-file-height="4734"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 220px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Istanbul_asv2021-10_img15_Y%C4%B1ld%C4%B1z_Hamidiye_Mosque.jpg/220px-Istanbul_asv2021-10_img15_Y%C4%B1ld%C4%B1z_Hamidiye_Mosque.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="220" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Istanbul_asv2021-10_img15_Y%C4%B1ld%C4%B1z_Hamidiye_Mosque.jpg/330px-Istanbul_asv2021-10_img15_Y%C4%B1ld%C4%B1z_Hamidiye_Mosque.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Istanbul_asv2021-10_img15_Y%C4%B1ld%C4%B1z_Hamidiye_Mosque.jpg/440px-Istanbul_asv2021-10_img15_Y%C4%B1ld%C4%B1z_Hamidiye_Mosque.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Y%C4%B1ld%C4%B1z_Hamidiye_Mosque" title="Yıldız Hamidiye Mosque">Yıldız Hamidiye Mosque</a> in <a href="/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a>, Turkey</figcaption></figure> The Ottoman Empire had a wide variety of Islamic sects, including <a href="/wiki/Druze" title="Druze">Druze</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isma%27ilism" title="Isma'ilism">Ismailis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alevism" title="Alevism">Alevis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alawites" title="Alawites">Alawites</a>.<a href="#cite_note-255">[240]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufism</a>, a diverse body of Islamic <a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">mysticism</a>, found fertile ground in Ottoman lands; many Sufi religious orders (<a href="/wiki/Tariqa" title="Tariqa">tariqa</a>), such as the <a href="/wiki/Bektashi_Order" class="mw-redirect" title="Bektashi Order">Bektashi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mevlevi_Order" title="Mevlevi Order">Mevlevi</a>, were either established, or saw significant growth, throughout the empire's history.<a href="#cite_note-256">[241]</a> However, some heterodox Muslim groups were viewed as heretical and even ranked below Jews and Christians in terms of legal protection; Druze were frequent targets of persecution,<a href="#cite_note-257">[242]</a> with Ottoman authorities often citing the controversial rulings of <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Taymiyyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Taymiyyah">Ibn Taymiyya</a>, a member of the conservative <a href="/wiki/Hanbali" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanbali">Hanbali school</a>.<a href="#cite_note-258">[243]</a> In 1514, Sultan Selim I ordered the massacre of 40,000 Anatolian Alevis (<a href="/wiki/Qizilbash" title="Qizilbash">Qizilbash</a>), whom he considered a <a href="/wiki/Fifth_column" title="Fifth column">fifth column</a> for the rival <a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid Empire</a>. During Selim's reign, the Ottoman Empire saw an unprecedented and rapid expansion into the Middle East, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Mamluk_War_(1516%E2%80%931517)" title="Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–1517)">conquest of the entire Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt</a> on the early 16th century. These conquests further solidified the Ottoman claim of being an <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Islamic caliphate</a>, although Ottoman sultans had been claiming the title of caliph since the reign of Murad I (1362–1389).<a href="#cite_note-Lambton-1995-26">[19]</a> The caliphate was officially transferred from the Mamluks to the Ottoman sultanate in 1517, whose members were recognized as caliphs until the <a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_the_Caliphate" title="Abolition of the Caliphate">office's abolition on 3 March 1924</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Grand_National_Assembly_of_Turkey" title="Grand National Assembly of Turkey">Republic of Turkey</a> (and the exile of the last caliph, <a href="/wiki/Abdulmejid_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdulmejid II">Abdülmecid II</a>, to France). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Christianity_and_Judaism">Christianity and Judaism</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Christianity in the Ottoman Empire">Christianity in the Ottoman Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire">History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gennadios_II_and_Mehmed_II.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Gennadios_II_and_Mehmed_II.jpg/170px-Gennadios_II_and_Mehmed_II.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="211" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2376" data-file-height="2948"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 211px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Gennadios_II_and_Mehmed_II.jpg/170px-Gennadios_II_and_Mehmed_II.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="211" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Gennadios_II_and_Mehmed_II.jpg/255px-Gennadios_II_and_Mehmed_II.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Gennadios_II_and_Mehmed_II.jpg/340px-Gennadios_II_and_Mehmed_II.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mehmed_II" title="Mehmed II">Mehmed the Conqueror</a> and Patriarch <a href="/wiki/Gennadius_Scholarius" title="Gennadius Scholarius">Gennadius II</a></figcaption></figure> In accordance with the Muslim <a href="/wiki/Dhimmi" title="Dhimmi">dhimmi</a> system, the Ottoman Empire guaranteed limited freedoms to Christians, Jews, and other "<a href="/wiki/People_of_the_Book" title="People of the Book">people of the book</a>", such as the right to worship, own property, and be exempt from the obligatory alms (<a href="/wiki/Zakat" title="Zakat">zakat</a>) required of Muslims. However, non-Muslims (or dhimmi) were subject to various legal restrictions, including being forbidden to carry weapons, ride on horseback, or have their homes overlook those of Muslims; likewise, they were required to pay higher taxes than Muslim subjects, including the <a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">jizya</a>, which was a key source of state revenue.<a href="#cite_note-259">[244]</a><a href="#cite_note-260">[245]</a> Many Christians and Jews converted to Islam to secure full social and legal status, though most continued to practice their faith without restriction. The Ottomans developed a unique sociopolitical system known as the <a href="/wiki/Millet_(Ottoman_Empire)" title="Millet (Ottoman Empire)">millet</a>, which granted non-Muslim communities a large degree of political, legal, and religious autonomy; in essence, members of a millet were subjects of the empire but not subject to the Muslim faith or Islamic law. A millet could govern its own affairs, such as raising taxes and resolving internal legal disputes, with little or no interference from Ottoman authorities, so long as its members were loyal to the sultan and adhered to the rules concerning dhimmi. A quintessential example is the ancient Orthodox community of <a href="/wiki/Mount_Athos" title="Mount Athos">Mount Athos</a>, which was permitted to retain its autonomy and was never subject to occupation or forced conversion; even special laws were enacted to protect it from outsiders.<a href="#cite_note-261">[246]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Rum_Millet" class="mw-redirect" title="Rum Millet">Rum Millet</a>, which encompassed most Eastern Orthodox Christians, was governed by the Byzantine-era <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Civilis" title="Corpus Juris Civilis">Corpus Juris Civilis</a> (Code of Justinian), with the <a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_Patriarch_of_Constantinople" title="Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople">Ecumenical Patriarch</a> designated the highest religious and political authority (millet-bashi, or <a href="/wiki/Ethnarch" title="Ethnarch">ethnarch</a>). Likewise, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Jews</a> came under the authority of the <a href="/wiki/Hakham_Bashi" title="Hakham Bashi">Haham Başı</a>, or Ottoman <a href="/wiki/Chief_Rabbi" title="Chief Rabbi">Chief Rabbi</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenians</a> were under the authority of the <a href="/wiki/Catholicos_of_All_Armenians" title="Catholicos of All Armenians">chief bishop</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_Apostolic_Church" title="Armenian Apostolic Church">Armenian Apostolic Church</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Syed-2011-262">[247]</a> As the largest group of non-Muslim subjects, the Rum Millet enjoyed several special privileges in politics and commerce; however, Jews and Armenians were also well represented among the wealthy merchant class, as well as in public administration.<a href="#cite_note-263">[248]</a><a href="#cite_note-264">[249]</a> Some modern scholars consider the millet system to be an early example of <a href="/wiki/Religious_pluralism" title="Religious pluralism">religious pluralism</a>, as it accorded minority religious groups official recognition and tolerance.<a href="#cite_note-265">[250]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social-political-religious_structure">Social-political-religious structure</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Rayah" title="Rayah">Rayah</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Subject_Nationalities_of_the_German_Alliance_(1917)_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Subject_Nationalities_of_the_German_Alliance_%281917%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Subject_Nationalities_of_the_German_Alliance_%281917%29_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4480" data-file-height="2739"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 135px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Subject_Nationalities_of_the_German_Alliance_%281917%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Subject_Nationalities_of_the_German_Alliance_%281917%29_%28cropped%29.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="135" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Subject_Nationalities_of_the_German_Alliance_%281917%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Subject_Nationalities_of_the_German_Alliance_%281917%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Subject_Nationalities_of_the_German_Alliance_%281917%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Subject_Nationalities_of_the_German_Alliance_%281917%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Ethnic map of the Ottoman Empire in 1917. Black = Bulgars and Turks, Red = Greeks, Light yellow = Armenians, Blue = Kurds, Orange = Lazes, Dark Yellow = Arabs, Green = Nestorians</figcaption></figure> Beginning in the early 19th century, society, government, and religion were interrelated in a complex, overlapping way that was deemed inefficient by Atatürk, who systematically dismantled it after 1922.<a href="#cite_note-266">[251]</a><a href="#cite_note-267">[252]</a> In Constantinople, the Sultan ruled two distinct domains: the secular government and the religious hierarchy. Religious officials formed the Ulama, who had control of religious teachings and theology, and also the Empire's judicial system, giving them a major voice in day-to-day affairs in communities across the Empire (but not including the non-Muslim millets). They were powerful enough to reject the military reforms proposed by Sultan <a href="/wiki/Selim_III" title="Selim III">Selim III</a>. His successor Sultan <a href="/wiki/Mahmud_II" title="Mahmud II">Mahmud II</a> (r. 1808–1839) first won ulama approval before proposing similar reforms.<a href="#cite_note-268">[253]</a> The secularisation program brought by Atatürk ended the ulema and their institutions. The caliphate was abolished, madrasas were closed down, and the sharia courts were abolished. He replaced the Arabic alphabet with Latin letters, ended the religious school system, and gave women some political rights. Many rural traditionalists never accepted this secularisation, and by the 1990s they were reasserting a demand for a larger role for Islam.<a href="#cite_note-269">[254]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Istanbul_asv2021-11_img71_StAnthony_of_Padua_Church.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Istanbul_asv2021-11_img71_StAnthony_of_Padua_Church.jpg/220px-Istanbul_asv2021-11_img71_StAnthony_of_Padua_Church.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="264" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4289" data-file-height="5147"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 264px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Istanbul_asv2021-11_img71_StAnthony_of_Padua_Church.jpg/220px-Istanbul_asv2021-11_img71_StAnthony_of_Padua_Church.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="264" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Istanbul_asv2021-11_img71_StAnthony_of_Padua_Church.jpg/330px-Istanbul_asv2021-11_img71_StAnthony_of_Padua_Church.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Istanbul_asv2021-11_img71_StAnthony_of_Padua_Church.jpg/440px-Istanbul_asv2021-11_img71_StAnthony_of_Padua_Church.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The original <a href="/wiki/Church_of_St._Anthony_of_Padua,_Istanbul" title="Church of St. Anthony of Padua, Istanbul">Church of St. Anthony of Padua, Istanbul</a> was built in 1725 by the local Italian community of Istanbul.</figcaption></figure> The Janissaries were a highly formidable military unit in the early years, but as Western Europe modernized its military organization technology, the Janissaries became a reactionary force that resisted all change. Steadily the Ottoman military power became outdated, but when the Janissaries felt their privileges were being threatened, or outsiders wanted to modernize them, or they might be superseded by the cavalrymen, they rose in rebellion. The rebellions were highly violent on both sides, but by the time the Janissaries were suppressed, it was far too late for Ottoman military power to catch up with the West.<a href="#cite_note-270">[255]</a><a href="#cite_note-271">[256]</a> The political system was transformed by the destruction of the <a href="/wiki/Janissary" title="Janissary">Janissaries</a>, a powerful military/governmental/police force, which revolted in the <a href="/wiki/Auspicious_Incident" title="Auspicious Incident">Auspicious Incident</a> of 1826. Sultan Mahmud II crushed the revolt executed the leaders and disbanded the large organization. That set the stage for a slow process of modernization of government functions, as the government sought, with mixed success, to adopt the main elements of Western bureaucracy and military technology. The Janissaries had been recruited from Christians and other minorities; their abolition enabled the emergence of a Turkish elite to control the Ottoman Empire. A large number of ethnic and religious minorities were tolerated in their own separate segregated domains called millets.<a href="#cite_note-272">[257]</a> They were primarily <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Greeks" title="Ottoman Greeks">Greek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armenians_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Armenians in the Ottoman Empire">Armenian</a>, or <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire">Jewish</a>. In each locality, they governed themselves, spoke their own language, ran their own schools, cultural and religious institutions, and paid somewhat higher taxes. They had no power outside the millet. The Imperial government protected them and prevented major violent clashes between ethnic groups. Ethnic nationalism, based on distinctive religion and language, provided a centripetal force that eventually destroyed the Ottoman Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuataert1983-273">[258]</a> In addition, Muslim ethnic groups, which were not part of the millet system, especially the Arabs and the Kurds, were outside the Turkish culture and developed their own separate nationalism. The British sponsored Arab nationalism in the First World War, promising an independent Arab state in return for Arab support. Most Arabs supported the Sultan, but those near Mecca believed in and supported the British promise.<a href="#cite_note-274">[259]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Istanbul_asv2021-11_img03_Hemdat_Israel_Synagogue.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Istanbul_asv2021-11_img03_Hemdat_Israel_Synagogue.jpg/220px-Istanbul_asv2021-11_img03_Hemdat_Israel_Synagogue.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="7719" data-file-height="5146"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 147px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Istanbul_asv2021-11_img03_Hemdat_Israel_Synagogue.jpg/220px-Istanbul_asv2021-11_img03_Hemdat_Israel_Synagogue.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="147" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Istanbul_asv2021-11_img03_Hemdat_Israel_Synagogue.jpg/330px-Istanbul_asv2021-11_img03_Hemdat_Israel_Synagogue.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Istanbul_asv2021-11_img03_Hemdat_Israel_Synagogue.jpg/440px-Istanbul_asv2021-11_img03_Hemdat_Israel_Synagogue.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hemdat_Israel_Synagogue" title="Hemdat Israel Synagogue">Hemdat Israel Synagogue</a> of <a href="/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a></figcaption></figure> At the local level, power was held beyond the control of the Sultan by the <a href="/wiki/Ayan_(class)" title="Ayan (class)">ayans</a> or local notables. The ayan collected taxes, formed local armies to compete with other notables, took a reactionary attitude toward political or economic change, and often defied policies handed down by the Sultan.<a href="#cite_note-275">[260]</a> After the 18th century, the Ottoman Empire was shrinking, as Russia put on heavy pressure and expanded to its south; Egypt became effectively independent in 1805, and the British later took it over, along with Cyprus. Greece became independent, and Serbia and other Balkan areas became highly restive as the force of nationalism pushed against imperialism. The French took over Algeria and Tunisia. The Europeans all thought that the empire was a sick man in rapid decline. Only the Germans seemed helpful, and their support led to the Ottoman Empire joining the central powers in 1915, with the result that they came out as one of the heaviest losers of the First World War in 1918.<a href="#cite_note-276">[261]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2></div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Culture of the Ottoman Empire">Culture of the Ottoman Empire</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WaldmeierLebanon.gif" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/WaldmeierLebanon.gif/220px-WaldmeierLebanon.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="948" data-file-height="706"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 164px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/WaldmeierLebanon.gif/220px-WaldmeierLebanon.gif" data-width="220" data-height="164" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/WaldmeierLebanon.gif/330px-WaldmeierLebanon.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/WaldmeierLebanon.gif/440px-WaldmeierLebanon.gif 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Depiction of a <a href="/wiki/Hookah" title="Hookah">hookah</a> shop in <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a></figcaption></figure> The Ottomans absorbed some of the traditions, art, and institutions of cultures in the regions they conquered and added new dimensions to them. Numerous traditions and cultural traits of previous empires (in fields such as architecture, cuisine, music, leisure, and government) were adopted by the Ottoman Turks, who developed them into new forms, resulting in a new and distinctively Ottoman cultural identity. Although the predominant literary language of the Ottoman Empire was Turkish, Persian was the preferred vehicle for the projection of an imperial image.<a href="#cite_note-277">[262]</a> <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Slavery in the Ottoman Empire">Slavery</a> was part of Ottoman society,<a href="#cite_note-278">[263]</a> with most slaves employed as domestic servants. Agricultural slavery, like that in the Americas, was relatively rare. Unlike systems of <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">chattel slavery</a>, slaves under Islamic law were not regarded as movable property, and the children of female slaves were born legally free. Female slaves were still sold in the Empire as late as 1908.<a href="#cite_note-279">[264]</a> During the 19th century the Empire came under pressure from Western European countries to outlaw the practice. Policies developed by various sultans throughout the 19th century attempted to curtail the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman slave trade">Ottoman slave trade</a> but slavery had centuries of religious backing and sanction and so was never abolished in the Empire.<a href="#cite_note-Syed-2011-262">[247]</a> <a href="/wiki/Plague_(disease)" title="Plague (disease)">Plague</a> remained a major scourge in Ottoman society until the second quarter of the 19th century. "Between 1701 and 1750, 37 larger and smaller plague epidemics were recorded in Istanbul, and 31 between 1751 and 1801."<a href="#cite_note-280">[265]</a> Ottomans adopted Persian bureaucratic traditions and culture. The sultans also made an important contribution in the development of Persian literature.<a href="#cite_note-281">[266]</a> Language was not an obvious sign of group connection and identity in the 16th century among the rulers of the Ottoman Empire, <a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid Iran</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shaybanids" title="Shaybanids">Abu'l-Khayrid Shibanids</a> of <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Comstock-Skipp-2023-282">[267]</a> Hence the ruling classes of all three polities were bilingual in varieties of Persian and Turkic.<a href="#cite_note-Comstock-Skipp-2023-282">[267]</a> But in the century's final quarter, linguistic adjustments occurred in the Ottoman and Safavid realms defined by a new rigidity that favoured Ottoman Turkish and Persian, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-Comstock-Skipp-2023-282">[267]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Education in the Ottoman Empire">Education in the Ottoman Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beyaz%C4%B1t_State_Library_(14667026514).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Beyaz%C4%B1t_State_Library_%2814667026514%29.jpg/220px-Beyaz%C4%B1t_State_Library_%2814667026514%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1696" data-file-height="1226"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 159px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Beyaz%C4%B1t_State_Library_%2814667026514%29.jpg/220px-Beyaz%C4%B1t_State_Library_%2814667026514%29.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="159" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Beyaz%C4%B1t_State_Library_%2814667026514%29.jpg/330px-Beyaz%C4%B1t_State_Library_%2814667026514%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Beyaz%C4%B1t_State_Library_%2814667026514%29.jpg/440px-Beyaz%C4%B1t_State_Library_%2814667026514%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The Beyazıt State Library was founded in 1884.</figcaption></figure> In the Ottoman Empire, each <a href="/wiki/Millet_(Ottoman_Empire)" title="Millet (Ottoman Empire)">millet</a> established a schooling system serving its members.<a href="#cite_note-Strauss-2016-283">[268]</a> Education was therefore largely divided on ethnic and religious lines: few non-Muslims attended schools for Muslim students, and vice versa. Most institutions that served all ethnic and religious groups taught in French or other languages.<a href="#cite_note-StraussPT195-284">[269]</a> Several "foreign schools" (Frerler mektebleri) operated by religious clergy primarily served Christians, although some Muslim students attended.<a href="#cite_note-Strauss-2016-283">[268]</a> Garnett described the schools for Christians and Jews as "organised upon European models", with "voluntary contributions" supporting their operation and most of them "well attended" and with "a high standard of education".<a href="#cite_note-285">[270]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature">Literature</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman literature">Ottoman literature</a></div> The two primary streams of Ottoman written literature are poetry and <a href="/wiki/Prose" title="Prose">prose</a>. Poetry was by far the dominant stream. The earliest work of Ottoman historiography for example, the <a href="/wiki/Iskendername" title="Iskendername">İskendernâme</a>, was composed by the poet <a href="/wiki/Taceddin_Ahmedi" title="Taceddin Ahmedi">Taceddin Ahmedi</a> (1334–1413).<a href="#cite_note-:1-286">[271]</a> Until the 19th century, Ottoman prose did not contain any examples of fiction: there were no counterparts to, for instance, the European <a href="/wiki/Chivalric_romance" title="Chivalric romance">romance</a>, short story, or novel. Analog genres did exist, though, in both <a href="/wiki/Turkish_folk_literature" title="Turkish folk literature">Turkish folk literature</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Diwan_(poetry)" title="Diwan (poetry)">Divan poetry</a>. Ottoman Divan poetry was a highly ritualized and symbolic art form. From the <a href="/wiki/Persian_literature" title="Persian literature">Persian poetry</a> that largely inspired it, it inherited a wealth of symbols whose meanings and interrelationships—both of similitude (مراعات نظير mura'ât-i nazîr / تناسب tenâsüb) and opposition (تضاد tezâd) were more or less prescribed. Divan poetry was composed through the constant juxtaposition of many such images within a strict metrical framework, allowing numerous potential meanings to emerge. The vast majority of Divan poetry was <a href="/wiki/Lyric_poetry" title="Lyric poetry">lyric</a> in nature: either <a href="/wiki/Gazel" title="Gazel">gazels</a> (which make up the greatest part of the repertoire of the tradition), or kasîdes. But there were other common genres, especially the mesnevî, a kind of <a href="/wiki/Courtly_romance" class="mw-redirect" title="Courtly romance">verse romance</a> and thus a variety of <a href="/wiki/Narrative_poetry" title="Narrative poetry">narrative poetry</a>; the two most notable examples of this form are the <a href="/wiki/Leyli_and_Majnun_(Fuzuli)" title="Leyli and Majnun (Fuzuli)">Leyli and Majnun</a> of <a href="/wiki/Fuzuli_(poet)" title="Fuzuli (poet)">Fuzuli</a> and the <a href="/wiki/H%C3%BCsn_%C3%BC_A%C5%9Fk" title="Hüsn ü Aşk">Hüsn ü Aşk</a> of <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Eeyh_G%C3%A2lib" title="Şeyh Gâlib">Şeyh Gâlib</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Seyahatn%C3%A2me" title="Seyahatnâme">Seyahatnâme</a> of <a href="/wiki/Evliya_%C3%87elebi" title="Evliya Çelebi">Evliya Çelebi</a> (1611–1682) is an outstanding example of travel literature. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nedim_(divan_edb.%C5%9Fairi).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Nedim_%28divan_edb.%C5%9Fairi%29.JPG/170px-Nedim_%28divan_edb.%C5%9Fairi%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="219" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="490" data-file-height="631"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 219px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Nedim_%28divan_edb.%C5%9Fairi%29.JPG/170px-Nedim_%28divan_edb.%C5%9Fairi%29.JPG" data-width="170" data-height="219" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Nedim_%28divan_edb.%C5%9Fairi%29.JPG/255px-Nedim_%28divan_edb.%C5%9Fairi%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Nedim_%28divan_edb.%C5%9Fairi%29.JPG/340px-Nedim_%28divan_edb.%C5%9Fairi%29.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ned%C3%AEm" title="Nedîm">Ahmet Nedîm Efendi</a>, one of the most celebrated Ottoman poets</figcaption></figure> Until the 19th century, <a href="/wiki/Prose_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Prose of the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman prose</a> did not develop to the extent that contemporary Divan poetry did. A large part of the reason was that much prose was expected to adhere to the rules of sec (سجع, also transliterated as seci), or <a href="/wiki/Rhymed_prose" title="Rhymed prose">rhymed prose</a>,<a href="#cite_note-287">[272]</a> a type of writing descended from the Arabic <a href="/wiki/Saj%27" title="Saj'">saj'</a> that prescribed that between each adjective and noun in a string of words, such as a sentence, there must be a rhyme. Nevertheless, there was a tradition of prose in the literature of the time, though it was exclusively nonfictional. One apparent exception was <a href="/wiki/Giritli_Ali_Aziz_Efendi" title="Giritli Ali Aziz Efendi">Muhayyelât</a> (Fancies) by <a href="/wiki/Giritli_Ali_Aziz_Efendi" title="Giritli Ali Aziz Efendi">Giritli Ali Aziz Efendi</a>, a collection of stories of the fantastic written in 1796, though not published until 1867. The first novel published in the Ottoman Empire was <a href="/wiki/Vartan_Pasha" title="Vartan Pasha">Vartan Pasha</a>'s 1851 The Story of Akabi (Turkish: Akabi Hikyayesi). It was written in Turkish but with <a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a> script.<a href="#cite_note-288">[273]</a><a href="#cite_note-289">[274]</a><a href="#cite_note-290">[275]</a><a href="#cite_note-291">[276]</a> Due to historically close ties with France, <a href="/wiki/French_literature" title="French literature">French literature</a> constituted the major Western influence on Ottoman literature in the latter half of the 19th century. As a result, many of the same movements prevalent in France during this period had Ottoman equivalents; in the developing Ottoman prose tradition, for instance, the influence of <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a> can be seen during the Tanzimat period, and that of the <a href="/wiki/Realism_(arts)" title="Realism (arts)">Realist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(literature)" title="Naturalism (literature)">Naturalist</a> movements in subsequent periods; in the poetic tradition, on the other hand, the influence of the <a href="/wiki/Symbolism_(arts)" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbolism (arts)">Symbolist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parnassianism" title="Parnassianism">Parnassian</a> movements was paramount. Many of the writers in the Tanzimat period wrote in several different genres simultaneously; for instance, the poet <a href="/wiki/Nam%C4%B1k_Kemal" title="Namık Kemal">Namık Kemal</a> also wrote the important 1876 novel İntibâh (Awakening), while the journalist <a href="/wiki/%C4%B0brahim_%C5%9Einasi" title="İbrahim Şinasi">İbrahim Şinasi</a> is noted for writing, in 1860, the first modern Turkish play, the <a href="/wiki/One_act_play" class="mw-redirect" title="One act play">one-act</a> comedy Şair Evlenmesi (The Poet's Marriage). An earlier play, a <a href="/wiki/Farce" title="Farce">farce</a> titled Vakâyi'-i 'Acibe ve Havâdis-i Garibe-yi Kefşger Ahmed (The Strange Events and Bizarre Occurrences of the Cobbler Ahmed), dates from the beginning of the 19th century, but there is doubt about its authenticity. In a similar vein, the novelist <a href="/wiki/Ahmet_Mithat" title="Ahmet Mithat">Ahmed Midhat Efendi</a> wrote important novels in each of the major movements: Romanticism (Hasan Mellâh yâhud Sırr İçinde Esrâr, 1873; Hasan the Sailor, or The Mystery Within the Mystery), Realism (Henüz on Yedi Yaşında, 1881; Just Seventeen Years Old), and Naturalism (Müşâhedât, 1891; Observations). This diversity was, in part, due to Tanzimat writers' wish to disseminate as much of the new literature as possible, in the hopes that it would contribute to a revitalization of Ottoman <a href="/wiki/Social_structure" title="Social structure">social structures</a>.<a href="#cite_note-292">[277]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Media">Media</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Media_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Media of the Ottoman Empire">Media of the Ottoman Empire</a></div> The media of the Ottoman Empire was diverse, with newspapers and journals published in languages including <a href="/wiki/French_(language)" class="mw-redirect" title="French (language)">French</a>,<a href="#cite_note-BaruhMusnik-293">[278]</a> <a href="/wiki/Greek_(language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek (language)">Greek</a>,<a href="#cite_note-StraussConstp32-294">[279]</a> and <a href="/wiki/German_(language)" class="mw-redirect" title="German (language)">German</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Syed-2011-262">[247]</a> Many of these publications were centered in <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Kendallp339-295">[280]</a> but there were also French-language newspapers produced in <a href="/wiki/Beirut" title="Beirut">Beirut</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salonika" class="mw-redirect" title="Salonika">Salonika</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Smyrna" title="Smyrna">Smyrna</a>.<a href="#cite_note-StraussLanguagep122-296">[281]</a> Non-Muslim ethnic minorities in the empire used French as a <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a> and used French-language publications,<a href="#cite_note-BaruhMusnik-293">[278]</a> while some provincial newspapers were published in <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-StraussConstp25-297">[282]</a> The use of French in the media persisted until the <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire">end of the empire</a> in 1923 and for a few years thereafter in the <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Republic of Turkey</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BaruhMusnik-293">[278]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Architecture">Architecture</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_architecture" title="Ottoman architecture">Ottoman architecture</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cour_mosquee_Suleymaniye_Istanbul.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Cour_mosquee_Suleymaniye_Istanbul.jpg/220px-Cour_mosquee_Suleymaniye_Istanbul.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="189" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3301" data-file-height="2840"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 189px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Cour_mosquee_Suleymaniye_Istanbul.jpg/220px-Cour_mosquee_Suleymaniye_Istanbul.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="189" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Cour_mosquee_Suleymaniye_Istanbul.jpg/330px-Cour_mosquee_Suleymaniye_Istanbul.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Cour_mosquee_Suleymaniye_Istanbul.jpg/440px-Cour_mosquee_Suleymaniye_Istanbul.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/S%C3%BCleymaniye_Mosque" title="Süleymaniye Mosque">Süleymaniye Mosque</a> in Istanbul, designed by <a href="/wiki/Mimar_Sinan" title="Mimar Sinan">Mimar Sinan</a> in the 16th century and a major example of the <a href="/wiki/Classical_Ottoman_architecture" title="Classical Ottoman architecture">Classical Ottoman style</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Exterior_of_Sultan_Ahmed_I_Mosque,_(old_name_P1020390.jpg).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Exterior_of_Sultan_Ahmed_I_Mosque%2C_%28old_name_P1020390.jpg%29.jpg/220px-Exterior_of_Sultan_Ahmed_I_Mosque%2C_%28old_name_P1020390.jpg%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 165px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Exterior_of_Sultan_Ahmed_I_Mosque%2C_%28old_name_P1020390.jpg%29.jpg/220px-Exterior_of_Sultan_Ahmed_I_Mosque%2C_%28old_name_P1020390.jpg%29.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="165" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Exterior_of_Sultan_Ahmed_I_Mosque%2C_%28old_name_P1020390.jpg%29.jpg/330px-Exterior_of_Sultan_Ahmed_I_Mosque%2C_%28old_name_P1020390.jpg%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Exterior_of_Sultan_Ahmed_I_Mosque%2C_%28old_name_P1020390.jpg%29.jpg/440px-Exterior_of_Sultan_Ahmed_I_Mosque%2C_%28old_name_P1020390.jpg%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sultan_Ahmed_Mosque" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultan Ahmed Mosque">Blue Mosque</a> in Istanbul, an example of the <a href="/wiki/Classical_Ottoman_architecture" title="Classical Ottoman architecture">classical style</a> of Ottoman architecture, showing <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_architecture" title="Byzantine architecture">Byzantine</a> influence.</figcaption></figure> The architecture of the empire developed from earlier <a href="/wiki/Anatolian_Seljuk_architecture" title="Anatolian Seljuk architecture">Seljuk Turkish architecture</a>, with influences from <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_architecture" title="Byzantine architecture">Byzantine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iranian_architecture" title="Iranian architecture">Iranian</a> architecture and other architectural traditions in the Middle East.<a href="#cite_note-298">[283]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bloom-2009-299">[284]</a><a href="#cite_note-Freely-2011-300">[285]</a> <a href="/wiki/Early_Ottoman_architecture" title="Early Ottoman architecture">Early Ottoman architecture</a> experimented with multiple building types over the course of the 13th to 15th centuries, progressively evolving into the <a href="/wiki/Classical_Ottoman_architecture" title="Classical Ottoman architecture">Classical Ottoman style</a> of the 16th and 17th centuries, which was also strongly influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia" title="Hagia Sophia">Hagia Sophia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Freely-2011-300">[285]</a><a href="#cite_note-Goodwin-301">[286]</a> The most important architect of the Classical period is <a href="/wiki/Mimar_Sinan" title="Mimar Sinan">Mimar Sinan</a>, whose major works include the <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Eehzade_Mosque" title="Şehzade Mosque">Şehzade Mosque</a>, <a href="/wiki/S%C3%BCleymaniye_Mosque" title="Süleymaniye Mosque">Süleymaniye Mosque</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Selimiye_Mosque,_Edirne" title="Selimiye Mosque, Edirne">Selimiye Mosque</a>.<a href="#cite_note-AgostonMasters20102-302">[287]</a><a href="#cite_note-Grove_encycl-Ottoman-303">[288]</a> The greatest of the court artists enriched the Ottoman Empire with many pluralistic artistic influences, such as mixing traditional <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_art" title="Byzantine art">Byzantine art</a> with elements of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_art" title="Chinese art">Chinese art</a>.<a href="#cite_note-304">[289]</a> The second half of the 16th century also saw the apogee of certain decorative arts, most notably in the use of <a href="/wiki/Iznik_pottery" title="Iznik pottery">Iznik tiles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-305">[290]</a> Beginning in the 18th century, Ottoman architecture was influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Baroque_architecture" title="Baroque architecture">Baroque architecture</a> in Western Europe, resulting in the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Baroque_architecture" title="Ottoman Baroque architecture">Ottoman Baroque</a> style.<a href="#cite_note-Freely-2011a-306">[291]</a> <a href="/wiki/Nuruosmaniye_Mosque" title="Nuruosmaniye Mosque">Nuruosmaniye Mosque</a> is one of the most important examples from this period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFreely2011355-307">[292]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuban2010526-308">[293]</a> The last Ottoman period saw more influences from Western Europe, brought in by architects such as those from the <a href="/wiki/Balyan_family" title="Balyan family">Balyan family</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFreely2011393-309">[294]</a> <a href="/wiki/Empire_style" title="Empire style">Empire style</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture" title="Neoclassical architecture">Neoclassical</a> motifs were introduced and a trend towards <a href="/wiki/Eclecticism_in_architecture" title="Eclecticism in architecture">eclecticism</a> was evident in many types of buildings, such as the <a href="/wiki/Dolmabah%C3%A7e_Palace" title="Dolmabahçe Palace">Dolmabaçe Palace</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuban2010605%E2%80%93606-310">[295]</a> The last decades of the Ottoman Empire also saw the development of a new architectural style called neo-Ottoman or Ottoman revivalism, also known as the <a href="/wiki/First_national_architectural_movement" title="First national architectural movement">First National Architectural Movement</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Bloom-2009a-311">[296]</a> by architects such as <a href="/wiki/Mimar_Kemaleddin" title="Mimar Kemaleddin">Mimar Kemaleddin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vedat_Tek" title="Vedat Tek">Vedat Tek</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFreely2011393-309">[294]</a> Ottoman dynastic patronage was concentrated in the historic capitals of Bursa, Edirne, and Istanbul (Constantinople), as well as in several other important administrative centers such as <a href="/wiki/Amasya" title="Amasya">Amasya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manisa" title="Manisa">Manisa</a>. It was in these centers that most important developments in Ottoman architecture occurred and that the most monumental Ottoman architecture can be found.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuban2010679-312">[297]</a> Major religious monuments were typically architectural complexes, known as a <a href="/wiki/K%C3%BClliye" title="Külliye">külliye</a>, that had multiple components providing different services or amenities. In addition to a mosque, these could include a <a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa">madrasa</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Hammam" title="Hammam">hammam</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Imaret" title="Imaret">imaret</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Sebil_(fountain)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sebil (fountain)">sebil</a>, a market, a <a href="/wiki/Caravanserai" title="Caravanserai">caravanserai</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Kuttab" title="Kuttab">primary school</a>, or others.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuban2010-313">[298]</a> These complexes were governed and managed with the help of a vakıf agreement (Arabic waqf).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuban2010-313">[298]</a> Ottoman constructions were still abundant in Anatolia and in the Balkans (Rumelia), but in the more distant Middle Eastern and North African provinces older <a href="/wiki/Islamic_architecture" title="Islamic architecture">Islamic architectural</a> styles continued to hold strong influence and were sometimes blended with Ottoman styles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuban2010571%E2%80%93596-314">[299]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlairBloom1995251-315">[300]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decorative_arts">Decorative arts</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_illumination" title="Ottoman illumination">Ottoman illumination</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_miniature" title="Ottoman miniature">Ottoman miniature</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Topkapi_Sarayi_in_time_of_Selim_I_-_left.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Topkapi_Sarayi_in_time_of_Selim_I_-_left.jpg/170px-Topkapi_Sarayi_in_time_of_Selim_I_-_left.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="278" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1925" data-file-height="3151"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 278px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Topkapi_Sarayi_in_time_of_Selim_I_-_left.jpg/170px-Topkapi_Sarayi_in_time_of_Selim_I_-_left.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="278" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Topkapi_Sarayi_in_time_of_Selim_I_-_left.jpg/255px-Topkapi_Sarayi_in_time_of_Selim_I_-_left.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Topkapi_Sarayi_in_time_of_Selim_I_-_left.jpg/340px-Topkapi_Sarayi_in_time_of_Selim_I_-_left.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_miniature" title="Ottoman miniature">Ottoman miniature</a> lost its function with the Westernization of Ottoman culture.</figcaption></figure> The tradition of <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_miniature" title="Ottoman miniature">Ottoman miniatures</a>, painted to illustrate manuscripts or used in dedicated albums, was heavily influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Persian_miniature" title="Persian miniature">Persian</a> art form, though it also included elements of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_art" title="Byzantine art">Byzantine</a> tradition of <a href="/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript" title="Illuminated manuscript">illumination</a> and painting.<a href="#cite_note-316">[301]</a> A Greek academy of painters, the Nakkashane-i-Rum, was established in the <a href="/wiki/Topkap%C4%B1_Palace" title="Topkapı Palace">Topkapi Palace</a> in the 15th century, while early in the following century a similar Persian academy, the Nakkashane-i-Irani, was added. <a href="/wiki/Surname-i_H%C3%BCmayun" title="Surname-i Hümayun">Surname-i Hümayun</a> (Imperial Festival Books) were albums that commemorated celebrations in the Ottoman Empire in pictorial and textual detail. <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_illumination" title="Ottoman illumination">Ottoman illumination</a> covers non-figurative painted or drawn decorative art in books or on sheets in <a href="/wiki/Muraqqa" title="Muraqqa">muraqqa</a> or albums, as opposed to the figurative images of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_miniature" title="Ottoman miniature">Ottoman miniature</a>. It was a part of the Ottoman Book Arts together with the Ottoman miniature (taswir), calligraphy (hat), <a href="/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy" title="Islamic calligraphy">Islamic calligraphy</a>, bookbinding (cilt) and <a href="/wiki/Paper_marbling" title="Paper marbling">paper marbling</a> (ebru). In the Ottoman Empire, <a href="/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript" title="Illuminated manuscript">illuminated and illustrated manuscripts</a> were commissioned by the Sultan or the administrators of the court. In Topkapi Palace, these manuscripts were created by the artists working in Nakkashane, the atelier of the miniature and illumination artists. Both religious and non-religious books could be illuminated. Also, sheets for albums levha consisted of illuminated calligraphy (hat) of <a href="/wiki/Tughra" title="Tughra">tughra</a>, religious texts, verses from poems or proverbs, and purely decorative drawings. The art of carpet <a href="/wiki/Weaving" title="Weaving">weaving</a> was particularly significant in the Ottoman Empire, carpets having an immense importance both as decorative furnishings, rich in religious and other symbolism and as a practical consideration, as it was customary to remove one's shoes in living quarters.<a href="#cite_note-foroqhi-317">[302]</a> The weaving of such carpets originated in the <a href="/wiki/Nomad" title="Nomad">nomadic</a> cultures of central Asia (carpets being an easily transportable form of furnishing), and eventually spread to the settled societies of Anatolia. Turks used carpets, rugs, and <a href="/wiki/Kilim" title="Kilim">kilims</a> not just on the floors of a room but also as a hanging on walls and doorways, where they provided additional insulation. They were also commonly donated to mosques, which often amassed large collections of them.<a href="#cite_note-foroqhip153-318">[303]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Music_and_performing_arts">Music and performing arts</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Music" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Music">Ottoman Music</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Musicians_and_dancers_from_ottoman_empire.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Musicians_and_dancers_from_ottoman_empire.jpg/170px-Musicians_and_dancers_from_ottoman_empire.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="278" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="489" data-file-height="800"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 278px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Musicians_and_dancers_from_ottoman_empire.jpg/170px-Musicians_and_dancers_from_ottoman_empire.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="278" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Musicians_and_dancers_from_ottoman_empire.jpg/255px-Musicians_and_dancers_from_ottoman_empire.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Musicians_and_dancers_from_ottoman_empire.jpg/340px-Musicians_and_dancers_from_ottoman_empire.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Musicians and dancers entertaining the crowds, from the <a href="/wiki/Surname-i_H%C3%BCmayun" title="Surname-i Hümayun">Surname-i Hümayun</a>, 1720</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_music" title="Ottoman music">Ottoman classical music</a> was an important part of the education of the Ottoman elite. A number of the Ottoman sultans have accomplished musicians and composers themselves, such as <a href="/wiki/Selim_III" title="Selim III">Selim III</a>, whose compositions are often still performed today. Ottoman classical music arose largely from a confluence of <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_music" title="Byzantine music">Byzantine music</a>, <a href="/wiki/Music_of_Armenia" title="Music of Armenia">Armenian music</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabic_music" title="Arabic music">Arabic music</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Persian_traditional_music" title="Persian traditional music">Persian music</a>. Compositionally, it is organized around rhythmic units called <a href="/wiki/Usul_(music)" class="mw-redirect" title="Usul (music)">usul</a>, which are somewhat similar to <a href="/wiki/Metre_(music)" title="Metre (music)">meter</a> in Western music, and <a href="/wiki/Melody" title="Melody">melodic</a> units called <a href="/wiki/Turkish_makam" title="Turkish makam">makam</a>, which bear some resemblance to Western <a href="/wiki/Mode_(music)" title="Mode (music)">musical modes</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Musical_instrument" title="Musical instrument">instruments</a> used are a mixture of Anatolian and Central Asian instruments (the <a href="/wiki/Ba%C4%9Flama" title="Bağlama">saz</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ba%C4%9Flama" title="Bağlama">bağlama</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kemenche" title="Kemenche">kemence</a>), other Middle Eastern instruments (the <a href="/wiki/Oud" title="Oud">ud</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Tanbur" title="Tanbur">tanbur</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Qanun_(instrument)" title="Qanun (instrument)">kanun</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ney" title="Ney">ney</a>), and—later in the tradition—Western instruments (the violin and the piano). Because of a geographic and cultural divide between the capital and other areas, two broadly distinct styles of music arose in the Ottoman Empire: Ottoman classical music and folk music. In the provinces, several different kinds of <a href="/wiki/Folk_music" title="Folk music">folk music</a> were created. The most dominant regions with their distinguished musical styles are Balkan-Thracian Türküs, North-Eastern (<a href="/wiki/Laz_people" title="Laz people">Laz</a>) Türküs, Aegean Türküs, Central Anatolian Türküs, Eastern Anatolian Türküs, and Caucasian Türküs. Some of the distinctive styles were: <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_military_band" title="Ottoman military band">Janissary music</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romani_music" title="Romani music">Roma music</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belly_dance" title="Belly dance">Belly dance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkish_folk_music" title="Turkish folk music">Turkish folk music</a>. The traditional <a href="/wiki/Shadow_play" title="Shadow play">shadow play</a> called <a href="/wiki/Karag%C3%B6z_and_Hacivat" title="Karagöz and Hacivat">Karagöz and Hacivat</a> was widespread throughout the Ottoman Empire and featured characters representing all of the major ethnic and social groups in that culture.<a href="#cite_note-319">[304]</a><a href="#cite_note-320">[305]</a> It was performed by a single puppet master, who voiced all of the characters, and accompanied by <a href="/wiki/Tambourine" title="Tambourine">tambourine</a> (def). Its origins are obscure, deriving perhaps from an older Egyptian tradition, or possibly from an Asian source. <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 225px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 220px; height: 230px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Surname_171b.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Miniature from Surname-i Vehbi showing the Mehteran, the music band of the Janissaries"><noscript><img alt="Miniature from Surname-i Vehbi showing the Mehteran, the music band of the Janissaries" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Surname_171b.jpg/127px-Surname_171b.jpg" decoding="async" width="127" height="200" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="440" data-file-height="690"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 127px;height: 200px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Surname_171b.jpg/127px-Surname_171b.jpg" data-alt="Miniature from Surname-i Vehbi showing the Mehteran, the music band of the Janissaries" data-width="127" data-height="200" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Surname_171b.jpg/191px-Surname_171b.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Surname_171b.jpg/255px-Surname_171b.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Miniature from <a href="/wiki/Abdulcelil_Levni" title="Abdulcelil Levni">Surname-i Vehbi</a> showing the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_military_band" title="Ottoman military band">Mehteran</a>, the music band of the <a href="/wiki/Janissary" title="Janissary">Janissaries</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 225px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 220px; height: 230px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Karagoz_figures.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The shadow play Karagöz and Hacivat was widespread throughout the Ottoman Empire."><noscript><img alt="The shadow play Karagöz and Hacivat was widespread throughout the Ottoman Empire." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Karagoz_figures.jpg/190px-Karagoz_figures.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="189" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="753" data-file-height="749"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 190px;height: 189px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Karagoz_figures.jpg/190px-Karagoz_figures.jpg" data-alt="The shadow play Karagöz and Hacivat was widespread throughout the Ottoman Empire." data-width="190" data-height="189" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Karagoz_figures.jpg/285px-Karagoz_figures.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Karagoz_figures.jpg/380px-Karagoz_figures.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The shadow play <a href="/wiki/Karag%C3%B6z_and_Hacivat" title="Karagöz and Hacivat">Karagöz and Hacivat</a> was widespread throughout the Ottoman Empire.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 225px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 220px; height: 230px;"><a href="/wiki/File:A_Musical_Gathering_-_Ottoman,_18th_century.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A musical gathering in the 18th century"><noscript><img alt="A musical gathering in the 18th century" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/A_Musical_Gathering_-_Ottoman%2C_18th_century.jpg/128px-A_Musical_Gathering_-_Ottoman%2C_18th_century.jpg" decoding="async" width="128" height="200" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="3118"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 128px;height: 200px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/A_Musical_Gathering_-_Ottoman%2C_18th_century.jpg/128px-A_Musical_Gathering_-_Ottoman%2C_18th_century.jpg" data-alt="A musical gathering in the 18th century" data-width="128" data-height="200" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/A_Musical_Gathering_-_Ottoman%2C_18th_century.jpg/192px-A_Musical_Gathering_-_Ottoman%2C_18th_century.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/A_Musical_Gathering_-_Ottoman%2C_18th_century.jpg/256px-A_Musical_Gathering_-_Ottoman%2C_18th_century.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A musical gathering in the 18th century</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 225px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 220px; height: 230px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Surname-%C4%B1_H%C3%BCmayun_acrobacy.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Acrobacy in Surname-i Hümayun"><noscript><img alt="Acrobacy in Surname-i Hümayun" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Surname-%C4%B1_H%C3%BCmayun_acrobacy.png/131px-Surname-%C4%B1_H%C3%BCmayun_acrobacy.png" decoding="async" width="131" height="200" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="796" data-file-height="1214"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 131px;height: 200px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Surname-%C4%B1_H%C3%BCmayun_acrobacy.png/131px-Surname-%C4%B1_H%C3%BCmayun_acrobacy.png" data-alt="Acrobacy in Surname-i Hümayun" data-width="131" data-height="200" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Surname-%C4%B1_H%C3%BCmayun_acrobacy.png/197px-Surname-%C4%B1_H%C3%BCmayun_acrobacy.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Surname-%C4%B1_H%C3%BCmayun_acrobacy.png/262px-Surname-%C4%B1_H%C3%BCmayun_acrobacy.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Acrobacy in <a href="/wiki/Surname-i_H%C3%BCmayun" title="Surname-i Hümayun">Surname-i Hümayun</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cuisine">Cuisine</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_cuisine" title="Ottoman cuisine">Ottoman cuisine</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fran%C3%A7ois-Marie_Rosset_-_Femmes_Turcs_turques_de_Serquin,_leur_mani%C3%A8re_de_faire_leur_pain_-_Syrie_-_1790.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Fran%C3%A7ois-Marie_Rosset_-_Femmes_Turcs_turques_de_Serquin%2C_leur_mani%C3%A8re_de_faire_leur_pain_-_Syrie_-_1790.jpg/170px-Fran%C3%A7ois-Marie_Rosset_-_Femmes_Turcs_turques_de_Serquin%2C_leur_mani%C3%A8re_de_faire_leur_pain_-_Syrie_-_1790.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="234" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2247" data-file-height="3092"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 234px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Fran%C3%A7ois-Marie_Rosset_-_Femmes_Turcs_turques_de_Serquin%2C_leur_mani%C3%A8re_de_faire_leur_pain_-_Syrie_-_1790.jpg/170px-Fran%C3%A7ois-Marie_Rosset_-_Femmes_Turcs_turques_de_Serquin%2C_leur_mani%C3%A8re_de_faire_leur_pain_-_Syrie_-_1790.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="234" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Fran%C3%A7ois-Marie_Rosset_-_Femmes_Turcs_turques_de_Serquin%2C_leur_mani%C3%A8re_de_faire_leur_pain_-_Syrie_-_1790.jpg/255px-Fran%C3%A7ois-Marie_Rosset_-_Femmes_Turcs_turques_de_Serquin%2C_leur_mani%C3%A8re_de_faire_leur_pain_-_Syrie_-_1790.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Fran%C3%A7ois-Marie_Rosset_-_Femmes_Turcs_turques_de_Serquin%2C_leur_mani%C3%A8re_de_faire_leur_pain_-_Syrie_-_1790.jpg/340px-Fran%C3%A7ois-Marie_Rosset_-_Femmes_Turcs_turques_de_Serquin%2C_leur_mani%C3%A8re_de_faire_leur_pain_-_Syrie_-_1790.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Turkish women baking bread, 1790</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_cuisine" title="Ottoman cuisine">Ottoman cuisine</a> is the cuisine of the capital, Constantinople (<a href="/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a>), and the regional capital cities, where the melting pot of cultures created a common cuisine that most of the population regardless of ethnicity shared. This diverse cuisine was honed in the Imperial Palace's kitchens by chefs brought from certain parts of the Empire to create and experiment with different ingredients. The creations of the Ottoman Palace's kitchens filtered to the population, for instance through <a href="/wiki/Ramadan" title="Ramadan">Ramadan</a> events, and through the cooking at the <a href="/wiki/Yal%C4%B1" title="Yalı">Yalıs</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Pasha" title="Pasha">Pashas</a>, and from there on spread to the rest of the population. Much of the cuisine of former Ottoman territories today is descended from a shared Ottoman cuisine, especially <a href="/wiki/Turkish_cuisine" title="Turkish cuisine">Turkish</a>, and including <a href="/wiki/Greek_cuisine" title="Greek cuisine">Greek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Balkan_cuisine" title="Balkan cuisine">Balkan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armenian_cuisine" title="Armenian cuisine">Armenian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_cuisine" title="Middle Eastern cuisine">Middle Eastern</a> cuisines.<a href="#cite_note-Fragner-321">[306]</a> Many common dishes in the region, descendants of the once-common Ottoman cuisine, include <a href="/wiki/Yogurt" title="Yogurt">yogurt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doner_kebab" title="Doner kebab">döner kebab</a>/<a href="/wiki/Gyros" title="Gyros">gyro</a>/<a href="/wiki/Shawarma" title="Shawarma">shawarma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tzatziki" title="Tzatziki">cacık</a>/tzatziki, <a href="/wiki/Ayran" title="Ayran">ayran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pita" title="Pita">pita</a> bread, <a href="/wiki/Feta" title="Feta">feta</a> cheese, <a href="/wiki/Baklava" title="Baklava">baklava</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lahmacun" title="Lahmacun">lahmacun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moussaka" title="Moussaka">moussaka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yuvarlakia" title="Yuvarlakia">yuvarlak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kofta" title="Kofta">köfte</a>/keftés/kofta, <a href="/wiki/B%C3%B6rek" title="Börek">börek</a>/boureki, <a href="/wiki/Rak%C4%B1" title="Rakı">rakı</a>/<a href="/wiki/Rakia" title="Rakia">rakia</a>/<a href="/wiki/Tsipouro" title="Tsipouro">tsipouro</a>/<a href="/wiki/Tsikoudia" title="Tsikoudia">tsikoudia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Meze" title="Meze">meze</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dolma" title="Dolma">dolma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sarma_(food)" title="Sarma (food)">sarma</a>, rice <a href="/wiki/Pilaf" title="Pilaf">pilaf</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkish_coffee" title="Turkish coffee">Turkish coffee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sujuk" title="Sujuk">sujuk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kashk" title="Kashk">kashk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ke%C5%9Fkek" title="Keşkek">keşkek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manti_(food)" title="Manti (food)">manti</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lavash" title="Lavash">lavash</a>, <a href="/wiki/Knafeh" title="Knafeh">kanafeh</a>, and more. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sports">Sports</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MedyaBJK.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/MedyaBJK.jpg/220px-MedyaBJK.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="460" data-file-height="330"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 158px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/MedyaBJK.jpg/220px-MedyaBJK.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="158" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/MedyaBJK.jpg/330px-MedyaBJK.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/MedyaBJK.jpg/440px-MedyaBJK.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Members of <a href="/wiki/Be%C5%9Fikta%C5%9F_J.K." title="Beşiktaş J.K.">Beşiktaş J.K.</a> in 1903</figcaption></figure> The main sports Ottomans were engaged in were <a href="/wiki/Wrestling_in_Turkey" title="Wrestling in Turkey">Turkish wrestling</a>, hunting, <a href="/wiki/Turkish_archery" title="Turkish archery">Turkish archery</a>, horseback riding, <a href="/wiki/Jereed" title="Jereed">equestrian javelin throw</a>, arm wrestling, and swimming. European model sports clubs were formed with the spreading popularity of <a href="/wiki/Association_football" title="Association football">football</a> matches in 19th century Constantinople. The leading clubs, according to timeline, were <a href="/wiki/Be%C5%9Fikta%C5%9F_J.K." title="Beşiktaş J.K.">Beşiktaş Gymnastics Club</a> (1903), <a href="/wiki/Galatasaray_S.K." title="Galatasaray S.K.">Galatasaray Sports Club</a> (1905), <a href="/wiki/Fenerbah%C3%A7e_S.K." title="Fenerbahçe S.K.">Fenerbahçe Sports Club</a> (1907), <a href="/wiki/MKE_Ankarag%C3%BCc%C3%BC" title="MKE Ankaragücü">MKE Ankaragücü (formerly Turan Sanatkarangücü)</a> (1910) in Constantinople. Football clubs were formed in other provinces too, such as <a href="/wiki/Kar%C5%9F%C4%B1yaka_S.K." title="Karşıyaka S.K.">Karşıyaka Sports Club</a> (1912), <a href="/wiki/Altay_S.K." title="Altay S.K.">Altay Sports Club</a> (1914) and <a href="/wiki/%C3%9Clk%C3%BCspor" title="Ülküspor">Turkish Fatherland Football Club</a> (later <a href="/wiki/%C3%9Clk%C3%BCspor" title="Ülküspor">Ülküspor</a>) (1914) of <a href="/wiki/%C4%B0zmir" title="İzmir">İzmir</a>. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="Science_and_technology">Science and technology</h2></div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Science and technology in the Ottoman Empire">Science and technology in the Ottoman Empire</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Istambul_observatory_in_1577.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Istambul_observatory_in_1577.jpg/220px-Istambul_observatory_in_1577.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="189" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2356" data-file-height="2029"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 189px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Istambul_observatory_in_1577.jpg/220px-Istambul_observatory_in_1577.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="189" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Istambul_observatory_in_1577.jpg/330px-Istambul_observatory_in_1577.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Istambul_observatory_in_1577.jpg/440px-Istambul_observatory_in_1577.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Constantinople_observatory_of_Taqi_ad-Din" title="Constantinople observatory of Taqi ad-Din">Constantinople observatory of Taqi ad-Din</a> in 1577</figcaption></figure> Over the course of Ottoman history, the Ottomans managed to build a large collection of libraries complete with translations of books from other cultures, as well as original manuscripts.<a href="#cite_note-%C3%81goston_and_Alan_Masters583-73">[59]</a> A great part of this desire for local and foreign manuscripts arose in the 15th century. <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_II" title="Mehmed II">Sultan Mehmet II</a> ordered <a href="/wiki/George_Amiroutzes" title="George Amiroutzes">Georgios Amiroutzes</a>, a Greek scholar from <a href="/wiki/Trabzon" title="Trabzon">Trabzon</a>, to translate and make available to Ottoman educational institutions the geography book of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>. Another example is <a href="/wiki/Ali_Qushji" title="Ali Qushji">Ali Qushji</a> – an <a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">astronomer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Mathematics in the medieval Islamic world">mathematician</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Physics in the medieval Islamic world">physicist</a> originally from <a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a> – who became a professor in two madrasas and influenced Ottoman circles as a result of his writings and the activities of his students, even though he only spent two or three years in Constantinople before his death.<a href="#cite_note-322">[307]</a> <a href="/wiki/Taqi_ad-Din_Muhammad_ibn_Ma%27ruf" title="Taqi ad-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf">Taqi al-Din</a> built the <a href="/wiki/Constantinople_observatory_of_Taqi_ad-Din" title="Constantinople observatory of Taqi ad-Din">Constantinople observatory of Taqi ad-Din</a> in 1577, where he carried out observations until 1580. He calculated the <a href="/wiki/Orbital_eccentricity" title="Orbital eccentricity">eccentricity</a> of the Sun's orbit and the annual motion of the <a href="/wiki/Apsis" title="Apsis">apogee</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Tekeli-323">[308]</a> However, the observatory's primary purpose was almost certainly <a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">astrological</a> rather than astronomical, leading to its destruction in 1580 due to the rise of a clerical faction that opposed its use for that purpose.<a href="#cite_note-324">[309]</a> He also experimented with <a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">steam power</a> in <a href="/wiki/Egypt_Eyalet" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt Eyalet">Ottoman Egypt</a> in 1551, when he described a <a href="/wiki/Roasting_jack" title="Roasting jack">steam jack</a> driven by a rudimentary <a href="/wiki/Steam_turbine" title="Steam turbine">steam turbine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-325">[310]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Osman-hamdi-bey-girl-reciting-qu-ran-1880.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Osman-hamdi-bey-girl-reciting-qu-ran-1880.jpg/220px-Osman-hamdi-bey-girl-reciting-qu-ran-1880.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="695" data-file-height="553"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 175px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Osman-hamdi-bey-girl-reciting-qu-ran-1880.jpg/220px-Osman-hamdi-bey-girl-reciting-qu-ran-1880.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="175" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Osman-hamdi-bey-girl-reciting-qu-ran-1880.jpg/330px-Osman-hamdi-bey-girl-reciting-qu-ran-1880.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Osman-hamdi-bey-girl-reciting-qu-ran-1880.jpg/440px-Osman-hamdi-bey-girl-reciting-qu-ran-1880.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Girl Reciting the Qurān (Kuran Okuyan Kız), an 1880 painting by the Ottoman polymath <a href="/wiki/Osman_Hamdi_Bey" title="Osman Hamdi Bey">Osman Hamdi Bey</a>, whose works often showed women engaged in educational activities<a href="#cite_note-326">[311]</a></figcaption></figure> In 1660 the Ottoman scholar <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ibrahim_Efendi_al-Zigetvari_Tezkireci&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ibrahim Efendi al-Zigetvari Tezkireci (page does not exist)">Ibrahim Efendi al-Zigetvari Tezkireci</a> translated <a href="/wiki/No%C3%ABl_Duret" title="Noël Duret">Noël Duret</a>'s French astronomical work (written in 1637) into Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-327">[312]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sabuncuo%C4%9Flu_%C5%9Eerafeddin" title="Sabuncuoğlu Şerafeddin">Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu</a> was the author of the first surgical atlas and the last major <a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Medicine in the medieval Islamic world">medical encyclopaedia from the Islamic world</a>. Though his work was largely based on <a href="/wiki/Al-Zahrawi" title="Al-Zahrawi">Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Al-Tasrif" title="Al-Tasrif">Al-Tasrif</a>, Sabuncuoğlu introduced many innovations of his own. Female surgeons were also illustrated for the first time.<a href="#cite_note-328">[313]</a> Since, the Ottoman Empire is credited with the invention of several surgical instruments in use such as <a href="/wiki/Forceps" title="Forceps">forceps</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catheter" title="Catheter">catheters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scalpel" title="Scalpel">scalpels and lancets</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Pincers_(tool)" title="Pincers (tool)">pincers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-329">[314]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] An example of a watch that measured time in minutes was created by an Ottoman watchmaker, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Meshur_Sheyh_Dede&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Meshur Sheyh Dede (page does not exist)">Meshur Sheyh Dede</a>, in 1702.<a href="#cite_note-330">[315]</a> In the early 19th century, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt_under_the_Muhammad_Ali_dynasty" title="History of Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty">Egypt under Muhammad Ali</a> began using <a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">steam engines</a> for industrial manufacturing, with industries such as <a href="/wiki/Ironworks" title="Ironworks">ironworks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Textile_manufacturing" title="Textile manufacturing">textile manufacturing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paper_mill" title="Paper mill">paper mills</a> and <a href="/wiki/Husk" title="Husk">hulling</a> mills moving towards steam power.<a href="#cite_note-batou193-331">[316]</a> Economic historian Jean Batou argues that the necessary economic conditions existed in Egypt for the adoption of <a href="/wiki/Oil" title="Oil">oil</a> as a potential energy source for its steam engines later in the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-batou193-331">[316]</a> In the 19th century, <a href="/wiki/Ishak_Efendi" title="Ishak Efendi">Ishak Efendi</a> is credited with introducing the then current Western scientific ideas and developments to the Ottoman and wider Muslim world, as well as the invention of a suitable Turkish and Arabic scientific terminology, through his translations of Western works. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div><section class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><noscript><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/32px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 32px;height: 21px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/32px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png" data-alt="flag" data-width="32" data-height="21" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/48px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/64px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Turkey" title="Portal:Turkey">Turkey portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/16_Great_Turkic_Empires" title="16 Great Turkic Empires">16 Great Turkic Empires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Bibliography of the Ottoman Empire">Bibliography of the Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_the_Sultans" title="Empire of the Sultans">Empire of the Sultans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunpowder_empires" title="Gunpowder empires">Gunpowder empires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Historiography of the Ottoman Empire">Historiography of the Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Outline of the Ottoman Empire">Outline of the Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_battles_involving_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="List of battles involving the Ottoman Empire">List of battles involving the Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_foreigners_who_were_in_the_service_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="List of foreigners who were in the service of the Ottoman Empire">List of foreigners who were in the service of the Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Ottoman_conquests,_sieges_and_landings" title="List of Ottoman conquests, sieges and landings">List of Ottoman conquests, sieges and landings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="List of wars involving the Ottoman Empire">List of wars involving the Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_wars_in_Europe" title="Ottoman wars in Europe">Ottoman wars in Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Outline of the Ottoman Empire">Outline of the Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_history" title="Turkic history">Turkic history</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(11)"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div><section class="mf-section-11 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-11"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <a href="/wiki/%C4%B0sl%C3%A2m_Ansiklopedisi" title="İslâm Ansiklopedisi">İslâm Ansiklopedisi</a>: "It is disputed when the Ottomans conquered this place; Various dates have been put forward in this regard, such as 1361, 1362, 1367 and 1369. Among these, the opinion that Edirne was captured in 1361 as a result of a systematic conquest policy by Murad and Lala Şahin, while Orhan Gazi was still alive, gains prominence. However, it has also been stated that the date of conquest may have occurred after 1366 (1369), based on an elegy showing that the city metropolitan Polykarpos was in Edirne in this capacity until 1366.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> In Ottoman Turkish, the city was known by various names, among which were Ḳosṭanṭīnīye (قسطنطينيه) (replacing the suffix -polis with the Arabic suffix), Istanbul (استنبول) and Islambol (اسلامبول, <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'full of Islam'); see <a href="/wiki/Names_of_Istanbul" title="Names of Istanbul">Names of Istanbul</a>). Kostantiniyye became obsolete in Turkish after the <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_Republic_of_Turkey" title="Proclamation of the Republic of Turkey">proclamation of the Republic of Turkey</a> in 1923,<a href="#cite_note-Edhemp286-7">[6]</a> and after Turkey's transition to Latin script in 1928,<a href="#cite_note-8">[7]</a> the Turkish government in 1930 requested that foreign embassies and companies use Istanbul, and that name became widely accepted internationally.<a href="#cite_note-9">[8]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Liturgical_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Liturgical language">Liturgical language</a>; among Arabic-speaking citizens </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Court, diplomacy, poetry, historiographical works, literary works, taught in state schools, and offered as an elective course or recommended for study in some <a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa">madrasas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-12">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[16]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> Among Greek-speaking community; spoken by some sultans. </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> Decrees in the 15th century.<a href="#cite_note-22">[17]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> Foreign language among educated people in the post-<a href="/wiki/Tanzimat" title="Tanzimat">Tanzimat</a>/late imperial period.<a href="#cite_note-Strauss-2010-24">[18]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> The sultan from 1512 to 1520. </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> 1 November 1922 marks the formal ending of the Ottoman Empire. Mehmed VI departed Constantinople on 17 November 1922. </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_S%C3%A8vres" title="Treaty of Sèvres">Treaty of Sèvres</a> (10 August 1920) afforded a small existence to the Ottoman Empire. On 1 November 1922, the <a href="/wiki/Grand_National_Assembly_of_Turkey" title="Grand National Assembly of Turkey">Grand National Assembly</a> (GNAT) abolished the sultanate and declared that all the deeds of the Ottoman regime in Constantinople were null and void as of 16 March 1920, the date of the <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Constantinople" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupation of Constantinople">occupation of Constantinople</a> under the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres. The international recognition of the GNAT and the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Grand_National_Assembly" title="Government of the Grand National Assembly">Government of Ankara</a> was achieved through the signing of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Lausanne_(1923)" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Lausanne (1923)">Treaty of Lausanne</a> on 24 July 1923. The Grand National Assembly of Turkey promulgated the Republic on 29 October 1923. </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turkish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Turkish language">Ottoman Turkish</a>: دولت عليه عثمانيه, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Ottoman_Turkish" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanization of Ottoman Turkish">romanized</a>: Devlet-i ʿAlīye-i ʿOsmānīye, <a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> 'Sublime Ottoman State'</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a>: Osmanlı İmparatorluğu or Osmanlı Devleti</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: Empire ottoman<a href="#cite_note-Strauss-2010-24">[18]</a></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_dynasty" title="Ottoman dynasty">Ottoman dynasty</a> also held the title "<a href="/wiki/List_of_caliphs#Ottoman_Caliphate_(1517%E2%80%931924)" title="List of caliphs">caliph</a>" from the Ottoman victory over the <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate" title="Mamluk Sultanate">Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ridaniya" title="Battle of Ridaniya">Battle of Ridaniya</a> in 1517 to the <a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_the_Caliphate" title="Abolition of the Caliphate">abolition of the Caliphate</a> by the Turkish Republic in 1924. </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> The empire also temporarily gained authority over distant overseas lands through declarations of allegiance to the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Dynasty">Ottoman Sultan and Caliph</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_expedition_to_Aceh" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman expedition to Aceh">declaration by the Sultan of Aceh</a> in 1565, or through temporary acquisitions of islands such as <a href="/wiki/Lanzarote" title="Lanzarote">Lanzarote</a> in the Atlantic Ocean in 1585.<a href="#cite_note-41">[29]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> A lock-hold on trade between western Europe and Asia is often cited as a primary motivation for <a href="/wiki/Isabella_I_of_Castile" title="Isabella I of Castile">Isabella I of Castile</a> to fund <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a>'s westward journey to find a sailing route to Asia and, more generally, for European seafaring nations to explore alternative trade routes (e.g., K.D. Madan, Life and travels of Vasco Da Gama (1998), 9; I. Stavans, Imagining Columbus: the literary voyage (2001), 5; W.B. Wheeler and S. Becker, Discovering the American Past. A Look at the Evidence: to 1877 (2006), 105). This traditional viewpoint has been attacked as unfounded in an influential article by A.H. Lybyer ("The Ottoman Turks and the Routes of Oriental Trade", English Historical Review, 120 (1915), 577–588), who sees the rise of Ottoman power and the beginnings of Portuguese and Spanish explorations as unrelated events. His view has not been universally accepted (cf. K.M. Setton, The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571), Vol. 2: The Fifteenth Century (Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 127) (1978), 335). </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> Though the revolt was officially initiated on the 10 June, bin Ali's sons <a href="/wiki/Ali_of_Hejaz" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali of Hejaz">'Ali</a> and <a href="/wiki/Faisal_I_of_Iraq" title="Faisal I of Iraq">Faisal</a> had already initiated operations at Medina starting on 5 June.<a href="#cite_note-180">[166]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMcDonaldMoore2015" class="citation journal cs1">McDonald, Sean; Moore, Simon (20 October 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080/15456870.2015.1090439">"Communicating Identity in the Ottoman Empire and Some Implications for Contemporary States"</a>. Atlantic Journal of Communication. 23 (5): 269–283. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F15456870.2015.1090439">10.1080/15456870.2015.1090439</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1545-6870">1545-6870</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146299650">146299650</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151026/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15456870.2015.1090439">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 24 March 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Atlantic+Journal+of+Communication&rft.atitle=Communicating+Identity+in+the+Ottoman+Empire+and+Some+Implications+for+Contemporary+States&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=269-283&rft.date=2015-10-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A146299650%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1545-6870&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F15456870.2015.1090439&rft.aulast=McDonald&rft.aufirst=Sean&rft.au=Moore%2C+Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%2F15456870.2015.1090439&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shaw-13-2"><a href="#cite_ref-Shaw-13_2-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShawShaw1977" class="citation book cs1">Shaw, Stanford; Shaw, Ezel (1977). History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Vol. I. Cambridge University Press. p. 13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29166-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29166-8"><bdi>978-0-521-29166-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Ottoman+Empire+and+Modern+Turkey&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-521-29166-8&rft.aulast=Shaw&rft.aufirst=Stanford&rft.au=Shaw%2C+Ezel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtasoyRaby198919–20-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAtasoyRaby198919%E2%80%9320_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAtasoyRaby1989">Atasoy & Raby 1989</a>, p. 19–20. </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-4"><a href="#cite_ref-auto_4-0">^</a> "In 1363 the Ottoman capital moved from Bursa to Edirne, although Bursa retained its spiritual and economic importance." <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kultur.gov.tr/%E2%80%93EN,33810/ottoman-capital-bursa.html">Ottoman Capital Bursa</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160305185907/http://www.kultur.gov.tr/%e2%80%93en,33810/ottoman-capital-bursa.html">Archived</a> 5 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Official website of <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Culture_and_Tourism_of_the_Republic_of_Turkey" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Culture and Tourism of the Republic of Turkey">Ministry of Culture and Tourism of the Republic of Turkey</a>. Retrieved 26 June 2013. </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM._Tayyib_Gökbilgin1988–2016" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">M. Tayyib Gökbilgin (1988–2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/edirne">"Edirne"</a>. <a href="/wiki/TDV_Encyclopedia_of_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="TDV Encyclopedia of Islam">TDV Encyclopedia of Islam</a> (44+2 vols.) (in Turkish). Istanbul: <a href="/wiki/Directorate_of_Religious_Affairs" class="mw-redirect" title="Directorate of Religious Affairs">Turkiye Diyanet Foundation</a>, Centre for Islamic Studies.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Edirne&rft.btitle=TDV+Encyclopedia+of+Islam+%2844%2B2+vols.%29&rft.place=Istanbul&rft.pub=Turkiye+Diyanet+Foundation%2C+Centre+for+Islamic+Studies&rft.date=1988%2F2016&rft.au=M.+Tayyib+G%C3%B6kbilgin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fislamansiklopedisi.org.tr%2Fedirne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Edhemp286-7"><a href="#cite_ref-Edhemp286_7-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdhem2010" class="citation book cs1">Edhem, Eldem (21 May 2010). "Istanbul". In Gábor, Ágoston; Masters, Bruce Alan (eds.). Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire. Infobase. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA286">286</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-1025-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-1025-7"><bdi>978-1-4381-1025-7</bdi></a>. <q>With the collapse of the Ottoman Empire and the establishment of the Republic of Turkey, all previous names were abandoned and Istanbul came to designate the entire city.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Istanbul&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Ottoman+Empire&rft.pages=286&rft.pub=Infobase&rft.date=2010-05-21&rft.isbn=978-1-4381-1025-7&rft.aulast=Edhem&rft.aufirst=Eldem&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShawShaw1977b" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Shaw, Stanford J.; Shaw, Ezel Kural (1977b). History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Vol. 2: Reform, Revolution, and Republic: The Rise of Modern Turkey 1808–1975. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511614972">10.1017/CBO9780511614972</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780511614972" title="Special:BookSources/9780511614972"><bdi>9780511614972</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Ottoman+Empire+and+Modern+Turkey&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCBO9780511614972&rft.isbn=9780511614972&rft.aulast=Shaw&rft.aufirst=Stanford+J.&rft.au=Shaw%2C+Ezel+Kural&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShawShaw1977b">Shaw & Shaw 1977b</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AIET_7ji7YAC&pg=PA386">386</a>, volume 2; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobinson1965" class="citation book cs1">Robinson (1965). The First Turkish Republic. p. 298.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+Turkish+Republic&rft.pages=298&rft.date=1965&rft.au=Robinson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988">; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSociety2014" class="citation web cs1">Society (4 March 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200707175747/https://www.nationalgeographic.org/thisday/mar28/istanbul-not-constantinople/">"Istanbul, not Constantinople"</a>. National Geographic Society. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nationalgeographic.org/thisday/mar28/istanbul-not-constantinople">the original</a> on 7 July 2020. Retrieved 28 March 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Istanbul%2C+not+Constantinople&rft.pub=National+Geographic+Society&rft.date=2014-03-04&rft.au=Society&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalgeographic.org%2Fthisday%2Fmar28%2Fistanbul-not-constantinople&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988">) </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInan2019" class="citation book cs1">Inan, Murat Umut (2019). "Imperial Ambitions, Mystical Aspirations: Persian Learning in the Ottoman World". In Green, Nile (ed.). The Persianate World: The Frontiers of a Eurasian Lingua Franca. University of California Press. pp. 88–89. <q>As the Ottoman Turks learned Persian, the language and the culture it carried seeped not only into their court and imperial institutions but also into their vernacular language and culture. The appropriation of Persian, both as a second language and as a language to be steeped together with Turkish, was encouraged notably by the sultans, the ruling class, and leading members of the mystical communities.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Imperial+Ambitions%2C+Mystical+Aspirations%3A+Persian+Learning+in+the+Ottoman+World&rft.btitle=The+Persianate+World%3A+The+Frontiers+of+a+Eurasian+Lingua+Franca&rft.pages=88-89&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Inan&rft.aufirst=Murat+Umut&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTezcan2012" class="citation book cs1">Tezcan, Baki (2012). "Ottoman Historical Writing". In Rabasa, José (ed.). The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 3: 1400–1800 The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 3: 1400–1800. Oxford University Press. pp. 192–211. <q>Persian served as a 'minority' prestige language of culture at the largely Turcophone Ottoman court.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ottoman+Historical+Writing&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+History+of+Historical+Writing%3A+Volume+3%3A+1400%E2%80%931800+The+Oxford+History+of+Historical+Writing%3A+Volume+3%3A+1400%E2%80%931800&rft.pages=192-211&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Tezcan&rft.aufirst=Baki&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlynn2017" class="citation book cs1">Flynn, Thomas O. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cOAzDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA30">The Western Christian Presence in the Russias and Qājār Persia, c. 1760–c. 1870</a>. Brill. p. 30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-31354-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-31354-5"><bdi>978-90-04-31354-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151110/https://books.google.com/books?id=cOAzDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA30">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 21 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Western+Christian+Presence+in+the+Russias+and+Q%C4%81j%C4%81r+Persia%2C+c.+1760%E2%80%93c.+1870&rft.pages=30&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-90-04-31354-5&rft.aulast=Flynn&rft.aufirst=Thomas+O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcOAzDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA30&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFortna2012" class="citation book cs1">Fortna, B. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2Bh_DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA50">Learning to Read in the Late Ottoman Empire and the Early Turkish Republic</a>. Springer. p. 50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-30041-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-30041-5"><bdi>978-0-230-30041-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221021205028/https://books.google.com/books?id=2Bh_DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA50">Archived</a> from the original on 21 October 2022. Retrieved 21 October 2022. <q>Although in the late Ottoman period Persian was taught in the state schools...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Learning+to+Read+in+the+Late+Ottoman+Empire+and+the+Early+Turkish+Republic&rft.pages=50&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-230-30041-5&rft.aulast=Fortna&rft.aufirst=B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2Bh_DAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA50&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpuler2003" class="citation book cs1">Spuler, Bertold (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rD1vvympVtsC&pg=PA68">Persian Historiography and Geography</a>. Pustaka Nasional Pte. p. 68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9971-77-488-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-9971-77-488-2"><bdi>978-9971-77-488-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151032/https://books.google.com/books?id=rD1vvympVtsC&pg=PA68">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 21 October 2022. <q>On the whole, the circumstance in Turkey took a similar course: in Anatolia, the Persian language had played a significant role as the carrier of civilization. [...] where it was at time, to some extent, the language of diplomacy [...] However Persian maintained its position also during the early Ottoman period in the composition of histories and even Sultan Salim I, a bitter enemy of Iran and the Shi'ites, wrote poetry in Persian. Besides some poetical adaptations, the most important historiographical works are: Idris Bidlisi's flowery "Hasht Bihist", or Seven Paradises, begun in 1502 by the request of Sultan Bayazid II and covering the first eight Ottoman rulers...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Persian+Historiography+and+Geography&rft.pages=68&rft.pub=Pustaka+Nasional+Pte&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-9971-77-488-2&rft.aulast=Spuler&rft.aufirst=Bertold&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrD1vvympVtsC%26pg%3DPA68&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFetvacı2013" class="citation book cs1">Fetvacı, Emine (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f67qIxJrpTMC&pg=PA31">Picturing History at the Ottoman Court</a>. <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University_Press" title="Indiana University Press">Indiana University Press</a>. p. 31. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-00678-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-00678-3"><bdi>978-0-253-00678-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221021205027/https://books.google.com/books?id=f67qIxJrpTMC&pg=PA31">Archived</a> from the original on 21 October 2022. Retrieved 21 October 2022. <q>Persian literature, and belles-lettres in particular, were part of the curriculum: a Persian dictionary, a manual on prose composition; and Sa'dis 'Gulistan', one of the classics of Persian poetry, were borrowed. All these titles would be appropriate in the religious and cultural education of the newly converted young men.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Picturing+History+at+the+Ottoman+Court&rft.pages=31&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-253-00678-3&rft.aulast=Fetvac%C4%B1&rft.aufirst=Emine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Df67qIxJrpTMC%26pg%3DPA31&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYarshaterMelville359" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ehsan_Yarshater" title="Ehsan Yarshater">Yarshater, Ehsan</a>; <a href="/wiki/Charles_P._Melville" title="Charles P. Melville">Melville, Charles</a>, eds. (359). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=s6SmDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT359">Persian Historiography: A History of Persian Literature</a>. Vol. 10. Bloomsbury. p. 437. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85773-657-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85773-657-4"><bdi>978-0-85773-657-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221021205027/https://books.google.com/books?id=s6SmDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT359">Archived</a> from the original on 21 October 2022. Retrieved 21 October 2022. <q>Persian held a privileged place in Ottoman letters. Persian historical literature was first patronized during the reign of Mehmed II and continued unabated until the end of the 16th century.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Persian+Historiography%3A+A+History+of+Persian+Literature&rft.pages=437&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=359&rft.isbn=978-0-85773-657-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Ds6SmDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT359&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInan2019" class="citation book cs1">Inan, Murat Umut (2019). "Imperial Ambitions, Mystical Aspirations: Persian learning in the Ottoman World". In <a href="/wiki/Nile_Green" title="Nile Green">Green, Nile</a> (ed.). The Persianate World The Frontiers of a Eurasian Lingua Franca. University of California Press. p. 92 (note 27). <q>Though Persian, unlike Arabic, was not included in the typical curriculum of an Ottoman madrasa, the language was offered as an elective course or recommended for study in some madrasas. For those Ottoman madrasa curricula featuring Persian, see Cevat İzgi, Osmanlı Medreselerinde İlim, 2 vols. (Istanbul: İz, 1997),1: 167–169.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Imperial+Ambitions%2C+Mystical+Aspirations%3A+Persian+learning+in+the+Ottoman+World&rft.btitle=The+Persianate+World+The+Frontiers+of+a+Eurasian+Lingua+Franca&rft.pages=92+%28note+27%29&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Inan&rft.aufirst=Murat+Umut&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAyşe_Gül_Sertkaya2002" class="citation book cs1">Ayşe Gül Sertkaya (2002). "Şeyhzade Abdurrezak Bahşı". In György Hazai (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h11pAAAAMAAJ&q=%22As+a+result%2C+we+can%22">Archivum Ottomanicum</a>. Vol. 20. pp. 114–115. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221024132428/https://books.google.com/books?id=h11pAAAAMAAJ&q=%22As+a+result,+we+can%22">Archived</a> from the original on 24 October 2022. Retrieved 23 October 2022. <q>As a result, we can claim that Şeyhzade Abdürrezak Bahşı was a scribe lived in the palaces of Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror and his son Bayezid-i Veli in the 15th century, wrote letters (bitig) and firmans (yarlığ) sent to Eastern Turks by Mehmed II and Bayezid II in both Uighur and Arabic scripts and in East Turkestan (Chagatai) language.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%C5%9Eeyhzade+Abdurrezak+Bah%C5%9F%C4%B1&rft.btitle=Archivum+Ottomanicum&rft.pages=114-115&rft.date=2002&rft.au=Ay%C5%9Fe+G%C3%BCl+Sertkaya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dh11pAAAAMAAJ%26q%3D%2522As%2Ba%2Bresult%252C%2Bwe%2Bcan%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Strauss-2010-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Strauss-2010_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Strauss-2010_24-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Strauss-2010_24-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrauss2010" class="citation book cs1">Strauss, Johann (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/menalib/download/pdf/2734659?originalFilename=true">"A Constitution for a Multilingual Empire: Translations of the Kanun-ı Esasi and Other Official Texts into Minority Languages"</a>. In Herzog, Christoph; Malek Sharif (eds.). The First Ottoman Experiment in Democracy. <a href="/wiki/W%C3%BCrzburg" title="Würzburg">Würzburg</a>: <a href="/wiki/Orient-Institut_Istanbul" title="Orient-Institut Istanbul">Orient-Institut Istanbul</a>. pp. 21–51. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191011233851/https://menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/menalib/download/pdf/2734659?originalFilename=true">Archived</a> from the original on 11 October 2019. Retrieved 15 September 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+Constitution+for+a+Multilingual+Empire%3A+Translations+of+the+Kanun-%C4%B1+Esasi+and+Other+Official+Texts+into+Minority+Languages&rft.btitle=The+First+Ottoman+Experiment+in+Democracy&rft.place=W%C3%BCrzburg&rft.pages=21-51&rft.pub=Orient-Institut+Istanbul&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Strauss&rft.aufirst=Johann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmenadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de%2Fmenalib%2Fdownload%2Fpdf%2F2734659%3ForiginalFilename%3Dtrue&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/urn/urn:nbn:de:gbv:3:5-91645">info page on book</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190920231333/http://menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/urn/urn:nbn:de:gbv:3:5-91645">Archived</a> 20 September 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> at <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Martin Luther University">Martin Luther University</a>) // CITED: p. 26 (PDF p. 28): "French had become a sort of semi-official language in the Ottoman Empire in the wake of the Tanzimat reforms.[...] It is true that French was not an ethnic language of the Ottoman Empire. But it was the only Western language which would become increasingly widespread among educated persons in all linguistic communities." </li> <li id="cite_note-Lambton-1995-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lambton-1995_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lambton-1995_26-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lambton-1995_26-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLambtonLewis1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ann_Lambton" title="Ann Lambton">Lambton, Ann</a>; <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Lewis, Bernard</a> (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4AuJvd2Tyt8C">The Cambridge History of Islam: The Indian sub-continent, South-East Asia, Africa and the Muslim west</a>. Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. p. 320. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22310-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22310-2"><bdi>978-0-521-22310-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151657/https://books.google.com/books?id=4AuJvd2Tyt8C">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 25 July 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Islam%3A+The+Indian+sub-continent%2C+South-East+Asia%2C+Africa+and+the+Muslim+west&rft.pages=320&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-521-22310-2&rft.aulast=Lambton&rft.aufirst=Ann&rft.au=Lewis%2C+Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4AuJvd2Tyt8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPamuk2000" class="citation book cs1">Pamuk, Şevket (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Htk3Wn789EQC&pg=PA30">A Monetary History of the Ottoman Empire</a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 30–31. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-44197-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-44197-8"><bdi>0-521-44197-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151034/https://books.google.com/books?id=Htk3Wn789EQC&pg=PA30">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 21 October 2022. <q>The Ottomans began to strike coins in the name of <a href="/wiki/Orhan" title="Orhan">Orhan</a> Bey in 1326. These earliest coins carried inscriptions such as "the great Sultan, Orhan son of Osman" [...] Ottoman historiography has adopted 1299 as the date for the foundation of the state. 1299 might represent the date at which the Ottomans finally obtained their independence from the <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_dynasty" title="Seljuk dynasty">Seljuk</a> sultan at <a href="/wiki/Konya" title="Konya">Konya</a>. Probably, they were forced at the same time, or very soon thereafter, to accept the overlordship of the <a href="/wiki/Ilkhanids" class="mw-redirect" title="Ilkhanids">Ilkhanids</a> [...] Numismatic evidence thus suggest that independence did not really occur until 1326.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Monetary+History+of+the+Ottoman+Empire&rft.pages=30-31&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-521-44197-8&rft.aulast=Pamuk&rft.aufirst=%C5%9Eevket&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHtk3Wn789EQC%26pg%3DPA30&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Taagepera-1997-31">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Taagepera-1997_31-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Taagepera-1997_31-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Taagepera-1997_31-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRein_Taagepera1997" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rein_Taagepera" title="Rein Taagepera">Rein Taagepera</a> (September 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/3cn68807">"Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia"</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Studies_Quarterly" title="International Studies Quarterly">International Studies Quarterly</a>. 41 (3): 498. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F0020-8833.00053">10.1111/0020-8833.00053</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0020-8833">0020-8833</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2600793">2600793</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181119114740/https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3cn68807">Archived</a> from the original on 19 November 2018. Retrieved 8 July 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Studies+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Expansion+and+Contraction+Patterns+of+Large+Polities%3A+Context+for+Russia&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=498&rft.date=1997-09&rft.issn=0020-8833&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2600793%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F0020-8833.00053&rft.au=Rein+Taagepera&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.escholarship.org%2Fuc%2Fitem%2F3cn68807&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurchinAdamsHall2006" class="citation journal cs1">Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D (December 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381">"East-West Orientation of Historical Empires"</a>. Journal of World-Systems Research. 12 (2): 223. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1076-156X">1076-156X</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190520161830/http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381">Archived</a> from the original on 20 May 2019. Retrieved 12 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+World-Systems+Research&rft.atitle=East-West+Orientation+of+Historical+Empires&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=223&rft.date=2006-12&rft.issn=1076-156X&rft.aulast=Turchin&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Adams%2C+Jonathan+M.&rft.au=Hall%2C+Thomas+D&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjwsr.pitt.edu%2Fojs%2Findex.php%2Fjwsr%2Farticle%2Fview%2F369%2F381&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Erickson2003-33"><a href="#cite_ref-Erickson2003_33-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErickson2003" class="citation book cs1">Erickson, Edward J. (2003). Defeat in Detail: The Ottoman Army in the Balkans, 1912–1913. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-97888-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-97888-4"><bdi>978-0-275-97888-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Defeat+in+Detail%3A+The+Ottoman+Army+in+the+Balkans%2C+1912%E2%80%931913&rft.pages=59&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-275-97888-4&rft.aulast=Erickson&rft.aufirst=Edward+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFP.1916" class="citation journal cs1">P., E. A. (1916). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1779249">"Review of The Caliph's Last Heritage: A Short History of the Turkish Empire"</a>. The Geographical Journal. 47 (6): 470–472. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1779249">10.2307/1779249</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0016-7398">0016-7398</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1779249">1779249</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220710152110/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1779249">Archived</a> from the original on 10 July 2022. Retrieved 10 July 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Geographical+Journal&rft.atitle=Review+of+The+Caliph%27s+Last+Heritage%3A+A+Short+History+of+the+Turkish+Empire&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=470-472&rft.date=1916&rft.issn=0016-7398&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1779249%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1779249&rft.aulast=P.&rft.aufirst=E.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1779249&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaykara2017" class="citation journal cs1">Baykara, Prof. Tuncer (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/330026">"A Study into the Concepts of Turkey and Turkistan which were used for the Ottoman State in XIXth Century"</a>. Journal of Atatürk and the History of Turkish Republic. 1: 179–190. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240126030712/https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/330026">Archived</a> from the original on 26 January 2024. Retrieved 26 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Atat%C3%BCrk+and+the+History+of+Turkish+Republic&rft.atitle=A+Study+into+the+Concepts+of+Turkey+and+Turkistan+which+were+used+for+the+Ottoman+State+in+XIXth+Century&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=179-190&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Baykara&rft.aufirst=Prof.+Tuncer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdergipark.org.tr%2Ftr%2Fdownload%2Farticle-file%2F330026&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIngraoSamardžićPešalj2011" class="citation book cs1">Ingrao, Charles; Samardžić, Nikola; Pešalj, Jovan, eds. (12 August 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt6wq7kw">The Peace of Passarowitz, 1718</a>. Purdue University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctt6wq7kw.12">10.2307/j.ctt6wq7kw.12</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61249-179-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61249-179-0"><bdi>978-1-61249-179-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt6wq7kw">j.ctt6wq7kw</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231220040810/https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt6wq7kw">Archived</a> from the original on 20 December 2023. Retrieved 26 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Peace+of+Passarowitz%2C+1718&rft.pub=Purdue+University+Press&rft.date=2011-08-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctt6wq7kw%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2Fj.ctt6wq7kw.12&rft.isbn=978-1-61249-179-0&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctt6wq7kw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSzabó2019" class="citation book cs1">Szabó, János B. (2019). "The Ottoman Conquest in Hungary: Decisive Events (Belgrade 1521, Mohács 1526, Vienna 1529, Buda 1541) and Results". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004396234/BP000013.xml">The Battle for Central Europe</a>. Brill. pp. 263–275. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004396234_013">10.1163/9789004396234_013</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-39623-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-39623-4"><bdi>978-90-04-39623-4</bdi></a>. Retrieved 19 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Ottoman+Conquest+in+Hungary%3A+Decisive+Events+%28Belgrade+1521%2C+Moh%C3%A1cs+1526%2C+Vienna+1529%2C+Buda+1541%29+and+Results&rft.btitle=The+Battle+for+Central+Europe&rft.pages=263-275&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004396234_013&rft.isbn=978-90-04-39623-4&rft.aulast=Szab%C3%B3&rft.aufirst=J%C3%A1nos+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrill.com%2Fdisplay%2Fbook%2Fedcoll%2F9789004396234%2FBP000013.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoačanin2019" class="citation book cs1">Moačanin, Nenad (2019). "The Ottoman Conquest and Establishment in Croatia and Slavonia". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004396234/BP000014.xml">The Battle for Central Europe</a>. Brill. pp. 277–286. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004396234_014">10.1163/9789004396234_014</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-39623-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-39623-4"><bdi>978-90-04-39623-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240115185458/https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004396234/BP000014.xml">Archived</a> from the original on 15 January 2024. Retrieved 19 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Ottoman+Conquest+and+Establishment+in+Croatia+and+Slavonia&rft.btitle=The+Battle+for+Central+Europe&rft.pages=277-286&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004396234_014&rft.isbn=978-90-04-39623-4&rft.aulast=Moa%C4%8Danin&rft.aufirst=Nenad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrill.com%2Fdisplay%2Fbook%2Fedcoll%2F9789004396234%2FBP000014.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100329023319/http://www.dzkk.tsk.tr/turkce/tarihimiras/AtlantikteTurkDenizciligi.php">"Türk Deniz Kuvvetleri – Turkish Naval Forces"</a>. 29 March 2010. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dzkk.tsk.tr/turkce/tarihimiras/AtlantikteTurkDenizciligi.php">the original</a> on 29 March 2010. Retrieved 12 March 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=T%C3%BCrk+Deniz+Kuvvetleri+%E2%80%93+Turkish+Naval+Forces&rft.date=2010-03-29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dzkk.tsk.tr%2Fturkce%2Ftarihimiras%2FAtlantikteTurkDenizciligi.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFÁgoston2009" class="citation book cs1">Ágoston, Gábor (2009). "Introduction". In Ágoston, Gábor; Bruce Masters (eds.). Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Ottoman+Empire&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=%C3%81goston&rft.aufirst=G%C3%A1bor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFImber2009" class="citation book cs1">Imber, Colin (2009). The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power (2 ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 3. <q>By the seventeenth century, literate circles in Istanbul would not call themselves Turks, and often, in phrases such as 'senseless Turks', used the word as a term of abuse.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ottoman+Empire%2C+1300%E2%80%931650%3A+The+Structure+of+Power&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=3&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Imber&rft.aufirst=Colin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKafadar2007" class="citation journal cs1">Kafadar, Cemal (2007). "A Rome of One's Own: Cultural Geography and Identity in the Lands of Rum". Muqarnas. 24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Muqarnas&rft.atitle=A+Rome+of+One%27s+Own%3A+Cultural+Geography+and+Identity+in+the+Lands+of+Rum&rft.volume=24&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Kafadar&rft.aufirst=Cemal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreene2015" class="citation book cs1">Greene, Molly (2015). The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, 1453 to 1768.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Edinburgh+History+of+the+Greeks%2C+1453+to+1768&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Greene&rft.aufirst=Molly&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Soucek-2015-47"><a href="#cite_ref-Soucek-2015_47-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSoucek2015" class="citation book cs1">Soucek, Svat (2015). Ottoman Maritime Wars, 1416–1700. Istanbul: The Isis Press. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-975-428-554-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-975-428-554-3"><bdi>978-975-428-554-3</bdi></a>. <q>The scholarly community specializing in Ottoman studies has of late virtually banned the use of "Turkey", "Turks", and "Turkish" from acceptable vocabulary, declaring "Ottoman" and its expanded use mandatory and permitting its "Turkish" rival only in linguistic and philological contexts.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ottoman+Maritime+Wars%2C+1416%E2%80%931700&rft.place=Istanbul&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=The+Isis+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-975-428-554-3&rft.aulast=Soucek&rft.aufirst=Svat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFA'gostonMasters2008" class="citation book cs1">A'goston, Ga'bor; Masters, Bruce Alan (2008). Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire. Infobase Publishing, NY. p. 444. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-6259-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-6259-1"><bdi>978-0-8160-6259-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Ottoman+Empire&rft.pages=444&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing%2C+NY&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-6259-1&rft.aulast=A%27goston&rft.aufirst=Ga%27bor&rft.au=Masters%2C+Bruce+Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> "Osman was simply one among a number Turkoman tribal leaders operating in the Sakarya region."; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Osman-I">"Osman I"</a>. Encyclopedia Britannica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180424073731/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Osman-I">Archived</a> from the original on 24 April 2018. Retrieved 1 July 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Osman+I&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FOsman-I&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> Osman I, also called Osman Gazi, (born c. 1258—died 1324 or 1326), ruler of a Turkmen principality in northwestern Anatolia who is regarded as the founder of the Ottoman Turkish state. </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinkel2006" class="citation book cs1">Finkel, Caroline (13 February 2006). Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1923. Basic Books. pp. 2, 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-02396-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-02396-7"><bdi>978-0-465-02396-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Osman%27s+Dream%3A+The+Story+of+the+Ottoman+Empire%2C+1300%E2%80%931923&rft.pages=2%2C+7&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2006-02-13&rft.isbn=978-0-465-02396-7&rft.aulast=Finkel&rft.aufirst=Caroline&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKermeli2009" class="citation book cs1">Kermeli, Eugenia (2009) [2008]. "Osman I". In Ágoston, Gábor; Masters, Bruce (eds.). Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire. Infobase Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-1025-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-1025-7"><bdi>978-1-4381-1025-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Osman+I&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Ottoman+Empire&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4381-1025-7&rft.aulast=Kermeli&rft.aufirst=Eugenia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLowry2003" class="citation book cs1">Lowry, Heath (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fAppWuoFv3QC">The Nature of the Early Ottoman State</a>. SUNY Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-5636-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-5636-1"><bdi>978-0-7914-5636-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151032/https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Nature_of_the_Early_Ottoman_State/fAppWuoFv3QC?hl=en&gbpv=1">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 9 September 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nature+of+the+Early+Ottoman+State&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-5636-1&rft.aulast=Lowry&rft.aufirst=Heath&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfAppWuoFv3QC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKafadar1995" class="citation book cs1">Kafadar, Cemal (1995). Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+Two+Worlds%3A+The+Construction+of+the+Ottoman+State&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Kafadar&rft.aufirst=Cemal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinkel2005" class="citation book cs1">Finkel, Caroline (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9cTHyUQoTyUC&pg=PA5">Osman's Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire</a>. Basic Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-00850-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-00850-6"><bdi>978-0-465-00850-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151035/https://books.google.com/books?id=9cTHyUQoTyUC&pg=PA5">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Osman%27s+Dream%3A+The+History+of+the+Ottoman+Empire&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-465-00850-6&rft.aulast=Finkel&rft.aufirst=Caroline&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9cTHyUQoTyUC%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindner2009" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Lindner, Rudi Paul (2009). "Anatolia, 1300–1451". In Fleet, Kate (ed.). The Cambridge History of Turkey. Vol. 1, Byzantium to Turkey, 1071–1453. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Anatolia%2C+1300%E2%80%931451&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Turkey&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Lindner&rft.aufirst=Rudi+Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElsie2004" class="citation book cs1">Elsie, Robert (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Fnbw1wsacSAC&pg=PA95">Historical Dictionary of Kosova</a>. Scarecrow Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-5309-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-5309-6"><bdi>978-0-8108-5309-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151033/https://books.google.com/books?id=Fnbw1wsacSAC&pg=PA95">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+Kosova&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-8108-5309-6&rft.aulast=Elsie&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFnbw1wsacSAC%26pg%3DPA95&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicolle1999" class="citation book cs1">Nicolle, David (1999). Nicopolis 1396: The Last Crusade. Osprey Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85532-918-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85532-918-8"><bdi>978-1-85532-918-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nicopolis+1396%3A+The+Last+Crusade&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-1-85532-918-8&rft.aulast=Nicolle&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFÁgostonBruce_Alan_Masters2009" class="citation book cs1">Ágoston, Gábor; Bruce Alan Masters (2009) [2008]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA363">Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire</a>. Infobase Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-1025-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-1025-7"><bdi>978-1-4381-1025-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151034/https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA363">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Ottoman+Empire&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4381-1025-7&rft.aulast=%C3%81goston&rft.aufirst=G%C3%A1bor&rft.au=Bruce+Alan+Masters&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQjzYdCxumFcC%26pg%3DPA363&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUyarEdward_J._Erickson2009" class="citation book cs1">Uyar, Mesut; Edward J. Erickson (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JgfNBKHG7S8C&pg=PA29">A Military History of the Ottomans: From Osman to Atatürk</a>. ABC-CLIO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-98876-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-98876-0"><bdi>978-0-275-98876-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151034/https://books.google.com/books?id=JgfNBKHG7S8C&pg=PA29">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Military+History+of+the+Ottomans%3A+From+Osman+to+Atat%C3%BCrk&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-275-98876-0&rft.aulast=Uyar&rft.aufirst=Mesut&rft.au=Edward+J.+Erickson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJgfNBKHG7S8C%26pg%3DPA29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schmitt-Kiprovska-59"><a href="#cite_ref-Schmitt-Kiprovska_59-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmittKiprovska2022" class="citation journal cs1">Schmitt, O. J.; Kiprovska, M. (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/view/journals/jesh/65/4/article-p497_1.xml">"Ottoman Raiders (Akıncıs) as a Driving Force of Early Ottoman Conquest of the Balkans and the Slavery-Based Economy"</a>. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. 65 (4). Brill: 497–582. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F15685209-12341575">10.1163/15685209-12341575</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:249355977">249355977</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221106181200/https://brill.com/view/journals/jesh/65/4/article-p497_1.xml">Archived</a> from the original on 6 November 2022. Retrieved 12 November 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Economic+and+Social+History+of+the+Orient&rft.atitle=Ottoman+Raiders+%28Ak%C4%B1nc%C4%B1s%29+as+a+Driving+Force+of+Early+Ottoman+Conquest+of+the+Balkans+and+the+Slavery-Based+Economy&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=497-582&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F15685209-12341575&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A249355977%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Schmitt&rft.aufirst=O.+J.&rft.au=Kiprovska%2C+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrill.com%2Fview%2Fjournals%2Fjesh%2F65%2F4%2Farticle-p497_1.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nükhet_Varlik-60"><a href="#cite_ref-N%C3%BCkhet_Varlik_60-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNükhet_Varlik2015" class="citation book cs1">Nükhet Varlik (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/plague-and-empire-in-the-early-modern-mediterranean-world/D35B6A9462B1E2849AA2F9A75048DF69">Plague and Empire in the Early Modern Mediterranean World, The Ottoman Experience, 1347–1600</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9781139004046">10.1017/CBO9781139004046</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-00404-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-00404-6"><bdi>978-1-139-00404-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:197967256">197967256</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230202092936/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/plague-and-empire-in-the-early-modern-mediterranean-world/D35B6A9462B1E2849AA2F9A75048DF69">Archived</a> from the original on 2 February 2023. 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Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9781139680943">10.1017/CBO9781139680943</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-68094-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-68094-3"><bdi>978-1-139-68094-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230202093507/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/natural-disasters-in-the-ottoman-empire/2F67203808F11027678E583B5CE49C2F">Archived</a> from the original on 2 February 2023. Retrieved 2 February 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Natural+Disasters+in+the+Ottoman+Empire%2C+Plague%2C+Famine%2C+and+Other+Misfortunes&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCBO9781139680943&rft.isbn=978-1-139-68094-3&rft.au=Yaron+Ayalon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Fnatural-disasters-in-the-ottoman-empire%2F2F67203808F11027678E583B5CE49C2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFD._CesanaO.J._BenedictowR._Bianucci2016" class="citation web cs1">D. Cesana; O.J. Benedictow; R. Bianucci (11 October 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/ase/advpub/0/advpub_161011/_pdf">"The origin and early spread of the Black Death in Italy: first evidence of plague victims from 14th-century Liguria (northern Italy)"</a>. Anthropological Science. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221008073522/https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/ase/advpub/0/advpub_161011/_pdf">Archived</a> from the original on 8 October 2022. 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Cambridge University Press. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83910-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83910-5"><bdi>978-0-521-83910-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ottoman+Empire%2C+1700%E2%80%931922&rft.pages=4&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-521-83910-5&rft.aulast=Quataert&rft.aufirst=Donald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-books.google-64">^ <a href="#cite_ref-books.google_64-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-books.google_64-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStone2005" class="citation book cs1">Stone, Norman (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xM9wQgAACAAJ">"Turkey in the Russian Mirror"</a>. 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M.A. Cook (Cambridge University Press, 1976), 94. </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East, Vol. II, ed. Spencer C. Tucker, (ABC-CLIO, 2010). 516. </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLokman1588" class="citation web cs1">Lokman (1588). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130529094441/http://warfare.atwebpages.com/Ottoman/Ottoman.htm">"Battle of Mohács (1526)"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://warfare.atwebpages.com/Ottoman/Ottoman.htm">the original</a> on 29 May 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Battle+of+Moh%C3%A1cs+%281526%29&rft.date=1588&rft.au=Lokman&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwarfare.atwebpages.com%2FOttoman%2FOttoman.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Revival: A History of the Art of War in the Sixteenth Century (1937). Routledge. 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revival%3A+A+History+of+the+Art+of+War+in+the+Sixteenth+Century+%281937%29&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2018&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AksanOW-78">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AksanOW_78-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AksanOW_78-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAksan2007" class="citation book cs1">Aksan, Virginia (2007). Ottoman Wars, 1700–1860: An Empire Besieged. Pearson Education Ltd. pp. 130–135. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-30807-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-582-30807-7"><bdi>978-0-582-30807-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ottoman+Wars%2C+1700%E2%80%931860%3A+An+Empire+Besieged&rft.pages=130-135&rft.pub=Pearson+Education+Ltd.&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-582-30807-7&rft.aulast=Aksan&rft.aufirst=Virginia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFImber2002" class="citation book cs1">Imber, Colin (2002). The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 53. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-61386-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-61386-3"><bdi>978-0-333-61386-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ottoman+Empire%2C+1300%E2%80%931650%3A+The+Structure+of+Power&rft.pages=53&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-333-61386-3&rft.aulast=Imber&rft.aufirst=Colin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-decline-80">^ <a href="#cite_ref-decline_80-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-decline_80-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-decline_80-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHathaway2008" class="citation book cs1">Hathaway, Jane (2008). The Arab Lands under Ottoman Rule, 1516–1800. Pearson Education Ltd. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-41899-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-582-41899-8"><bdi>978-0-582-41899-8</bdi></a>. <q>historians of the Ottoman Empire have rejected the narrative of decline in favor of one of crisis and adaptation</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Arab+Lands+under+Ottoman+Rule%2C+1516%E2%80%931800&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=Pearson+Education+Ltd.&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-582-41899-8&rft.aulast=Hathaway&rft.aufirst=Jane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988">; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTezcan2010" class="citation book cs1">Tezcan, Baki (2010). The Second Ottoman Empire: Political and Social Transformation in the Early Modern Period. Cambridge University Press. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-41144-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-41144-9"><bdi>978-1-107-41144-9</bdi></a>. <q>Ottomanist historians have produced several works in the last decades, revising the traditional understanding of this period from various angles, some of which were not even considered as topics of historical inquiry in the mid-twentieth century. Thanks to these works, the conventional narrative of Ottoman history – that in the late sixteenth century the Ottoman Empire entered a prolonged period of decline marked by steadily increasing military decay and institutional corruption – has been discarded.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Second+Ottoman+Empire%3A+Political+and+Social+Transformation+in+the+Early+Modern+Period&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-107-41144-9&rft.aulast=Tezcan&rft.aufirst=Baki&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988">; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodhead2011" class="citation book cs1">Woodhead, Christine (2011). "Introduction". In Christine Woodhead (ed.). The Ottoman World. Routledge. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-44492-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-44492-7"><bdi>978-0-415-44492-7</bdi></a>. <q>Ottomanist historians have largely jettisoned the notion of a post-1600 'decline'</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=The+Ottoman+World&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-415-44492-7&rft.aulast=Woodhead&rft.aufirst=Christine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFÁgoston2009" class="citation book cs1">Ágoston, Gábor (2009). "Süleyman I". In Masters, Bruce (ed.). Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=S%C3%BCleyman+I&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Ottoman+Empire&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=%C3%81goston&rft.aufirst=G%C3%A1bor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMansel1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Philip_Mansel" title="Philip Mansel">Mansel, Philip</a> (1997). <a href="/wiki/Constantinople:_City_of_the_World%27s_Desire,_1453%E2%80%931924" title="Constantinople: City of the World's Desire, 1453–1924">Constantinople: City of the World's Desire, 1453–1924</a>. London: <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-026246-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-026246-9"><bdi>978-0-14-026246-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constantinople%3A+City+of+the+World%27s+Desire%2C+1453%E2%80%931924&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-14-026246-9&rft.aulast=Mansel&rft.aufirst=Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> Crowley, Roger <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Y7RuHr4wP3AC">Empires of the Sea: The siege of Malta, the battle of Lepanto and the contest for the center of the world</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221101141246/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Empires_of_the_Sea/Y7RuHr4wP3AC?hl=en&gbpv=1">Archived</a> 1 November 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Random House, 2008 </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190729152826/https://historycooperative.org/journal/the-ottoman-discovery-of-the-indian-ocean-in-the-sixteenth-century-the-age-of-exploration-from-an-islamic-perspective">"The Ottoman 'Discovery' of the Indian Ocean in the Sixteenth Century: The Age of Exploration from an Islamic Perspective"</a>. historycooperative.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://historycooperative.org/journal/the-ottoman-discovery-of-the-indian-ocean-in-the-sixteenth-century-the-age-of-exploration-from-an-islamic-perspective">the original</a> on 29 July 2019. Retrieved 11 September 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=historycooperative.org&rft.atitle=The+Ottoman+%27Discovery%27+of+the+Indian+Ocean+in+the+Sixteenth+Century%3A+The+Age+of+Exploration+from+an+Islamic+Perspective&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistorycooperative.org%2Fjournal%2Fthe-ottoman-discovery-of-the-indian-ocean-in-the-sixteenth-century-the-age-of-exploration-from-an-islamic-perspective&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> Charles A. Truxillo (2012), Jain Publishing Company, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=prA99TUDgKQC">"Crusaders in the Far East: The Moro Wars in the Philippines in the Context of the Ibero-Islamic World War"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221101141253/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Crusaders_in_the_Far_East/prA99TUDgKQC?hl=en&gbpv=1">Archived</a> 1 November 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalabiyik2008" class="citation book cs1">Palabiyik, Hamit (2008). Turkish Public Administration: From Tradition to the Modern Age. Ankara.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Turkish+Public+Administration%3A+From+Tradition+to+the+Modern+Age&rft.pub=Ankara&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Palabiyik&rft.aufirst=Hamit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFİsmail_Hakkı_Göksoy" class="citation book cs1">İsmail Hakkı Göksoy. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20080119135247/http://www.ari.nus.edu.sg/docs/Aceh-project/full-papers/aceh_fp_ismailhakkigoksoy.pdf">Ottoman-Aceh Relations According to the Turkish Sources</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ari.nus.edu.sg/docs/Aceh-project/full-papers/aceh_fp_ismailhakkigoksoy.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 19 January 2008. Retrieved 16 December 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ottoman-Aceh+Relations+According+to+the+Turkish+Sources&rft.au=%C4%B0smail+Hakk%C4%B1+G%C3%B6ksoy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ari.nus.edu.sg%2Fdocs%2FAceh-project%2Ffull-papers%2Faceh_fp_ismailhakkigoksoy.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-deringil709-88"><a href="#cite_ref-deringil709_88-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeringil2007" class="citation journal cs1">Deringil, Selim (September 2007). "The Turks and 'Europe': The Argument from History". Middle Eastern Studies. 43 (5): 709–723. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00263200701422600">10.1080/00263200701422600</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144606323">144606323</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Middle+Eastern+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Turks+and+%27Europe%27%3A+The+Argument+from+History&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=709-723&rft.date=2007-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00263200701422600&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144606323%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Deringil&rft.aufirst=Selim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-kadirga1-89"><a href="#cite_ref-kadirga1_89-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://denizmuzesi.dzkk.tsk.tr/index.php/en/content/2">"The Historical Galley"</a>. denizmuzesi.dzkk.tsk.tr. 24 November 2021. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211008120739/https://denizmuzesi.dzkk.tsk.tr/index.php/en/content/2">Archived</a> from the original on 8 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=denizmuzesi.dzkk.tsk.tr&rft.atitle=The+Historical+Galley&rft.date=2021-11-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdenizmuzesi.dzkk.tsk.tr%2Findex.php%2Fen%2Fcontent%2F2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-kadirga2-90"><a href="#cite_ref-kadirga2_90-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/304623376">"Liphschitz, N., 2014. The Kadirga galley in Istanbul – The Turkish Sultan's Caique: A dendrohistorical research. In: Environment and Ecology in the Mediterranean Rgion II (eds. R. Efe and M. Ozturk). Cambridge Scholars Pub. Pp.39–48. Cambridge"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Liphschitz%2C+N.%2C+2014.+The+Kadirga+galley+in+Istanbul+%E2%80%93+The+Turkish+Sultan%27s+Caique%3A+A+dendrohistorical+research.+In%3A+Environment+and+Ecology+in+the+Mediterranean+Rgion+II+%28eds.+R.+Efe+and+M.+Ozturk%29.+Cambridge+Scholars+Pub.+Pp.39%E2%80%9348.+Cambridge.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F304623376&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFÁgoston2009" class="citation book cs1">Ágoston, Gábor (2009). "Introduction". In Ágoston, Gábor; Bruce Masters (eds.). Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire. p. xxxii.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Ottoman+Empire&rft.pages=xxxii&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=%C3%81goston&rft.aufirst=G%C3%A1bor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988">; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaroqhi1994" class="citation book cs1">Faroqhi, Suraiya (1994). "Crisis and Change, 1590–1699". In İnalcık, Halil; Donald Quataert (eds.). An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914. Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. p. 553. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57456-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57456-3"><bdi>978-0-521-57456-3</bdi></a>. <q>In the past fifty years, scholars have frequently tended to view this decreasing participation of the sultan in political life as evidence for "Ottoman decadence", which supposedly began at some time during the second half of the sixteenth century. But recently, more note has been taken of the fact that the Ottoman Empire was still a formidable military and political power throughout the seventeenth century, and that noticeable though limited economic recovery followed the crisis of the years around 1600; after the crisis of the 1683–1699 war, there followed a longer and more decisive economic upswing. Major evidence of decline was not visible before the second half of the eighteenth century.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Crisis+and+Change%2C+1590%E2%80%931699&rft.btitle=An+Economic+and+Social+History+of+the+Ottoman+Empire%2C+1300%E2%80%931914&rft.pages=553&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-521-57456-3&rft.aulast=Faroqhi&rft.aufirst=Suraiya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaroqhi1994" class="citation book cs1">Faroqhi, Suraiya (1994). "Crisis and Change, 1590–1699". In İnalcık, Halil; Donald Quataert (eds.). An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914. Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57456-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57456-3"><bdi>978-0-521-57456-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Crisis+and+Change%2C+1590%E2%80%931699&rft.btitle=An+Economic+and+Social+History+of+the+Ottoman+Empire%2C+1300%E2%80%931914&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-521-57456-3&rft.aulast=Faroqhi&rft.aufirst=Suraiya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFŞahin2013" class="citation book cs1">Şahin, Kaya (2013). Empire and Power in the Reign of Süleyman: Narrating the Sixteenth-Century Ottoman World. 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Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57456-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57456-3"><bdi>978-0-521-57456-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151035/https://books.google.com/books?id=1j-AtkBmn78C&pg=PA24">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Economic+And+Social+History+of+the+Ottoman+Empire%2C+Vol.+1+1300%E2%80%931600&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-521-57456-3&rft.au=Halil+%C4%B0nalc%C4%B1k&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1j-AtkBmn78C%26pg%3DPA24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinross1979281-108">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKinross1979281_108-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKinross1979281_108-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKinross1979">Kinross 1979</a>, p. 281. </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> Gábor Ágoston, Bruce Alan Masters <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA23">Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221101141240/https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA23">Archived</a> 1 November 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> pp. 23 Infobase Publishing, 1 January 2009 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4381-1025-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-4381-1025-1">1-4381-1025-1</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaoletti2008" class="citation book cs1">Paoletti, Ciro (2008). 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Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-79837-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-79837-6"><bdi>978-1-135-79837-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151037/https://books.google.com/books?id=B8WRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA47">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. 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Syracuse University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-2828-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-2828-6"><bdi>978-0-8156-2828-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151037/https://books.google.com/books?id=yED-aVDCbycC&pg=PA228">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 30 December 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genocide+and+the+Modern+Age%3A+Etiology+and+Case+Studies+of+Mass+Death&rft.pub=Syracuse+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8156-2828-6&rft.aulast=Rubenstein&rft.aufirst=Richard+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyED-aVDCbycC%26pg%3DPA228&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEItzkowitz198074–75-114"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEItzkowitz198074%E2%80%9375_114-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFItzkowitz1980">Itzkowitz 1980</a>, pp. 74–75. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEItzkowitz198080–81-115"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEItzkowitz198080%E2%80%9381_115-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFItzkowitz1980">Itzkowitz 1980</a>, pp. 80–81. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinross1979357-116"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKinross1979357_116-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKinross1979">Kinross 1979</a>, p. 357. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEItzkowitz198084-117"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEItzkowitz198084_117-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFItzkowitz1980">Itzkowitz 1980</a>, p. 84. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEItzkowitz198083–84-118"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEItzkowitz198083%E2%80%9384_118-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFItzkowitz1980">Itzkowitz 1980</a>, pp. 83–84. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinross1979371-119">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKinross1979371_119-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKinross1979371_119-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKinross1979">Kinross 1979</a>, p. 371. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinross1979372-120"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKinross1979372_120-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKinross1979">Kinross 1979</a>, p. 372. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinross1979376-121"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKinross1979376_121-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKinross1979">Kinross 1979</a>, p. 376. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinross1979392-122"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKinross1979392_122-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKinross1979">Kinross 1979</a>, p. 392. </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120618160944/http://www.itu.edu.tr/en/?about%2Fhistory">"History"</a>. Istanbul Technical University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.itu.edu.tr/en/?about/history">the original</a> on 18 June 2012. Retrieved 6 November 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History&rft.pub=Istanbul+Technical+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.itu.edu.tr%2Fen%2F%3Fabout%2Fhistory&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-books.google_a-124">^ <a href="#cite_ref-books.google_a_124-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-books.google_a_124-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-books.google_a_124-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStone2005" class="citation book cs1">Stone, Norman (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xM9wQgAACAAJ">"Turkey in the Russian Mirror"</a>. In Mark Erickson, Ljubica Erickson (ed.). Russia War, Peace And Diplomacy: Essays in Honour of John Erickson. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. p. 97. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-297-84913-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-297-84913-1"><bdi>978-0-297-84913-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151034/https://books.google.com/books?id=xM9wQgAACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Turkey+in+the+Russian+Mirror&rft.btitle=Russia+War%2C+Peace+And+Diplomacy%3A+Essays+in+Honour+of+John+Erickson&rft.pages=97&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+%26+Nicolson&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-297-84913-1&rft.aulast=Stone&rft.aufirst=Norman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxM9wQgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-katip_celebi-125">^ <a href="#cite_ref-katip_celebi_125-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-katip_celebi_125-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130212030334/http://vitrine.library.uu.nl/en/texts/Rarqu54.htm">"Presentation of Katip Çelebi, Kitâb-i Cihân-nümâ li-Kâtib Çelebi"</a>. Utrecht University Library. 5 May 2009. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://vitrine.library.uu.nl/en/texts/Rarqu54.htm">the original</a> on 12 February 2013. Retrieved 11 February 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Presentation+of+Katip+%C3%87elebi%2C+Kit%C3%A2b-i+Cih%C3%A2n-n%C3%BCm%C3%A2+li-K%C3%A2tib+%C3%87elebi&rft.pub=Utrecht+University+Library&rft.date=2009-05-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvitrine.library.uu.nl%2Fen%2Ftexts%2FRarqu54.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-watson-126"><a href="#cite_ref-watson_126-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatson1968" class="citation journal cs1">Watson, William J. (1968). "Ibrahim Muteferrika and Turkish Incunabula". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 88 (3): 435–441. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F596868">10.2307/596868</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/596868">596868</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Oriental+Society&rft.atitle=Ibrahim+Muteferrika+and+Turkish+Incunabula&rft.volume=88&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=435-441&rft.date=1968&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F596868&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F596868%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=William+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Middle East and Africa: International Dictionary of Historic Places. Routledge. 2014. p. 559.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Middle+East+and+Africa%3A+International+Dictionary+of+Historic+Places&rft.pages=559&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinross1979405-128"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKinross1979405_128-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKinross1979">Kinross 1979</a>, p. 405. </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.njegos.org/past/liunion.htm">"Liberation, Independence And Union of Serbia And Montenegro"</a>. Serb Land of Montenegro. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010205052700/http://www.njegos.org/past/liunion.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 5 February 2001. Retrieved 26 August 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Liberation%2C+Independence+And+Union+of+Serbia+And+Montenegro&rft.pub=Serb+Land+of+Montenegro&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.njegos.org%2Fpast%2Fliunion.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Berend2003-130"><a href="#cite_ref-Berend2003_130-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerend2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Iv%C3%A1n_T._Berend" title="Iván T. Berend">Berend, Tibor Iván</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a9csmhIT_BQC&pg=PA127">History Derailed: Central and Eastern Europe in the Long 19th Century</a>. University of California Press. p. 127. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-93209-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-93209-8"><bdi>978-0-520-93209-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151038/https://books.google.com/books?id=a9csmhIT_BQC&pg=PA127">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+Derailed%3A+Central+and+Eastern+Europe+in+the+Long+19th+Century&rft.pages=127&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-520-93209-8&rft.aulast=Berend&rft.aufirst=Tibor+Iv%C3%A1n&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Da9csmhIT_BQC%26pg%3DPA127&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-De_Quatrebarbes-1831-131">^ <a href="#cite_ref-De_Quatrebarbes-1831_131-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-De_Quatrebarbes-1831_131-1">b</a> De Quatrebarbes, Théodore (1831). Souvenirs de la campagne d'Afrique. Dentu. p. 35. </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vfxltIAnVecC&q=%22Alger%22+2160+bless%C3%A9s&pg=PA286">Conquête d'Alger ou pièces sur la conquête d'Alger et sur l'Algérie</a> (in French). 1831. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151038/https://books.google.com/books?id=vfxltIAnVecC&q=%22Alger%22+2160+bless%C3%A9s&pg=PA286">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 8 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conqu%C3%AAte+d%27Alger+ou+pi%C3%A8ces+sur+la+conqu%C3%AAte+d%27Alger+et+sur+l%27Alg%C3%A9rie&rft.date=1831&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvfxltIAnVecC%26q%3D%2522Alger%2522%2B2160%2Bbless%25C3%25A9s%26pg%3DPA286&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKateb2001" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Kateb, Kamel (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yEvQZ7bdybgC&pg=PA11">Européens, "indigènes" et juifs en Algérie (1830–1962): représentations et réalités des populations</a> (in French). INED. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7332-0145-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-7332-0145-9"><bdi>978-2-7332-0145-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Europ%C3%A9ens%2C+%22indig%C3%A8nes%22+et+juifs+en+Alg%C3%A9rie+%281830%E2%80%931962%29%3A+repr%C3%A9sentations+et+r%C3%A9alit%C3%A9s+des+populations&rft.pub=INED&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-2-7332-0145-9&rft.aulast=Kateb&rft.aufirst=Kamel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyEvQZ7bdybgC%26pg%3DPA11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuyot1885" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Guyot, Yves (1885). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K4M5rK-mWFoC&dq=2%2C172%2C000+alg%C3%A9rie&pg=PA41-IA2">Lettres sur la politique coloniale</a> (in French). C. Reinwald. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9798862369458" title="Special:BookSources/9798862369458"><bdi>9798862369458</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151115/https://books.google.com/books?id=K4M5rK-mWFoC&dq=2%2C172%2C000+alg%C3%A9rie&pg=PA41-IA2">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 8 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lettres+sur+la+politique+coloniale&rft.pub=C.+Reinwald&rft.date=1885&rft.isbn=9798862369458&rft.aulast=Guyot&rft.aufirst=Yves&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DK4M5rK-mWFoC%26dq%3D2%252C172%252C000%2Balg%25C3%25A9rie%26pg%3DPA41-IA2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Effraim-135">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Effraim_135-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Effraim_135-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Effraim_135-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Effraim_135-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Effraim_135-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Effraim_135-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Effraim_135-6">g</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarsh2006" class="citation book cs1">Karsh, Effraim (2006). Islamic Imperialism A History. New Haven: Yale University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islamic+Imperialism+A+History&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Karsh&rft.aufirst=Effraim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Konya">"Battle of Konya | Summary"</a>. Britannica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231019135832/https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Konya">Archived</a> from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 17 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Britannica&rft.atitle=Battle+of+Konya+%7C+Summary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fevent%2FBattle-of-Konya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFahmy2002" class="citation book cs1">Fahmy, Khaled (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ID7-26p9G78C&dq=Khaled+Fahmy.+All+the+Pasha%27s+Men%3A+Mehmed+Ali%2C+His+Army+and+the+Making+of+Modern+Egypt.+Cairo%3A+The+American+University+in+Cairo+Press%2C+2002&pg=PR3">All The Pasha's Men: Mehmed Ali, Hisarmy And The Making Of Modern Egypt</a>. American Univ in Cairo Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-977-424-696-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-977-424-696-8"><bdi>978-977-424-696-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231024034304/https://books.google.com/books?id=ID7-26p9G78C&dq=Khaled+Fahmy.+All+the+Pasha%27s+Men%3A+Mehmed+Ali%2C+His+Army+and+the+Making+of+Modern+Egypt.+Cairo%3A+The+American+University+in+Cairo+Press%2C+2002&pg=PR3">Archived</a> from the original on 24 October 2023. Retrieved 21 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=All+The+Pasha%27s+Men%3A+Mehmed+Ali%2C+Hisarmy+And+The+Making+Of+Modern+Egypt&rft.pub=American+Univ+in+Cairo+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-977-424-696-8&rft.aulast=Fahmy&rft.aufirst=Khaled&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DID7-26p9G78C%26dq%3DKhaled%2BFahmy.%2BAll%2Bthe%2BPasha%2527s%2BMen%253A%2BMehmed%2BAli%252C%2BHis%2BArmy%2Band%2Bthe%2BMaking%2Bof%2BModern%2BEgypt.%2BCairo%253A%2BThe%2BAmerican%2BUniversity%2Bin%2BCairo%2BPress%252C%2B2002%26pg%3DPR3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIshtiaq" class="citation web cs1">Ishtiaq, Hussain. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://faith-matters.org/images/stories/fm-publications/the-tanzimat-final-web.pdf">"The Tanzimat: Secular Reforms in the Ottoman Empire"</a> (PDF). Faith Matters. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161017061131/http://faith-matters.org/images/stories/fm-publications/the-tanzimat-final-web.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 17 October 2016. Retrieved 11 October 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Tanzimat%3A+Secular+Reforms+in+the+Ottoman+Empire&rft.pub=Faith+Matters&rft.aulast=Ishtiaq&rft.aufirst=Hussain&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffaith-matters.org%2Fimages%2Fstories%2Ffm-publications%2Fthe-tanzimat-final-web.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> Yakup Bektas, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://psi427.cankaya.edu.tr/uploads/files/Bektas%2C%20Ott%20Telegraphy%2C%201847-1880%20%282000%29.pdf">"The sultan's messenger: Cultural constructions of ottoman telegraphy, 1847–1880."</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210909033749/https://psi427.cankaya.edu.tr/uploads/files/Bektas,%20Ott%20Telegraphy,%201847-1880%20(2000).pdf">Archived</a> 9 September 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Technology and Culture 41.4 (2000): 669–696. </li> <li id="cite_note-books.google_b-140">^ <a href="#cite_ref-books.google_b_140-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-books.google_b_140-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-books.google_b_140-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-books.google_b_140-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-books.google_b_140-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-books.google_b_140-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStone2005" class="citation book cs1">Stone, Norman (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xM9wQgAACAAJ">"Turkey in the Russian Mirror"</a>. In Mark Erickson, Ljubica Erickson (ed.). Russia War, Peace And Diplomacy: Essays in Honour of John Erickson. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. p. 95. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-297-84913-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-297-84913-1"><bdi>978-0-297-84913-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151034/https://books.google.com/books?id=xM9wQgAACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Turkey+in+the+Russian+Mirror&rft.btitle=Russia+War%2C+Peace+And+Diplomacy%3A+Essays+in+Honour+of+John+Erickson&rft.pages=95&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+%26+Nicolson&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-297-84913-1&rft.aulast=Stone&rft.aufirst=Norman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxM9wQgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sursockhouse.com/">"Sursock House"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180525062827/https://sursockhouse.com/">Archived</a> from the original on 25 May 2018. Retrieved 29 May 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sursock+House&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsursockhouse.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERogan201193-142"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogan201193_142-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRogan2011">Rogan 2011</a>, p. 93. </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFV._Necla_Geyikdagi2011" class="citation book cs1">V. Necla Geyikdagi (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fGRMOzJZ4aEC&pg=PA32">Foreign Investment in the Ottoman Empire: International Trade and Relations 1854–1914</a>. I.B.Tauris. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84885-461-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84885-461-1"><bdi>978-1-84885-461-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151118/https://books.google.com/books?id=fGRMOzJZ4aEC&pg=PA32">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foreign+Investment+in+the+Ottoman+Empire%3A+International+Trade+and+Relations+1854%E2%80%931914&rft.pub=I.B.Tauris&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-84885-461-1&rft.au=V.+Necla+Geyikdagi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfGRMOzJZ4aEC%26pg%3DPA32&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDouglas_Arthur_Howard2001" class="citation book cs1">Douglas Arthur Howard (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofturkey00doug">The History of Turkey</a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofturkey00doug/page/71">71</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-30708-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-30708-9"><bdi>978-0-313-30708-9</bdi></a>. Retrieved 11 February 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Turkey&rft.pages=71&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-313-30708-9&rft.au=Douglas+Arthur+Howard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofturkey00doug&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2000" class="citation journal cs1">Williams, Bryan Glynn (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4000%2Fmonderusse.39">"Hijra and forced migration from nineteenth-century Russia to the Ottoman Empire"</a>. Cahiers du Monde Russe. 41 (1): 79–108. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4000%2Fmonderusse.39">10.4000/monderusse.39</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cahiers+du+Monde+Russe&rft.atitle=Hijra+and+forced+migration+from+nineteenth-century+Russia+to+the+Ottoman+Empire&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=79-108&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4000%2Fmonderusse.39&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Bryan+Glynn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.4000%252Fmonderusse.39&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> Memoirs of Miliutin, "the plan of action decided upon for 1860 was to cleanse [ochistit'] the mountain zone of its indigenous population", per Richmond, W. The Northwest Caucasus: Past, Present, and Future. Routledge. 2008. </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichmond2008" class="citation book cs1">Richmond, Walter (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LQJyLvMWB8MC&pg=PA79">The Northwest Caucasus: Past, Present, Future</a>. Taylor & Francis US. p. 79. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-77615-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-77615-8"><bdi>978-0-415-77615-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151038/https://books.google.com/books?id=LQJyLvMWB8MC&pg=PA79">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015. <q>the plan of action decided upon for 1860 was to cleanse [ochistit'] the mountain zone of its indigenous population</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Northwest+Caucasus%3A+Past%2C+Present%2C+Future&rft.pages=79&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis+US&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-415-77615-8&rft.aulast=Richmond&rft.aufirst=Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLQJyLvMWB8MC%26pg%3DPA79&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamed-Troyansky202449-148">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHamed-Troyansky202449_148-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHamed-Troyansky202449_148-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHamed-Troyansky2024">Hamed-Troyansky 2024</a>, p. 49. </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-149"><a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_149-0">^</a> Stone, Norman "Turkey in the Russian Mirror" pp. 86–100 from Russia War, Peace and Diplomacy edited by Mark & Ljubica Erickson, Weidenfeld & Nicolson: London, 2004 p. 95. </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaten,_Jörg2016" class="citation book cs1">Baten, Jörg (2016). A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-50718-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-50718-0"><bdi>978-1-107-50718-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Global+Economy.+From+1500+to+the+Present.&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-107-50718-0&rft.au=Baten%2C+J%C3%B6rg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERogan2011105-151"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogan2011105_151-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRogan2011">Rogan 2011</a>, p. 105. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERogan2011106-152">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogan2011106_152-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogan2011106_152-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRogan2011">Rogan 2011</a>, p. 106. </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJelavichJelavich1986" class="citation book cs1">Jelavich, Charles; Jelavich, Barbara (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LBYriPYyfUoC&q=massacre+bulgarians++1876&pg=PA139">The Establishment of the Balkan National States, 1804–1920</a>. University of Washington Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-295-80360-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-295-80360-9"><bdi>978-0-295-80360-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151039/https://books.google.com/books?id=LBYriPYyfUoC&q=massacre+bulgarians++1876&pg=PA139">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 18 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Establishment+of+the+Balkan+National+States%2C+1804%E2%80%931920&rft.pub=University+of+Washington+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-295-80360-9&rft.aulast=Jelavich&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft.au=Jelavich%2C+Barbara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLBYriPYyfUoC%26q%3Dmassacre%2Bbulgarians%2B%2B1876%26pg%3DPA139&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor1955" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/A._J._P._Taylor" title="A. J. P. Taylor">Taylor, A.J.P.</a> (1955). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/struggleformaste00ajpt/page/228">The Struggle for Mastery in Europe, 1848–1918</a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-822101-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-822101-2"><bdi>978-0-19-822101-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Struggle+for+Mastery+in+Europe%2C+1848%E2%80%931918&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1955&rft.isbn=978-0-19-822101-2&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=A.J.P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstruggleformaste00ajpt%2Fpage%2F228&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAkmeșe" class="citation book cs1">Akmeșe, Handan Nezir. The Birth of Modern Turkey The Ottoman Military and the March to World I. London: I.B Tauris.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Birth+of+Modern+Turkey+The+Ottoman+Military+and+the+March+to+World+I&rft.place=London&rft.pub=I.B+Tauris&rft.aulast=Akme%C8%99e&rft.aufirst=Handan+Nezir&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAkçam2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Taner_Ak%C3%A7am" title="Taner Akçam">Akçam, Taner</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/shamefulactarmen00ak/page/42">A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility</a>. New York: Metropolitan Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-7932-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-7932-6"><bdi>978-0-8050-7932-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Shameful+Act%3A+The+Armenian+Genocide+and+the+Question+of+Turkish+Responsibility&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Metropolitan+Books&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8050-7932-6&rft.aulast=Ak%C3%A7am&rft.aufirst=Taner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fshamefulactarmen00ak%2Fpage%2F42&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire 2:236. </li> <li id="cite_note-Karpat2004-158"><a href="#cite_ref-Karpat2004_158-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKemal_H_Karpat2004" class="citation book cs1">Kemal H Karpat (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cL4Ua6gGyWUC">Studies on Turkish politics and society: selected articles and essays</a>. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-13322-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-13322-8"><bdi>978-90-04-13322-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+on+Turkish+politics+and+society%3A+selected+articles+and+essays&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-90-04-13322-8&rft.au=Kemal+H+Karpat&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcL4Ua6gGyWUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuataert1994" class="citation book cs1">Quataert, Donald (1994). "The Age of Reforms, 1812–1914". In İnalcık, Halil; Donald Quataert (eds.). An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914. Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. p. 762. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57456-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57456-3"><bdi>978-0-521-57456-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Age+of+Reforms%2C+1812%E2%80%931914&rft.btitle=An+Economic+and+Social+History+of+the+Ottoman+Empire%2C+1300%E2%80%931914&rft.pages=762&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-521-57456-3&rft.aulast=Quataert&rft.aufirst=Donald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShams_El-Din" class="citation web cs1">Shams El-Din, Osama. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231106154526/https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a479427.pdf">"A Military History of Modern Egypt from the Ottoman Conquest to the Ramadan War"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a479427.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 6 November 2023. Retrieved 17 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Military+History+of+Modern+Egypt+from+the+Ottoman+Conquest+to+the+Ramadan+War&rft.aulast=Shams+El-Din&rft.aufirst=Osama&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapps.dtic.mil%2Fdtic%2Ftr%2Ffulltext%2Fu2%2Fa479427.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrevor_N._Dupuy1993" class="citation book cs1">Trevor N. Dupuy (1993). The Harper Encyclopedia of Military History. HarperCollins Publishers. p. 851. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0062700568" title="Special:BookSources/978-0062700568"><bdi>978-0062700568</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Harper+Encyclopedia+of+Military+History&rft.pages=851&rft.pub=HarperCollins+Publishers&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0062700568&rft.au=Trevor+N.+Dupuy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZürcher2003" class="citation web cs1">Zürcher, Erik-Jan (January 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070716155929/http://tulp.leidenuniv.nl/content_docs/wap/ejz18.pdf">"Greek and Turkish refugees and deportees 1912–1924"</a> (PDF). Turkology Update Leiden Project Working Papers Archive. Leiden, Netherlands: <a href="/wiki/Universiteit_Leiden" class="mw-redirect" title="Universiteit Leiden">Universiteit Leiden</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tulp.leidenuniv.nl/content_docs/wap/ejz18.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 16 July 2007. Retrieved 21 June 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Turkology+Update+Leiden+Project+Working+Papers+Archive&rft.atitle=Greek+and+Turkish+refugees+and+deportees+1912%E2%80%931924&rft.date=2003-01&rft.aulast=Z%C3%BCrcher&rft.aufirst=Erik-Jan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftulp.leidenuniv.nl%2Fcontent_docs%2Fwap%2Fejz18.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-McCarthy1995-163"><a href="#cite_ref-McCarthy1995_163-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJustin_McCarthy1995" class="citation book cs1">Justin McCarthy (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1ZntAAAAMAAJ">Death and exile: the ethnic cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 1821–1922</a>. Darwin Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87850-094-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87850-094-9"><bdi>978-0-87850-094-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151042/https://books.google.com/books?id=1ZntAAAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Death+and+exile%3A+the+ethnic+cleansing+of+Ottoman+Muslims%2C+1821%E2%80%931922&rft.pub=Darwin+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-87850-094-9&rft.au=Justin+McCarthy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1ZntAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Carmichael2012-164"><a href="#cite_ref-Carmichael2012_164-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarmichael2012" class="citation book cs1">Carmichael, Cathie (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ybORI4KWwdIC">Ethnic Cleansing in the Balkans: Nationalism and the Destruction of Tradition</a>. Routledge. p. 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-47953-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-47953-5"><bdi>978-1-134-47953-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151042/https://books.google.com/books?id=ybORI4KWwdIC">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015. <q>During the period from 1821 to 1922 alone, Justin McCarthy estimates that the ethnic cleansing of Ottoman Muslims led to the death of several million individuals and the expulsion of a similar number.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethnic+Cleansing+in+the+Balkans%3A+Nationalism+and+the+Destruction+of+Tradition&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-134-47953-5&rft.aulast=Carmichael&rft.aufirst=Cathie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DybORI4KWwdIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Buturovic2010-165"><a href="#cite_ref-Buturovic2010_165-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFButurovic2010" class="citation book cs1">Buturovic, Amila (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Kck_-B7MubIC">Islam in the Balkans: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-980381-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-980381-1"><bdi>978-0-19-980381-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151655/https://books.google.com/books?id=Kck_-B7MubIC">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam+in+the+Balkans%3A+Oxford+Bibliographies+Online+Research+Guide&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-19-980381-1&rft.aulast=Buturovic&rft.aufirst=Amila&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKck_-B7MubIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReynolds2011" class="citation book cs1">Reynolds, Michael A. (2011). Shattering Empires: The Clash and Collapse of the Ottoman and Russian Empires 1908–1918. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1, 324. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521149167" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521149167"><bdi>978-0521149167</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shattering+Empires%3A+The+Clash+and+Collapse+of+the+Ottoman+and+Russian+Empires+1908%E2%80%931918&rft.pages=1%2C+324&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0521149167&rft.aulast=Reynolds&rft.aufirst=Michael+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErickson2013" class="citation book cs1">Erickson, Edward (2013). Ottomans and Armenians: A Study in Counterinsurgency. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 32. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1137362209" title="Special:BookSources/978-1137362209"><bdi>978-1137362209</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ottomans+and+Armenians%3A+A+Study+in+Counterinsurgency&rft.pages=32&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1137362209&rft.aulast=Erickson&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFindley2010" class="citation book cs1">Findley, Carter Vaughn (2010). Turkey, Islam, Nationalism and Modernity: A History, 1789–2007. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 200. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-15260-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-15260-9"><bdi>978-0-300-15260-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Turkey%2C+Islam%2C+Nationalism+and+Modernity%3A+A+History%2C+1789%E2%80%932007&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pages=200&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-300-15260-9&rft.aulast=Findley&rft.aufirst=Carter+Vaughn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-oxfordreference-timeline-169">^ <a href="#cite_ref-oxfordreference-timeline_169-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-oxfordreference-timeline_169-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-oxfordreference-timeline_169-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780191737640.timeline.0001">Timeline: Ottoman Empire (c. 1285 – 1923)</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_Reference" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxford Reference">Oxford Reference</a>. 2012. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-173764-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-173764-0"><bdi>978-0-19-173764-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210514171439/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780191737640.timeline.0001">Archived</a> from the original on 14 May 2021. Retrieved 7 June 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Timeline%3A+Ottoman+Empire+%28c.+1285+%E2%80%93+1923%29&rft.pub=Oxford+Reference&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-19-173764-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780191737640.timeline.0001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-britannica-ag-170">^ <a href="#cite_ref-britannica-ag_170-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-britannica-ag_170-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Armenian-Genocide/Genocide">"Armenian Genocide"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201101025841/https://www.britannica.com/event/Armenian-Genocide/Genocide">Archived</a> from the original on 1 November 2020. Retrieved 28 January 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Armenian+Genocide&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fevent%2FArmenian-Genocide%2FGenocide&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100818233348/http://www.umd.umich.edu/dept/armenian/facts/genocide.html">"Fact Sheet: Armenian Genocide"</a>. University of Michigan. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.umd.umich.edu/dept/armenian/facts/genocide.html">the original</a> on 18 August 2010. Retrieved 15 July 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Fact+Sheet%3A+Armenian+Genocide&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.umd.umich.edu%2Fdept%2Farmenian%2Ffacts%2Fgenocide.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreedman2009" class="citation book cs1">Freedman, Jeri (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cuqxYldvClQC">The Armenian genocide</a> (1st ed.). New York: Rosen Pub. Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4042-1825-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4042-1825-3"><bdi>978-1-4042-1825-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151655/https://books.google.com/books?id=cuqxYldvClQC">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 2 June 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Armenian+genocide&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Rosen+Pub.+Group&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4042-1825-3&rft.aulast=Freedman&rft.aufirst=Jeri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcuqxYldvClQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> Totten, Samuel, Paul Robert Bartrop, Steven L. Jacobs (eds.) Dictionary of Genocide. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2008, p. 19. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-34642-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-34642-9">0-313-34642-9</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBijakLubman2016" class="citation book cs1">Bijak, Jakub; Lubman, Sarah (2016). "The Disputed Numbers: In Search of the Demographic Basis for Studies of Armenian Population Losses, 1915–1923". The Armenian Genocide Legacy. Palgrave Macmillan UK. p. 39. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-56163-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-137-56163-3"><bdi>978-1-137-56163-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Disputed+Numbers%3A+In+Search+of+the+Demographic+Basis+for+Studies+of+Armenian+Population+Losses%2C+1915%E2%80%931923&rft.btitle=The+Armenian+Genocide+Legacy&rft.pages=39&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan+UK&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-137-56163-3&rft.aulast=Bijak&rft.aufirst=Jakub&rft.au=Lubman%2C+Sarah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_Balakian2009" class="citation book cs1">Peter Balakian (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DrYoyAM3PBYC&pg=PR17">The Burning Tigris</a>. HarperCollins. p. xvii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-186017-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-186017-1"><bdi>978-0-06-186017-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151656/https://books.google.com/books?id=DrYoyAM3PBYC&pg=PR17">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Burning+Tigris&rft.pages=xvii&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-06-186017-1&rft.au=Peter+Balakian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDrYoyAM3PBYC%26pg%3DPR17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuataert2005" class="citation book cs1">Quataert, Donald (2005). The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922. Cambridge University Press (Kindle edition). p. 186.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ottoman+Empire%2C+1700%E2%80%931922&rft.pages=186&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press+%28Kindle+edition%29&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Quataert&rft.aufirst=Donald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988">; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchallerZimmerer2008" class="citation journal cs1">Schaller, Dominik J; Zimmerer, Jürgen (2008). "Late Ottoman genocides: the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish population and extermination policies – introduction". Journal of Genocide Research. 10 (1): 7–14. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14623520801950820">10.1080/14623520801950820</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:71515470">71515470</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Genocide+Research&rft.atitle=Late+Ottoman+genocides%3A+the+dissolution+of+the+Ottoman+Empire+and+Young+Turkish+population+and+extermination+policies+%E2%80%93+introduction&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=7-14&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14623520801950820&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A71515470%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Schaller&rft.aufirst=Dominik+J&rft.au=Zimmerer%2C+J%C3%BCrgen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalker1980" class="citation book cs1">Walker, Christopher J. (1980). Armenia: The Survival of A Nation. London: Croom Helm. pp. 200–203.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Armenia%3A+The+Survival+of+A+Nation&rft.place=London&rft.pages=200-203&rft.pub=Croom+Helm&rft.date=1980&rft.aulast=Walker&rft.aufirst=Christopher+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBryceToynbee2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Bryce,_1st_Viscount_Bryce" title="James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce">Bryce, Viscount James</a>; Toynbee, Arnold (2000). Sarafian, Ara (ed.). The Treatment of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire, 1915–1916: Documents Presented to Viscount Grey of Falloden (uncensored ed.). Princeton: <a href="/wiki/Gomidas_Institute" title="Gomidas Institute">Gomidas Institute</a>. pp. 635–649. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9535191-5-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9535191-5-6"><bdi>978-0-9535191-5-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Treatment+of+Armenians+in+the+Ottoman+Empire%2C+1915%E2%80%931916%3A+Documents+Presented+to+Viscount+Grey+of+Falloden&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pages=635-649&rft.edition=uncensored&rft.pub=Gomidas+Institute&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-9535191-5-6&rft.aulast=Bryce&rft.aufirst=Viscount+James&rft.au=Toynbee%2C+Arnold&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchallerZimmerer2008" class="citation journal cs1">Schaller, Dominik J; Zimmerer, Jürgen (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131103172211/http://bridging-the-divide.org/sites/default/files/files/Late%20Ottoman%20genocides-%20the%20dissolution%20of%20the%20Ottoman%20Empire%20and%20Young%20Turkish%20population%20and%20extermination%20policies%281%29.pdf">"Late Ottoman genocides: the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish population and extermination policies – introduction"</a> (PDF). Journal of Genocide Research. 10 (1): 7–14. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14623520801950820">10.1080/14623520801950820</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:71515470">71515470</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bridging-the-divide.org/sites/default/files/files/Late%20Ottoman%20genocides-%20the%20dissolution%20of%20the%20Ottoman%20Empire%20and%20Young%20Turkish%20population%20and%20extermination%20policies%281%29.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 3 November 2013. Retrieved 6 June 2013. <q>The genocidal quality of the murderous campaigns against Greeks and Assyrians is obvious</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Genocide+Research&rft.atitle=Late+Ottoman+genocides%3A+the+dissolution+of+the+Ottoman+Empire+and+Young+Turkish+population+and+extermination+policies+%E2%80%93+introduction&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=7-14&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14623520801950820&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A71515470%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Schaller&rft.aufirst=Dominik+J&rft.au=Zimmerer%2C+J%C3%BCrgen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbridging-the-divide.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Ffiles%2FLate%2520Ottoman%2520genocides-%2520the%2520dissolution%2520of%2520the%2520Ottoman%2520Empire%2520and%2520Young%2520Turkish%2520population%2520and%2520extermination%2520policies%25281%2529.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> Eliezer Tauber, The Arab Movements in World War I, Routledge, 2014 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-19978-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-19978-4">978-1-135-19978-4</a> p. 80-81 </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Sykes-Picot-Agreement">"Sykes-Picot Agreement | Map, History, & Facts | Britannica"</a>. www.britannica.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240522080149/https://www.britannica.com/event/Sykes-Picot-Agreement">Archived</a> from the original on 22 May 2024. Retrieved 22 May 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britannica.com&rft.atitle=Sykes-Picot+Agreement+%7C+Map%2C+History%2C+%26+Facts+%7C+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fevent%2FSykes-Picot-Agreement&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ozoglu-183"><a href="#cite_ref-Ozoglu_183-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHakan_Özoğlu2011" class="citation book cs1">Hakan Özoğlu (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Cw5V1c1ej_cC&pg=PA8">From Caliphate to Secular State: Power Struggle in the Early Turkish Republic</a>. ABC-CLIO. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-37957-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-37957-4"><bdi>978-0-313-37957-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151656/https://books.google.com/books?id=Cw5V1c1ej_cC&pg=PA8">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Caliphate+to+Secular+State%3A+Power+Struggle+in+the+Early+Turkish+Republic&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-313-37957-4&rft.au=Hakan+%C3%96zo%C4%9Flu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCw5V1c1ej_cC%26pg%3DPA8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoward2016" class="citation book cs1">Howard, Douglas A. (2016). A History of the Ottoman Empire. Cambridge University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=e57eDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA318">318</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-10747-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-10747-1"><bdi>978-1-108-10747-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Ottoman+Empire&rft.pages=318&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-108-10747-1&rft.aulast=Howard&rft.aufirst=Douglas+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> Norman Stone, "Turkey in the Russian Mirror", pp. 86–100 from Russia War, Peace and Diplomacy edited by Mark & Ljubica Erickson, Weidenfeld & Nicolson: London, 2004 pp. 92–93 </li> <li id="cite_note-Stone,_pp._86-100-186">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stone,_pp._86-100_186-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stone,_pp._86-100_186-1">b</a> Stone, pp. 86–100 </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLowry2003" class="citation book cs1">Lowry, Heath W. (2003). The nature of the early Ottoman state. SUNY Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+nature+of+the+early+Ottoman+state&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Lowry&rft.aufirst=Heath+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> Dariusz Kołodziejczyk, "Khan, caliph, tsar and imperator: the multiple identities of the Ottoman sultan" in Peter Fibiger Bang, and Dariusz Kolodziejczyk, eds. Universal Empire: A Comparative Approach to Imperial Culture and Representation in Eurasian History (Cambridge University Press, 2012) pp. 175–193. </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> Sinan Ed Kuneralp, ed. A Bridge Between Cultures (2006) p. 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> Ronald C. Jennings, "Some thoughts on the Gazi-thesis." Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes 76 (1986): 151–161 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23868782">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200328042350/https://www.jstor.org/stable/23868782">Archived</a> 28 March 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> Stone, pp. 94–95. </li> <li id="cite_note-nytimes-192"><a href="#cite_ref-nytimes_192-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimons1993" class="citation news cs1">Simons, Marlise (22 August 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1993/08/22/travel/center-of-ottoman-power.html">"Center of Ottoman Power"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180712043016/https://www.nytimes.com/1993/08/22/travel/center-of-ottoman-power.html">Archived</a> from the original on 12 July 2018. Retrieved 4 June 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Center+of+Ottoman+Power&rft.date=1993-08-22&rft.aulast=Simons&rft.aufirst=Marlise&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1993%2F08%2F22%2Ftravel%2Fcenter-of-ottoman-power.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-dolmabahcepalace-193"><a href="#cite_ref-dolmabahcepalace_193-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dolmabahcepalace.com/listingview.php?listingID=3">"Dolmabahce Palace"</a>. dolmabahcepalace.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160316140350/http://www.dolmabahcepalace.com/listingview.php?listingID=3">Archived</a> from the original on 16 March 2016. Retrieved 4 August 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=dolmabahcepalace.com&rft.atitle=Dolmabahce+Palace&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dolmabahcepalace.com%2Flistingview.php%3FlistingID%3D3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEItzkowitz198038-194"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEItzkowitz198038_194-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFItzkowitz1980">Itzkowitz 1980</a>, p. 38. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kapucu-2008-195">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kapucu-2008_195-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kapucu-2008_195-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNaim_KapucuHamit_Palabiyik2008" class="citation book cs1">Naim Kapucu; Hamit Palabiyik (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_DWceNjwTggUC">Turkish Public Administration: From Tradition to the Modern Age</a>. USAK Books. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_DWceNjwTggUC/page/n71">77</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-605-4030-01-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-605-4030-01-9"><bdi>978-605-4030-01-9</bdi></a>. Retrieved 11 February 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Turkish+Public+Administration%3A+From+Tradition+to+the+Modern+Age&rft.pages=77&rft.pub=USAK+Books&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-605-4030-01-9&rft.au=Naim+Kapucu&rft.au=Hamit+Palabiyik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbub_gb_DWceNjwTggUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlack2001" class="citation book cs1">Black, Antony (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nspmqLKPU-wC&pg=PA199">The History of Islamic Political Thought: From the Prophet to the Present</a>. Psychology Press. p. 199. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-93243-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-93243-1"><bdi>978-0-415-93243-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151657/https://books.google.com/books?id=nspmqLKPU-wC&pg=PA199">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Islamic+Political+Thought%3A+From+the+Prophet+to+the+Present&rft.pages=199&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-415-93243-1&rft.aulast=Black&rft.aufirst=Antony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnspmqLKPU-wC%26pg%3DPA199&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis1963" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, Bernard (1963). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/istanbulciviliza00bern">Istanbul and the Civilization of the Ottoman Empire</a>. University of Oklahoma Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/istanbulciviliza00bern/page/151">151</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-1060-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-1060-8"><bdi>978-0-8061-1060-8</bdi></a>. 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Research in Mathematical Education. 14 (1): 19–31. March 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130111105849/http://www.academia.edu/480968/The_Ottoman_Palace_School_Enderun_and_the_Man_with_Multiple_Talents_Matrakci_Nasuh">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2013. Retrieved 29 January 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Korea+Society+of+Mathematical+Education%2C+Series+D&rft.atitle=The+Ottoman+Palace+School+Enderun+and+the+Man+with+Multiple+Talents%2C+Matrak%C3%A7%C4%B1+Nasuh&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=19-31&rft.date=2010-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftamu.academia.edu%2FSencerCorlu%2FPapers%2F471488%2FThe_Ottoman_Palace_School_Enderun_and_the_Man_with_Multiple_Talents_Matrakci_Nasuh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarpat1973" class="citation book cs1">Karpat, Kemal H. 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Psychology Press. p. 197. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-93243-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-93243-1"><bdi>978-0-415-93243-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151700/https://books.google.com/books?id=nspmqLKPU-wC&pg=PA197">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. 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Cambridge University Press. pp. 109–110. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-00926-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-00926-3"><bdi>978-0-521-00926-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151659/https://books.google.com/books?id=rZtjR9JnwYwC&pg=109">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. 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Milton: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-429-96813-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-429-96813-6"><bdi>978-0-429-96813-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1202464532">1202464532</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151544/https://www.worldcat.org/title/1202464532">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. 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Peter Lang. p. 167. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-5201-374-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-5201-374-9"><bdi>978-90-5201-374-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151700/https://books.google.com/books?id=htMUx8qlWCMC&pg=PA167">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. 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BRILL. p. 28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11051-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11051-9"><bdi>978-90-04-11051-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151700/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Haifa_in_the_Late_Ottoman_Period_1864_19/DPseCvbPsKsC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA28&printsec=frontcover">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. 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I.B.Tauris. p. 50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84511-291-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84511-291-2"><bdi>978-1-84511-291-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151700/https://books.google.com/books?id=thUKJ53-yyQC&pg=PA50">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. 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Oxford University Press. p. 209. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-713561-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-713561-7"><bdi>978-0-19-713561-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Ottoman+Economic+Mind+and+Aspects+of+the+Ottoman+Economy&rft.btitle=Studies+in+the+Economic+History+of+the+Middle+East%3A+from+the+Rise+of+Islam+to+the+Present+Day&rft.pages=209&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=978-0-19-713561-7&rft.aulast=%C4%B0nalc%C4%B1k&rft.aufirst=Halil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Inalcik1970217-223"><a href="#cite_ref-Inalcik1970217_223-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFİnalcık1970" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Halil_%C4%B0nalc%C4%B1k" title="Halil İnalcık">İnalcık, Halil</a> (1970). 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Cambridge University Press: 325. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020743800033602">10.1017/S0020743800033602</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161326705">161326705</a>. <q>The Ottomans developed an efficient system for counting the empire's population in 1826, a quarter of a century after such methods were introduced in Britain, France and America.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Middle+East+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Ottoman+Census+System+and+Population%2C+1831%E2%80%931914&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=325&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0020743800033602&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161326705%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Shaw&rft.aufirst=S.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuataertSpivey2000110–111-232"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQuataertSpivey2000110%E2%80%93111_232-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFQuataertSpivey2000">Quataert & Spivey 2000</a>, pp. 110–111. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuataertSpivey2000112-233"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQuataertSpivey2000112_233-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFQuataertSpivey2000">Quataert & Spivey 2000</a>, p. 112. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuataertSpivey2000113-234"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQuataertSpivey2000113_234-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFQuataertSpivey2000">Quataert & Spivey 2000</a>, p. 113. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuataertSpivey2000114-235">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQuataertSpivey2000114_235-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQuataertSpivey2000114_235-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFQuataertSpivey2000">Quataert & Spivey 2000</a>, p. 114. </li> <li id="cite_note-236"><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPamuk1991" class="citation journal cs1">Pamuk, S (August 1991). "The Ottoman Empire and the World Economy: The Nineteenth Century". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 23 (3). Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Middle+East+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Ottoman+Empire+and+the+World+Economy%3A+The+Nineteenth+Century&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=3&rft.date=1991-08&rft.aulast=Pamuk&rft.aufirst=S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuataertSpivey2000115-237"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQuataertSpivey2000115_237-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFQuataertSpivey2000">Quataert & Spivey 2000</a>, p. 115. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuataertSpivey2000116-238"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQuataertSpivey2000116_238-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFQuataertSpivey2000">Quataert & Spivey 2000</a>, p. 116. </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCarthy1995" class="citation book cs1">McCarthy, Justin (1995). Death and exile: the ethnic cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 1821–1922. Darwin Press. p. [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87850-094-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87850-094-9"><bdi>978-0-87850-094-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Death+and+exile%3A+the+ethnic+cleansing+of+Ottoman+Muslims%2C+1821%E2%80%931922&rft.pages=Category%3AWikipedia+articles+needing+page+number+citations+from+February+2013%3Csup+class%3D%22noprint+Inline-Template+%22+style%3D%22white-space%3Anowrap%3B%22%3E%26%2391%3B%3Ci%3EWikipedia%3ACiting+sources%7C%3Cspan+title%3D%22This+citation+requires+a+reference+to+the+specific+page+or+range+of+pages+in+which+the+material+appears.%26%2332%3B%28February+2013%29%22%3Epage-needed%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fi%3E%26%2393%3B%3C%2Fsup%3E&rft.pub=Darwin+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-87850-094-9&rft.aulast=McCarthy&rft.aufirst=Justin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a> Article 18 of the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Constitution of the Ottoman Empire">Constitution of the Ottoman Empire</a> (1876) </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavison1964" class="citation book cs1">Davison, Roderic H. (31 December 1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1515/9781400878765">Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856–1876</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9781400878765">10.1515/9781400878765</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-7876-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-7876-5"><bdi>978-1-4008-7876-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151544/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781400878765/html">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 22 July 2021. <q>There was the ruling Ottoman group, now largely concentrated in the bureaucracy centered on the Sublime Porte, and the mass of the people, mostly peasants. The efendi looked down on "the Turk," which was a term of opprobrium indicating boorishness, and preferred to think of himself as an Osmanli. His country was not Turkey, but the Ottoman State. His language was also "Ottoman"; though he might also call it "Turkish," in such a case he distinguished it from kaba türkçe, or coarse Turkish, the common speech. His writing included a minimum of Turkish words, except for particles and auxiliary verbs.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reform+in+the+Ottoman+Empire%2C+1856%E2%80%931876&rft.date=1964-12-31&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9781400878765&rft.isbn=978-1-4008-7876-5&rft.aulast=Davison&rft.aufirst=Roderic+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1515%2F9781400878765&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">"The Ottoman Constitution, promulgated the seventh Zilbridge, 1293 (11/23 December 1876)". The American Journal of International Law. 2 (4): 376. 1908. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2212668">10.2307/2212668</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2212668">2212668</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:246006581">246006581</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+International+Law&rft.atitle=The+Ottoman+Constitution%2C+promulgated+the+seventh+Zilbridge%2C+1293+%2811%2F23+December+1876%29&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=376&rft.date=1908&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A246006581%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2212668%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2212668&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bertold_Spuler_page_69-243">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bertold_Spuler_page_69_243-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bertold_Spuler_page_69_243-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bertold_Spuler_page_69_243-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBertold_Spuler2003" class="citation book cs1">Bertold Spuler (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rD1vvympVtsC&pg=PA69">Persian Historiography And Geography</a>. Pustaka Nasional Pte Ltd. p. 69. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9971-77-488-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-9971-77-488-2"><bdi>978-9971-77-488-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151701/https://books.google.com/books?id=rD1vvympVtsC&pg=PA69">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Persian+Historiography+And+Geography&rft.pages=69&rft.pub=Pustaka+Nasional+Pte+Ltd&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-9971-77-488-2&rft.au=Bertold+Spuler&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrD1vvympVtsC%26pg%3DPA69&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-244"><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKahl2006" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thede_Kahl" title="Thede Kahl">Kahl, Thede</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/nationalities-papers/article/abs/islamisation-of-the-meglen-vlachs-meglenoromanians-the-village-of-nanti-notia-and-the-nantinets-in-presentday-turkey/5F6519A83C83DD0B9728A22F58100384">"The Islamisation of the Meglen Vlachs (Megleno-Romanians): The Village of Nânti (Nótia) and the "Nântinets" in Present-Day Turkey"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Nationalities_Papers" title="Nationalities Papers">Nationalities Papers</a>. 34 (1): 71–90. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00905990500504871">10.1080/00905990500504871</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161615853">161615853</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210415153900/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/nationalities-papers/article/abs/islamisation-of-the-meglen-vlachs-meglenoromanians-the-village-of-nanti-notia-and-the-nantinets-in-presentday-turkey/5F6519A83C83DD0B9728A22F58100384">Archived</a> from the original on 15 April 2021. Retrieved 19 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nationalities+Papers&rft.atitle=The+Islamisation+of+the+Meglen+Vlachs+%28Megleno-Romanians%29%3A+The+Village+of+N%C3%A2nti+%28N%C3%B3tia%29+and+the+%22N%C3%A2ntinets%22+in+Present-Day+Turkey&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=71-90&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00905990500504871&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161615853%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Kahl&rft.aufirst=Thede&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Fnationalities-papers%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fislamisation-of-the-meglen-vlachs-meglenoromanians-the-village-of-nanti-notia-and-the-nantinets-in-presentday-turkey%2F5F6519A83C83DD0B9728A22F58100384&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-245"><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKemal_H._Karpat2002" class="citation book cs1">Kemal H. Karpat (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=082osLxyBDgC&pg=PA266">Studies on Ottoman Social and Political History: Selected Articles and Essays</a>. Brill. p. 266. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-12101-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-12101-0"><bdi>978-90-04-12101-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151701/https://books.google.com/books?id=082osLxyBDgC&pg=PA266">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+on+Ottoman+Social+and+Political+History%3A+Selected+Articles+and+Essays&rft.pages=266&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-90-04-12101-0&rft.au=Kemal+H.+Karpat&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D082osLxyBDgC%26pg%3DPA266&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavison196462-246"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavison196462_246-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDavison1964">Davison 1964</a>, p. 62It was true also that there was a partial linguistic amalgam of the peoples in the empire. Many Greeks and Armenians did not know their national languages and spoke Turkish alone, though they wrote it in Greek and Armenian characters. </li> <li id="cite_note-Gunduz-247"><a href="#cite_ref-Gunduz_247-0">^</a> Gunduz, Sinasi <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4BXsV0_qhs4C&pg=PA104">Change And Essence: Dialectical Relations Between Change And Continuity in the Turkish Intellectual Traditions</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221101141240/https://books.google.com/books?id=4BXsV0_qhs4C&pg=PA104&lpg#v">Archived</a> 1 November 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change. Series IIA, Islam, V. 18, pp. 104–05 </li> <li id="cite_note-248"><a href="#cite_ref-248">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYılmaz2018" class="citation book cs1">Yılmaz, Hüseyin (8 January 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KvbWDgAAQBAJ">Caliphate Redefined: The Mystical Turn in Ottoman Political Thought</a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-8804-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-8804-7"><bdi>978-1-4008-8804-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151656/https://books.google.com/books?id=KvbWDgAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 16 September 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Caliphate+Redefined%3A+The+Mystical+Turn+in+Ottoman+Political+Thought&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2018-01-08&rft.isbn=978-1-4008-8804-7&rft.aulast=Y%C4%B1lmaz&rft.aufirst=H%C3%BCseyin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKvbWDgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-emigrnonm-249">^ <a href="#cite_ref-emigrnonm_249-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-emigrnonm_249-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-emigrnonm_249-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-emigrnonm_249-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFİçduyguToktaşAli_Soner2008" class="citation journal cs1">İçduygu, Ahmet; Toktaş, Şule; Ali Soner, B. (1 February 2008). "The politics of population in a nation-building process: emigration of non-Muslims from Turkey". Ethnic and Racial Studies. 31 (2): 358–389. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01419870701491937">10.1080/01419870701491937</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11729%2F308">11729/308</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143541451">143541451</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ethnic+and+Racial+Studies&rft.atitle=The+politics+of+population+in+a+nation-building+process%3A+emigration+of+non-Muslims+from+Turkey&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=358-389&rft.date=2008-02-01&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11729%2F308&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143541451%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F01419870701491937&rft.aulast=%C4%B0%C3%A7duygu&rft.aufirst=Ahmet&rft.au=Tokta%C5%9F%2C+%C5%9Eule&rft.au=Ali+Soner%2C+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-250"><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a> Alpyağıl, Recep (28 November 2016). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195390155/obo-9780195390155-0232.xml">Māturīdī</a>". Oxford Bibliographies – Islamic Studies. <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a>: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fobo%2F9780195390155-0232">10.1093/obo/9780195390155-0232</a>. Archived from the original on 18 March 2017. </li> <li id="cite_note-251"><a href="#cite_ref-251">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoru2015" class="citation web cs1">Koru, Selim (24 July 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nationalinterest.org/feature/turkeys-200-year-war-against-isis-13412">"Turkey's 200-Year War against 'ISIS'"</a>. 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(1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=imw_KFD5bsQC&pg=PA112">The Oxford History of Islam</a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 112–14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-510799-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-510799-9"><bdi>978-0-19-510799-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231121145710/https://books.google.com/books?id=imw_KFD5bsQC&pg=PA112">Archived</a> from the original on 21 November 2023. 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Series IIA, Islam, V. 18, p.104-105 </li> <li id="cite_note-254"><a href="#cite_ref-254">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mei.edu/content/map/salafism-infiltrates-turkish-religious-discourse">Middle East Institute: "Salafism Infiltrates Turkish Religious Discourse" by Andrew Hammond</a>, 22 July 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180807091143/http://www.mei.edu/content/map/salafism-infiltrates-turkish-religious-discourse">Archived</a> 7 August 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-255"><a href="#cite_ref-255">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUrban2013" class="citation news cs1">Urban, Mark (4 June 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-22770219">"Why there is more to Syria conflict than sectarianism"</a>. BBC News. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130606173420/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-22770219">Archived</a> from the original on 6 June 2013. Retrieved 5 June 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Why+there+is+more+to+Syria+conflict+than+sectarianism&rft.date=2013-06-04&rft.aulast=Urban&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworld-middle-east-22770219&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-256"><a href="#cite_ref-256">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/Documents/in/Sufism_in_the_Ottoman_Empire">"Sufism in the Ottoman Empire Research Papers"</a>. 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(2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PkTPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA364">Middle East Conflicts from Ancient Egypt to the 21st Century: An Encyclopedia and Document Collection [4 volumes]</a>. ABC-CLIO. pp. 364–366. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4408-5353-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4408-5353-1"><bdi>978-1-4408-5353-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240423220418/https://books.google.com/books?id=PkTPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA364">Archived</a> from the original on 23 April 2024. 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Stanford University Press. p. 141. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-7311-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-7311-9"><bdi>978-0-8047-7311-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151702/https://books.google.com/books?id=D1xfDfgPJr8C&pg=PA141">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. 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Choueiri, Arab Nationalism: A History: Nation and State in the Arab World (2001), pp. 56–100. </li> <li id="cite_note-275"><a href="#cite_ref-275">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGábor_Ágoston_and_Bruce_Alan_Masters2010" class="citation book cs1">Gábor Ágoston and Bruce Alan Masters (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA64">Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire</a>. Infobase. p. 64. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-1025-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-1025-7"><bdi>978-1-4381-1025-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151704/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Encyclopedia_of_the_Ottoman_Empire/QjzYdCxumFcC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA64&printsec=frontcover">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 15 May 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Ottoman+Empire&rft.pages=64&rft.pub=Infobase&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4381-1025-7&rft.au=G%C3%A1bor+%C3%81goston+and+Bruce+Alan+Masters&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQjzYdCxumFcC%26pg%3DPA64&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-276"><a href="#cite_ref-276">^</a> Naci Yorulmaz, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2-eKDwAAQBAJ">Arming the Sultan: German Arms Trade and Personal Diplomacy in the Ottoman Empire Before World War I</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221101141247/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Arming_the_Sultan/2-eKDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1">Archived</a> 1 November 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (IB Tauris, 2014). </li> <li id="cite_note-277"><a href="#cite_ref-277">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iranicaonline.org/articles/historiography-xiv">"HISTORIOGRAPHY xiv. THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE"</a>. Iranica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201117192349/https://iranicaonline.org/articles/historiography-xiv">Archived</a> from the original on 17 November 2020. Retrieved 25 December 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=HISTORIOGRAPHY+xiv.+THE+OTTOMAN+EMPIRE&rft.btitle=Iranica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Firanicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fhistoriography-xiv&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-278"><a href="#cite_ref-278">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalil_Inalcik" class="citation web cs1">Halil Inalcik. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090911101051/http://coursesa.matrix.msu.edu/~fisher/hst373/readings/inalcik6.html">"Servile Labor in the Ottoman Empire"</a>. Michigan State University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://coursesa.matrix.msu.edu/~fisher/hst373/readings/inalcik6.html">the original</a> on 11 September 2009. Retrieved 26 August 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Servile+Labor+in+the+Ottoman+Empire&rft.pub=Michigan+State+University&rft.au=Halil+Inalcik&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcoursesa.matrix.msu.edu%2F~fisher%2Fhst373%2Freadings%2Finalcik6.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-279"><a href="#cite_ref-279">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/slavery_7.shtml">"Islam and slavery: Sexual slavery"</a>. BBC. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090521234122/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/slavery_7.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 21 May 2009. Retrieved 26 August 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Islam+and+slavery%3A+Sexual+slavery&rft.pub=BBC&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Freligion%2Freligions%2Fislam%2Fhistory%2Fslavery_7.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-280"><a href="#cite_ref-280">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaroqhi1998" class="citation journal cs1">Faroqhi, Suraiya (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://secure.peeters-leuven.be/POJ/purchaseform.php?id=2004296&sid=">"Migration into Eighteenth-century 'Greater Istanbul' as Reflected in the Kadi Registers of Eyüp"</a>. Turcica. 30. Louvain: Éditions Klincksieck: 165. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2143%2FTURC.30.0.2004296">10.2143/TURC.30.0.2004296</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Turcica&rft.atitle=Migration+into+Eighteenth-century+%27Greater+Istanbul%27+as+Reflected+in+the+Kadi+Registers+of+Ey%C3%BCp&rft.volume=30&rft.pages=165&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2143%2FTURC.30.0.2004296&rft.aulast=Faroqhi&rft.aufirst=Suraiya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsecure.peeters-leuven.be%2FPOJ%2Fpurchaseform.php%3Fid%3D2004296%26sid%3D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-281"><a href="#cite_ref-281">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Halil_%C4%B0nalc%C4%B1k" title="Halil İnalcık">Halil İnalcık</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/38228665/Halil_%C4%B0nalc%C4%B1k_-_Has_Ba%C4%9F%C3%A7ede_Ay%C5%9F_u_Tarab.pdf">"Has-bahçede 'Ayş u Tarab"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190726055101/https://www.academia.edu/38228665/Halil_%C4%B0nalc%C4%B1k_-_Has_Ba%C4%9F%C3%A7ede_Ay%C5%9F_u_Tarab.pdf">Archived</a> 26 July 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları (2011) </li> <li id="cite_note-Comstock-Skipp-2023-282">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Comstock-Skipp-2023_282-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Comstock-Skipp-2023_282-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Comstock-Skipp-2023_282-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFComstock-Skipp2023" class="citation book cs1">Comstock-Skipp, Jaimee (2023). "Turk amongst Tajiks: The Turkic Shāhnāma Translation Located in Tajikistan and Manuscript Production during the Abuʾl-Khayrid Annexation of Khurasan (1588–1598)". In Paskaleva, Elena; van den Berg, Gabrielle (eds.). Memory and Commemoration across Central Asia. Brill. p. 54. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-54099-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-54099-6"><bdi>978-90-04-54099-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Turk+amongst+Tajiks%3A+The+Turkic+Sh%C4%81hn%C4%81ma+Translation+Located+in+Tajikistan+and+Manuscript+Production+during+the+Abu%CA%BEl-Khayrid+Annexation+of+Khurasan+%281588%E2%80%931598%29&rft.btitle=Memory+and+Commemoration+across+Central+Asia&rft.pages=54&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-90-04-54099-6&rft.aulast=Comstock-Skipp&rft.aufirst=Jaimee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Strauss-2016-283">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Strauss-2016_283-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Strauss-2016_283-1">b</a> Strauss, Johann. "Language and power in the Late Ottoman Empire" (Chapter 7). In: Murphey, Rhoads (editor). Imperial Lineages and Legacies in the Eastern Mediterranean: Recording the Imprint of Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman Rule (Volume 18 of Birmingham Byzantine and Ottoman Studies). Routledge, 7 July 2016. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-317-11844-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-317-11844-8">1-317-11844-8</a>, 9781317118442. <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gY-kDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT194">PT194</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221101141741/https://books.google.com/books?id=gY-kDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT194">Archived</a> 1 November 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>-<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gY-kDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT195">PT195</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221101141742/https://books.google.com/books?id=gY-kDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT195">Archived</a> 1 November 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-StraussPT195-284"><a href="#cite_ref-StraussPT195_284-0">^</a> Strauss, Johann. "Language and power in the late Ottoman Empire" (Chapter 7). In: Murphey, Rhoads (editor). Imperial Lineages and Legacies in the Eastern Mediterranean: Recording the Imprint of Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman Rule (Volume 18 of Birmingham Byzantine and Ottoman Studies). Routledge, 7 July 2016. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-317-11844-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-317-11844-8">1-317-11844-8</a>, 9781317118442. <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gY-kDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT195">PT195</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221101141742/https://books.google.com/books?id=gY-kDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT195">Archived</a> 1 November 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-285"><a href="#cite_ref-285">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Lucy_Garnett" title="Lucy Garnett">Garnett, Lucy Mary Jane</a>. Turkish Life in Town and Country. <a href="/wiki/G.P._Putnam%27s_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="G.P. Putnam's Sons">G.P. Putnam's Sons</a>, 1904. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/turkishlifeinto00garngoog/page/n259">205</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-286"><a href="#cite_ref-:1_286-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKastritsis2007" class="citation book cs1">Kastritsis, Dimitris J. (2007). The sons of Bayezid: empire building and representation in the Ottoman civil war of 1402-1413. The Ottoman empire and its heritage. Leiden ; Boston: Brill. pp. 33–37. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-15836-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-15836-8"><bdi>978-90-04-15836-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+sons+of+Bayezid%3A+empire+building+and+representation+in+the+Ottoman+civil+war+of+1402-1413&rft.place=Leiden+%3B+Boston&rft.series=The+Ottoman+empire+and+its+heritage&rft.pages=33-37&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-90-04-15836-8&rft.aulast=Kastritsis&rft.aufirst=Dimitris+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-287"><a href="#cite_ref-287">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurat_Belge2005" class="citation book cs1">Murat Belge (2005). Osmanlı'da kurumlar ve kültür. İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları. p. 389. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-975-8998-03-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-975-8998-03-6"><bdi>978-975-8998-03-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Osmanl%C4%B1%27da+kurumlar+ve+k%C3%BClt%C3%BCr&rft.pages=389&rft.pub=%C4%B0stanbul+Bilgi+%C3%9Cniversitesi+Yay%C4%B1nlar%C4%B1&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-975-8998-03-6&rft.au=Murat+Belge&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-288"><a href="#cite_ref-288">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMignon2005" class="citation book cs1">Mignon, Laurent (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AbQZAQAAIAAJ">Neither Shiraz nor Paris: papers on modern Turkish literature</a>. Istanbul: ISIS. p. 20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-975-428-303-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-975-428-303-7"><bdi>978-975-428-303-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151705/https://books.google.com/books?id=AbQZAQAAIAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 17 January 2016. <q>Those words could have been readily adopted by Hovsep Vartanyan (1813–1879), the author, who preferred to remain anonymous, of The Story of Akabi (Akabi Hikyayesi), the first novel in Turkish, published with Armenian characters in the same year as <a href="/wiki/Hovhannes_Hisarian" title="Hovhannes Hisarian">Hisarian</a>'s novel.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neither+Shiraz+nor+Paris%3A+papers+on+modern+Turkish+literature&rft.place=Istanbul&rft.pages=20&rft.pub=ISIS&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-975-428-303-7&rft.aulast=Mignon&rft.aufirst=Laurent&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAbQZAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-289"><a href="#cite_ref-289">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMastersÁgoston2009" class="citation book cs1">Masters, Bruce; Ágoston, Gábor (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC">Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire</a>. New York: Facts On File. p. 440. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-1025-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-1025-7"><bdi>978-1-4381-1025-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151705/https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015. <q>Written in Turkish using the Armenian alphabet, the Akabi History (1851) by Vartan Pasha is considered by some to be the first Ottoman novel.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Ottoman+Empire&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=440&rft.pub=Facts+On+File&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4381-1025-7&rft.aulast=Masters&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rft.au=%C3%81goston%2C+G%C3%A1bor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQjzYdCxumFcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-290"><a href="#cite_ref-290">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPultar2013" class="citation book cs1">Pultar, Gönül (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KhiQAwAAQBAJ">Imagined identities: identity formation in the age of globalism</a> (First ed.). [S.l.]: Syracuse University Press. p. 329. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-3342-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-3342-6"><bdi>978-0-8156-3342-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151705/https://books.google.com/books?id=KhiQAwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 17 January 2016. <q>In fact, one of the first Turkish works of fiction in Western-type novel form, Akabi Hikayesi (Akabi's Story), was written in Turkish by Vartan Pasha (born Osep/Hovsep Vartanian/Vartanyan, 1813–1879) and published in Armenian characters in 1851.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Imagined+identities%3A+identity+formation+in+the+age+of+globalism&rft.place=%5BS.l.%5D&rft.pages=329&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=Syracuse+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-8156-3342-6&rft.aulast=Pultar&rft.aufirst=G%C3%B6n%C3%BCl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKhiQAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-291"><a href="#cite_ref-291">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGürçaglarPakerMilton2015" class="citation book cs1">Gürçaglar, Şehnaz; Paker, Saliha; Milton, John (2015). Tradition, Tension, and Translation in Turkey. John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-6847-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-272-6847-1"><bdi>978-90-272-6847-1</bdi></a>. <q>It is interesting that the first Ottoman novel in Turkish, Akabi Hikayesi (1851, Akabi's Story), was written and published in Armenian letters (for Armenian communities who read in Turkish) by Hovsep Vartanyan (1813–1879), known as Vartan Paşa, a leading Ottoman man of letters and journalist.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tradition%2C+Tension%2C+and+Translation+in+Turkey&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=John+Benjamins+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-90-272-6847-1&rft.aulast=G%C3%BCr%C3%A7aglar&rft.aufirst=%C5%9Eehnaz&rft.au=Paker%2C+Saliha&rft.au=Milton%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-292"><a href="#cite_ref-292">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoran1997" class="citation book cs1">Moran, Berna (1997). Türk Romanına Eleştirel Bir Bakış Vol. 1. İletişim Yayınları. p. 19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-975-470-054-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-975-470-054-1"><bdi>978-975-470-054-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=T%C3%BCrk+Roman%C4%B1na+Ele%C5%9Ftirel+Bir+Bak%C4%B1%C5%9F+Vol.+1&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=%C4%B0leti%C5%9Fim+Yay%C4%B1nlar%C4%B1&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-975-470-054-1&rft.aulast=Moran&rft.aufirst=Berna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-BaruhMusnik-293">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BaruhMusnik_293-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BaruhMusnik_293-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BaruhMusnik_293-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaruh,_Lorans_TanatarSara_Yontan_Musnik" class="citation web cs1">Baruh, Lorans Tanatar; Sara Yontan Musnik. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://heritage.bnf.fr/bibliothequesorient/en/francophone-press-ottoman-art">"Francophone press in the Ottoman Empire"</a>. <a href="/wiki/French_National_Library" class="mw-redirect" title="French National Library">French National Library</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180416115120/https://heritage.bnf.fr/bibliothequesorient/en/francophone-press-ottoman-art">Archived</a> from the original on 16 April 2018. Retrieved 13 July 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Francophone+press+in+the+Ottoman+Empire&rft.pub=French+National+Library&rft.au=Baruh%2C+Lorans+Tanatar&rft.au=Sara+Yontan+Musnik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fheritage.bnf.fr%2Fbibliothequesorient%2Fen%2Ffrancophone-press-ottoman-art&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-StraussConstp32-294"><a href="#cite_ref-StraussConstp32_294-0">^</a> Strauss, "A Constitution for a Multilingual Empire," p. 32 (PDF p. 34) </li> <li id="cite_note-Kendallp339-295"><a href="#cite_ref-Kendallp339_295-0">^</a> Kendall, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TOp7a8GtqQoC&pg=PA339">339</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151705/https://books.google.com/books?id=TOp7a8GtqQoC&pg=PA339">Archived</a> 14 January 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-StraussLanguagep122-296"><a href="#cite_ref-StraussLanguagep122_296-0">^</a> Strauss, Johann. "Language and power in the late Ottoman Empire" (Chapter 7). In: Murphey, Rhoads (editor). Imperial Lineages and Legacies in the Eastern Mediterranean: Recording the Imprint of Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman Rule. Routledge, 7 July 2016. (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-11845-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-11845-9">978-1-317-11845-9</a>), p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XI-kDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA122">122</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151548/https://books.google.ca/books?id=XI-kDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA122">Archived</a> 14 January 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-StraussConstp25-297"><a href="#cite_ref-StraussConstp25_297-0">^</a> Strauss, "A Constitution for a Multilingual Empire," p. 25 (PDF p. 27) </li> <li id="cite_note-298"><a href="#cite_ref-298">^</a> "Seljuk architecture", Illustrated Dictionary of Historic Architecture, ed. Cyril M. Harris, (Dover Publications, 1977), 485. </li> <li id="cite_note-Bloom-2009-299"><a href="#cite_ref-Bloom-2009_299-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM._BloomS._Blair2009" class="citation book cs1">M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Ottoman". The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530991-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530991-1"><bdi>978-0-19-530991-1</bdi></a>. <q>Throughout their history the Ottomans remained supporters of art and artists. Under their patronage a distinctive architectural style developed that combined the Islamic traditions of Anatolia, Iran and Syria with those of the Classical world and Byzantium. The result was a rationalist monumentality that favored spatial unity and architectonic expression.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ottoman&rft.btitle=The+Grove+Encyclopedia+of+Islamic+Art+and+Architecture&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-530991-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Freely-2011-300">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Freely-2011_300-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Freely-2011_300-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFFreely2011">Freely 2011</a>, p. 35 "The mosques of the classical period are more elaborate than those of earlier times. They derive from a fusion of a native Turkish tradition with certain elements of the plan of Haghia Sophia, the former cathedral of Constantinople, converted into a mosque in 1453 by Mehmet the Conqueror." </li> <li id="cite_note-Goodwin-301"><a href="#cite_ref-Goodwin_301-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodwin1993" class="citation book cs1">Goodwin, Godfrey (1993). Sinan: Ottoman Architecture & its Values Today. London: Saqi Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86356-172-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86356-172-6"><bdi>978-0-86356-172-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sinan%3A+Ottoman+Architecture+%26+its+Values+Today&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Saqi+Books&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-86356-172-6&rft.aulast=Goodwin&rft.aufirst=Godfrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AgostonMasters20102-302"><a href="#cite_ref-AgostonMasters20102_302-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGábor_ÁgostonBruce_Alan_Masters2010" class="citation book cs1">Gábor Ágoston; Bruce Alan Masters (21 May 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC">Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire</a>. Infobase Publishing. p. 50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-1025-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-1025-7"><bdi>978-1-4381-1025-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151705/https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Ottoman+Empire&rft.pages=50&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2010-05-21&rft.isbn=978-1-4381-1025-7&rft.au=G%C3%A1bor+%C3%81goston&rft.au=Bruce+Alan+Masters&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQjzYdCxumFcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grove_encycl-Ottoman-303"><a href="#cite_ref-Grove_encycl-Ottoman_303-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM._BloomBlair2009" class="citation book cs1">M. Bloom, Jonathan; Blair, Sheila S., eds. (2009). "Ottoman". The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530991-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530991-1"><bdi>978-0-19-530991-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ottoman&rft.btitle=The+Grove+Encyclopedia+of+Islamic+Art+and+Architecture&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-530991-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-304"><a href="#cite_ref-304">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEli_Shah" class="citation web cs1">Eli Shah. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090213131926/http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/1990_1999/1999/2/The%20Ottoman%20Artistic%20Legacy">"The Ottoman Artistic Legacy"</a>. Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/1990_1999/1999/2/The%20Ottoman%20Artistic%20Legacy">the original</a> on 13 February 2009. Retrieved 26 August 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Ottoman+Artistic+Legacy&rft.pub=Israel+Ministry+of+Foreign+Affairs&rft.au=Eli+Shah&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mfa.gov.il%2FMFA%2FMFAArchive%2F1990_1999%2F1999%2F2%2FThe%2520Ottoman%2520Artistic%2520Legacy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-305"><a href="#cite_ref-305">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarswell2006" class="citation book cs1">Carswell, John (2006). Iznik Pottery (Second ed.). British Museum Press. p. 75. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7141-2441-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7141-2441-4"><bdi>978-0-7141-2441-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Iznik+Pottery&rft.pages=75&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=British+Museum+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7141-2441-4&rft.aulast=Carswell&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Freely-2011a-306"><a href="#cite_ref-Freely-2011a_306-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFreely2011">Freely 2011</a>, p. 355 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFreely2011355-307"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFreely2011355_307-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFreely2011">Freely 2011</a>, p. 355. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuban2010526-308"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuban2010526_308-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKuban2010">Kuban 2010</a>, p. 526. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFreely2011393-309">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFreely2011393_309-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFreely2011393_309-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFFreely2011">Freely 2011</a>, p. 393. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuban2010605–606-310"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuban2010605%E2%80%93606_310-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKuban2010">Kuban 2010</a>, pp. 605–606. </li> <li id="cite_note-Bloom-2009a-311"><a href="#cite_ref-Bloom-2009a_311-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBloomBlairSheila_S.2009" class="citation book cs1">Bloom, Jonathan M.; Blair; Sheila S. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC&pg=RA1-PA379">"Kemalettin"</a>. Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture: Three-Volume Set. Oxford University Press. p. 379. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530991-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530991-1"><bdi>978-0-19-530991-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151707/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Grove_Encyclopedia_of_Islamic_Art_Archit/un4WcfEASZwC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=RA1-PA379&printsec=frontcover">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Kemalettin&rft.btitle=Grove+Encyclopedia+of+Islamic+Art+%26+Architecture%3A+Three-Volume+Set&rft.pages=379&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-530991-1&rft.aulast=Bloom&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+M.&rft.au=Blair&rft.au=Sheila+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dun4WcfEASZwC%26pg%3DRA1-PA379&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuban2010679-312"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuban2010679_312-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKuban2010">Kuban 2010</a>, p. 679. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuban2010-313">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuban2010_313-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuban2010_313-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKuban2010">Kuban 2010</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuban2010571–596-314"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuban2010571%E2%80%93596_314-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKuban2010">Kuban 2010</a>, pp. 571–596. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlairBloom1995251-315"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlairBloom1995251_315-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlairBloom1995">Blair & Bloom 1995</a>, p. 251. </li> <li id="cite_note-316"><a href="#cite_ref-316">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAtil1973" class="citation journal cs1">Atil, Esin (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4629273">"Ottoman Miniature Painting under Sultan Mehmed II"</a>. Ars Orientalis. 9: 103–120. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0571-1371">0571-1371</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4629273">4629273</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221101140443/https://www.jstor.org/stable/4629273">Archived</a> from the original on 1 November 2022. Retrieved 12 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ars+Orientalis&rft.atitle=Ottoman+Miniature+Painting+under+Sultan+Mehmed+II&rft.volume=9&rft.pages=103-120&rft.date=1973&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4629273%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0571-1371&rft.aulast=Atil&rft.aufirst=Esin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4629273&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-foroqhi-317"><a href="#cite_ref-foroqhi_317-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaroqhi2005" class="citation book cs1">Faroqhi, Suraiya (2005). Subjects of the Sultan: culture and daily life in the Ottoman Empire (New ed.). London: I.B. Tauris. p. 152. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85043-760-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85043-760-4"><bdi>978-1-85043-760-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Subjects+of+the+Sultan%3A+culture+and+daily+life+in+the+Ottoman+Empire&rft.place=London&rft.pages=152&rft.edition=New&rft.pub=I.B.+Tauris&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-85043-760-4&rft.aulast=Faroqhi&rft.aufirst=Suraiya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-foroqhip153-318"><a href="#cite_ref-foroqhip153_318-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaroqhi2005" class="citation book cs1">Faroqhi, Suraiya (2005). Subjects of the Sultan: culture and daily life in the Ottoman Empire (New ed.). London: I.B. Tauris. p. 153. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85043-760-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85043-760-4"><bdi>978-1-85043-760-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Subjects+of+the+Sultan%3A+culture+and+daily+life+in+the+Ottoman+Empire&rft.place=London&rft.pages=153&rft.edition=New&rft.pub=I.B.+Tauris&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-85043-760-4&rft.aulast=Faroqhi&rft.aufirst=Suraiya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-319"><a href="#cite_ref-319">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.allaboutturkey.com/karagoz.htm">"Karagöz and Hacivat, a Turkish shadow play"</a>. All About Turkey. 20 November 2006. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190824133707/http://www.allaboutturkey.com/karagoz.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 24 August 2019. Retrieved 20 August 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Karag%C3%B6z+and+Hacivat%2C+a+Turkish+shadow+play&rft.pub=All+About+Turkey&rft.date=2006-11-20&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.allaboutturkey.com%2Fkaragoz.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-320"><a href="#cite_ref-320">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEmin_Şenyer" class="citation web cs1">Emin Şenyer. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130131082003/http://www.karagoz.net/english/shadowplay.htm">"Karagoz, Traditional Turkish Shadow Theatre"</a>. Karagoz.net. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.karagoz.net/english/shadowplay.htm">the original</a> on 31 January 2013. Retrieved 11 February 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Karagoz%2C+Traditional+Turkish+Shadow+Theatre&rft.pub=Karagoz.net&rft.au=Emin+%C5%9Eenyer&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.karagoz.net%2Fenglish%2Fshadowplay.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fragner-321"><a href="#cite_ref-Fragner_321-0">^</a> Bert Fragner, "From the Caucasus to the Roof of the World: a culinary adventure", in Sami Zubaida and Richard Tapper, A Taste of Thyme: Culinary Cultures of the Middle East, London, <a href="/wiki/Prague" title="Prague">Prague</a> and New York, p. 52 </li> <li id="cite_note-322"><a href="#cite_ref-322">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRagep2005" class="citation journal cs1">Ragep, F. J. (2005). "Ali Qushji and Regiomontanus: eccentric transformations and Copernican Revolutions". Journal for the History of Astronomy. 36 (125). Science History Publications Ltd.: 359–371. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005JHA....36..359R">2005JHA....36..359R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002182860503600401">10.1177/002182860503600401</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119066552">119066552</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+for+the+History+of+Astronomy&rft.atitle=Ali+Qushji+and+Regiomontanus%3A+eccentric+transformations+and+Copernican+Revolutions&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=125&rft.pages=359-371&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A119066552%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F002182860503600401&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005JHA....36..359R&rft.aulast=Ragep&rft.aufirst=F.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tekeli-323"><a href="#cite_ref-Tekeli_323-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSevim_Tekeli1997" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Sevim Tekeli (1997). "Taqi al-Din". Encyclopaedia of the history of science, technology and medicine in non-western cultures. Kluwer. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008ehst.book.....S">2008ehst.book.....S</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-4066-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-4066-9"><bdi>978-0-7923-4066-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Taqi+al-Din&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+the+history+of+science%2C+technology+and+medicine+in+non-western+cultures&rft.pub=Kluwer&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008ehst.book.....S&rft.isbn=978-0-7923-4066-9&rft.au=Sevim+Tekeli&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-324"><a href="#cite_ref-324">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEl-Rouayheb2015" class="citation book cs1">El-Rouayheb, Khaled (2015). Islamic Intellectual History in the Seventeenth Century: Scholarly Currents in the Ottoman Empire and the Maghreb. Cambridge University Press. pp. 18–19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-04296-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-04296-4"><bdi>978-1-107-04296-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islamic+Intellectual+History+in+the+Seventeenth+Century%3A+Scholarly+Currents+in+the+Ottoman+Empire+and+the+Maghreb&rft.pages=18-19&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-107-04296-4&rft.aulast=El-Rouayheb&rft.aufirst=Khaled&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-325"><a href="#cite_ref-325">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Y_Hassan" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmad Y Hassan">Ahmad Y Hassan</a> (1976), Taqi al-Din and Arabic Mechanical Engineering, p. 34–35, Institute for the History of Arabic Science, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Aleppo" title="University of Aleppo">University of Aleppo</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-326"><a href="#cite_ref-326">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.howtotalkaboutarthistory.com/artist-feature/artist-feature-osman-hamdi-bey">"Artist Feature: Who Was Osman Hamdi Bey?"</a>. How To Talk About Art History. 27 April 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180613084633/http://www.howtotalkaboutarthistory.com/artist-feature/artist-feature-osman-hamdi-bey/">Archived</a> from the original on 13 June 2018. Retrieved 13 June 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=How+To+Talk+About+Art+History&rft.atitle=Artist+Feature%3A+Who+Was+Osman+Hamdi+Bey%3F&rft.date=2017-04-27&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.howtotalkaboutarthistory.com%2Fartist-feature%2Fartist-feature-osman-hamdi-bey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-327"><a href="#cite_ref-327">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBen-Zaken2004" class="citation journal cs1">Ben-Zaken, Avner (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/1607448">"The Heavens of the Sky and the Heavens of the Heart: the Ottoman Cultural Context for the Introduction of Post-Copernican Astronomy"</a>. The British Journal for the History of Science. 37. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>: 1–28. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0007087403005302">10.1017/S0007087403005302</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:171015647">171015647</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200728024850/https://www.academia.edu/1607448/Avner_Ben-Zaken_The_Heavens_of_the_Sky_and_the_Heavens_of_the_Heart_the_Ottoman_Cultural_Context_for_the_Introduction_of_Post-Copernican_Astronomy_British_Journal_of_History_of_Science_37_1_March_2004_">Archived</a> from the original on 28 July 2020. Retrieved 29 January 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+British+Journal+for+the+History+of+Science&rft.atitle=The+Heavens+of+the+Sky+and+the+Heavens+of+the+Heart%3A+the+Ottoman+Cultural+Context+for+the+Introduction+of+Post-Copernican+Astronomy&rft.volume=37&rft.pages=1-28&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0007087403005302&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A171015647%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Ben-Zaken&rft.aufirst=Avner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F1607448&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-328"><a href="#cite_ref-328">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBademci2006" class="citation journal cs1">Bademci, G. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4321%2FS1130-14732006000200012">"First illustrations of female Neurosurgeons in the fifteenth century by Serefeddin Sabuncuoglu"</a>. Neurocirugía. 17 (2): 162–165. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4321%2FS1130-14732006000200012">10.4321/S1130-14732006000200012</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16721484">16721484</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neurocirug%C3%ADa&rft.atitle=First+illustrations+of+female+Neurosurgeons+in+the+fifteenth+century+by+Serefeddin+Sabuncuoglu&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=162-165&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4321%2FS1130-14732006000200012&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16721484&rft.aulast=Bademci&rft.aufirst=G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.4321%252FS1130-14732006000200012&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-329"><a href="#cite_ref-329">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.history.com/topics/middle-east/ottoman-empire">"Ottoman Empire"</a>. <a href="/wiki/History_(American_TV_network)" class="mw-redirect" title="History (American TV network)">History</a>. 3 November 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190125011425/https://www.history.com/topics/middle-east/ottoman-empire">Archived</a> from the original on 25 January 2019. Retrieved 26 August 2010. <q>Additionally, some of the greatest advances in medicine were made by the Ottomans. They invented several surgical instruments that are still used today, such as forceps, catheters, scalpels, pincers and lancets</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ottoman+Empire&rft.pub=History&rft.date=2017-11-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.com%2Ftopics%2Fmiddle-east%2Fottoman-empire&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-330"><a href="#cite_ref-330">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorton1977" class="citation journal cs1">Horton, Paul (July–August 1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081122021637/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/197704/topkapi.s.turkish.timepieces.htm">"Topkapi's Turkish Timepieces"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Aramco_World" class="mw-redirect" title="Saudi Aramco World">Saudi Aramco World</a>: 10–13. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/197704/topkapi.s.turkish.timepieces.htm">the original</a> on 22 November 2008. Retrieved 12 July 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Saudi+Aramco+World&rft.atitle=Topkapi%27s+Turkish+Timepieces&rft.pages=10-13&rft.date=1977-07%2F1977-08&rft.aulast=Horton&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.saudiaramcoworld.com%2Fissue%2F197704%2Ftopkapi.s.turkish.timepieces.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-batou193-331">^ <a href="#cite_ref-batou193_331-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-batou193_331-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJean_Batou1991" class="citation book cs1">Jean Batou (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HjD4SCOE6IgC&pg=PA193">Between Development and Underdevelopment: The Precocious Attempts at Industrialization of the Periphery, 1800–1870</a>. Librairie Droz. pp. 193–196. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-600-04293-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-600-04293-2"><bdi>978-2-600-04293-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+Development+and+Underdevelopment%3A+The+Precocious+Attempts+at+Industrialization+of+the+Periphery%2C+1800%E2%80%931870&rft.pages=193-196&rft.pub=Librairie+Droz&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-2-600-04293-2&rft.au=Jean+Batou&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHjD4SCOE6IgC%26pg%3DPA193&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAtasoyRaby1989" class="citation book cs1">Atasoy, Nurhan; Raby, Julian (1989). Petsopoulos, Yanni (ed.). Iznik: The Pottery of Ottoman Turkey. Alexandria Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-97374-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-97374-5"><bdi>978-0-500-97374-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Iznik%3A+The+Pottery+of+Ottoman+Turkey&rft.pub=Alexandria+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-500-97374-5&rft.aulast=Atasoy&rft.aufirst=Nurhan&rft.au=Raby%2C+Julian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlairBloom1995" class="citation book cs1">Blair, Sheila S.; Bloom, Jonathan M. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-mhIgewDtNkC&pg=PP3">The Art and Architecture of Islam 1250-1800</a>. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-06465-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-06465-0"><bdi>978-0-300-06465-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151708/https://books.google.com/books?id=-mhIgewDtNkC&pg=PP3">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. 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WIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84564-506-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84564-506-9"><bdi>978-1-84564-506-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151710/https://books.google.com/books?id=vgp46TUFK7wC">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Ottoman+Architecture&rft.pub=WIT+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-84564-506-9&rft.aulast=Freely&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dvgp46TUFK7wC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFItzkowitz1980" class="citation book cs1">Itzkowitz, Norman (1980). Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-38806-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-38806-9"><bdi>978-0-226-38806-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ottoman+Empire+and+Islamic+Tradition&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-226-38806-9&rft.aulast=Itzkowitz&rft.aufirst=Norman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKinross1979" class="citation book cs1">Kinross, Lord (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ottomancenturies00kinr/page/n4">The Ottoman Centuries: the Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire</a>. Harper Collins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-688-08093-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-688-08093-8"><bdi>978-0-688-08093-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ottoman+Centuries%3A+the+Rise+and+Fall+of+the+Turkish+Empire&rft.pub=Harper+Collins&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-688-08093-8&rft.aulast=Kinross&rft.aufirst=Lord&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fottomancenturies00kinr%2Fpage%2Fn4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> popular history espouses old "decline" thesis</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuban2010" class="citation book cs1">Kuban, Doğan (2010). Ottoman Architecture. Translated by Mill, Adair. Antique Collectors' Club. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85149-604-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85149-604-4"><bdi>978-1-85149-604-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ottoman+Architecture&rft.pub=Antique+Collectors%27+Club&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-85149-604-4&rft.aulast=Kuban&rft.aufirst=Do%C4%9Fan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuataert1983" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Donald_Quataert" title="Donald Quataert">Quataert, Donald</a> (1983). Social Disintegration and Popular Resistance in the Ottoman Empire 1881–1908.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+Disintegration+and+Popular+Resistance+in+the+Ottoman+Empire+1881%E2%80%931908&rft.date=1983&rft.aulast=Quataert&rft.aufirst=Donald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuataertSpivey2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Donald_Quataert" title="Donald Quataert">Quataert, Donald</a>; Spivey, Diane M. (2000). Consumption Studies and the History of the Ottoman Empire, 1550–1922. SUNY Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-4431-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-4431-3"><bdi>978-0-7914-4431-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Consumption+Studies+and+the+History+of+the+Ottoman+Empire%2C+1550%E2%80%931922&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-4431-3&rft.aulast=Quataert&rft.aufirst=Donald&rft.au=Spivey%2C+Diane+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRogan2011" class="citation book cs1">Rogan, Eugene (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=16U0mEbf4nAC">The Arabs: A History</a>. Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-03248-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-03248-8"><bdi>978-0-465-03248-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151601/https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Arabs/16U0mEbf4nAC?hl=en&gbpv=1">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 9 September 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Arabs%3A+A+History&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-465-03248-8&rft.aulast=Rogan&rft.aufirst=Eugene&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D16U0mEbf4nAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(12)"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div><section class="mf-section-12 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-12"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a more comprehensive list, see <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Bibliography of the Ottoman Empire">Bibliography of the Ottoman Empire</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about Ottoman Empire <hr></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Ottoman+Empire&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Ottoman+Empire">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Ottoman+Empire&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_surveys">General surveys</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-history-of-turkey/EC9B3B62272E26DA30A7090DEE934DC9">The Cambridge History of Turkey online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201105213313/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-history-of-turkey/EC9B3B62272E26DA30A7090DEE934DC9">Archived</a> 5 November 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <ul><li>Volume 1: Kate Fleet ed., "Byzantium to Turkey 1071–1453." Cambridge University Press, 2009.</li> <li>Volume 2: Suraiya N. Faroqhi and Kate Fleet eds., "The Ottoman Empire as a World Power, 1453–1603." Cambridge University Press, 2012.</li> <li>Volume 3: Suraiya N. Faroqhi ed., "The Later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839." Cambridge University Press, 2006.</li> <li>Volume 4: Reşat Kasaba ed., "Turkey in the Modern World." Cambridge University Press, 2008.</li></ul></li> <li>Agoston, Gabor and Bruce Masters, eds. Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire (2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suraiya_Faroqhi" title="Suraiya Faroqhi">Faroqhi, Suraiya</a>. The Ottoman Empire: A Short History (2009) 196pp</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinkel2005" class="citation book cs1">Finkel, Caroline (2005). Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1923. Basic Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-02396-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-02396-7"><bdi>978-0-465-02396-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Osman%27s+Dream%3A+The+Story+of+the+Ottoman+Empire%2C+1300%E2%80%931923&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-465-02396-7&rft.aulast=Finkel&rft.aufirst=Caroline&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHathaway2008" class="citation book cs1">Hathaway, Jane (2008). The Arab Lands under Ottoman Rule, 1516–1800. Pearson Education Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-41899-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-582-41899-8"><bdi>978-0-582-41899-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Arab+Lands+under+Ottoman+Rule%2C+1516%E2%80%931800&rft.pub=Pearson+Education+Ltd.&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-582-41899-8&rft.aulast=Hathaway&rft.aufirst=Jane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoward2017" class="citation book cs1">Howard, Douglas A. (2017). A History of the Ottoman Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-72730-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-72730-3"><bdi>978-0-521-72730-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Ottoman+Empire&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-521-72730-3&rft.aulast=Howard&rft.aufirst=Douglas+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArthur_Arnold1877" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Arnold" title="Arthur Arnold">Arthur Arnold</a> (1877), <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_promises_of_Turkey" class="extiw" title="s:The promises of Turkey">The promises of Turkey</a> (1st ed.), Westminster: The Eastern Question Association, <a href="/wiki/WDQ_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="WDQ (identifier)">Wikidata</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q19097235" class="extiw" title="d:Q19097235">Q19097235</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+promises+of+Turkey&rft.place=Westminster&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=The+Eastern+Question+Association&rft.date=1877&rft.au=Arthur+Arnold&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Koller, Markus (2012), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/models-and-stereotypes/from-the-turkish-menace-to-orientalism/markus-koller-ottoman-history-of-south-east-europe?set_language=en&-C=">Ottoman History of South-East Europe</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210611160640/http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/models-and-stereotypes/from-the-turkish-menace-to-orientalism/markus-koller-ottoman-history-of-south-east-europe?set_language=en&-C=">Archived</a> 11 June 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ieg-ego.eu/">EGO – European History Online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130208042444/http://www.ieg-ego.eu/">Archived</a> 8 February 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Mainz: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ieg-mainz.de/likecms/index.php">Institute of European History</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160219021834/http://www.ieg-mainz.de/likecms/index.php">Archived</a> 19 February 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, retrieved: March 25, 2021 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0159-2011121258">pdf</a>).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFImber2009" class="citation book cs1">Imber, Colin (2009). The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power (2 ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-57451-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-57451-9"><bdi>978-0-230-57451-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ottoman+Empire%2C+1300%E2%80%931650%3A+The+Structure+of+Power&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-230-57451-9&rft.aulast=Imber&rft.aufirst=Colin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFİnalcıkDonald_Quataert1994" class="citation book cs1">İnalcık, Halil; <a href="/wiki/Donald_Quataert" title="Donald Quataert">Donald Quataert</a>, eds. (1994). An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57456-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57456-3"><bdi>978-0-521-57456-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Economic+and+Social+History+of+the+Ottoman+Empire%2C+1300%E2%80%931914&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-521-57456-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"> Two volumes.</li> <li>Kia, Mehrdad, ed. The Ottoman Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia (2 vol 2017)</li> <li>McCarthy, Justin. The Ottoman Turks: An Introductory History to 1923. (1997) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ottomanturksintr0000mcca">The Ottoman Turks : an introductory history to 1923</a> online</li> <li>Mikaberidze, Alexander. Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia (2 vol 2011)</li> <li>Miller, William. The Ottoman Empire and its successors, 1801–1922 (2nd ed 1927) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ottomanempireitsmill">online</a>, strong on foreign policy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Quataert" title="Donald Quataert">Quataert, Donald</a>. The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922. 2005. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-54782-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-54782-2">0-521-54782-2</a>.</li> <li>Şahin, Kaya. "The Ottoman Empire in the Long Sixteenth Century." Renaissance Quarterly (2017) 70#1: 220–234 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.academia.edu/download/52257343/RQ_review_essay.pdf">online</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a>‍]</li> <li>Somel, Selcuk Aksin. Historical Dictionary of the Ottoman Empire (2003). pp. 399 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Historical-Dictionary-Ottoman-Dictionaries-Civilizations/dp/0810843323">excerpt</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220514063618/https://www.amazon.com/Historical-Dictionary-Ottoman-Dictionaries-Civilizations/dp/0810843323">Archived</a> 14 May 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L._S._Stavrianos" title="L. S. Stavrianos">Stavrianos, L. S.</a> The Balkans since 1453 (1968; new preface 1999) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/balkanssince145300lsst">online</a></li> <li>Tabak, Faruk. The Waning of the Mediterranean, 1550–1870: A Geohistorical Approach (2008)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Ottomans">Early Ottomans</h3></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKafadar1995" class="citation book cs1">Kafadar, Cemal (1995). Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State. U California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20600-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20600-7"><bdi>978-0-520-20600-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+Two+Worlds%3A+The+Construction+of+the+Ottoman+State&rft.pub=U+California+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-520-20600-7&rft.aulast=Kafadar&rft.aufirst=Cemal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindner1983" class="citation book cs1">Lindner, Rudi P. (1983). Nomads and Ottomans in Medieval Anatolia. Bloomington: Indiana UP. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-933070-12-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-933070-12-7"><bdi>978-0-933070-12-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nomads+and+Ottomans+in+Medieval+Anatolia&rft.place=Bloomington&rft.pub=Indiana+UP&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-933070-12-7&rft.aulast=Lindner&rft.aufirst=Rudi+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLowry2003" class="citation book cs1">Lowry, Heath (2003). The Nature of the Early Ottoman State. Albany: SUNY Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-5636-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-5636-1"><bdi>978-0-7914-5636-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nature+of+the+Early+Ottoman+State&rft.place=Albany&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-5636-1&rft.aulast=Lowry&rft.aufirst=Heath&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diplomatic_and_military">Diplomatic and military</h3></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFÁgoston2014" class="citation journal cs1">Ágoston, Gábor (2014). "Firearms and Military Adaptation: The Ottomans and the European Military Revolution, 1450–1800". Journal of World History. 25: 85–124. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjwh.2014.0005">10.1353/jwh.2014.0005</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143042353">143042353</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+World+History&rft.atitle=Firearms+and+Military+Adaptation%3A+The+Ottomans+and+the+European+Military+Revolution%2C+1450%E2%80%931800&rft.volume=25&rft.pages=85-124&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fjwh.2014.0005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143042353%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=%C3%81goston&rft.aufirst=G%C3%A1bor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAksan2007" class="citation book cs1">Aksan, Virginia (2007). Ottoman Wars, 1700–1860: An Empire Besieged. Pearson Education Limited. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-30807-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-582-30807-7"><bdi>978-0-582-30807-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ottoman+Wars%2C+1700%E2%80%931860%3A+An+Empire+Besieged&rft.pub=Pearson+Education+Limited&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-582-30807-7&rft.aulast=Aksan&rft.aufirst=Virginia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Aksan, Virginia H. "Ottoman Military Matters." Journal of Early Modern History 6.1 (2002): 52–62, historiography; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/download/53818952/Aksan_Ottoman_MIlitary_Matters.pdf">online</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a>‍]</li> <li>Aksan, Virginia H. "Mobilization of Warrior Populations in the Ottoman Context, 1750–1850." in Fighting for a Living: A Comparative Study of Military Labour: 1500–2000 ed. by Erik-Jan Zürcher (2014)<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/download/35001786/Chapter-11-Aksan-Mobilization_of_warrior_populations-1.pdf">online</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a>‍].</li> <li>Aksan, Virginia. "Breaking the spell of the Baron de Tott: Reframing the question of military reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1760–1830." International History Review 24.2 (2002): 253–277 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/download/46384567/Aksan_BreakingtheSpelloftheBarondeTottReframingtheQuesti_retrieved_2016-06-10_.pdf">online</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a>‍].</li> <li>Aksan, Virginia H. "The Ottoman military and state transformation in a globalizing world." <a href="/wiki/Comparative_Studies_of_South_Asia,_Africa_and_the_Middle_East" title="Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East">Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East</a> 27.2 (2007): 259–272 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.academia.edu/download/53818899/Aksan_Ottoman_MIlitary_and_State_Transformation_in__Globalizing_CSSAAMEAksan.pdf">online</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a>‍].</li> <li>Aksan, Virginia H. "Whatever happened to the Janissaries? Mobilization for the 1768–1774 Russo-Ottoman War." War in History 5.1 (1998): 23–36 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200228231453/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f9d7/c3a29abba101ebeb7705e2a733f2a8076187.pdf">online</a>.</li> <li>Albrecht-Carrié, René. A Diplomatic History of Europe Since the Congress of Vienna (1958), 736pp; a basic introduction, 1815–1955 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/diplomatichistor0000albr_b4c1">online free to borrow</a></li> <li>Çelik, Nihat. "Muslims, Non-Muslims and Foreign Relations: Ottoman Diplomacy." International Review of Turkish Studies 1.3 (2011): 8–30. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Nihat_Celik2/publication/263369634_Muslims_Non-Muslims_and_Foreign_Relations_Ottoman_Diplomacy/links/0f31753aad5432da58000000.pdf">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200728024900/https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Nihat_Celik2/publication/263369634_Muslims_Non-Muslims_and_Foreign_Relations_Ottoman_Diplomacy/links/0f31753aad5432da58000000.pdf">Archived</a> 28 July 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Fahmy, Khaled. All the Pasha's Men: Mehmed Ali, His Army and the Making of Modern Egypt (Cambridge University Press. 1997)</li> <li>Gürkan, Emrah Safa (2011), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/alliances-and-treaties/emrah-safa-gurkan-christian-allies-of-the-ottoman-empire?set_language=en&-C=">Christian Allies of the Ottoman Empire</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210611160637/http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/alliances-and-treaties/emrah-safa-gurkan-christian-allies-of-the-ottoman-empire?set_language=en&-C=">Archived</a> 11 June 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ieg-ego.eu">EHO – European History Online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130208042444/http://www.ieg-ego.eu/">Archived</a> 8 February 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Mainz: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ieg-mainz.de/likecms/index.php">Institute of European History</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160219021834/http://www.ieg-mainz.de/likecms/index.php">Archived</a> 19 February 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, retrieved: March 25, 2021 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/1020549114/34">pdf</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210505202644/https://d-nb.info/1020549114/34">Archived</a> 5 May 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>).</li> <li>Hall, Richard C. ed. War in the Balkans: An Encyclopedic History from the Fall of the Ottoman Empire to the Breakup of Yugoslavia (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurewitz,_Jacob_C." class="mw-redirect" title="Hurewitz, Jacob C.">Hurewitz, Jacob C.</a> "Ottoman diplomacy and the European state system." Middle East Journal 15.2 (1961): 141–152. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4323345">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200726195811/https://www.jstor.org/stable/4323345">Archived</a> 26 July 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merriman,_Roger_Bigelow" class="mw-redirect" title="Merriman, Roger Bigelow">Merriman, Roger Bigelow</a>. Suleiman the Magnificent, 1520–1566 (Harvard University Press, 1944) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.87496">online</a></li> <li>Miller, William. The Ottoman Empire and its successors, 1801–1922 (2nd ed 1927) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ottomanempireitsmill">online</a>, strong on foreign policy</li> <li>Minawi, Mustafa. The Ottoman Scramble for Africa Empire and Diplomacy in the Sahara and the Hijaz (2016) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/kaoikaprophe007_gmail_20180922">online</a></li> <li>Nicolle, David. Armies of the Ottoman Turks 1300–1774 (Osprey Publishing, 1983)</li> <li>Palmer, Alan. The Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire (1994).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRhoads1999" class="citation book cs1">Rhoads, Murphey (1999). Ottoman Warfare, 1500–1700. Rutgers University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85728-389-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85728-389-1"><bdi>978-1-85728-389-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ottoman+Warfare%2C+1500%E2%80%931700&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-1-85728-389-1&rft.aulast=Rhoads&rft.aufirst=Murphey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSoucek2015" class="citation book cs1">Soucek, Svat (2015). Ottoman Maritime Wars, 1416–1700. Istanbul: The Isis Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-975-428-554-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-975-428-554-3"><bdi>978-975-428-554-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ottoman+Maritime+Wars%2C+1416%E2%80%931700&rft.place=Istanbul&rft.pub=The+Isis+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-975-428-554-3&rft.aulast=Soucek&rft.aufirst=Svat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUyarErickson2009" class="citation book cs1">Uyar, Mesut; Erickson, Edward (2009). A Military History of the Ottomans: From Osman to Atatürk. Abc-Clio. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-98876-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-98876-0"><bdi>978-0-275-98876-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Military+History+of+the+Ottomans%3A+From+Osman+to+Atat%C3%BCrk&rft.pub=Abc-Clio&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-275-98876-0&rft.aulast=Uyar&rft.aufirst=Mesut&rft.au=Erickson%2C+Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Specialty_studies">Specialty studies</h3></div> <ul><li>Baram, Uzi and Lynda Carroll, editors. A Historical Archaeology of the Ottoman Empire: Breaking New Ground (Plenum/Kluwer Academic Press, 2000)</li> <li>Barkey, Karen. Empire of Difference: The Ottomans in Comparative Perspective. (2008) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-71533-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-71533-1">978-0-521-71533-1</a></li> <li>Davison, Roderic H. Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856–1876 (New York: Gordian Press, 1973)</li> <li>Deringil, Selim. The well-protected domains: ideology and the legitimation of power in the Ottoman Empire, 1876–1909 (London: IB Tauris, 1998)</li> <li>Findley, Carter V. Bureaucratic Reform in the Ottoman Empire: The Sublime Porte, 1789–1922 (Princeton University Press, 1980)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamed-Troyansky2024" class="citation book cs1">Hamed-Troyansky, Vladimir (2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c0vpEAAAQBAJ">Empire of Refugees: North Caucasian Muslims and the Late Ottoman State</a>. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5036-3696-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5036-3696-5"><bdi>978-1-5036-3696-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240521081112/https://books.google.com/books?id=c0vpEAAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 21 May 2024. Retrieved 20 May 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empire+of+Refugees%3A+North+Caucasian+Muslims+and+the+Late+Ottoman+State&rft.place=Stanford%2C+CA&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2024&rft.isbn=978-1-5036-3696-5&rft.aulast=Hamed-Troyansky&rft.aufirst=Vladimir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dc0vpEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li>McMeekin, Sean. The Berlin-Baghdad Express: The Ottoman Empire and Germany's Bid for World Power (2010)</li> <li>Mikhail, Alan. God's Shadow: Sultan Selim, His Ottoman Empire, and the Making of the Modern World (2020) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-63149-239-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-63149-239-6">978-1-63149-239-6</a> on <a href="/wiki/Selim_I" title="Selim I">Selim I</a> (1470–1529)</li> <li>Pamuk, Sevket. A Monetary History of the Ottoman Empire (1999). pp. 276</li> <li>Stone, Norman "Turkey in the Russian Mirror" pp. 86–100 from Russia War, Peace and Diplomacy edited by Mark & Ljubica Erickson, Weidenfeld & Nicolson: London, 2004 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-297-84913-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-297-84913-1">0-297-84913-1</a>.</li> <li>Yaycioglu, Ali. Partners of the empire: The crisis of the Ottoman order in the age of revolutions (Stanford University Press, 2016), covers 1760–1820 online review: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17192%2Fmeta.2018.10.7716">10.17192/meta.2018.10.7716</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCakir2018" class="citation journal cs1">Cakir, Burcin (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archiv.ub.uni-marburg.de/ep/0003/2018/192/7716/">"Ali Yacıoğlu: "Partners of the Empire: The Crisis of the Ottoman Order in the Age of Revolutions" | Middle East – Topics & Arguments"</a>. Middle East – Topics & Arguments. 10: 109–112. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17192%2Fmeta.2018.10.7716">10.17192/meta.2018.10.7716</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221101141747/https://archiv.ub.uni-marburg.de/ep/0003/2018/192/7716/">Archived</a> from the original on 1 November 2022. Retrieved 1 November 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Middle+East+%E2%80%93+Topics+%26+Arguments&rft.atitle=Ali+Yac%C4%B1o%C4%9Flu%3A+%22Partners+of+the+Empire%3A+The+Crisis+of+the+Ottoman+Order+in+the+Age+of+Revolutions%22+%26%23124%3B+Middle+East+%E2%80%93+Topics+%26+Arguments&rft.volume=10&rft.pages=109-112&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17192%2Fmeta.2018.10.7716&rft.aulast=Cakir&rft.aufirst=Burcin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchiv.ub.uni-marburg.de%2Fep%2F0003%2F2018%2F192%2F7716%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988">.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiography">Historiography</h3></div> <ul><li>Aksan, Virginia H. "What's Up in Ottoman Studies?" Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association 1.1–2 (2014): 3–21. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/jottturstuass.1.1-2.3">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200809081242/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/jottturstuass.1.1-2.3">Archived</a> 9 August 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/jottturstuass.2.1.215">comment by Ehud R. Toledano</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200809052829/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/jottturstuass.2.1.215">Archived</a> 9 August 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/745216/summary">reply by Aksan</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210225081133/https://muse.jhu.edu/article/745216/summary">Archived</a> 25 February 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Aksan, Virginia H. "Ottoman political writing, 1768–1808." International Journal of Middle East Studies 25.1 (1993): 53–69 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.academia.edu/download/35157878/Aksan_OttomanPOlitical_WritingIJMES_1993.pdf">online</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a>‍].</li> <li>Finkel, Caroline. "Ottoman history: whose history is it?." International Journal of Turkish Studies 14.1/2 (2008).</li> <li>Gerber, Haim. "Ottoman Historiography: Challenges of the Twenty-First Century." Journal of the American Oriental Society, 138#2 (2018), p. 369+. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A551496598/GPS?u=wikipedia&sid=GPS&xid=04b4884e">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200728024929/https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=GPS&u=wikipedia&id=GALE%7CA551496598&v=2.1&it=r&sid=GPS&asid=04b4884e">Archived</a> 28 July 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Hartmann, Daniel Andreas. "Neo-Ottomanism: The Emergence and Utility of a New Narrative on Politics, Religion, Society, and History in Turkey" (PhD Dissertation, Central European University, 2013) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etd.ceu.hu/2013/hartmann_daniel.pdf">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220514063633/http://www.etd.ceu.hu/2013/hartmann_daniel.pdf">Archived</a> 14 May 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li> <li>Eissenstat, Howard. "Children of Özal: The New Face of Turkish Studies" Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association 1#1 (2014), pp. 23–35 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2979%2Fjottturstuass.1.1-2.23">10.2979/jottturstuass.1.1-2.23</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEissenstat2014" class="citation journal cs1">Eissenstat (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/jottturstuass.1.1-2.23">"Children of Özal: The New Face of Turkish Studies"</a>. Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association. 1 (1–2): 23–35. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2979%2Fjottturstuass.1.1-2.23">10.2979/jottturstuass.1.1-2.23</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/jottturstuass.1.1-2.23">10.2979/jottturstuass.1.1-2.23</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:158272381">158272381</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200809062102/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/jottturstuass.1.1-2.23">Archived</a> from the original on 9 August 2020. Retrieved 28 March 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Ottoman+and+Turkish+Studies+Association&rft.atitle=Children+of+%C3%96zal%3A+The+New+Face+of+Turkish+Studies&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=23-35&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A158272381%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.2979%2Fjottturstuass.1.1-2.23%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2979%2Fjottturstuass.1.1-2.23&rft.au=Eissenstat&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.2979%2Fjottturstuass.1.1-2.23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKayalı2017" class="citation journal cs1">Kayalı, Hasan (December 2017). "The Ottoman Experience of World War I: Historiographical Problems and Trends". The Journal of Modern History. 89 (4): 875–907. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F694391">10.1086/694391</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-2801">0022-2801</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:148953435">148953435</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Modern+History&rft.atitle=The+Ottoman+Experience+of+World+War+I%3A+Historiographical+Problems+and+Trends&rft.volume=89&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=875-907&rft.date=2017-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A148953435%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0022-2801&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F694391&rft.aulast=Kayal%C4%B1&rft.aufirst=Hasan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Lieven, Dominic. Empire: The Russian Empire and its rivals (Yale University Press, 2002), comparisons with Russian, British, & Habsburg empires. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Empire-Russian-Its-Rivals/dp/0300097263">excerpt</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161019121200/https://www.amazon.com/Empire-Russian-Its-Rivals/dp/0300097263">Archived</a> 19 October 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Mikhail, Alan; Philliou, Christine M. "The Ottoman Empire and the Imperial Turn," Comparative Studies in Society & History (2012) 54#4 pp. 721–745. Comparing the Ottomans to other empires opens new insights about the dynamics of imperial rule, periodisation, and political transformation</li> <li>Olson, Robert, "Ottoman Empire" in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKelly_Boyd1999" class="citation book cs1">Kelly Boyd, ed. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0121vD9STIMC&pg=PA892">Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing vol 2</a>. Taylor & Francis. pp. 892–896. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-884964-33-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-884964-33-6"><bdi>978-1-884964-33-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151710/https://books.google.com/books?id=0121vD9STIMC&pg=PA892">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 5 October 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Historians+and+Historical+Writing+vol+2&rft.pages=892-896&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-1-884964-33-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0121vD9STIMC%26pg%3DPA892&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOttoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Quataert" title="Donald Quataert">Quataert, Donald</a>. "Ottoman History Writing and Changing Attitudes towards the Notion of 'Decline.'" History Compass 1 (2003): 1–9.</li> <li>Yaycıoğlu, Ali. "Ottoman Early Modern." Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association 7.1 (2020): 70–73 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.academia.edu/download/64051313/Ali%20Yaycioglu%20-%20Ottoman%20Early%20Modern.pdf">online</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a>‍].</li> <li>Yılmaz, Yasir. "Nebulous Ottomans vs. Good Old Habsburgs: A Historiographical Comparison." Austrian History Yearbook 48 (2017): 173–190. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/download/52736768/Yilmaz__Yasir__-_nebulous_ottomans_vs_good_old_habsburgs_a_historiographical_comparison.pdf">Online</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a>‍]</li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(13)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div><section class="mf-section-13 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-13"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box 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href="https://guides.lib.umich.edu/NE/ottoman">Ottoman and Turkish Studies Resources</a> – University of Michigan</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ottomanhistorians.uchicago.edu/en">Historians of the Ottoman Empire</a> – University of Chicago</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wdl.org/en/item/11770">Turkey in Asia</a>, 1920</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div>    </section></div> <noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&mobile=1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ottoman_Empire&oldid=1258979926">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ottoman_Empire&oldid=1258979926</a>"</div></div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Ottoman_Empire&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 22 November 2024, at 18:22 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ace mw-list-item"><a href="https://ace.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turuki_Utsmani" title="Turuki Utsmani – Acehnese" lang="ace" hreflang="ace" data-title="Turuki Utsmani" data-language-autonym="Acèh" data-language-local-name="Acehnese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Acèh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbd mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%8D%D1%81%D0%BC%D1%8D%D0%BD_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8D" title="Уэсмэн империэ – Kabardian" lang="kbd" hreflang="kbd" data-title="Уэсмэн империэ" data-language-autonym="Адыгэбзэ" data-language-local-name="Kabardian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Адыгэбзэ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ady mw-list-item"><a href="https://ady.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%81%D0%BC%D1%8D%D0%BD_%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%87%D1%8A%D1%8B%D1%85%D1%8C%D1%8B%D0%B3%D1%8A%D0%BE" title="Осмэн Пачъыхьыгъо – Adyghe" lang="ady" hreflang="ady" data-title="Осмэн Пачъыхьыгъо" data-language-autonym="Адыгабзэ" data-language-local-name="Adyghe" class="interlanguage-link-target">Адыгабзэ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottomaanse_Ryk" title="Ottomaanse Ryk – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Ottomaanse Ryk" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmanisches_Reich" title="Osmanisches Reich – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Osmanisches Reich" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%A8%E1%8A%A6%E1%89%B6%E1%88%9B%E1%8A%95_%E1%88%98%E1%8A%95%E1%8C%8D%E1%88%A5%E1%89%B5" title="የኦቶማን መንግሥት – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="የኦቶማን መንግሥት" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/O%C3%BEomanisce_R%C4%ABce" title="Oþomanisce Rīce – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Oþomanisce Rīce" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ab mw-list-item"><a href="https://ab.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D3%99%D0%B8_%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B0" title="Османтәи аимпериа – Abkhazian" lang="ab" hreflang="ab" data-title="Османтәи аимпериа" data-language-autonym="Аԥсшәа" data-language-local-name="Abkhazian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Аԥсшәа</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%AB%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الدولة العثمانية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الدولة العثمانية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_Otom%C3%A1n" title="Imperio Otomán – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Imperio Otomán" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%95%D5%BD%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D4%BF%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%BD%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Օսմանեան Կայսրութիւն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Օսմանեան Կայսրութիւն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF" title="অটোমান সাম্ৰাজ্য – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="অটোমান সাম্ৰাজ্য" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperiu_Otomanu" title="Imperiu Otomanu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Imperiu Otomanu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mburuvi_otom%C3%A1no" title="Mburuvi otománo – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Mburuvi otománo" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D3%80%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%B1_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="ГӀусманияб империя – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="ГӀусманияб империя" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target">Авар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmanl%C4%B1_imperiyas%C4%B1" title="Osmanlı imperiyası – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Osmanlı imperiyası" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%AB%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%84%DB%8C_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%84%D9%88%D8%BA%D9%88" title="عثمانلی ایمپیراتورلوغو – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="عثمانلی ایمپیراتورلوغو" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF" title="উসমানীয় সাম্রাজ্য – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="উসমানীয় সাম্রাজ্য" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osman_T%C3%A8-kok" title="Osman Tè-kok – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Osman Tè-kok" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%92%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D2%BB%D1%8B" title="Ғосман империяһы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Ғосман империяһы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Асманская імперыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Асманская імперыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8D%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Асманская імпэрыя – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Асманская імпэрыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperyong_Ottoman" title="Imperyong Ottoman – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Imperyong Ottoman" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Османска империя – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Османска империя" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmanischs_Reich" title="Osmanischs Reich – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Osmanischs Reich" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmansko_Carstvo" title="Osmansko Carstvo – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Osmansko Carstvo" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impalaeriezh_otoman" title="Impalaeriezh otoman – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Impalaeriezh otoman" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D1%8D%D0%B7%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%8D_%D0%B3%D2%AF%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%BD" title="Османай эзэнтэ гүрэн – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Османай эзэнтэ гүрэн" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperi_Otom%C3%A0" title="Imperi Otomà – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Imperi Otomà" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9%C4%95" title="Осман империйĕ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Осман империйĕ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmansk%C3%A1_%C5%99%C3%AD%C5%A1e" title="Osmanská říše – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Osmanská říše" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yr_Ymerodraeth_Otomanaidd" title="Yr Ymerodraeth Otomanaidd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Yr Ymerodraeth Otomanaidd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Det_Osmanniske_Rige" title="Det Osmanniske Rige – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Det Osmanniske Rige" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A9_%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الدولة لعتمانية – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="الدولة لعتمانية" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmanisches_Reich" title="Osmanisches Reich – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Osmanisches Reich" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmanite_riik" title="Osmanite riik – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Osmanite riik" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9F%CE%B8%CF%89%CE%BC%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%91%CF%85%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Οθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Οθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_otomano" title="Imperio otomano – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Imperio otomano" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otomana_Imperio" title="Otomana Imperio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Otomana Imperio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperiu_otomanu" title="Emperiu otomanu – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Emperiu otomanu" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otomandar_Inperioa" title="Otomandar Inperioa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Otomandar Inperioa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%B9%D8%AB%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="امپراتوری عثمانی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="امپراتوری عثمانی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Samrajya" title="Ottoman Samrajya – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Ottoman Samrajya" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmanska_r%C3%ADki%C3%B0" title="Osmanska ríkið – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Osmanska ríkið" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_ottoman" title="Empire ottoman – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Empire ottoman" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmaanske_Ryk" title="Osmaanske Ryk – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Osmaanske Ryk" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Impireacht_Otam%C3%A1nach" title="An Impireacht Otamánach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Impireacht Otamánach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gag mw-list-item"><a href="https://gag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmanl%C4%B1_Devleti" title="Osmanlı Devleti – Gagauz" lang="gag" hreflang="gag" data-title="Osmanlı Devleti" data-language-autonym="Gagauz" data-language-local-name="Gagauz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gagauz</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impireachd_nan_Otomanach" title="Impireachd nan Otomanach – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Impireachd nan Otomanach" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_Otom%C3%A1n" title="Imperio Otomán – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Imperio Otomán" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%8C%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Хьункархой импери – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Хьункархой импери" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target">ГӀалгӀай</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osman_Ti-koet" title="Osman Ti-koet – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Osman Ti-koet" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%98%A4%EC%8A%A4%EB%A7%8C_%EC%A0%9C%EA%B5%AD" title="오스만 제국 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="오스만 제국" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daular_Usmaniyya" title="Daular Usmaniyya – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Daular Usmaniyya" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%95%D5%BD%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%BD%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Օսմանյան կայսրություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Օսմանյան կայսրություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="उस्मानी साम्राज्य – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="उस्मानी साम्राज्य" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmansko_Carstvo" title="Osmansko Carstvo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Osmansko Carstvo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otoman_imperio" title="Otoman imperio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Otoman imperio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_nga_Otomano" title="Imperio nga Otomano – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Imperio nga Otomano" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kesultanan_Utsmaniyah" title="Kesultanan Utsmaniyah – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kesultanan Utsmaniyah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_Ottoman" title="Imperio Ottoman – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Imperio Ottoman" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Imperie" title="Ottoman Imperie – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Ottoman Imperie" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%8B_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Османты импери – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Османты импери" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyrkjaveldi" title="Tyrkjaveldi – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Tyrkjaveldi" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impero_ottomano" title="Impero ottomano – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Impero ottomano" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%90%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%AA%27%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA" title="האימפריה העות'מאנית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="האימפריה העות'מאנית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kakaisaran_Ottoman" title="Kakaisaran Ottoman – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Kakaisaran Ottoman" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%86%E0%B2%9F%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%9A%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A7%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AA%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF" title="ಆಟೋಮನ್ ಚಕ್ರಾಧಿಪತ್ಯ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಆಟೋಮನ್ ಚಕ್ರಾಧಿಪತ್ಯ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9E%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ოსმალეთის იმპერია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ოსმალეთის იმპერია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%8F%D8%AB%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%DB%81_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D9%8E%D8%AA" title="عُثمانیہ سلطنَت – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="عُثمانیہ سلطنَت" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target">कॉशुर / کٲشُر</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Осман империясы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Осман империясы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperoureth_Ottoman" title="Emperoureth Ottoman – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Emperoureth Ottoman" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milki_ya_Osmani" title="Milki ya Osmani – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Milki ya Osmani" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anpi_Otoman" title="Anpi Otoman – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Anpi Otoman" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampir_otoman" title="Ampir otoman – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Ampir otoman" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Emperatoriya_Osman%C3%AE" title="Împeratoriya Osmanî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Împeratoriya Osmanî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Осмон империясы – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Осмон империясы" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imper_Otoman" title="Imper Otoman – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Imper Otoman" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_Otomano" title="Imperio Otomano – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Imperio Otomano" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%88%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%94%E0%BB%82%E0%BA%AD%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%A1%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%99" title="ຈັກກະວັດໂອສະມັນ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ຈັກກະວັດໂອສະມັນ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperium_Ottomanicum" title="Imperium Ottomanicum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Imperium Ottomanicum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osma%C5%86u_imp%C4%93rija" title="Osmaņu impērija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Osmaņu impērija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmanescht_R%C3%A4ich" title="Osmanescht Räich – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Osmanescht Räich" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Усманрин империя – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Усманрин империя" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osman%C5%B3_imperija" title="Osmanų imperija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Osmanų imperija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottomaans_Riek" title="Ottomaans Riek – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Ottomaans Riek" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impero_Osmanan" title="Impero Osmanan – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Impero Osmanan" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imper_Otoman" title="Imper Otoman – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Imper Otoman" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oszm%C3%A1n_Birodalom" title="Oszmán Birodalom – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Oszmán Birodalom" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%A6%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Отоманско Царство – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Отоманско Царство" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empira_%C3%94t%C3%B4m%C3%A0na" title="Empira Ôtômàna – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Empira Ôtômàna" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%93%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8A%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%BB_%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%82" title="ഓട്ടൊമൻ സാമ്രാജ്യം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഓട്ടൊമൻ സാമ്രാജ്യം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperu_Ottoman" title="Imperu Ottoman – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Imperu Ottoman" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%93%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="ओस्मानी साम्राज्य – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="ओस्मानी साम्राज्य" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9E%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ოსმალეთიშ იმპერია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ოსმალეთიშ იმპერია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%87_%D8%B9%D8%AB%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%87" title="امبراطوريه عثمانيه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="امبراطوريه عثمانيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%AB%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="عثمانی – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="عثمانی" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empayar_Uthmaniyah" title="Empayar Uthmaniyah – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Empayar Uthmaniyah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osman_D%C3%A1%CC%A4-gu%C3%B3k" title="Osman Dá̤-guók – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Osman Dá̤-guók" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amp%C3%A9rio_Outomano" title="Ampério Outomano – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Ampério Outomano" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D1%8D%D0%B7%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%82_%D0%B3%D2%AF%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%BD" title="Османы эзэнт гүрэн – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Османы эзэнт гүрэн" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B7%E1%80%90%E1%80%99%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA_%E1%80%A1%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%95%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9A%E1%80%AC" title="အော့တမန် အင်ပိုင်ယာ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အော့တမန် အင်ပိုင်ယာ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottomaanse_Rijk" title="Ottomaanse Rijk – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Ottomaanse Rijk" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottomaanse_Riek" title="Ottomaanse Riek – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Ottomaanse Riek" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="अटोमन साम्राज्य – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="अटोमन साम्राज्य" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="उस्मान साम्राज्य – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="उस्मान साम्राज्य" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AA%E3%82%B9%E3%83%9E%E3%83%B3%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD" title="オスマン帝国 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="オスマン帝国" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nqo mw-list-item"><a href="https://nqo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DF%8F%DF%95%DF%8F%DF%A1%DF%8A%DF%B2_%DF%9D%DF%8A%DF%B0%DF%A1%DF%8A%DF%AC%DF%9F%DF%8A" title="ߏߕߏߡߊ߲ ߝߊ߰ߡߊ߬ߟߊ – N’Ko" lang="nqo" hreflang="nqo" data-title="ߏߕߏߡߊ߲ ߝߊ߰ߡߊ߬ߟߊ" data-language-autonym="ߒߞߏ" data-language-local-name="N’Ko" class="interlanguage-link-target">ߒߞߏ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D1%88%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5" title="Iусманойн шуре – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Iусманойн шуре" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmaansk_Rik" title="Osmaansk Rik – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Osmaansk Rik" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Det_osmanske_rike" title="Det osmanske rike – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Det osmanske rike" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Det_osmanske_riket" title="Det osmanske riket – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Det osmanske riket" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emp%C3%A8ri_Otoman" title="Empèri Otoman – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Empèri Otoman" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usmoniylar_davlati" title="Usmoniylar davlati – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Usmoniylar davlati" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%89%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%9C" title="ਉਸਮਾਨੀ ਸਾਮਰਾਜ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਉਸਮਾਨੀ ਸਾਮਰਾਜ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pfl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pfl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmanisches_Reich" title="Osmanisches Reich – Palatine German" lang="pfl" hreflang="pfl" data-title="Osmanisches Reich" data-language-autonym="Pälzisch" data-language-local-name="Palatine German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Pälzisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA_%D8%B9%D8%AB%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%DB%81" title="سلطنت عثمانیہ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="سلطنت عثمانیہ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_Otomano" title="Imperio Otomano – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Imperio Otomano" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%AB%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%DA%A9%D9%8A" title="عثماني سترواکي – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="عثماني سترواکي" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ataman_Empaya" title="Ataman Empaya – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Ataman Empaya" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%85%E1%9E%80%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%A2%E1%9E%BC%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%BC%E1%9E%98%E1%9F%89%E1%9E%84%E1%9F%8B" title="ចក្រភពអូតូម៉ង់ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ចក្រភពអូតូម៉ង់" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmaansch_Riek" title="Osmaansch Riek – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Osmaansch Riek" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperium_Osma%C5%84skie" title="Imperium Osmańskie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Imperium Osmańskie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imp%C3%A9rio_Otomano" title="Império Otomano – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Império Otomano" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmanl%C4%B1_Devleti" title="Osmanlı Devleti – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Osmanlı Devleti" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperiul_Otoman" title="Imperiul Otoman – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Imperiul Otoman" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rmy mw-list-item"><a href="https://rmy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otomano_Thagaripen" title="Otomano Thagaripen – Vlax Romani" lang="rmy" hreflang="rmy" data-title="Otomano Thagaripen" data-language-autonym="Romani čhib" data-language-local-name="Vlax Romani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Romani čhib</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utumanu_qhapaq_suyu" title="Utumanu qhapaq suyu – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Utumanu qhapaq suyu" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Османьска імперія – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Османьска імперія" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Османская империя – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Османская империя" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%8D%D1%82%D1%8D" title="Осмаан Импиэрийэтэ – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Осмаан Импиэрийэтэ" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imp%C3%A8riu_otomanu" title="Impèriu otomanu – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Impèriu otomanu" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Ottoman Empire" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmoansk_Riek" title="Osmoansk Riek – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Osmoansk Riek" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perandoria_Osmane" title="Perandoria Osmane – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Perandoria Osmane" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mpiru_uttumanu" title="Mpiru uttumanu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Mpiru uttumanu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%95%E0%B6%A7%E0%B6%B8%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B6%85%E0%B6%B0%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%A2%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B6%BA" title="ඕටමන් අධිරාජ්‍යය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ඕටමන් අධිරාජ්‍යය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Ottoman Empire" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%AB%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA" title="عثماني سلطنت – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="عثماني سلطنت" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmansk%C3%A1_r%C3%AD%C5%A1a" title="Osmanská ríša – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Osmanská ríša" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmansko_cesarstvo" title="Osmansko cesarstvo – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Osmansko cesarstvo" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%94sma%C5%84ske_Imperyjum" title="Ôsmańske Imperyjum – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Ôsmańske Imperyjum" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ślůnski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimintooyada_Cosmaniya" title="Rimintooyada Cosmaniya – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Rimintooyada Cosmaniya" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%86%D8%B1%DB%8C%DB%95%D8%AA%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D8%B9%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="ئیمپراتۆریەتیی عوسمانی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئیمپراتۆریەتیی عوسمانی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Османско царство – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Османско царство" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmansko_Carstvo" title="Osmansko Carstvo – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Osmansko Carstvo" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasultanan_Utsmaniyah" title="Kasultanan Utsmaniyah – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Kasultanan Utsmaniyah" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmanien_valtakunta" title="Osmanien valtakunta – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Osmanien valtakunta" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmanska_riket" title="Osmanska riket – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Osmanska riket" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperyong_Otomano" title="Imperyong Otomano – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Imperyong Otomano" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81" title="உதுமானியப் பேரரசு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="உதுமானியப் பேரரசு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamnekda_n_Iturkiyen" title="Tamnekda n Iturkiyen – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tamnekda n Iturkiyen" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-tara mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-tara.wikipedia.org/wiki/%27Mbere_Ottomane" title="'Mbere Ottomane – Tarantino" lang="nap-x-tara" hreflang="nap-x-tara" data-title="'Mbere Ottomane" data-language-autonym="Tarandíne" data-language-local-name="Tarantino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tarandíne</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D0%B5" title="Госман империясе – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Госман империясе" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99" title="จักรวรรดิออตโตมัน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="จักรวรรดิออตโตมัน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%A3%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BD%D3%A3" title="Имперотурии Усмонӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Имперотурии Усмонӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmanl%C4%B1_%C4%B0mparatorlu%C4%9Fu" title="Osmanlı İmparatorluğu – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Osmanlı İmparatorluğu" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osman_imperi%C3%BDasy" title="Osman imperiýasy – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Osman imperiýasy" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%CC%B1byintyokshan_A%CC%B1toman" title="A̱byintyokshan A̱toman – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="A̱byintyokshan A̱toman" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tyap</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Османська імперія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Османська імперія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA_%D8%B9%D8%AB%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%DB%81" title="سلطنت عثمانیہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="سلطنت عثمانیہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A6%D9%89%D9%85%D9%BE%DB%90%D8%B1%D9%89%D9%8A%D9%89%D8%B3%D9%89" title="ئوسمان ئىمپېرىيىسى – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="ئوسمان ئىمپېرىيىسى" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osman_Daeqgoz" title="Osman Daeqgoz – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Osman Daeqgoz" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inpero_otoman" title="Inpero otoman – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Inpero otoman" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmanan_imperii" title="Osmanan imperii – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Osmanan imperii" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%BF_qu%E1%BB%91c_Ottoman" title="Đế quốc Ottoman – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Đế quốc Ottoman" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmann%C3%B5_riik" title="Osmannõ riik – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Osmannõ riik" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A5%A7%E6%96%AF%E6%9B%BC%E5%B8%9D%E5%9C%8B" title="奧斯曼帝國 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="奧斯曼帝國" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperyo_Otomano" title="Imperyo Otomano – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Imperyo Otomano" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A5%A5%E6%96%AF%E6%9B%BC%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD" title="奥斯曼帝国 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="奥斯曼帝国" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%98%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%A2_%D7%90%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%A4%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A2" title="אטאמאנישע אימפעריע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="אטאמאנישע אימפעריע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Il%E1%BA%B9%CC%80-%E1%BB%8Cba_%C3%92tt%C3%B3m%C3%A1n%C3%AC" title="Ilẹ̀-Ọba Òttómánì – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Ilẹ̀-Ọba Òttómánì" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%84%82%E5%9C%96%E6%9B%BC%E5%B8%9D%E5%9C%8B" title="鄂圖曼帝國 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="鄂圖曼帝國" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0mperatoriya_Usman%C4%B1can" title="İmperatoriya Usmanıcan – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="İmperatoriya Usmanıcan" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uosmanu_imper%C4%97j%C4%97" title="Uosmanu imperėjė – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Uosmanu imperėjė" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A5%A5%E6%96%AF%E6%9B%BC%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD" title="奥斯曼帝国 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="奥斯曼帝国" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ann mw-list-item"><a href="https://ann.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ij%E1%BB%8Dn%CC%84-ub%E1%BB%8D%E1%BB%8Dn%CC%84_Otoman" title="Ijọn̄-ubọọn̄ Otoman – Obolo" lang="ann" hreflang="ann" data-title="Ijọn̄-ubọọn̄ Otoman" data-language-autonym="Obolo" data-language-local-name="Obolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Obolo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iba mw-list-item"><a href="https://iba.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empayar_Ottoman" title="Empayar Ottoman – Iban" lang="iba" hreflang="iba" data-title="Empayar Ottoman" data-language-autonym="Jaku Iban" data-language-local-name="Iban" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jaku Iban</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tly mw-list-item"><a href="https://tly.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmanijon_Imperij%C9%99" title="Osmanijon Imperijə – Talysh" lang="tly" hreflang="tly" data-title="Osmanijon Imperijə" data-language-autonym="Tolışi" data-language-local-name="Talysh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tolışi</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 22 November 2024, at 18:22 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Content is available under <a class="external" rel="nofollow" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">CC BY-SA 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places" class="footer-places hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li 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href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ottoman_Empire&mobileaction=toggle_view_desktop" data-event-name="switch_to_desktop">Desktop</a></li> </ul> </div> </footer> </div> </div> <div class="mw-notification-area" data-mw="interface"></div>  <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-57488d5c7d-4rrb8","wgBackendResponseTime":361,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"4.422","walltime":"5.000","ppvisitednodes":{"value":43754,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":1312769,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":179126,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":21,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":67,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":1198908,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":3,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 3980.776 1 -total"," 38.40% 1528.448 2 Template:Reflist"," 24.25% 965.440 182 Template:Cite_book"," 13.96% 555.829 1 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1,\n [\"CITEREFBijakLubman2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlack2001\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFBlairBloom1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBloomBlairSheila_S.2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBraudel1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBryceToynbee2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFButurovic2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFC._Tucker2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCakir2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarmichael2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarswell2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFComstock-Skipp2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFD._CesanaO.J._BenedictowR._Bianucci2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDarling1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavies2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavison1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeringil2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDouglas_Arthur_Howard2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdhem2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEissenstat2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEl-Rouayheb2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEli_Shah\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElsie2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEmin_Şenyer\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEpsteinO\u0026#039;ConnorGrub\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFErickson2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFErickson2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEsposito1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFahmy2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFaroqhi1994\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFFaroqhi1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFaroqhi2005\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFFetvacı2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFindley2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFinkel2005\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFFinkel2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlynn2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFortna2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFreedman2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFreely2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoodwin1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreene2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuyot1885\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGábor_ÁgostonBruce_Alan_Masters2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGábor_Ágoston_and_Bruce_Alan_Masters2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGürçaglarPakerMilton2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHakan_Özoğlu2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHalil_Inalcik\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHalil_İnalcık1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHamed-Troyansky2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHanlon\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHathaway2008\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFHerzigKurkchiyan2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHess1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHorton1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoward2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoward2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFImber2002\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFImber2009\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFInan2019\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFIngraoSamardžićPešalj2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIshtiaq\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFItzkowitz1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJean_Batou1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJelavichJelavich1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJustin_McCarthy1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKabadayı2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKafadar1995\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFKafadar2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKahl2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKarpat,_Kemal_H.1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKarpat1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKarsh2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKastritsis2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKateb2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKayalı2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKelly_Boyd1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKemal_H._Karpat2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKemal_H_Karpat2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKermeli2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKinross1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoru2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrummerich1998–1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuban2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuntWoodhead1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLambtonLewis1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeila_Erder_and_Suraiya_Faroqhi1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindner1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindner2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLokman1588\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLowry2003\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFM._BloomBlair2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFM._BloomS._Blair2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMansel1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMastersÁgoston2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatsuki\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaḥmūd_Yazbak1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCarthy1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcDonaldMoore2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMignon2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMilner1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoačanin2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoran1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMundySmith2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMurat_Belge2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMurphey1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNaim_KapucuHamit_Palabiyik2008\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFNicolle1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNükhet_Varlik2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOrest_Subtelny2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFP.1916\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFP._J._BearmanRudolph_Peters2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPalabiyik2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPamuk1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPamuk2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaoletti2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaul_Bairoch1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeter_Balakian2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPultar2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQuataert1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQuataert1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQuataert2005\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFQuataertSpivey2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRagep2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRaymond_DetrezBarbara_Segaert2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRein_Taagepera1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReynolds2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRhoads1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichmond2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobinson1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRogan2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRubenstein2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFS._Swayd2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSachedina2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSavory1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchallerZimmerer2008\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSchmittKiprovska2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSelçuk_Akşin_Somel\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSevim_Tekeli1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShams_El-Din\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShaw1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShawShaw1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShawShaw1977b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimons1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSociety2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSoucek2015\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSpuler2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStone2005\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFStrauss2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStreusand2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSyed2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSzabó2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylor1955\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTezcan2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTezcan2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThompson1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrevor_N._Dupuy1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTucker2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTurchinAdamsHall2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUrban2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUyarEdward_J._Erickson2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUyarErickson2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFV._Necla_Geyikdagi2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalker1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWall\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWatson1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoodhead2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYaron_Ayalon2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYarshaterMelville359\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYılmaz2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZürcher2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFÁgoston2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFÁgoston2009\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFÁgoston2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFÁgostonBruce_Alan_Masters2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFÁgoston_and_Alan_Masters2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFİnalcık1970\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFİnalcıkDonald_Quataert1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFİnalcıkQuataert1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFİsmail_Hakkı_Göksoy\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFİçduyguToktaşAli_Soner2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFŞahin2013\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 17,\n [\"Abbr\"] = 2,\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Better source needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Cbignore\"] = 8,\n [\"Center\"] = 5,\n [\"Circa\"] = 8,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite Q\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 182,\n [\"Cite constitution\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 32,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 41,\n [\"Collapsed infobox section begin\"] = 1,\n [\"Collapsed infobox section end\"] = 1,\n [\"Collapsible list\"] = 1,\n [\"Culture of the Ottoman Empire sidebar\"] = 1,\n [\"Cvt\"] = 2,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 9,\n [\"Doi\"] = 3,\n [\"Dubious\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 15,\n [\"Empires\"] = 1,\n [\"EngvarB\"] = 1,\n [\"Failed verification\"] = 1,\n [\"Former Monarchies\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 3,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 3,\n [\"History of Europe\"] = 1,\n [\"History of Turkey\"] = 1,\n [\"History of Turkey timeline\"] = 1,\n [\"History of the Ottoman Empire\"] = 1,\n [\"IPAc-en\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 11,\n [\"Infobox country\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 27,\n [\"Langx\"] = 3,\n [\"Library resources box\"] = 1,\n [\"Lit\"] = 3,\n [\"Main\"] = 25,\n [\"Main list\"] = 1,\n [\"Mdash\"] = 1,\n [\"Medieval states in Anatolia\"] = 1,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 2,\n [\"Navboxes\"] = 1,\n [\"Nbsp\"] = 8,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Nowrap\"] = 6,\n [\"Obsolete source\"] = 2,\n [\"Ottoman Empire topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Plainlist\"] = 4,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Reign\"] = 1,\n [\"Rp\"] = 42,\n [\"See also\"] = 6,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 45,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sister project links\"] = 1,\n [\"Spoken Wikipedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Switcher\"] = 1,\n [\"TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi\"] = 1,\n [\"Transliteration\"] = 14,\n [\"Turkey topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Turkic topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Ubl\"] = 2,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 37,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n1 1 Arthur Arnold\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","540","19.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","380","13.4"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","220","7.7"],["dataWrapper 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