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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-On_politics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#On_politics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>On politics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-On_politics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Encounters_with_Carl_Schmitt_and_Alexandre_Kojève" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Encounters_with_Carl_Schmitt_and_Alexandre_Kojève"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Encounters with Carl Schmitt and Alexandre Kojève</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Encounters_with_Carl_Schmitt_and_Alexandre_Kojève-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Liberalism_and_nihilism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Liberalism_and_nihilism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Liberalism and nihilism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Liberalism_and_nihilism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Strauss's_interpretation_of_Plato's_Republic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Strauss's_interpretation_of_Plato's_Republic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Strauss's interpretation of Plato's <i>Republic</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Strauss's_interpretation_of_Plato's_Republic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Strauss_and_Karl_Popper" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Strauss_and_Karl_Popper"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Strauss and Karl Popper</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Strauss_and_Karl_Popper-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ancients_and_Moderns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancients_and_Moderns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Ancients and Moderns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancients_and_Moderns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Strauss_and_Zionism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Strauss_and_Zionism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.9</span> <span>Strauss and Zionism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Strauss_and_Zionism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religious_belief" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_belief"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.10</span> <span>Religious belief</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religious_belief-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reception_and_legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reception_and_legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Reception and legacy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Reception_and_legacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Reception and legacy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Reception_and_legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reception_by_contemporaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reception_by_contemporaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Reception by contemporaries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reception_by_contemporaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Straussian_school" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Straussian_school"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>The Straussian school</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Straussian_school-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Chinese_Straussians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Chinese_Straussians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>The Chinese Straussians</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Chinese_Straussians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Criticism</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Criticism subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Basis_for_esotericism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Basis_for_esotericism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Basis for esotericism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Basis_for_esotericism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conservatism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conservatism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Conservatism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conservatism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anti-historicism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anti-historicism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Anti-historicism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anti-historicism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Response_to_criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Response_to_criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Response to criticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Response_to_criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Strauss_family" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Strauss_family"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Strauss family</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Strauss_family-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header 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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Leo Strauss</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 37 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-37" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">37 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Leo Strauss" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%88_%D8%B4%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B3" title="ليو شتراوس – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ليو شتراوس" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%A6%D9%88_%D8%A7%D8%B4%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B3" title="لئو اشتراوس – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="لئو اشتراوس" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Leo Strauss" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Leo Strauss" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Leo Strauss" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Leo Strauss" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Leo Strauss" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9B%CE%AD%CE%BF_%CE%A3%CF%84%CF%81%CE%AC%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%82" title="Λέο Στράους – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Λέο Στράους" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Leo Strauss" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Leo Strauss" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%A6%D9%88_%D8%A7%D8%B4%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B3" title="لئو اشتراوس – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="لئو اشتراوس" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Leo Strauss" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A0%88%EC%98%A4_%EC%8A%A4%ED%8A%B8%EB%9D%BC%EC%9A%B0%EC%8A%A4" title="레오 스트라우스 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="레오 스트라우스" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BC%D5%A5%D5%B8_%D5%87%D5%BF%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%BD" title="Լեո Շտրաուս – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Լեո Շտրաուս" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Leo Strauss" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Leo Strauss" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%90%D7%95_%D7%A9%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A1" title="ליאו שטראוס – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ליאו שטראוס" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D_%E1%83%A8%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98" title="ლეო შტრაუსი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ლეო შტრაუსი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D_%E1%83%A8%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98" title="ლეო შტრაუსი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ლეო შტრაუსი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%88_%D8%B4%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B3" title="ليو شتراوس – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ليو شتراوس" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Leo Strauss" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%AC%E3%82%AA%E3%83%BB%E3%82%B7%E3%83%A5%E3%83%88%E3%83%A9%E3%82%A6%E3%82%B9" title="レオ・シュトラウス – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="レオ・シュトラウス" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Leo Strauss" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%88_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B3" title="لیو ستراوس – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="لیو ستراوس" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Leo Strauss" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Leo Strauss" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Leo Strauss" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%81,_%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%BE" title="Штраус, Лео – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Штраус, Лео" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Leo Strauss" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Leo Strauss" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Leo Strauss" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Strauss" 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searchaux" style="display:none">American political philosopher (1899–1973)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Leo Strauss</div><div class="honorific-suffix" style="font-size: 77%; font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Order_of_Merit_of_the_Federal_Republic_of_Germany" title="Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany">BVO</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:LeoStrauss.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/2d/LeoStrauss.jpg/220px-LeoStrauss.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="315" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/2d/LeoStrauss.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="263" data-file-height="377" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1899-09-20</span>)</span>September 20, 1899<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Kirchhain" title="Kirchhain">Kirchhain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">October 18, 1973<span style="display:none">(1973-10-18)</span> (aged 74)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Annapolis" class="mw-redirect" title="Annapolis">Annapolis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maryland" title="Maryland">Maryland</a>, U.S.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alma mater</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Marburg" title="University of Marburg">University of Marburg</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Hamburg" title="University of Hamburg">University of Hamburg</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Freiburg" title="University of Freiburg">University of Freiburg</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><span style="white-space:nowrap;">Notable work</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Persecution_and_the_Art_of_Writing" title="Persecution and the Art of Writing">Persecution and the Art of Writing</a></i></li><li><i><a href="/wiki/Thoughts_on_Machiavelli" title="Thoughts on Machiavelli">Thoughts on Machiavelli</a></i></li><li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Political_Philosophy" title="History of Political Philosophy">History of Political Philosophy</a></i></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouse</th><td class="infobox-data">Miriam Bernsohn Strauss</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Order_of_Merit_of_the_Federal_Republic_of_Germany" title="Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany">Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Era</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/20th-century_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="20th-century philosophy">20th-century philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Region</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of schools of philosophy">School</a></th><td class="infobox-data category"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental philosophy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo-Kantianism</a> (early)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Platonism" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Platonism">Modern Platonism</a> (later)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Straussian_hermeneutics" class="mw-redirect" title="Straussian hermeneutics">Straussian hermeneutics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_republicanism" title="Classical republicanism">Classical republicanism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_republicanism" title="Modern republicanism">Modern republicanism</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data org"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hochschule_f%C3%BCr_die_Wissenschaft_des_Judentums" title="Hochschule für die Wissenschaft des Judentums">Higher Institute for Jewish Studies</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/The_New_School" title="The New School">The New School</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Hamilton_College" title="Hamilton College">Hamilton College</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Claremont_McKenna_College" title="Claremont McKenna College">Claremont McKenna College</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/St._John%27s_College_(Annapolis)" class="mw-redirect" title="St. John's College (Annapolis)">St. John's College</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Thesis" title="Thesis">Thesis</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-476-00728-5_7"><i>Das Erkenntnisproblem in der philosophischen Lehre Fr. H. Jacobis (On the Problem of Knowledge in the Philosophical Doctrine of F. H. Jacobi)</i></a> (1921)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Doctoral_advisor" title="Doctoral advisor">Doctoral advisor</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Ernst Cassirer</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Main interests</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">History of philosophy</a> (especially <a href="/wiki/Greek_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek philosophy">Greek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">continental philosophy</a>)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr class="note"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Notable ideas</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>List</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">Noetic heterogeneity</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">The ends of politics and philosophy as irreducible to one another</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">The unresolvable tension between <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a> and <a href="/wiki/Revelation" title="Revelation">revelation</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">Criticism of <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">positivism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moral_relativism" title="Moral relativism">moral relativism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">historicism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">nihilism</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">The distinction between esoteric and exoteric writing</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">Reopening the <a href="/wiki/Quarrel_of_the_Ancients_and_the_Moderns" title="Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns">quarrel of the ancients and the moderns</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><i><a href="/wiki/Reductio_ad_Hitlerum" title="Reductio ad Hitlerum">Reductio ad Hitlerum</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Leo Strauss</b><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (September 20, 1899 – October 18, 1973) was an American scholar of <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a>. Born in <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> to <a href="/wiki/Jewish" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish">Jewish</a> parents, Strauss later emigrated from Germany to the United States. He spent much of his career as a professor of political science at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>, where he taught several generations of students and published fifteen books. </p><p>Trained in the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantian" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Kantian">neo-Kantian</a> tradition with <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Ernst Cassirer</a> and immersed in the work of the <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenologists</a> <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a> and <a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a>, Strauss authored books on <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a>, and articles on <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a>. In the late 1930s, his research focused on the texts of <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, retracing their interpretation through medieval <a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish philosophy</a>, and encouraging the application of those ideas to contemporary political theory. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biography">Biography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Strauss&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Biography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_life_and_education">Early life and education</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Strauss&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early life and education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Strauss was born on September 20, 1899, in the small town of <a href="/wiki/Kirchhain" title="Kirchhain">Kirchhain</a> in <a href="/wiki/Hesse-Nassau" class="mw-redirect" title="Hesse-Nassau">Hesse-Nassau</a>, a province of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</a> (part of the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a>), to Hugo Strauss and Jennie Strauss, née David. According to <a href="/wiki/Allan_Bloom" title="Allan Bloom">Allan Bloom</a>'s 1974 obituary in <i>Political Theory</i>, Strauss "was raised as an <a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Jew" class="mw-redirect" title="Orthodox Jew">Orthodox Jew</a>", but the family does not appear to have completely embraced Orthodox practice.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Strauss himself noted that he came from a "conservative, even orthodox Jewish home", but one which knew little about Judaism except strict adherence to ceremonial laws. His father and uncle operated a farm supply and livestock business that they inherited from their father, Meyer (1835–1919), a leading member of the local Jewish community.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After attending the Kirchhain Volksschule and the Protestant Rektoratsschule, Leo Strauss was enrolled at the <a href="/wiki/Gymnasium_Philippinum" title="Gymnasium Philippinum">Gymnasium Philippinum</a> (affiliated with the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Marburg" title="University of Marburg">University of Marburg</a>) in nearby <a href="/wiki/Marburg" title="Marburg">Marburg</a> (from which <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Althusius" title="Johannes Althusius">Johannes Althusius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carl_Joachim_Friedrich" title="Carl Joachim Friedrich">Carl Joachim Friedrich</a> also graduated) in 1912, graduating in 1917. He boarded with the Marburg <a href="/wiki/Hazzan" title="Hazzan">cantor</a> Strauss (no relation), whose residence served as a meeting place for followers of the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantian" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Kantian">neo-Kantian</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Cohen" title="Hermann Cohen">Hermann Cohen</a>. Strauss served in the German army from <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> from July 5, 1917, to December 1918. </p><p>Strauss subsequently enrolled in the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Hamburg" title="University of Hamburg">University of Hamburg</a>, where he received his <a href="/wiki/Doctorate" title="Doctorate">doctorate</a> in 1921; his thesis, <i>On the Problem of Knowledge in the Philosophical Doctrine of F. H. Jacobi</i> (<i>Das Erkenntnisproblem in der philosophischen Lehre Fr. H. Jacobis</i>), was supervised by <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Ernst Cassirer</a>. He also attended courses at the Universities of <a href="/wiki/University_of_Freiburg" title="University of Freiburg">Freiburg</a> and Marburg, including some taught by <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a> and <a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a>. Strauss joined a Jewish fraternity and worked for the German Zionist movement, which introduced him to various German Jewish intellectuals, such as <a href="/wiki/Norbert_Elias" title="Norbert Elias">Norbert Elias</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leo_L%C3%B6wenthal" title="Leo Löwenthal">Leo Löwenthal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Hannah Arendt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Benjamin" title="Walter Benjamin">Walter Benjamin</a>. Benjamin was and remained an admirer of Strauss and his work throughout his life.<sup id="cite_ref-Kenneth_Hart_Green_page_55_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kenneth_Hart_Green_page_55-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Scholem,_Gershom_1981._page_201_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scholem,_Gershom_1981._page_201-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gershom_Scholem_1989,_page_155-58_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gershom_Scholem_1989,_page_155-58-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Strauss's closest friend was <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Klein_(philosopher)" title="Jacob Klein (philosopher)">Jacob Klein</a> but he also was intellectually engaged with Gerhard Krüger—and also <a href="/wiki/Karl_L%C3%B6with" title="Karl Löwith">Karl Löwith</a>, <a href="/wiki/Julius_Guttmann" title="Julius Guttmann">Julius Guttmann</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Hans-Georg Gadamer</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Franz_Rosenzweig" title="Franz Rosenzweig">Franz Rosenzweig</a> (to whom Strauss dedicated his first book), as well as <a href="/wiki/Gershom_Scholem" title="Gershom Scholem">Gershom Scholem</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Altmann" title="Alexander Altmann">Alexander Altmann</a>, and the Arabist <a href="/wiki/Paul_Kraus_(Arabist)" title="Paul Kraus (Arabist)">Paul Kraus</a>, who married Strauss's sister Bettina (Strauss and his wife later adopted Paul and Bettina Kraus's child when both parents died in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>). With several of these friends, Strauss carried on vigorous epistolary exchanges later in life, many of which are published in the <i>Gesammelte Schriften</i> (<i>Collected Writings</i>), some in translation from the German. Strauss had also been engaged in a discourse with <a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Carl Schmitt</a>. However, after Strauss left Germany, he broke off the discourse when Schmitt failed to respond to his letters. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Career">Career</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Strauss&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Career"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After receiving a <a href="/wiki/Rockefeller_Fellowship" class="mw-redirect" title="Rockefeller Fellowship">Rockefeller Fellowship</a> in 1932, Strauss left his position at the <a href="/wiki/Higher_Institute_for_Jewish_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Higher Institute for Jewish Studies">Higher Institute for Jewish Studies</a> in <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a> for <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>. He returned to Germany only once, for a few short days twenty years later. In Paris, he married Marie (Miriam) Bernsohn, a widow with a young child, whom he had known previously in Germany. He adopted his wife's son, Thomas, and later his sister's child, <a href="/wiki/Jenny_Strauss_Clay" title="Jenny Strauss Clay">Jenny Strauss Clay</a> (later a professor of classics at the University of Virginia); he and Miriam had no biological children of their own. At his death, he was survived by Thomas, Jenny Strauss Clay, and three grandchildren. Strauss became a lifelong friend of <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Koj%C3%A8ve" title="Alexandre Kojève">Alexandre Kojève</a> and was on friendly terms with <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Raymond Aron</a> and <a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Gilson" title="Étienne Gilson">Étienne Gilson</a>. Because of the Nazis' rise to power, he chose not to return to his native country. Strauss found shelter, after some vicissitudes, in England, where, in 1935 he gained temporary employment at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a> with the help of his in-law <a href="/wiki/David_Daube" title="David Daube">David Daube</a>, who was affiliated with <a href="/wiki/Gonville_and_Caius_College,_Cambridge" title="Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge">Gonville and Caius College</a>. While in England, he became a close friend of <a href="/wiki/R._H._Tawney" title="R. H. Tawney">R. H. Tawney</a> and was on less friendly terms with <a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Isaiah Berlin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-books.google.com_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-books.google.com-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Campus_Spring.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Campus_Spring.jpg/220px-Campus_Spring.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Campus_Spring.jpg/330px-Campus_Spring.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Campus_Spring.jpg/440px-Campus_Spring.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="375" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>, the school with which Strauss is most closely associated</figcaption></figure> <p>Unable to find permanent employment in England, Strauss moved to the United States in 1937, under the patronage of <a href="/wiki/Harold_Laski" title="Harold Laski">Harold Laski</a>, who made introductions and helped him obtain a brief lectureship. After a short stint as a <a href="/wiki/Research_fellow" title="Research fellow">research fellow</a> in the Department of History at <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a>, Strauss secured a position at <a href="/wiki/The_New_School" title="The New School">The New School</a>, where, between 1938 and 1948, he worked in the political science faculty and also took on adjunct jobs.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1939, he served for a short term as a visiting professor at <a href="/wiki/Hamilton_College" title="Hamilton College">Hamilton College</a>. He became a U.S. citizen in 1944, and in 1949 became a professor of political science at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>, holding the Robert Maynard Hutchins Distinguished Service Professorship until he left in 1969. </p><p>In 1953, Strauss coined the phrase <i><a href="/wiki/Reductio_ad_Hitlerum" title="Reductio ad Hitlerum">reductio ad Hitlerum</a></i>, a play on <i><a href="/wiki/Reductio_ad_absurdum" title="Reductio ad absurdum">reductio ad absurdum</a></i>, suggesting that comparing an argument to one of <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Hitler</a>'s, or "playing the Nazi card", is often a fallacy of irrelevance.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1954, he met <a href="/wiki/Karl_L%C3%B6with" title="Karl Löwith">Karl Löwith</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Hans-Georg Gadamer</a> in <a href="/wiki/Heidelberg" title="Heidelberg">Heidelberg</a> and delivered a public speech on <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a>. He had received a call for a temporary lectureship in <a href="/wiki/Hamburg" title="Hamburg">Hamburg</a> in 1965 (which he declined for health reasons) and received and accepted an honorary doctorate from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Hamburg" title="University of Hamburg">University of Hamburg</a> and the [[[Bundesverdienstkreuz]]] <span style="color:#d33">Error: {{Lang}}: invalid parameter: |label= (<a href="/wiki/Category:Lang_and_lang-xx_template_errors" title="Category:Lang and lang-xx template errors">help</a>)</span> (German Order of Merit) via the German representative in Chicago. In 1969, Strauss moved to <a href="/wiki/Claremont_McKenna_College" title="Claremont McKenna College">Claremont McKenna College</a> (formerly Claremont Men's College) in California for a year, and then to <a href="/wiki/St._John%27s_College_(Annapolis/Santa_Fe)" title="St. John's College (Annapolis/Santa Fe)">St. John's College, Annapolis</a> in 1970, where he was the Scott Buchanan Distinguished Scholar in Residence until his death from pneumonia in 1973.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was buried in Annapolis Hebrew Cemetery, with his wife Miriam Bernsohn Strauss, who died in 1985. <a href="/wiki/Psalm_114" title="Psalm 114">Psalm 114</a> was read in the funeral service at the request of family and friends.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Thought">Thought</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Strauss&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Thought"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Strauss's thought can be characterized by two main themes: the critique of modernity and the recovery of classical political philosophy. He argued that modernity, which began with the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>, was a radical break from the tradition of <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western civilization</a>, and that it led to a crisis of <a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">nihilism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">relativism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">historicism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">scientism</a>. He claimed that modern political and social sciences, which were based on empirical observation and rational analysis, failed to grasp the essential questions of human nature, morality, and justice, and that they reduced human beings to mere objects of manipulation and calculation. He also criticized modern <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberalism</a>, which he saw as a product of modernity, for its lack of moral and spiritual foundations, and for its tendency to undermine the authority of religion, tradition, and <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">natural law</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Batnizky_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Batnizky-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Routledge_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Routledge-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To overcome the crisis of modernity, Strauss proposed a return to the classical political philosophy of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">ancient Greeks</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">medieval thinkers</a>, who he believed had a deeper and more comprehensive understanding of human nature and society. He advocated a careful and respectful reading of the classical texts, arguing that their authors wrote in an esoteric manner, which he called "<a href="/wiki/Persecution_and_the_Art_of_Writing" title="Persecution and the Art of Writing">the art of writing</a>" and which he practiced in his own works. He suggested that the classical authors hid their true teachings behind a surface layer of conventional opinions, in order to avoid persecution and to educate only the few who were capable of grasping them, and that they engaged in a dialogue with each other across the ages. Strauss called this dialogue "<a href="/wiki/Great_Conversation" title="Great Conversation">the great conversation</a>", and invited his readers to join it.<sup id="cite_ref-Batnizky_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Batnizky-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Routledge_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Routledge-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Strauss's interpretation of the classical political philosophy was influenced by his own Jewish background and his encounter with Islamic and Jewish medieval philosophy, especially the works of <a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a>. He argued that these philosophers, who lived under the <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">rule of Islam</a>, faced similar challenges as the ancient Greeks. He also claimed that these philosophers, who were both faithful to their revealed religions and loyal to the rational pursuit of philosophy, offered a model of how to reconcile <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a> and <a href="/wiki/Revelation" title="Revelation">revelation</a>, philosophy and theology, Athens and Jerusalem.<sup id="cite_ref-Batnizky_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Batnizky-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Routledge_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Routledge-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Views">Views</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Strauss&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Views"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy">Philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Strauss&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For Strauss, politics and philosophy were necessarily intertwined. He regarded the trial and death of <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> as the moment when political philosophy came into existence. Strauss considered one of the most important moments in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">history of philosophy</a> Socrates' argument that philosophers could not study <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a> without considering their own <a href="/wiki/Human_nature" title="Human nature">human nature</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which, in the words of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, is that of "a political animal."<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, he also held that the ends of politics and philosophy were inherently irreconcilable and irreducible to one another.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Strauss distinguished "scholars" from "great thinkers," identifying himself as a scholar. He wrote that most self-described philosophers are in actuality scholars, cautious and methodical. Great thinkers, in contrast, boldly and creatively address big problems. Scholars deal with these problems only indirectly by reasoning about the great thinkers' differences.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <i>Natural Right and History</i>, Strauss begins with a critique of <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a>, briefly engages the <a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">relativism</a> of <a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a> (who goes unnamed) and continues with a discussion of the evolution of <a href="/wiki/Natural_right" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural right">natural rights</a> via an analysis of the thought of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>. He concludes by critiquing <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Edmund Burke</a>. At the heart of the book are excerpts from <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>. Much of his philosophy is a reaction to the works of <a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a>. Indeed, Strauss wrote that Heidegger's thinking must be understood and confronted before any complete formulation of modern political theory is possible, and this means that political thought has to engage with issues of ontology and the history of metaphysics.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Strauss wrote that <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a> was the first philosopher to properly understand <a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">historicism</a>, an idea grounded in a general acceptance of Hegelian <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">philosophy of history</a>. Heidegger, in Strauss's view, sanitized and politicized Nietzsche, whereas Nietzsche believed "our own principles, including the belief in progress, will become as unconvincing and alien as all earlier principles (essences) had shown themselves to be" and "the only way out seems to be ... that one voluntarily choose life-giving delusion instead of deadly truth, that one fabricate a myth."<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Heidegger believed that the tragic <a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">nihilism</a> of Nietzsche was itself a "myth" guided by a defective Western conception of <a href="/wiki/Being" class="mw-redirect" title="Being">Being</a> that Heidegger traced to Plato. In his published correspondence with <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Koj%C3%A8ve" title="Alexandre Kojève">Alexandre Kojève</a>, Strauss wrote that <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel</a> was correct when he postulated that an end of history implies an end to philosophy as understood by classical political philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="On_reading">On reading</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Strauss&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: On reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Al-Farabi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Al-Farabi.jpg/220px-Al-Farabi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Al-Farabi.jpg/330px-Al-Farabi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Al-Farabi.jpg/440px-Al-Farabi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="662" data-file-height="699" /></a><figcaption>Strauss's study of philosophy and political discourses produced by the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic civilization</a>—especially those of <a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a> (shown here) and <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a>—was instrumental in the development of his theory of reading.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the late 1930s, Strauss called for the first time for a reconsideration of the "distinction between exoteric (or public) and esoteric (or secret) teaching."<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1952 he published <i><a href="/wiki/Persecution_and_the_Art_of_Writing" title="Persecution and the Art of Writing">Persecution and the Art of Writing</a></i>, arguing that serious writers write esoterically, that is, with multiple or layered meanings, often disguised within irony or paradox, obscure references, even deliberate self-contradiction. Esoteric writing serves several purposes: protecting the philosopher from the retribution of the regime, and protecting the regime from the corrosion of philosophy; it attracts the right kind of reader and repels the wrong kind; and ferreting out the interior message is in itself an exercise of philosophic reasoning.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Taking his bearings from his study of <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a>, and pointing further back to Plato's discussion of writing as contained in the <i><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(dialogue)" title="Phaedrus (dialogue)">Phaedrus</a></i>, Strauss proposed that the classical and medieval art of <i>esoteric</i> writing is the proper medium for philosophic learning: rather than displaying philosophers' thoughts superficially, classical and medieval philosophical texts guide their readers in thinking and learning independently of imparted knowledge. Thus, Strauss agrees with the Socrates of the <i>Phaedrus</i>, where the Greek indicates that, insofar as writing does not respond when questioned, good writing provokes questions in the reader—questions that orient the reader towards an understanding of problems the author thought about with utmost seriousness. Strauss thus, in <i>Persecution and the Art of Writing</i>, presents Maimonides "as a closet nonbeliever obfuscating his message for political reasons".<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Straussian_hermeneutics" class="mw-redirect" title="Straussian hermeneutics">Strauss's hermeneutical</a> argument<sup id="cite_ref-Schröder_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schröder-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—rearticulated throughout his subsequent writings (most notably in <i>The City and Man</i> [1964])—is that, before the 19th century, Western scholars commonly understood that philosophical writing is not at home in any polity, no matter how liberal. Insofar as it questions conventional wisdom at its roots, philosophy must guard itself especially against those readers who believe themselves authoritative, wise, and liberal defenders of the status quo. In questioning established opinions, or in investigating the principles of morality, philosophers of old found it necessary to convey their messages in an oblique manner. Their "art of writing" was the art of esoteric communication. This was especially apparent in medieval times when heterodox political thinkers wrote under the threat of the <a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a> or comparably obtuse tribunals. </p><p>Strauss's argument is not that the medieval writers he studies reserved one exoteric meaning for the many (<a href="/wiki/Hoi_polloi" title="Hoi polloi">hoi polloi</a>) and an esoteric, hidden one for the few (hoi oligoi), but that, through rhetorical stratagems including self-contradiction and hyperboles, these writers succeeded in conveying their proper meaning at the tacit heart of their writings—a heart or message irreducible to "the letter" or historical dimension of texts. </p><p>Explicitly following <a href="/wiki/Gotthold_Ephraim_Lessing" title="Gotthold Ephraim Lessing">Gotthold Ephraim Lessing</a>'s lead, Strauss indicates that medieval political philosophers, no less than their ancient counterparts, carefully adapted their wording to the dominant moral views of their time, lest their writings be condemned as heretical or unjust, not by "the many" (who did not read), but by those "few" whom the many regarded as the most righteous guardians of morality. It was precisely these righteous personalities who would be most inclined to persecute/ostracize anyone who was in the business of exposing the noble or great lie upon which the authority of the few over the many stands or falls.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="On_politics">On politics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Strauss&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: On politics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border: 4px double #154E9D; border-spacing:0.2em 0;color: var(--color-base, #000);"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Conservatism" title="Category:Conservatism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding-top:0.6em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Political_colour#Blue" title="Political colour"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Blue_flag_waving.svg/75px-Blue_flag_waving.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Blue_flag_waving.svg/113px-Blue_flag_waving.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Blue_flag_waving.svg/150px-Blue_flag_waving.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="249" data-file-height="268" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Variants</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarian_conservatism" title="Authoritarian conservatism">Authoritarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_corporatism" title="Conservative corporatism">Corporatist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_conservatism" title="Cultural conservatism">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiscal_conservatism" title="Fiscal conservatism">Fiscal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_conservatism" title="Green conservatism">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_conservatism" title="Liberal conservatism">Liberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_conservatism" title="Libertarian conservatism">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moderate_conservatism" title="Moderate conservatism">Moderate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_conservatism" title="National conservatism">National</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paternalistic_conservatism" title="Paternalistic conservatism">Paternalistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_populism" title="Right-wing populism">Populist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_conservatism" title="Pragmatic conservatism">Pragmatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_conservatism" title="Progressive conservatism">Progressive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Reactionism">Reactionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_conservatism" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious conservatism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_conservatism" title="Social conservatism">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_conservatism" title="Traditionalist conservatism">Traditionalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultraconservatism" title="Ultraconservatism">Ultra</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Principles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Veneration_of_the_dead" title="Veneration of the dead">Ancestral worship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_authority" title="Traditional authority">Traditional</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_collaboration" title="Class collaboration">Class collaboration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_identity" title="Collective identity">Collective identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">Cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics_and_social_sciences)#Cultural_values" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics and social sciences)">Cultural values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_life" title="Culture of life">Culture of life</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-abortion_movements" title="Anti-abortion movements">Pro-Life</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discipline" title="Discipline">Discipline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Noblesse_oblige" title="Noblesse oblige">Noblesse oblige</a></i></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sittlichkeit" title="Sittlichkeit">Ethical order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familialism" title="Familialism">Familialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_as_a_model_for_the_state" title="Family as a model for the state">Family as a state model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_roles" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender roles">Gender roles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Complementarianism" title="Complementarianism">Complementarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_essentialism" title="Gender essentialism">Essentialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_order_(politics)" title="Law and order (politics)">Law and order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternalism" title="Maternalism">Maternalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Royalist" title="Royalist">Royalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Moral absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natalism#Politics" title="Natalism">Natalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">Norms</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mores" title="Mores">Mores</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordered_liberty" title="Ordered liberty">Ordered liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organicism#In_politics_and_sociology" title="Organicism">Organicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organised_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Organised religion">Organised religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthodoxy" title="Orthodoxy">Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriotism" title="Patriotism">Patriotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_through_strength" title="Peace through strength">Peace through strength</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Property_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Property rights">Property rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_morality" title="Public morality">Public morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">Social hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">Social institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_order" title="Social order">Social order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship_(theology)" title="Stewardship (theology)">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsidiarity" title="Subsidiarity">Subsidiarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">Tradition</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Intellectuals</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson" title="Samuel Johnson">Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_More" title="Hannah More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Ren%C3%A9_de_Chateaubriand" title="François-René de Chateaubriand">Chateaubriand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Jerzy_Czartoryski" title="Adam Jerzy Czartoryski">Czartoryski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Coleridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Karamzin" title="Nikolay Karamzin">Karamzin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Carl_von_Savigny" title="Friedrich Carl von Savigny">Savigny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leopold_von_Ranke" title="Leopold von Ranke">Ranke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Newman" title="John Henry Newman">Newman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Dostoevsky" title="Fyodor Dostoevsky">Dostoevsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Nordau" title="Max Nordau">Nordau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilaire_Belloc" title="Hilaire Belloc">Belloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolae_Iorga" title="Nicolae Iorga">Iorga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._K._Chesterton" title="G. K. Chesterton">Chesterton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ze%27ev_Jabotinsky" title="Ze'ev Jabotinsky">Jabotinsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Ilyin" title="Ivan Ilyin">Ilyin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinayak_Damodar_Savarkar" title="Vinayak Damodar Savarkar">Savarkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._S._Eliot" title="T. S. Eliot">Eliot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Mannheim" title="Karl Mannheim">Mannheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_J%C3%BCnger" title="Ernst Jünger">Jünger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Gadamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilberto_Freyre" title="Gilberto Freyre">Freyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnham" title="James Burnham">Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcel_Lefebvre" title="Marcel Lefebvre">Lefebvre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb" title="Sayyid Qutb">Qutb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erik_von_Kuehnelt-Leddihn" title="Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn">Kuehnelt-Leddihn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicol%C3%A1s_G%C3%B3mez_D%C3%A1vila" title="Nicolás Gómez Dávila">Gómez Dávila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Solzhenitsyn" title="Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn">Solzhenitsyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhart_Koselleck" title="Reinhart Koselleck">Koselleck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yukio_Mishima" title="Yukio Mishima">Mishima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_F._Buckley_Jr." title="William F. Buckley Jr.">Buckley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Mansfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordan_Peterson" title="Jordan Peterson">Peterson</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Politicians</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Pitt_the_Younger" title="William Pitt the Younger">Pitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Canning" title="George Canning">Canning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klemens_von_Metternich" title="Klemens von Metternich">Metternich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Disraeli" title="Benjamin Disraeli">Disraeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Bismarck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Gascoyne-Cecil,_3rd_Marquess_of_Salisbury" title="Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury">Salisbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Dmowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustaf_Emil_Mannerheim" title="Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim">Mannerheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Baldwin" title="Stanley Baldwin">Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Maurras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikl%C3%B3s_Horthy" title="Miklós Horthy">Horthy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ioannis_Metaxas" title="Ioannis Metaxas">Metaxas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Churchill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Adenauer" title="Konrad Adenauer">Adenauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcide_De_Gasperi" title="Alcide De Gasperi">De Gasperi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_de_Oliveira_Salazar" title="António de Oliveira Salazar">Salazar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">De Gaulle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engelbert_Dollfuss" title="Engelbert Dollfuss">Dollfuss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Franco" title="Francisco Franco">Franco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Ruhollah Khomeini">Khomeini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Reagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enoch_Powell" title="Enoch Powell">Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augusto_Pinochet" title="Augusto Pinochet">Pinochet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Marcos" title="Ferdinand Marcos">Marcos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Park_Chung_Hee" title="Park Chung Hee">Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Smith" title="Ian Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Reza_Pahlavi" title="Mohammad Reza Pahlavi">Reza Shah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suharto" title="Suharto">Suharto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Kuan_Yew" title="Lee Kuan Yew">Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Zia-ul-Haq" title="Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq">Zia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atal_Bihari_Vajpayee" title="Atal Bihari Vajpayee">Vajpayee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher" title="Margaret Thatcher">Thatcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helmut_Kohl" title="Helmut Kohl">Kohl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alberto_Fujimori" title="Alberto Fujimori">Fujimori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Trump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaros%C5%82aw_Kaczy%C5%84ski" title="Jarosław Kaczyński">Kaczyński</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Netanyahu" title="Benjamin Netanyahu">Netanyahu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narendra_Modi" title="Narendra Modi">Modi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Putin" title="Vladimir Putin">Putin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shinzo_Abe" title="Shinzo Abe">Abe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jair_Bolsonaro" title="Jair Bolsonaro">Bolsonaro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viktor_Orb%C3%A1n" title="Viktor Orbán">Orbán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgia_Meloni" title="Giorgia Meloni">Meloni</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Religion</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_right" title="Christian right">Christian right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindutva" title="Hindutva">Hindutva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_conservatism" title="Jewish conservatism">Jewish conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Zionism" title="Religious Zionism">Religious Zionism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_Catholicism" title="Traditionalist Catholicism">Traditionalist Catholicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Integralism" title="Integralism">Integralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultramontanism" title="Ultramontanism">Ultramontanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_School_(perennialism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditionalist School (perennialism)">Traditionalist School</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Personal variants</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berlusconism" title="Berlusconism">Berlusconism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nayib_Bukele#Political_views" title="Nayib Bukele">Bukelism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_positions_of_David_Cameron" title="Political positions of David Cameron">Cameronism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiangism" title="Chiangism">Chiangism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erdo%C4%9Fanism" title="Erdoğanism">Erdoğanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Francoism">Francoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fujimorism" title="Fujimorism">Fujimorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaullism" title="Gaullism">Gaullism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Janismo" title="Janismo">Janismo</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Maurrassisme" title="Maurrassisme">Maurrassisme</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mellismo" title="Mellismo">Mellismo</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaxism" title="Metaxism">Metaxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Powellism" title="Powellism">Powellism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinochetism" title="Pinochetism">Pinochetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Putinism" title="Putinism">Putinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qutbism" title="Qutbism">Qutbism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khomeinism" title="Khomeinism">Khomeinism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reaganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Reaganism">Reaganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarkozysm" title="Sarkozysm">Sarkozysm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thatcherism" title="Thatcherism">Thatcherism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trumpism" title="Trumpism">Trumpism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ziaism" title="Ziaism">Ziaism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">National variants</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Australia" title="Conservatism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Austria" title="Conservatism">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Bangladesh" title="Conservatism in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Belgium" title="Conservatism">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_North_America#Belize" title="Conservatism in North America">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Brazil" title="Conservatism in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Canada" title="Conservatism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Chile" title="Conservatism">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#China" title="Conservatism">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Hong_Kong" title="Conservatism in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservatism in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Colombia" title="Conservatism in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_North_America#Cuba" title="Conservatism in North America">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Denmark" title="Conservatism">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Finland" title="Conservatism">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_France" title="Conservatism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Germany" title="Conservatism in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Greece" title="Conservatism">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_North_America#Guatemala" title="Conservatism in North America">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Hungary" title="Conservatism">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Iceland" title="Conservatism">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_India" title="Conservatism in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Iran" title="Conservatism">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Israel" title="Conservatism in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Italy" title="Conservatism in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Japan" title="Conservatism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Luxembourg" title="Conservatism">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Malaysia" title="Conservatism in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_North_America#Mexico" title="Conservatism in North America">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Netherlands" title="Conservatism">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_conservatism_in_New_Zealand" title="Historic conservatism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Norway" title="Conservatism">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Pakistan" title="Conservatism in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_North_America#Panama" title="Conservatism in North America">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Peru" title="Conservatism in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Poland" title="Conservatism">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Russia" title="Conservatism in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Serbia" title="Conservatism in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Singapore" title="Conservatism">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Sweden" title="Conservatism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Switzerland" title="Conservatism">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_South_Korea" title="Conservatism in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Turkey" title="Conservatism in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Ukraine" title="Conservatism">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Conservatism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Conservatism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Related ideologies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clerical_fascism" title="Clerical fascism">Clerical fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_liberalism" title="Conservative liberalism">Conservative liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordoliberalism" title="Ordoliberalism">Ordoliberalism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="border-bottom:none;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communism" title="Anti-communism">Anti-communism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/White_Terror_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="White Terror (disambiguation)">White Terror</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-gender_movement" title="Anti-gender movement">Anti-gender movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-immigration" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-immigration">Anti-immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism" title="Black conservatism">Black conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Black conservatism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">Catholic social teaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_variants_of_feminism" title="Conservative variants of feminism">Conservative feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_wave" title="Conservative wave">Conservative wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_conservatism_in_Latin_America" title="Liberalism and conservatism in Latin America">Hispanic conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Hispanic and Latino conservatism in the United States">in United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_conservatism" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT conservatism">LGBT conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Conservatism_Conference" title="National Conservatism Conference">NatCon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nativism_(politics)" title="Nativism (politics)">Nativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Para-fascism" title="Para-fascism">Para-fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">Patriarchy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchalism" title="Patriarchalism">Patriarchalism</a></li></ul></li> <li>Radical right <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radical_right_(Europe)" title="Radical right (Europe)">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_right_(United_States)" title="Radical right (United States)">US</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_realism" title="Right realism">Right realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">Right-wing politics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_authoritarianism" title="Right-wing authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Far-right_politics" title="Far-right politics">Far</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Right" title="New Right">New</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small-c_conservative" title="Small-c conservative">Small-c conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toryism" class="mw-redirect" title="Toryism">Toryism</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below plainlist" style="padding-bottom:0.22em; border-top:1px solid #36c; border-bottom:1px solid #36c; font-weight:bold"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg/15px-DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg/22px-DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg/30px-DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="249" data-file-height="268" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Conservatism" title="Portal:Conservatism">Conservatism portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/16px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/24px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/32px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Conservatism_sidebar" title="Template:Conservatism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Conservatism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Conservatism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Conservatism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Conservatism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border: 4px double #B0161E; border-spacing:0.2em 0;color: var(--color-base, #000);"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">This article is part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Conservatism in the United States">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#B0161E; padding-top:0.25em; font-size:160%; font-weight:normal; color:white; line-height:1em"><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Conservatism in the United States"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#FFF">Conservatism<br />in the United States</span></a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/90px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/135px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/180px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="451" data-file-height="476" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Schools</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compassionate_conservatism" title="Compassionate conservatism">Compassionate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiscal_conservatism" title="Fiscal conservatism">Fiscal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusionism" title="Fusionism">Fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_conservatism#Relation_to_American_conservatism" title="Liberal conservatism">Liberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_conservatism" title="Libertarian conservatism">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moderate_conservatism" title="Moderate conservatism">Moderate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movement_conservatism" title="Movement conservatism">Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoconservatism" title="Neoconservatism">Neo-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoconservatism" title="Paleoconservatism">Paleo-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postliberalism" title="Postliberalism">Postliberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_populism#United_States" title="Right-wing populism">Populist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_conservatism" title="Progressive conservatism">Progressive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Social conservatism in the United States">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straussianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Straussianism">Straussian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Traditionalist conservatism in the United States">Traditionalist</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Principles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_exceptionalism" title="American exceptionalism">American exceptionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_nationalism" title="American nationalism">American nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communism" title="Anti-communism">Anti-communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_nationalism#United_States" title="Christian nationalism">Christian nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_civil_religion" title="American civil religion">Civil religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Classical liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism_in_the_United_States" title="Constitutionalism in the United States">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_life" title="Culture of life">Culture of life</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_anti-abortion_movement" title="United States anti-abortion movement">Pro-life</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familialism#United_States" title="Familialism">Familialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalism_in_the_United_States" title="Federalism in the United States">Federalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/States%27_rights" title="States' rights">States' rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_essentialism" title="Gender essentialism">Gender essentialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Complementarianism" title="Complementarianism">Complementarianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Christian_ethics" title="Judeo-Christian ethics">Judeo-Christian values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_order_(politics)" title="Law and order (politics)">Law and order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limited_government" title="Limited government">Limited government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_aristocracy" title="Natural aristocracy">Natural aristocracy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_militarism" title="United States militarism">Militarism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peace_through_strength" title="Peace through strength">Peace through strength</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Moral absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordered_liberty" title="Ordered liberty">Ordered liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americanism_(ideology)" title="Americanism (ideology)">Patriotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">Property rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States" title="Right to keep and bear arms in the United States">Right to bear arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply-side_economics" title="Supply-side economics">Supply-side economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">Tradition</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Loyalist_(American_Revolution)" title="Loyalist (American Revolution)">Loyalists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid_South" title="Solid South">Solid South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_humanism_(literature)" title="New humanism (literature)">New Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Agrarians" title="Southern Agrarians">Southern Agrarians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Right_(United_States)" title="Old Right (United States)">Old Right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Manifesto" title="Conservative Manifesto">Conservative Manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_coalition" title="Conservative coalition">Conservative coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/America_First_Committee" title="America First Committee">America First Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barry_Goldwater_1964_presidential_campaign" title="Barry Goldwater 1964 presidential campaign">Goldwater campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Right#United_States" title="New Right">New Right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_era" title="Reagan era">Reagan era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reaganomics" title="Reaganomics">Reaganomics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoconservatism_and_paleoconservatism" title="Neoconservatism and paleoconservatism">Neo- vs. paleoconservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redeemers" title="Redeemers">Redeemers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Revolution" title="Republican Revolution">Republican Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tea_Party_movement" title="Tea Party movement">Tea Party movement</a></li> <li>Trump era <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_presidency_of_Donald_Trump" title="First presidency of Donald Trump">First term</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_presidency_of_Donald_Trump" title="Second presidency of Donald Trump">Second term</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Intellectuals</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Adams" title="Henry Adams">Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Anton" title="Michael Anton">Anton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irving_Babbitt" title="Irving Babbitt">Babbitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Bacevich" title="Andrew Bacevich">Bacevich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bell" title="Daniel Bell">Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Bellow" title="Saul Bellow">Bellow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_L._Berger" title="Peter L. Berger">Berger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allan_Bloom" title="Allan Bloom">Bloom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_J._Boorstin" title="Daniel J. Boorstin">Boorstin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_F._Buckley_Jr." title="William F. Buckley Jr.">Buckley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnham" title="James Burnham">Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_C._Calhoun" title="John C. Calhoun">Calhoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Carl" title="Jeremy Carl">Carl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whittaker_Chambers" title="Whittaker Chambers">Chambers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Conquest" title="Robert Conquest">Conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Deneen" title="Patrick Deneen">Deneen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Eastman" title="Max Eastman">Eastman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._S._Eliot" title="T. S. Eliot">Eliot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Francis_(writer)" title="Sam Francis (writer)">Francis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Genovese" title="Eugene Genovese">Genovese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Gottfried" title="Paul Gottfried">Gottfried</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Davis_Hanson" title="Victor Davis Hanson">Hanson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoram_Hazony" title="Yoram Hazony">Hazony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gertrude_Himmelfarb" title="Gertrude Himmelfarb">Himmelfarb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zora_Neale_Hurston" title="Zora Neale Hurston">Hurston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_V._Jaffa" title="Harry V. Jaffa">Jaffa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willmoore_Kendall" title="Willmoore Kendall">Kendall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Kimball" title="Roger Kimball">Kimball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeane_Kirkpatrick" title="Jeane Kirkpatrick">Kirkpatrick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kreeft" title="Peter Kreeft">Kreeft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irving_Kristol" title="Irving Kristol">Kristol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erik_von_Kuehnelt-Leddihn" title="Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn">Kuehnelt-Leddihn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyle_H._Lanier" title="Lyle H. Lanier">Lanier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Lasch" title="Christopher Lasch">Lasch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Lind" title="Michael Lind">Lind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._P._Lovecraft" title="H. P. Lovecraft">Lovecraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenn_Loury" title="Glenn Loury">Loury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lukacs" title="John Lukacs">Lukacs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Mansfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._L._Mencken" title="H. L. Mencken">Mencken</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Meyer_(political_philosopher)" title="Frank Meyer (political philosopher)">Meyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Molnar" title="Thomas Molnar">Molnar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Murray_(political_scientist)" title="Charles Murray (political scientist)">Murray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nisbet" title="Robert Nisbet">Nisbet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Crowe_Ransom" title="John Crowe Ransom">Ransom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Rieff" title="Philip Rieff">Rieff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Schaeffer" title="Francis Schaeffer">Schaeffer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Viereck" title="Peter Viereck">Viereck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_M._Weaver" title="Richard M. Weaver">Weaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Weyl" title="Nathaniel Weyl">Weyl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Wolfe" title="Tom Wolfe">Wolfe</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Politicians</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">Adams (John)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams" title="John Quincy Adams">Adams (John Quincy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bolton" title="John Bolton">Bolton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pat_Buchanan" title="Pat Buchanan">Buchanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">Bush (George H. W.)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">Bush (George W.)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_C._Calhoun" title="John C. Calhoun">Calhoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Cheney" title="Dick Cheney">Cheney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Clay" title="Henry Clay">Clay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Cleveland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge" title="Calvin Coolidge">Coolidge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Cotton" title="Tom Cotton">Cotton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ted_Cruz" title="Ted Cruz">Cruz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ron_DeSantis" title="Ron DeSantis">DeSantis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Everett_Dirksen" title="Everett Dirksen">Dirksen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newt_Gingrich" title="Newt Gingrich">Gingrich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barry_Goldwater" title="Barry Goldwater">Goldwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_G._Harding" title="Warren G. Harding">Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josh_Hawley" title="Josh Hawley">Hawley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Helms" title="Jesse Helms">Helms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">Hoover (Herbert)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Huckabee" title="Mike Huckabee">Huckabee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Jordan" title="Jim Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Cabot_Lodge" title="Henry Cabot Lodge">Lodge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clare_Boothe_Luce" title="Clare Boothe Luce">Luce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McCain" title="John McCain">McCain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_McCarthy" title="Joseph McCarthy">McCarthy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitch_McConnell" title="Mitch McConnell">McConnell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_McKinley" title="William McKinley">McKinley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Nixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Palin" title="Sarah Palin">Palin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rand_Paul" title="Rand Paul">Paul (Rand)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ron_Paul" title="Ron Paul">Paul (Ron)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Pence" title="Mike Pence">Pence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Pierce" title="Franklin Pierce">Pierce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Randolph_of_Roanoke" title="John Randolph of Roanoke">Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Reagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitt_Romney" title="Mitt Romney">Romney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marco_Rubio" title="Marco Rubio">Rubio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Rumsfeld" title="Donald Rumsfeld">Rumsfeld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ryan" title="Paul Ryan">Ryan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Huckabee_Sanders" title="Sarah Huckabee Sanders">Sanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rick_Santorum" title="Rick Santorum">Santorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Sherman" title="John Sherman">Sherman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Taft" title="Robert A. Taft">Taft (Robert)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">Taft (William)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Taylor_of_Caroline" title="John Taylor of Caroline">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strom_Thurmond" title="Strom Thurmond">Thurmond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Trump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JD_Vance" title="JD Vance">Vance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Wallace" title="George Wallace">Wallace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Wolfowitz" title="Paul Wolfowitz">Wolfowitz</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Jurists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Alito" title="Samuel Alito">Alito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amy_Coney_Barrett" title="Amy Coney Barrett">Barrett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bork" title="Robert Bork">Bork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_E._Burger" title="Warren E. Burger">Burger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Colson" title="Charles Colson">Colson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_T._Frelinghuysen" title="Frederick T. Frelinghuysen">Frelinghuysen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_P._George" title="Robert P. George">George</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Goldsmith" title="Jack Goldsmith">Goldsmith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neil_Gorsuch" title="Neil Gorsuch">Gorsuch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lino_Graglia" title="Lino Graglia">Graglia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Marshall_Harlan_II" title="John Marshall Harlan II">Harlan II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brett_Kavanaugh" title="Brett Kavanaugh">Kavanaugh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kennedy" title="Anthony Kennedy">Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Michael_Luttig" title="J. Michael Luttig">Luttig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Meese" title="Edwin Meese">Meese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandra_Day_O%27Connor" title="Sandra Day O'Connor">O'Connor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alton_B._Parker" title="Alton B. Parker">Parker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Rehnquist" title="William Rehnquist">Rehnquist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts">Roberts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Terry_Sanford" title="Edward Terry Sanford">Sanford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonin_Scalia" title="Antonin Scalia">Scalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeff_Sessions" title="Jeff Sessions">Sessions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Sutherland" title="George Sutherland">Sutherland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">Taft (William)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Thomas (Clarence)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Vermeule" title="Adrian Vermeule">Vermeule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Evans_Whittaker" title="Charles Evans Whittaker">Whittaker</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Commentators</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sohrab_Ahmari" title="Sohrab Ahmari">Ahmari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenn_Beck" title="Glenn Beck">Beck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dan_Bongino" title="Dan Bongino">Bongino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Breitbart" title="Andrew Breitbart">Breitbart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pat_Buchanan" title="Pat Buchanan">Buchanan (Pat)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_F._Buckley_Jr." title="William F. Buckley Jr.">Buckley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Caldwell_(journalist)" title="Christopher Caldwell (journalist)">Caldwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tucker_Carlson" title="Tucker Carlson">Carlson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oren_Cass" title="Oren Cass">Cass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Chodorov" title="Frank Chodorov">Chodorov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ann_Coulter" title="Ann Coulter">Coulter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinesh_D%27Souza" title="Dinesh D'Souza">D'Souza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Derbyshire" title="John Derbyshire">Derbyshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_DiLorenzo" title="Thomas DiLorenzo">DiLorenzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ross_Douthat" title="Ross Douthat">Douthat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rod_Dreher" title="Rod Dreher">Dreher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Elder" title="Larry Elder">Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Fleming_(political_writer)" title="Thomas Fleming (political writer)">Fleming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonah_Goldberg" title="Jonah Goldberg">Goldberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Grant_(radio_host)" title="Bob Grant (radio host)">Grant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alyssa_Farah_Griffin" title="Alyssa Farah Griffin">Griffin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_van_den_Haag" title="Ernest van den Haag">Van den Haag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sean_Hannity" title="Sean Hannity">Hannity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Hart" title="Jeffrey Hart">Hart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pete_Hegseth" title="Pete Hegseth">Hegseth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_Herberg" title="Will Herberg">Herberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Hoover" title="Margaret Hoover">Hoover (Margaret)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laura_Ingraham" title="Laura Ingraham">Ingraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alex_Jones" title="Alex Jones">Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megyn_Kelly" title="Megyn Kelly">Kelly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlie_Kirk" title="Charlie Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Knowles_(political_commentator)" title="Michael Knowles (political commentator)">Knowles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Krauthammer" title="Charles Krauthammer">Krauthammer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomi_Lahren" title="Tomi Lahren">Lahren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Levin" title="Mark Levin">Levin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rush_Limbaugh" title="Rush Limbaugh">Limbaugh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heather_Mac_Donald" title="Heather Mac Donald">Mac Donald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Metaxas" title="Eric Metaxas">Metaxas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_John_Neuhaus" title="Richard John Neuhaus">Neuhaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andy_Ngo" title="Andy Ngo">Ngo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_North" title="Oliver North">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Novak" title="Robert Novak">Novak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_O%27Reilly_(political_commentator)" title="Bill O'Reilly (political commentator)">O'Reilly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candace_Owens" title="Candace Owens">Owens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Podhoretz" title="Norman Podhoretz">Podhoretz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Pool" title="Tim Pool">Pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Portnoy" title="David Portnoy">Portnoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Prager" title="Dennis Prager">Prager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pat_Robertson" title="Pat Robertson">Robertson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ben_Shapiro" title="Ben Shapiro">Shapiro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amity_Shlaes" title="Amity Shlaes">Shlaes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Sullivan" title="Andrew Sullivan">Sullivan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matt_Walsh_(political_commentator)" title="Matt Walsh (political commentator)">Walsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Watters" title="Jesse Watters">Watters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Whittle" title="Bill Whittle">Whittle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Will" title="George Will">Will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian_Wintrich" title="Lucian Wintrich">Wintrich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Woods" title="Tom Woods">Woods</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Activists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Abramoff" title="Jack Abramoff">Abramoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Agostinelli" title="Robert Agostinelli">Agostinelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Ahmanson_Jr." title="Howard Ahmanson Jr.">Ahmanson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Andreessen" class="mw-redirect" title="Mark Andreessen">Andreessen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Atwater" title="Lee Atwater">Atwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Bannon" title="Steve Bannon">Bannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaitlin_Bennett" title="Kaitlin Bennett">Bennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuri_Bezmenov" title="Yuri Bezmenov">Bezmenov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L._Brent_Bozell_Jr." title="L. Brent Bozell Jr.">Bozell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Cohn" title="Roy Cohn">Cohn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Coors" title="Joseph Coors">Coors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Dans" title="Paul Dans">Dans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Dobson" title="James Dobson">Dobson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terry_Dolan_(activist)" title="Terry Dolan (activist)">Dolan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matt_Drudge" title="Matt Drudge">Drudge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Falwell" title="Jerry Falwell">Falwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Feulner" title="Edwin Feulner">Feulner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brigitte_Gabriel" title="Brigitte Gabriel">Gabriel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Horowitz" title="David Horowitz">Horowitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Krikorian_(activist)" title="Mark Krikorian (activist)">Krikorian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlie_Kirk" title="Charlie Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Kristol" title="Bill Kristol">Kristol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beverly_LaHaye" title="Beverly LaHaye">LaHaye (Beverly)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_LaHaye" title="Tim LaHaye">LaHaye (Tim)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Lindbergh" title="Charles Lindbergh">Lindbergh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Leo" title="Leonard Leo">Leo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McEntee_(political_aide)" title="John McEntee (political aide)">McEntee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebekah_Mercer" title="Rebekah Mercer">Mercer (Rebekah)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Mercer" title="Robert Mercer">Mercer (Robert)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Miller_(political_advisor)" title="Stephen Miller (political advisor)">Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rupert_Murdoch" title="Rupert Murdoch">Murdoch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elon_Musk" title="Elon Musk">Musk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_O%27Keefe" title="James O'Keefe">O'Keefe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeonmi_Park" title="Yeonmi Park">Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Phillips_(activist)" title="Howard Phillips (activist)">Phillips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Prager" title="Dennis Prager">Prager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Reed" title="Ralph Reed">Reed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Regnery" title="Henry Regnery">Regnery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kevin_Roberts_(political_strategist)" title="Kevin Roberts (political strategist)">Roberts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Rove" title="Karl Rove">Rove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Rufo" title="Christopher Rufo">Rufo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_A._Rusher" title="William A. Rusher">Rusher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Mellon_Scaife" title="Richard Mellon Scaife">Scaife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Schlafly" title="Andrew Schlafly">Schlafly (Andrew)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phyllis_Schlafly" title="Phyllis Schlafly">Schlafly (Phyllis)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Stone" title="Roger Stone">Stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robby_Starbuck" title="Robby Starbuck">Starbuck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Thiel" title="Peter Thiel">Thiel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Viguerie" title="Richard Viguerie">Viguerie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ginni_Thomas" title="Ginni Thomas">Thomas (Ginni)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Weyrich" title="Paul Weyrich">Weyrich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Wood" title="Robert E. Wood">Wood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scott_Yenor" title="Scott Yenor">Yenor</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Literature</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1788)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_and_Leadership" title="Democracy and Leadership">Democracy and Leadership</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1924)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Notes_on_Democracy" title="Notes on Democracy">Notes on Democracy</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1926)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Southern_Agrarians#I'll_Take_My_Stand" title="Southern Agrarians">I'll Take My Stand</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1930)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Our_Enemy,_the_State" title="Our Enemy, the State">Our Enemy, the State</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1935)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Managerial_Revolution" title="The Managerial Revolution">The Managerial Revolution</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1941)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ideas_Have_Consequences" title="Ideas Have Consequences">Ideas Have Consequences</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1948)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/God_and_Man_at_Yale" title="God and Man at Yale">God and Man at Yale</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1951)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Conservative_Mind" title="The Conservative Mind">The Conservative Mind</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1953)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Conscience_of_a_Conservative" title="The Conscience of a Conservative">The Conscience of a Conservative</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1960)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Choice_Not_an_Echo" title="A Choice Not an Echo">A Choice Not an Echo</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1964)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Losing_Ground:_American_Social_Policy,_1950%E2%80%931980" class="mw-redirect" title="Losing Ground: American Social Policy, 1950–1980">Losing Ground</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1984)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Conflict_of_Visions" title="A Conflict of Visions">A Conflict of Visions</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1987)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Closing_of_the_American_Mind" title="The Closing of the American Mind">The Closing of the American Mind</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1987)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Bell_Curve:_Intelligence_and_Class_Structure_in_American_Life" class="mw-redirect" title="The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life">The Bell Curve</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1994)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Revolt_of_the_Elites" title="The Revolt of the Elites">The Revolt of the Elites</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1995)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Death_of_the_West" title="The Death of the West">The Death of the West</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2001)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Blank_Slate" title="The Blank Slate">The Blank Slate</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2002)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Black_Rednecks_and_White_Liberals" title="Black Rednecks and White Liberals">Black Rednecks and White Liberals</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2005)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hillbilly_Elegy" title="Hillbilly Elegy">Hillbilly Elegy</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2017)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Benedict_Option" title="The Benedict Option">The Benedict Option</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2017)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Why_Liberalism_Failed" title="Why Liberalism Failed">Why Liberalism Failed</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2018)</span></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Concerns</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_the_United_States" title="Abortion in the United States">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancel_culture#American_public_opinion" title="Cancel culture">Cancel Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_war#United_States" title="Culture war">Culture war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_multiculturalism#United_States" title="Criticism of multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disparate_impact#Controversy" title="Disparate impact">"Disparate impact" controversy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2020s_controversies_around_critical_race_theory" title="2020s controversies around critical race theory">CRT controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity,_equity,_and_inclusion#Criticism_and_controversy" title="Diversity, equity, and inclusion">DEI controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Griggs_v._Duke_Power_Co." title="Griggs v. Duke Power Co.">Griggs v. Duke Power Co.</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Higher_education_bubble_in_the_United_States" title="Higher education bubble in the United States">Higher ed. bubble</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Go_woke,_go_broke" title="Go woke, go broke">Go woke, go broke</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental,_social,_and_governance#Criticism" title="Environmental, social, and governance">ESG</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Corporate_sociopolitical_activism#Counter-movement" title="Corporate sociopolitical activism">Woke capitalism</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeschooling#United_States" title="Homeschooling">Homeschooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_reduction_in_the_United_States" title="Immigration reduction in the United States">Immigration reduction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Illegal immigration to the United States">Illegal immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_immigration_to_the_United_States_and_crime" title="Illegal immigration to the United States and crime">Immigration and crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexico%E2%80%93United_States_border_crisis" title="Mexico–United States border crisis">Border crisis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence_and_public_policy" title="Intelligence and public policy">Intelligence and public policy</a></li> <li>Constitutional interpretations <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Originalism" title="Originalism">Originalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textualism" title="Textualism">Textualism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managerial_state" title="Managerial state">Managerial state</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mudsill_theory" title="Mudsill theory">Mudsill theory</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States" title="Right to keep and bear arms in the United States">Second Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sub-replacement_fertility#United_States" title="Sub-replacement fertility">Sub-replacement fertility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitary_executive_theory" title="Unitary executive theory">Unitary executive</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Parties</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><b>Active</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Party_(1969)" title="American Party (1969)">American Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Independent_Party" title="American Independent Party">American Independent Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Party_of_New_York_State" title="Conservative Party of New York State">Conservative Party of New York State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_Party_(United_States)" title="Constitution Party (United States)">Constitution Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican Party</a></li></ul> <p><b>Defunct</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Masonic_Party" title="Anti-Masonic Party">Anti-Masonic Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Union_Party_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Union Party (United States)">Constitutional Union Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic Party</a> (<i>historically, factions</i>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boll_weevil_(politics)" title="Boll weevil (politics)">Boll weevils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Democrat" title="Conservative Democrat">Conservative Democrats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dixiecrat" title="Dixiecrat">Dixiecrats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Democrats" class="mw-redirect" title="Reagan Democrats">Reagan Democrats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Democrat" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Democrat">Southern Democrats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorr_Rebellion" title="Dorr Rebellion">Rhode Island Suffrage Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Party" title="Federalist Party">Federalist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Republican_Party" title="National Republican Party">National Republican Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American Party">Native American Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whig_Party_(United_States)" title="Whig Party (United States)">Whig Party</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Think tanks</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acton_Institute" title="Acton Institute">Acton Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville_Institution" title="Alexis de Tocqueville Institution">AdTI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Enterprise_Institute" title="American Enterprise Institute">AEI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Security_Policy" title="Center for Security Policy">CSP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_the_National_Interest" title="Center for the National Interest">Center for the National Interest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claremont_Institute" title="Claremont Institute">Claremont Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competitive_Enterprise_Institute" title="Competitive Enterprise Institute">CEI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Horowitz_Freedom_Center" title="David Horowitz Freedom Center">CSPC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_and_Public_Policy_Center" title="Ethics and Public Policy Center">EPPC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_Research_Institute" title="Family Research Institute">FRI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gatestone_Institute" title="Gatestone Institute">Gatestone Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heartland_Institute" title="Heartland Institute">Heartland Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Heritage_Foundation" title="The Heritage Foundation">The Heritage Foundation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heritage_Action" title="Heritage Action">Heritage Action</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Leadership" title="Mandate for Leadership">Mandate for Leadership</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_2025" title="Project 2025">Project 2025</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoover_Institution" title="Hoover Institution">Hoover Institution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hudson_Institute" title="Hudson Institute">Hudson Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercollegiate_Studies_Institute" title="Intercollegiate Studies Institute">ISI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison_Program_in_American_Ideals_and_Institutions" title="James Madison Program in American Ideals and Institutions">James Madison Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leadership_Institute" title="Leadership Institute">Leadership Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Institute_for_Policy_Research" title="Manhattan Institute for Policy Research">Manhattan Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mises_Institute" title="Mises Institute">Mises Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Research_Institute" title="Pacific Research Institute">PRI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_for_the_New_American_Century" title="Project for the New American Century">Project for the New American Century</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Defunct)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ripon_Society" title="Ripon Society">Ripon Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R_Street_Institute" title="R Street Institute">R Street Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rockford_Institute" title="Rockford Institute">Rockford Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Policy_Network" title="State Policy Network">SPN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutherland_Institute" title="Sutherland Institute">Sutherland Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_Foundation" title="Tax Foundation">Tax Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witherspoon_Institute" title="Witherspoon Institute">Witherspoon Institute</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Media</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <p><b>Newspapers</b> </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Tribune" title="Chicago Tribune">Chicago Tribune</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dallas_Morning_News" class="mw-redirect" title="Dallas Morning News">Dallas Morning News</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Epoch_Times" title="The Epoch Times">The Epoch Times</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_Hampshire_Union_Leader" title="New Hampshire Union Leader">New Hampshire Union Leader</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_Voice" title="The Jewish Voice">The Jewish Voice</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Observer" title="The New York Observer">The New York Observer</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Post" title="New York Post">New York Post</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Remnant_(newspaper)" title="The Remnant (newspaper)">The Remnant</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal" title="The Wall Street Journal">The Wall Street Journal</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Editorial_board_at_The_Wall_Street_Journal" title="Editorial board at The Wall Street Journal">(editorial board)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Times" title="The Washington Times">The Washington Times</a></i></li></ul> <p><b>Journals</b> </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/American_Affairs" title="American Affairs">American Affairs</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_American_Conservative" title="The American Conservative">The American Conservative</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_American_Spectator" title="The American Spectator">The American Spectator</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/American_Thinker" title="American Thinker">American Thinker</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/City_Journal" title="City Journal">City Journal</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Claremont_Review_of_Books" title="Claremont Review of Books">Claremont Review of Books</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Commentary_(magazine)" title="Commentary (magazine)">Commentary</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Compact_(American_magazine)" title="Compact (American magazine)">Compact</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chronicles_(magazine)" title="Chronicles (magazine)">Chronicles</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Dispatch" title="The Dispatch">The Dispatch</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/First_Things" title="First Things">First Things</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Imaginative_Conservative" title="The Imaginative Conservative">The Imaginative Conservative</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jewish_World_Review" title="Jewish World Review">Jewish World Review</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Modern_Age_(periodical)" title="Modern Age (periodical)">Modern Age</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/National_Affairs" title="National Affairs">National Affairs</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_National_Interest" title="The National Interest">The National Interest</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/National_Review" title="National Review">National Review</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_New_American" title="The New American">The New American</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Atlantis_(journal)" title="The New Atlantis (journal)">The New Atlantis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Criterion" title="The New Criterion">The New Criterion</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Policy_Review" title="Policy Review">Policy Review</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(defunct)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Public_Discourse" class="mw-redirect" title="Public Discourse">Public Discourse</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Southern_Partisan" title="Southern Partisan">Southern Partisan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Spectator_USA" class="mw-redirect" title="Spectator USA">Spectator USA</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tablet_(magazine)" title="Tablet (magazine)">Tablet</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Taki%27s_Magazine" title="Taki's Magazine">Taki's Magazine</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Telos_(journal)" title="Telos (journal)">Telos</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Washington_Examiner" title="Washington Examiner">Washington Examiner</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Weekly_Standard" title="The Weekly Standard">The Weekly Standard</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(defunct)</span></li></ul> <p><b>TV channels</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Broadcasting_Network" title="Christian Broadcasting Network">CBN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fox_Business" title="Fox Business">Fox Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fox_News" title="Fox News">Fox News</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newsmax_TV" title="Newsmax TV">Newsmax TV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_America_News_Network" title="One America News Network">One America News Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VOZ_(media_company)" title="VOZ (media company)">VOZ</a></li></ul> <p><b>Websites</b> </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Babylon_Bee" title="The Babylon Bee">Babylon Bee</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Breitbart_News" title="Breitbart News">Breitbart News</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Bulwark_(website)" title="The Bulwark (website)">The Bulwark</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Campus_Reform" title="Campus Reform">Campus Reform</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Center_Square" title="The Center Square">The Center Square</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Review" title="Conservative Review">Conservative Review</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Daily_Caller" title="The Daily Caller">Daily Caller</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Daily_Signal" title="The Daily Signal">Daily Signal</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Daily_Wire" title="The Daily Wire">Daily Wire</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Discover_the_Networks" title="Discover the Networks">Discover the Networks</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_(website)" title="The Federalist (website)">The Federalist</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/FrontPage_Magazine" title="FrontPage Magazine">FrontPage Magazine</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Front_Porch_Republic" title="Front Porch Republic">Front Porch Republic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Gateway_Pundit" title="The Gateway Pundit">Gateway Pundit</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hot_Air" title="Hot Air">Hot Air</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Human_Events" title="Human Events">Human Events</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Independent_Journal_Review" title="Independent Journal Review">Independent Journal Review</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/InfoWars" title="InfoWars">InfoWars</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jihad_Watch" title="Jihad Watch">Jihad Watch</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/LifeZette" title="LifeZette">LifeZette</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/NewsBusters" class="mw-redirect" title="NewsBusters">NewsBusters</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/PJ_Media" title="PJ Media">PJ Media</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rare_(website)" title="Rare (website)">Rare</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/RedState" title="RedState">RedState</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Dispatch" title="The Dispatch">The Dispatch</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Townhall" title="Townhall">Townhall</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Twitchy" title="Twitchy">Twitchy</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Washington_Examiner" title="Washington Examiner">Washington Examiner</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Free_Beacon" title="The Washington Free Beacon">The Washington Free Beacon</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Western_Journal" title="The Western Journal">The Western Journal</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/WorldNetDaily" title="WorldNetDaily">WorldNetDaily</a></i></li></ul> <p><b>Other</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blaze_Media" title="Blaze Media">Blaze Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encounter_Books" title="Encounter Books">Encounter Books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evie_Magazine" title="Evie Magazine">Evie Magazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_First_TV" title="The First TV">The First</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Imprimis" title="Imprimis">Imprimis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Political_Cesspool" title="The Political Cesspool">The Political Cesspool</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passage_Publishing" title="Passage Publishing">Passage Publishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PragerU" title="PragerU">PragerU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RealClearPolitics" title="RealClearPolitics">RealClearPolitics</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Red_Scare_(podcast)" title="Red Scare (podcast)">Red Scare</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regnery_Publishing" title="Regnery Publishing">Regnery Publishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_Side_Broadcasting_Network" title="Right Side Broadcasting Network">RSBN</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Rubin_Report" title="The Rubin Report">The Rubin Report</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinclair_Broadcast_Group" title="Sinclair Broadcast Group">Sinclair Broadcast Group</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Other organizations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <p><b>Economics</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Americans_for_Tax_Reform" title="Americans for Tax Reform">ATR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Club_for_Growth" title="Club for Growth">Club for Growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FreedomWorks" title="FreedomWorks">FreedomWorks</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(defunct)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Federation_of_Independent_Business" title="National Federation of Independent Business">NFIB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Taxpayers_Union" title="National Taxpayers Union">NTU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tea_Party_Patriots" title="Tea Party Patriots">Tea Party Patriots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="United States Chamber of Commerce">USCC</a></li></ul> <p><b>Gun rights</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gun_Owners_of_America" title="Gun Owners of America">GOA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Association_for_Gun_Rights" title="National Association for Gun Rights">NAGR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Rifle_Association" title="National Rifle Association">NRA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Amendment_Caucus" title="Second Amendment Caucus">Second Amendment Caucus</a></li></ul> <p><b>Identity politics</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ACT_for_America" title="ACT for America"><i>ACT!</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concerned_Women_for_America" title="Concerned Women for America">CWA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Conservative_Citizens" title="Council of Conservative Citizens">Council of Conservative Citizens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gays_Against_Groomers" title="Gays Against Groomers">GAG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Women%27s_Forum" title="Independent Women's Forum">IWF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Log_Cabin_Republicans" title="Log Cabin Republicans">LCR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moms_for_Liberty" title="Moms for Liberty">Moms for Liberty</a></li></ul> <p><b>Nativist</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Immigration_Studies" title="Center for Immigration Studies">CIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federation_for_American_Immigration_Reform" title="Federation for American Immigration Reform">FAIR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NumbersUSA" title="NumbersUSA">NumbersUSA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oath_Keepers" title="Oath Keepers">Oath Keepers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Percenters" title="Three Percenters">Three Percenters</a></li></ul> <p><b>Religion</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_Defending_Freedom" title="Alliance Defending Freedom">ADF</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_court_cases_involving_Alliance_Defending_Freedom" title="List of court cases involving Alliance Defending Freedom">Court cases</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Center_for_Law_%26_Justice" title="American Center for Law & Justice">ACLJ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Family_Association" title="American Family Association">AFA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_for_the_Defense_of_Tradition,_Family_and_Property" title="American Society for the Defense of Tradition, Family and Property">The American TFP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcedon_Foundation" title="Chalcedon Foundation">Chalcedon Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Coalition_of_America" title="Christian Coalition of America">CCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Voice_(United_States)" title="Christian Voice (United States)">Christian Voice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eagle_Forum" title="Eagle Forum">Eagle Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_Research_Council" title="Family Research Council">FCR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Fellowship_(Christian_organization)" title="The Fellowship (Christian organization)">The Fellowship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_Freedom_Coalition" title="Faith and Freedom Coalition">FFC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Focus_on_the_Family" title="Focus on the Family">Focus on the Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundation_for_Moral_Law" title="Foundation for Moral Law">Foundation for Moral Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty_Counsel" title="Liberty Counsel">Liberty Counsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_Majority" title="Moral Majority">Moral Majority</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(defunct)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Organization_for_Marriage" title="National Organization for Marriage">NOM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Right_to_Life_Committee" title="National Right to Life Committee">NRLC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parents_Television_and_Media_Council" title="Parents Television and Media Council">PTMC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_B._Anthony_Pro-Life_America" title="Susan B. Anthony Pro-Life America">Susan B. Anthony Pro-Life America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More_Law_Center" title="Thomas More Law Center">Thomas More Law Center</a></li></ul> <p><b>Watchdog groups</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accuracy_in_Media" title="Accuracy in Media">AIM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Econ_Journal_Watch" title="Econ Journal Watch">Econ Journal Watch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_News_Foundation" title="Franklin News Foundation">Franklin News Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_Watch" title="Judicial Watch">JW</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_Research_Center" title="Media Research Center">MRC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/O%27Keefe_Media_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="O'Keefe Media Group">O'Keefe Media Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Veritas" title="Project Veritas">Project Veritas</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(defunct)</span></li></ul> <p><b>Youth/student groups</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Journalism_Center" title="National Journalism Center">NJC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turning_Point_USA" title="Turning Point USA">TPUSA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_Americans_for_Freedom" title="Young Americans for Freedom">Young Americans for Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_America%27s_Foundation" title="Young America's Foundation">Young America's Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_Americans_for_Liberty" title="Young Americans for Liberty">YAL</a></li></ul> <p><b>Miscellaneous</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_85_Fund" title="The 85 Fund">The 85 Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton_Institute_for_the_Study_of_Western_Civilization" title="Alexander Hamilton Institute for the Study of Western Civilization">AHI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Conservative_Union" title="American Conservative Union">ACU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bradley_Foundation" title="Bradley Foundation">Bradley Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Conservative_Caucus" title="The Conservative Caucus">TCC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_for_National_Policy" title="Council for National Policy">CNP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Political_Action_Conference" title="Conservative Political Action Conference">CPAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Caucus" title="Freedom Caucus">Freedom Caucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hillsdale_College" title="Hillsdale College">Hillsdale College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idaho_Freedom_Foundation" title="Idaho Freedom Foundation">IFF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Birch_Society" title="John Birch Society">JBS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_M._Olin_Foundation" title="John M. Olin Foundation">John M. Olin Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty_Fund" title="Liberty Fund">Liberty Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty_University" title="Liberty University">LU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Association_of_Scholars" title="National Association of Scholars">NAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philadelphia_Society" title="Philadelphia Society">Philadelphia Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regent_University" title="Regent University">Regent University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Study_Committee" title="Republican Study Committee">RSC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk_Center_for_Cultural_Renewal" title="Russell Kirk Center for Cultural Renewal">Russell Kirk Center for Cultural Renewal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_Public_Policy_Foundation" title="Texas Public Policy Foundation">TPPF</a></li></ul> <p><b>Other</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/America_First_Legal" title="America First Legal">AFL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlas_Network" title="Atlas Network">Atlas Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collegiate_Network" title="Collegiate Network">CN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ConservAmerica" title="ConservAmerica">ConservAmerica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donors_Trust" title="Donors Trust">Donors Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Society" title="Federalist Society">FedSoc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gab_(social_network)" title="Gab (social network)">Gab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gettr" title="Gettr">Gettr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Justice_Institute" title="Pacific Justice Institute">PJI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parler" title="Parler">Parler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Main_Street_Partnership" title="Republican Main Street Partnership">Republican Main Street Partnership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Right_Stuff_(app)" title="The Right Stuff (app)">The Right Stuff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_for_American_Civic_Renewal" title="Society for American Civic Renewal">SACR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_Republicans" title="Young Republicans">YRNF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ziklag_(organization)" title="Ziklag (organization)">Ziklag</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Movements</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asian_American_and_Pacific_Islands_American_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Asian American and Pacific Islands American conservatism in the United States">Asian and Pacific Islander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Black conservatism in the United States">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_right" title="Christian right">Christian right</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_reconstructionism#Influence_on_the_Christian_right_in_general" title="Christian reconstructionism">Reconstructionism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_education_movement" title="Classical education movement">Classical education movement</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Paideia" title="Paideia">Paideia</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Women in conservatism in the United States">Female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_conservatism#United_States" title="Green conservatism">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Hispanic and Latino conservatism in the United States">Hispanic and Latino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_conservatism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT conservatism in the United States">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_Republican" title="Libertarian Republican">Libertarian republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_militia_movement" title="American militia movement">Militia movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism_in_the_United_States" title="Monarchism in the United States">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints_and_politics_in_the_United_States" title="The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and politics in the United States">Mormon</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/White_Horse_Prophecy" title="White Horse Prophecy">White Horse Prophecy</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Theodemocracy" title="Theodemocracy">Theodemocracy</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_rights_movement" title="Parental rights movement">Parental rights movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fathers%27_rights_movement" title="Fathers' rights movement">Fathers' rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriot_movement" title="Patriot movement">Patriot movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Patriot_movement" title="Christian Patriot movement">Christian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_right_(United_States)" title="Radical right (United States)">Radical right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactionary_feminism" title="Reactionary feminism">Reactionary feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-libertarianism#United_States" title="Right-libertarianism">Right-libertarianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolibertarianism" title="Paleolibertarianism">Paleolibertarianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secession_in_the_United_States" title="Secession in the United States">Secessionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confederates" title="Neo-Confederates">Neo-Confederates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_secession_movements" title="Texas secession movements">in Texas</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trumpism" title="Trumpism">Trumpism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Never_Trump_movement" title="Never Trump movement">Never Trump</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Related</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agenda_47" title="Agenda 47">Agenda 47</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/America_First_(policy)" title="America First (policy)">America First</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Bibliography of conservatism in the United States">Bibliography of US conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_talk_radio" title="Conservative talk radio">Conservative talk radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factions_in_the_Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Factions in the Republican Party (United States)">GOP factions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="History of conservatism in the United States">History of US conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_modern_American_conservatism" title="Timeline of modern American conservatism">Modern timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_American_conservatives" title="List of American conservatives">List of American conservatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Conservatism_Conference" title="National Conservatism Conference">NatCon</a></li> <li>Colloquialisms <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Barstool_conservatism" title="Barstool conservatism">Barstool conservatism</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Cuckservative" title="Cuckservative">Cuckservative</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Don%27t_immanentize_the_eschaton!" class="mw-redirect" title="Don't immanentize the eschaton!">Don't immanentize the eschaton!</a>"</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Republicans_pounce" title="Republicans pounce">Republicans pounce</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Republican_in_Name_Only" class="mw-redirect" title="Republican in Name Only">RINO</a></i></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/South_Park_Republican" title="South Park Republican"><i>South Park</i> Republican</a>"</li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below plainlist" style="padding-bottom:0.22em; border-top:1px solid #AAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAA"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg/15px-DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg/22px-DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg/30px-DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="249" data-file-height="268" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Conservatism" title="Portal:Conservatism">Conservatism portal</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/24px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></span></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Conservatism_US" title="Template:Conservatism US"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Conservatism_US" title="Template talk:Conservatism US"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Conservatism_US" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Conservatism US"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>According to Strauss, modern <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social science</a> is flawed because it assumes the <a href="/wiki/Fact%E2%80%93value_distinction" title="Fact–value distinction">fact–value distinction</a>, a concept which Strauss found dubious. He traced its roots in <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> philosophy to <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a>, a thinker whom Strauss described as a "serious and noble mind". Weber wanted to separate values from science but, according to Strauss, was really a derivative thinker, deeply influenced by Nietzsche's <a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">relativism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Strauss treated politics as something that could not be studied from afar. A political scientist examining politics with a value-free scientific eye, for Strauss, was self-deluded. <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a>, the heir to both <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a> and Max Weber in the quest to make purportedly value-free judgments, failed to justify its own existence, which would require a value judgment.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While modern-era <a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">liberalism</a> had stressed the pursuit of individual liberty as its highest goal, Strauss felt that there should be a greater interest in the problem of human excellence and political virtue. Through his writings, Strauss constantly raised the question of how, and to what extent, freedom and excellence can coexist. Strauss refused to make do with any simplistic or one-sided resolutions of the Socratic question: <i>What is the <a href="/wiki/Good_and_evil" title="Good and evil">good</a> for the city and man?</i><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Encounters_with_Carl_Schmitt_and_Alexandre_Kojève"><span id="Encounters_with_Carl_Schmitt_and_Alexandre_Koj.C3.A8ve"></span>Encounters with Carl Schmitt and Alexandre Kojève</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Strauss&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Encounters with Carl Schmitt and Alexandre Kojève"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Two significant political-philosophical dialogues Strauss had with living thinkers were those he held with <a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Carl Schmitt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Koj%C3%A8ve" title="Alexandre Kojève">Alexandre Kojève</a>. Schmitt, who would later become, for a short time, the chief jurist of Nazi Germany, was one of the first important German academics to review Strauss's early work positively. Schmitt's positive reference for, and approval of, Strauss's work on <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a> was instrumental in winning Strauss the scholarship funding that allowed him to leave Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Strauss's critique and clarifications of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Concept_of_the_Political" title="The Concept of the Political">The Concept of the Political</a></i> led Schmitt to make significant emendations in its second edition. Writing to Schmitt in 1932, Strauss summarised Schmitt's <a href="/wiki/Political_theology" title="Political theology">political theology</a> that "because man is by nature evil, he, therefore, needs <i> dominion</i>. But dominion can be established, that is, men can be unified only in a unity against—against other men. Every association of men is necessarily a separation from other men ... the political thus understood is not the constitutive principle of the state, of order, but a condition of the state."<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Strauss, however, directly opposed Schmitt's position. For Strauss, Schmitt and his return to <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a> helpfully clarified the nature of our political existence and our modern self-understanding. Schmitt's position was therefore symptomatic of the modern-era <a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">liberal</a> self-understanding. Strauss believed that such an analysis, as in Hobbes's time, served as a useful "preparatory action," revealing our contemporary orientation towards the eternal problems of politics (social existence). However, Strauss believed that Schmitt's reification of our modern self-understanding of the problem of politics into a political theology was not an adequate solution. Strauss instead advocated a return to a broader classical understanding of human nature and a tentative return to political philosophy, in the tradition of the ancient philosophers.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With Kojève, Strauss had a close and lifelong philosophical friendship. They had first met as students in Berlin. The two thinkers shared boundless philosophical respect for each other. Kojève would later write that, without befriending Strauss, "I never would have known ... what philosophy is".<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The political-philosophical dispute between Kojève and Strauss centered on the role that philosophy should and can be allowed to play in politics. </p><p>Kojève, a senior civil servant in the French government, was instrumental in the creation of the <a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Community" title="European Economic Community">European Economic Community</a>. He argued that philosophers should have an active role in shaping political events. Strauss, on the contrary, believed that philosophers should play a role in politics only to the extent that they can ensure that philosophy, which he saw as mankind's highest activity, can be free from political intervention.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Liberalism_and_nihilism">Liberalism and nihilism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Strauss&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Liberalism and nihilism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Strauss argued that <a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">liberalism</a> in its modern form (which is oriented toward <a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">universal freedom</a> as opposed to "ancient liberalism" which is oriented toward <a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">human excellence</a>), contained within it an intrinsic tendency towards extreme <a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">relativism</a>, which in turn led to two types of <a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">nihilism</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>The first was a "brutal" nihilism, expressed in <a href="/wiki/Nazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi">Nazi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bolshevik" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolshevik">Bolshevik</a> regimes. In <i>On Tyranny</i>, he wrote that these <a href="/wiki/Ideologies" class="mw-redirect" title="Ideologies">ideologies</a>, both descendants of <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> thought, tried to destroy all traditions, history, ethics, and moral standards and replace them by force under which nature and mankind are subjugated and conquered.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The second type—the "gentle" nihilism expressed in Western <a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">liberal democracies</a>—was a kind of value-free aimlessness and a <a href="/wiki/Hedonism" title="Hedonism">hedonistic</a> "permissive <a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">egalitarianism</a>," which he saw as permeating the fabric of contemporary American society.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>In the belief that 20th-century relativism, <a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">scientism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">historicism</a>, and nihilism were all implicated in the deterioration of <a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">modern society</a> and philosophy, Strauss sought to uncover the philosophical pathways that had led to this situation. The resultant study led him to advocate a tentative return to classical political philosophy as a starting point for judging political action.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Strauss's_interpretation_of_Plato's_Republic"><span id="Strauss.27s_interpretation_of_Plato.27s_Republic"></span>Strauss's interpretation of Plato's <i>Republic</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Strauss&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Strauss's interpretation of Plato's Republic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to Strauss, the <i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> is not "a blueprint for regime reform" (a play on words from <a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Open_Society_and_Its_Enemies" title="The Open Society and Its Enemies">The Open Society and Its Enemies</a></i>, which attacks <i>The Republic</i> for being just that). Strauss quotes <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>: "<i>The Republic</i> does not bring to light the best possible regime but rather the nature of political things—the nature of the city."<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Strauss argued that the city-in-speech was unnatural, precisely because "it is rendered possible by the abstraction from <i>eros</i>".<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though skeptical of "progress," Strauss was equally skeptical about political agendas of "return"—that is, going backward instead of forward. </p><p>In fact, he was consistently suspicious of anything claiming to be a solution to an old political or philosophical problem. He spoke of the danger in trying finally to resolve the debate between <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">traditionalism</a> in politics. In particular, along with many in the <a href="/wiki/Weimar_Republic" title="Weimar Republic">pre-World War II</a> German Right, he feared people trying to force a <a href="/wiki/World_state" class="mw-redirect" title="World state">world state</a> to come into being in the future, thinking that it would inevitably become a <a href="/wiki/Tyranny" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyranny">tyranny</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hence he kept his distance from the two totalitarianisms that he denounced in his century, both fascists and communists. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Strauss_and_Karl_Popper">Strauss and Karl Popper</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Strauss&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Strauss and Karl Popper"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Strauss actively rejected <a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a>'s views as illogical. He agreed with a letter of response to his request of <a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Eric Voegelin</a> to look into the issue. In the response, Voegelin wrote that studying Popper's views was a waste of precious time, and "an annoyance". Specifically about <i><a href="/wiki/The_Open_Society_and_Its_Enemies" title="The Open Society and Its Enemies">The Open Society and Its Enemies</a></i> and Popper's understanding of Plato's <i>The Republic</i>, after giving some examples, Voegelin wrote: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Popper is philosophically so uncultured, so fully a primitive ideological brawler, that he is not able even approximately to reproduce correctly the contents of one page of Plato. Reading is of no use to him; he is too lacking in knowledge to understand what the author says.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Strauss proceeded to show this letter to <a href="/wiki/Kurt_Riezler" title="Kurt Riezler">Kurt Riezler</a>, who used his influence in order to oppose Popper's appointment at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancients_and_Moderns">Ancients and Moderns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Strauss&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Ancients and Moderns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Strauss constantly stressed the importance of two dichotomies in political philosophy, namely <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> (<a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a> and <a href="/wiki/Revelation" title="Revelation">revelation</a>) and Ancient versus Modern. The "Ancients" were the Socratic philosophers and their intellectual heirs; the "Moderns" start with <a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Niccolò Machiavelli</a>. The contrast between Ancients and Moderns was understood to be related to the unresolvable tension between Reason and Revelation. The Socratics, reacting to the first <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</a> philosophers, brought philosophy back to earth, and hence back to the marketplace, making it more political.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Moderns reacted to the dominance of revelation in <a href="/wiki/Medieval" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval">medieval</a> society by promoting the possibilities of Reason. They objected to Aquinas's merger of natural right and <a href="/wiki/Natural_theology" title="Natural theology">natural theology</a>, for it made natural right vulnerable to sideshow theological disputes.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a>, under the influence of <a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a>, re-oriented political thought to what was most solid but also most low in man—his physical hopes and fears—setting a precedent for <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> and the later economic approach to political thought, as in <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Strauss_and_Zionism">Strauss and Zionism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Strauss&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Strauss and Zionism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As a youth, Strauss belonged to the German <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionist</a> youth group, along with his friends <a href="/wiki/Gershom_Scholem" title="Gershom Scholem">Gershom Scholem</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Benjamin" title="Walter Benjamin">Walter Benjamin</a>. Both were admirers of Strauss and would continue to be throughout their lives.<sup id="cite_ref-Kenneth_Hart_Green_p._55_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kenneth_Hart_Green_p._55-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When he was 17, as he said, he was "converted" to political Zionism as a follower of <a href="/wiki/Ze%27ev_Jabotinsky" title="Ze'ev Jabotinsky">Ze'ev Jabotinsky</a>. He wrote several essays about its controversies but left these activities behind by his early twenties.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While Strauss maintained a sympathetic interest in Zionism, he later came to refer to Zionism as "problematic" and became disillusioned with some of its aims. </p><p>He taught at the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_University_of_Jerusalem" title="Hebrew University of Jerusalem">Hebrew University of Jerusalem</a> during the 1954–55 <a href="/wiki/Academic_year" title="Academic year">academic year</a>. In his letter to a <i><a href="/wiki/National_Review" title="National Review">National Review</a></i> editor, Strauss asked why <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> had been called a <a href="/wiki/Racist" class="mw-redirect" title="Racist">racist</a> state by one of their writers. He argued that the author did not provide enough proof for his argument. He ended his essay with this statement: "Political Zionism is problematic for obvious reasons. But I can never forget what it achieved as a moral force in an era of complete dissolution. It helped to stem the tide of 'progressive' leveling of venerable, ancestral differences; it fulfilled a conservative function."<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religious_belief">Religious belief</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Strauss&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Religious belief"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although Strauss accepted the utility of religious belief, there is some question about his religious views. He was openly disdainful of atheism<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (August 2021)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and disapproved of contemporary <a href="/wiki/Dogma" title="Dogma">dogmatic</a> disbelief, which he considered intemperate and irrational.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, like <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>, he felt that revelation must be subject to examination by reason.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the end of <i>The City and Man</i>, Strauss invites us to "be open to ... the question <i>quid sit deus</i> ["What is God?"]" (p. 241). <a href="/wiki/Edward_Feser" title="Edward Feser">Edward Feser</a> writes that "Strauss was not himself an orthodox believer, neither was he a convinced <a href="/wiki/Atheist" class="mw-redirect" title="Atheist">atheist</a>. Since whether or not to accept a purported divine revelation is itself one of the 'permanent' questions, orthodoxy must always remain an option equally as defensible as unbelief."<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <i>Natural Right and History</i>, Strauss distinguishes a Socratic (Platonic, Ciceronian, Aristotelian) from a conventionalist (materialistic, Epicurean) reading of divinity, and argues that "the question of religion" (what is religion?) is inseparable from the question of the nature of civil society and civil authority. Throughout the volume he argues for the Socratic reading of civil authority and rejects the conventionalist reading (of which atheism is an essential component).<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is incompatible with interpretations by Shadia Drury and other scholars who argue that Strauss viewed religion purely instrumentally.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reception_and_legacy">Reception and legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Strauss&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Reception and legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reception_by_contemporaries">Reception by contemporaries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Strauss&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Reception by contemporaries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Strauss's works were read and admired by thinkers as diverse as the philosophers <a href="/wiki/Gershom_Scholem" title="Gershom Scholem">Gershom Scholem</a>, <a href="/wiki/Walter_Benjamin" title="Walter Benjamin">Walter Benjamin</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Kenneth_Hart_Green_p._55_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kenneth_Hart_Green_p._55-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Hans-Georg Gadamer</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Political_Thought_2009_page_56_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Political_Thought_2009_page_56-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Koj%C3%A8ve" title="Alexandre Kojève">Alexandre Kojève</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Political_Thought_2009_page_56_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Political_Thought_2009_page_56-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the psychoanalyst <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Lacan" title="Jacques Lacan">Jacques Lacan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Political_Thought_2009_page_56_60-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Political_Thought_2009_page_56-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Benjamin had become acquainted with Strauss as a student in Berlin, and expressed admiration for Strauss throughout his life.<sup id="cite_ref-Kenneth_Hart_Green_page_55_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kenneth_Hart_Green_page_55-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Scholem,_Gershom_1981._page_201_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scholem,_Gershom_1981._page_201-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gershom_Scholem_1989,_page_155-58_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gershom_Scholem_1989,_page_155-58-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gadamer stated that he 'largely agreed' with Strauss's interpretations.<sup id="cite_ref-Political_Thought_2009_page_56_60-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Political_Thought_2009_page_56-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Straussian_school">The Straussian school</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Strauss&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: The Straussian school"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Straussianism is the name given "to denote the research methods, common concepts, theoretical presuppositions, central questions, and pedagogic style (teaching style<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) characteristic of the large number of conservatives who have been influenced by the thought and teaching of Leo Strauss".<sup id="cite_ref-First_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-First-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While it "is particularly influential among university professors of historical political theory ... it also sometimes serves as a common intellectual framework more generally among conservative activists, think tank professionals, and public intellectuals".<sup id="cite_ref-First_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-First-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Harvey C. Mansfield</a>, <a href="/wiki/Steven_B._Smith_(professor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Steven B. Smith (professor)">Steven B. Smith</a> and Steven Berg, though never students of Strauss, are "Straussians" (as some followers of Strauss identify themselves). Mansfield has argued that there is no such thing as "Straussianism" yet there are Straussians and a school of Straussians. Mansfield describes the school as "open to the whole of philosophy" and without any definite doctrines that one has to believe in order to belong to it.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Within the discipline of political theory, the method calls for its practitioners to use "a 'close reading' of the 'Great Books' of political thought; they strive to understand a thinker 'as he understood himself'; they are unconcerned with questions about the historical context of, or historical influences on, a given author"<sup id="cite_ref-First_62-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-First-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and strive to be open to the idea that they may find something timelessly true in a <a href="/wiki/Great_book" class="mw-redirect" title="Great book">great book</a>. The approach "resembles in important ways the old <a href="/wiki/New_Criticism" title="New Criticism">New Criticism</a> in literary studies."<sup id="cite_ref-First_62-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-First-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is some controversy in the approach over what distinguishes a great book from lesser works. Great books are held to be written by authors/philosophers "of such sovereign critical self-knowledge and intellectual power that they can in no way be reduced to the general thought of their time and place,"<sup id="cite_ref-First_62-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-First-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with other works "understood as epiphenomenal to the original insights of a thinker of the first rank."<sup id="cite_ref-First_62-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-First-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This approach is seen as a counter "to the historicist presuppositions of the mid-twentieth century, which read the history of political thought in a progressivist way, with past philosophies forever cut off from us in a superseded past."<sup id="cite_ref-First_62-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-First-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Straussianism puts forward the possibility that past thinkers may have "hold of <i>the truth</i>—and that more recent thinkers are therefore wrong."<sup id="cite_ref-First_62-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-First-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Chinese_Straussians">The Chinese Straussians</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Strauss&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: The Chinese Straussians"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Almost the entirety of Strauss's writings has been translated into Chinese. There even is a school of Straussians in China, the most prominent being <a href="/wiki/Liu_Xiaofeng_(academic)" title="Liu Xiaofeng (academic)">Liu Xiaofeng</a> (Renmin University) and <a href="/wiki/Gan_Yang" title="Gan Yang">Gan Yang</a>. "Chinese Straussians" (who often are also fascinated by Carl Schmitt) represent an example of the hybridization of Western political theory in a non-Western context. As the editors of a recent volume write, "the reception of Schmitt and Strauss in the Chinese-speaking world (and especially in the People's Republic of China) not only says much about how Schmitt and Strauss can be read today, but also provides important clues about the deeper contradictions of Western modernity and the dilemmas of non-liberal societies in our increasingly contentious world."<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Strauss&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Basis_for_esotericism">Basis for esotericism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Strauss&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Basis for esotericism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the essay, <i>Persecution and the Art of Writing</i>, Strauss posits that information needs to be kept secret from the masses by "writing between the lines". However, this seems like a false premise, as most authors Strauss refers to in his work lived in times when only the social elites were literate enough to understand works of philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conservatism">Conservatism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Strauss&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Conservatism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some critics of Strauss have accused him of being <a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">elitist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Illiberalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Illiberalism">illiberal</a> and anti-democratic. Journalists such as <a href="/wiki/Seymour_Hersh" title="Seymour Hersh">Seymour Hersh</a> have opined that Strauss endorsed <a href="/wiki/Noble_lie" title="Noble lie">noble lies</a>, "myths used by political leaders seeking to maintain a cohesive society".<sup id="cite_ref-Hersh_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hersh-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <i>The City and Man</i>, Strauss discusses the myths outlined in Plato's <i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i> that are required for all governments. These include a belief that the state's land belongs to it even though it may have been acquired illegitimately and that citizenship is rooted in something more than accidents of birth.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Shadia_Drury" title="Shadia Drury">Shadia Drury</a>, in <i>Leo Strauss and the American Right</i> (1999), claimed that Strauss <a href="/wiki/Inculcation" class="mw-redirect" title="Inculcation">inculcated</a> an elitist strain in American political leaders linked to <a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">imperialist</a> <a href="/wiki/Militarism" title="Militarism">militarism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neoconservatism" title="Neoconservatism">neoconservatism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christian_fundamentalism" title="Christian fundamentalism">Christian fundamentalism</a>. Drury argues that Strauss teaches that "<a href="/wiki/Noble_lie" title="Noble lie">perpetual deception of the citizens by those in power is critical because they need to be led</a>, and they need strong rulers to tell them what's good for them". Nicholas Xenos similarly argues that Strauss was "an anti-democrat in a fundamental sense, a true <a href="/wiki/Reactionary" title="Reactionary">reactionary</a>". Xenos says: "Strauss was somebody who wanted to go back to a previous, pre-liberal, pre-<a href="/wiki/Bourgeois" class="mw-redirect" title="Bourgeois">bourgeois</a> era of blood and guts, of imperial domination, of authoritarian rule, of pure <a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">fascism</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-Xenos_Logos_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Xenos_Logos-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anti-historicism">Anti-historicism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Strauss&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Anti-historicism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Strauss has also been criticized by some <a href="/wiki/Conservatives" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservatives">conservatives</a>. According to <a href="/wiki/Claes_G._Ryn" title="Claes G. Ryn">Claes G. Ryn</a>, Strauss's anti-historicist thinking creates an artificial contrast between moral universality and "the conventional", "the ancestral", and "the historical". Strauss, Ryn argues, wrongly and reductively assumes that respect for tradition must undermine reason and universality. Contrary to Strauss's criticism of Edmund Burke, the historical sense may be indispensable to an adequate apprehension of universality. Strauss's abstract, ahistorical conception of natural right distorts genuine universality, Ryn contends. Strauss does not consider the possibility that real universality becomes known to human beings in a concretized, particular form. Strauss and the Straussians have paradoxically taught philosophically unsuspecting American conservatives, not least Roman Catholic intellectuals, to reject tradition in favor of ahistorical theorizing, a bias that flies in the face of the central Christian notion of the Incarnation, which represents a synthesis of the universal and the historical. According to Ryn, the propagation of a purely abstract idea of universality has contributed to the neoconservative advocacy of allegedly universal American principles, which neoconservatives see as justification for American intervention around the world—bringing the blessings of the "West" to the benighted "rest". Strauss's anti-historical thinking connects him and his followers with the French <a href="/wiki/Jacobins" title="Jacobins">Jacobins</a>, who also regarded tradition as incompatible with virtue and rationality.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>What Ryn calls the "new Jacobinism" of the "neoconservative" philosophy is, writes <a href="/wiki/Paul_Gottfried" title="Paul Gottfried">Paul Gottfried</a>, also the rhetoric of <a href="/wiki/Louis_Antoine_de_Saint-Just" title="Louis Antoine de Saint-Just">Saint-Just</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leon_Trotsky" title="Leon Trotsky">Leon Trotsky</a>, which the philosophically impoverished American Right has taken over with mindless alacrity; <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a> operators and <a href="/wiki/Think_tank" title="Think tank">think tanks</a> apparently believe they can carry the electorate by appealing to yesterday's <a href="/wiki/Leftist" class="mw-redirect" title="Leftist">leftist</a> clichés.<sup id="cite_ref-Gottfried_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gottfried-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gottfriedarch_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gottfriedarch-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Response_to_criticism">Response to criticism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Strauss&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Response to criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In his 2009 book <i>Straussophobia</i>, Peter Minowitz provides a detailed critique of Drury, Xenos, and other critics of Strauss whom he accuses of "bigotry and buffoonery".<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <i>Reading Leo Strauss</i>, <a href="/wiki/Steven_B._Smith_(professor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Steven B. Smith (professor)">Steven B. Smith</a> rejects the link between Strauss and <a href="/wiki/Neoconservative" class="mw-redirect" title="Neoconservative">neoconservative</a> thought, arguing that Strauss was never personally active in politics, never endorsed imperialism, and questioned the utility of political philosophy for the practice of politics. In particular, Strauss argued that Plato's myth of the <a href="/wiki/Philosopher_king" title="Philosopher king">philosopher king</a> should be read as a <a href="/wiki/Reductio_ad_absurdum" title="Reductio ad absurdum">reductio ad absurdum</a>, and that philosophers should understand politics not in order to influence policy but to ensure philosophy's autonomy from politics.<sup id="cite_ref-SSmith_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SSmith-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his review of <i>Reading Leo Strauss</i>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Alter" title="Robert Alter">Robert Alter</a> writes that Smith "persuasively sets the record straight on Strauss's political views and on what his writing is really about".<sup id="cite_ref-Alter_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alter-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Strauss's daughter, <a href="/wiki/Jenny_Strauss_Clay" title="Jenny Strauss Clay">Jenny Strauss Clay</a>, defended Strauss against the charge that he was the "mastermind behind the neoconservative ideologues who control United States foreign policy." "He was a conservative", she says, "insofar as he did not think change is necessarily change for the better." Since contemporary academia "leaned to the left", with its "unquestioned faith in progress and science combined with a queasiness regarding any kind of moral judgment", Strauss stood outside of the academic consensus. Had academia leaned to the right, he would have questioned it, too—and on certain occasions <i>did</i> question the tenets of the right.<sup id="cite_ref-MyUser_The_New_York_Times_March_30_2015c_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MyUser_The_New_York_Times_March_30_2015c-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Mark_Lilla" title="Mark Lilla">Mark Lilla</a> has argued that the attribution to Strauss of neoconservative views contradicts a careful reading of Strauss' actual texts, in particular <i>On Tyranny</i>. Lilla summarizes Strauss as follows: </p> <blockquote><p>Philosophy must always be aware of the dangers of tyranny, as a threat to both political decency and the philosophical life. It must understand enough about politics to defend its own autonomy, without falling into the error of thinking that philosophy can shape the political world according to its own lights.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Responding to charges that Strauss's teachings fostered the neoconservative foreign policy of the <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> administration, such as "unrealistic hopes for the spread of liberal democracy through military conquest", Nathan Tarcov, director of the Leo Strauss Center at the University of Chicago, asserts that Strauss as a political philosopher was essentially non-political. After an exegesis of the very limited practical political views to be gleaned from Strauss's writings, Tarcov concludes that "Strauss can remind us of the permanent problems, but we have only ourselves to blame for our faulty solutions to the problems of today."<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Strauss&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt>Books and articles</dt></dl> <ul><li><i>Gesammelte Schriften</i>. Ed. <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Meier" title="Heinrich Meier">Heinrich Meier</a>. Stuttgart: J. B. Metzler, 1996. Four vols. published to date: Vol. 1, <i>Die Religionskritik Spinozas und zugehörige Schriften</i> (rev. ed. 2001); vol. 2, <i>Philosophie und Gesetz, Frühe Schriften</i> (1997); Vol. 3, <i>Hobbes' politische Wissenschaft und zugehörige Schrifte – Briefe</i> (2001); Vol. 4, <i>Politische Philosophie. Studien zum theologisch-politischen Problem</i> (2010). The full series will also include Vol. 5, <i>Über Tyrannis</i> (2013) and Vol. 6, <i>Gedanken über Machiavelli. Deutsche Erstübersetzung</i> (2014).</li> <li><i>Leo Strauss: The Early Writings (1921–1932)</i>. (Trans. from parts of <i>Gesammelte Schriften</i>). Trans. Michael Zank. Albany: SUNY Press, 2002.</li> <li><i>Die Religionskritik Spinozas als Grundlage seiner Bibelwissenschaft: Untersuchungen zu Spinozas Theologisch-politischem Traktat</i>. Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1930. <ul><li><i>Spinoza's Critique of Religion</i>. (English trans. by Elsa M. Sinclair of <i>Die Religionskritik Spinozas</i>, 1930.) With a new English preface and a trans. of Strauss's 1932 German essay on Carl Schmitt. New York: Schocken, 1965. Reissued without that essay, Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1997.</li></ul></li> <li>"Anmerkungen zu Carl Schmitt, <i>Der Begriff des Politischen</i>". <i>Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik</i> 67, no. 6 (August–September 1932): 732–49. <ul><li>"Comments on Carl Schmitt's <i>Begriff des Politischen</i>". (English trans. by Elsa M. Sinclair of "Anmerkungen zu Carl Schmitt", 1932.) 331–51 in <i>Spinoza's Critique of Religion</i>, 1965. Reprinted in Carl Schmitt, <i>The Concept of the Political</i>, ed. and trans. George Schwab. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers U Press, 1976.</li> <li>"Notes on Carl Schmitt, <i>The Concept of the Political</i>". (English trans. by J. Harvey Lomax of "Anmerkungen zu Carl Schmitt", 1932.) In Heinrich Meier, <i>Carl Schmitt and Leo Strauss: The Hidden Dialogue</i>, trans. J. Harvey Lomax. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1995. Reprinted in Carl Schmitt, <i>The Concept of the Political</i>, ed. and trans. George Schwab. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1996, 2007.</li></ul></li> <li><i>Philosophie und Gesetz: Beiträge zum Verständnis Maimunis und seiner Vorläufer</i>. Berlin: Schocken, 1935. <ul><li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/philosophylawess0000stra">Philosophy and Law: Essays Toward the Understanding of Maimonides and His Predecessors</a></i>. (English trans. by <a href="/wiki/Fred_Baumann" title="Fred Baumann">Fred Baumann</a> of <i>Philosophie und Gesetz</i>, 1935.) Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1987.</li> <li><i>Philosophy and Law: Contributions to the Understanding of Maimonides and His Predecessors</i>. (English trans. with introd. by <a href="/wiki/Eve_Adler" title="Eve Adler">Eve Adler</a> of <i>Philosophie und Gesetz</i>, 1935.) Albany: SUNY Press, 1995.</li></ul></li> <li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.505473">The Political Philosophy of Hobbes: Its Basis and Its Genesis</a></i>. (English trans. by Elsa M. Sinclair from German manuscript.) Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1936. Reissued with new preface, Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1952. <ul><li><i>Hobbes' politische Wissenschaft in ihrer Genesis</i>. (1935 German original of <i>The Political Philosophy of Hobbes</i>, 1936.) Neuwied am Rhein: Hermann <a href="/wiki/Luchterhand_Literaturverlag" title="Luchterhand Literaturverlag">Luchterhand</a>, 1965.</li></ul></li> <li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/LeoStraussTheSpiritOfSpartaOrTheTasteOfXenophon1939_201804">The Spirit of Sparta or the Taste of Xenophon".</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Social_Research" class="mw-redirect" title="Social Research">Social Research</a></i> 6, no. 4 (Winter 1939): 502–36.</li> <li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/LeoStraussGermanNihilismIntegral1941">On German Nihilism"</a> (1999, originally a 1941 lecture), <i>Interpretation</i> 26, no. 3 edited by David Janssens and Daniel Tanguay.</li> <li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/LeoStraussFarabisPlato1945">Farabi's Plato"</a> <i>American Academy for Jewish Research</i>, Louis Ginzberg Jubilee Volume, 1945. 45 pp.</li> <li>"On a New Interpretation of Plato's Political Philosophy". <i><a href="/wiki/Social_Research" class="mw-redirect" title="Social Research">Social Research</a></i> 13, no. 3 (Fall 1946): 326–67.</li> <li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/LeoStraussOnTheIntentionOfRousseau1947_201804">On the Intention of Rousseau"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Social_Research" class="mw-redirect" title="Social Research">Social Research</a></i> 14, no. 4 (Winter 1947): 455–87.</li> <li><i>On Tyranny: An Interpretation of Xenophon's Hiero</i>. Foreword by Alvin Johnson. New York: Political Science Classics, 1948. Reissued Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, 1950. <ul><li><i>De la tyrannie</i>. (French trans. of <i>On Tyranny</i>, 1948, with "Restatement on Xenophon's <i>Hiero</i>" and Alexandre Kojève's "Tyranny and Wisdom".) Paris: Librairie Gallimard, 1954.</li> <li><i>On Tyranny</i>. (English edition of <i>De la tyrannie</i>, 1954.) Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1963.</li> <li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ontyranny0000stra">On Tyranny</a></i>. (Revised and expanded edition of <i>On Tyranny</i>, 1963.) Includes Strauss–Kojève correspondence. Ed. Victor Gourevitch and Michael S. Roth. New York: The Free Press, 1991.</li></ul></li> <li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/leo-strauss-on-collingwoods-philosophy-of-history-1952">On Collingwood’s Philosophy of History</a>". <i><a href="/wiki/Review_of_Metaphysics" class="mw-redirect" title="Review of Metaphysics">Review of Metaphysics</a></i> 5, no. 4 (June 1952): 559–86.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Persecution_and_the_Art_of_Writing" title="Persecution and the Art of Writing">Persecution and the Art of Writing</a></i>. Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, 1952. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/persecutionartof0000stra">Reissued Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1988</a>.</li> <li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/naturalrighthis00stra">Natural Right and History</a></i>. (Based on the 1949 Walgreen lectures.) Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1953. Reprinted with new preface, 1971. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-77694-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-77694-1">978-0-226-77694-1</a>.</li> <li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/LeoStraussExistentialism1956Integral_201810">Existentialism</a>" (1956), a public lecture on Martin Heidegger's thought, published in <i>Interpretation</i>, Spring 1995, Vol.22 No. 3: 303–18.</li> <li><i>Seminar on Plato's Republic</i>, (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/leo-strauss-platos-republic-1957">1957 Lecture</a>), (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/leo-strauss-platos-republic-1961txt">1961 Lecture</a>). University of Chicago.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Thoughts_on_Machiavelli" title="Thoughts on Machiavelli">Thoughts on Machiavelli</a></i>. Glencoe, Ill.: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/leo-strauss-thoughts-on-machiavelli-the-free-press-1958">The Free Press, 1958</a>. Reissued Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1978.</li> <li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.536757">What Is Political Philosophy? and Other Studies</a></i>. Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, 1959. Reissued Chicago: U of Chicago Press, 1988.</li> <li><i>On Plato's Symposium</i> [1959]. Ed. Seth Benardete. (Edited transcript of 1959 lectures.) Chicago: U of Chicago P, 2001.</li> <li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/LeoStraussRelativism1961.Ocr">'Relativism'"</a>. 135–57 in Helmut Schoeck and James W. Wiggins, eds., <i>Relativism and the Study of Man</i>. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, 1961. Partial reprint, 13–26 in <i>The Rebirth of Classical Political Rationalism</i>, 1989.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Political_Philosophy" title="History of Political Philosophy">History of Political Philosophy</a></i>. Co-editor with <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Cropsey" title="Joseph Cropsey">Joseph Cropsey</a>. Chicago: U of Chicago P, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofpolitic00stra">1963 (1st ed.)</a>, 1972 (2nd ed.), 1987 (3rd ed.).</li> <li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/leo-strauss-the-crisis-of-our-time-1963">The Crisis of Our Time"</a>, 41–54, and "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/leo-strauss-crisis-of-political-philosophy-1963">The Crisis of Political Philosophy</a>", 91–103, in Howard Spaeth, ed., <i>The Predicament of Modern Politics</i>. Detroit: U of Detroit P, 1964. <ul><li>"Political Philosophy and the Crisis of Our Time". (Adaptation of the two essays in Howard Spaeth, ed., <i>The Predicament of Modern Politics</i>, 1964.) 217–42 in George J. Graham, Jr., and George W. Carey, eds., <i>The Post-Behavioral Era: Perspectives on Political Science</i>. New York: David McKay, 1972.</li></ul></li> <li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cityman0000stra">The City and Man</a></i>. (Based on the 1962 Page-Barbour lectures.) Chicago: Rand McNally, 1964.</li> <li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/socratesaristoph0000stra">Socrates and Aristophanes</a></i>. New York: Basic Books, 1966. Reissued Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1980.</li> <li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/liberalismancien0000stra">Liberalism Ancient and Modern</a></i>. New York: Basic Books, 1968. Reissued with foreword by Allan Bloom, 1989. Reissued Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1995.</li> <li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/xenophonssocrati00stra_0">Xenophon's Socratic Discourse: An Interpretation of the Oeconomicus</a></i>. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1970.</li> <li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/LeoStraussOnNietzschesbeyondGoodEvil/">Note on the Plan of Nietzsche's "Beyond Good & Evil"</a></i>. St. John's College, 1971.</li> <li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/xenophonssocrate0000stra">Xenophon's Socrates</a></i>. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1972.</li> <li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/argumentacti00stra">The Argument and the Action of Plato's Laws</a></i>. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1975.</li> <li><i>Political Philosophy: Six Essays by Leo Strauss</i>. Ed. Hilail Gilden. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1975. <ul><li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontopo0000stra_e6k2">An Introduction to Political Philosophy: Ten Essays by Leo Strauss.</a></i> (Expanded version of <i>Political Philosophy: Six Essays by Leo Strauss</i>, 1975.) Ed. Hilail Gilden. Detroit: Wayne State UP, 1989.</li></ul></li> <li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/studiesinplatoni0000stra_o7u1">Studies in Platonic Political Philosophy</a></i>. Introd. by Thomas L. Pangle. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1983.</li> <li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/rebirthofclassic00stra">The Rebirth of Classical Political Rationalism: An Introduction to the Thought of Leo Strauss – Essays and Lectures by Leo Strauss</a></i>. Ed. Thomas L. Pangle. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1989.</li> <li><i>Faith and Political Philosophy: the Correspondence Between Leo Strauss and Eric Voegelin, 1934–1964</i>. Ed. Peter Emberley and Barry Cooper. Introd. by Thomas L. Pangle. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State UP, 1993.</li> <li><i>Hobbes's Critique of Religion and Related Writings</i>. Ed. and trans. Gabriel Bartlett and Svetozar Minkov. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 2011. (Trans. of materials first published in the <i>Gesammelte Schriften</i>, Vol. 3, including an unfinished manuscript by Leo Strauss of a book on Hobbes, written in 1933–1934, and some shorter related writings.)</li> <li><i>Leo Strauss on Moses Mendelssohn</i>. Edited and translated by Martin D. Yaffe. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012. (Annotated translation of ten introductions written by Strauss to a multi-volume critical edition of Mendelssohn's work.)</li> <li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/LeoStraussOnEsotericismExotericism/Strauss-ExotericTeaching/">Exoteric Teaching</a>" (Critical Edition by Hannes Kerber). In <i>Reorientation: Leo Strauss in the 1930s</i>. Edited by Martin D. Yaffe and Richard S. Ruderman. New York: Palgrave, 2014, pp. 275–86.</li> <li>"Lecture Notes for 'Persecution and the Art of Writing'" (Critical Edition by Hannes Kerber). In <i>Reorientation: Leo Strauss in the 1930s</i>. Edited by Martin D. Yaffe and Richard S. Ruderman. New York: Palgrave, 2014, pp. 293–304.</li> <li><i>Leo Strauss on Nietzsche’s “Thus Spoke Zarathustra”</i>. Edited by Richard L. Velkley. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2017.</li> <li><i>Leo Strauss on Political Philosophy: Responding to the Challenge of Positivism and Historicism</i>. Edited by Catherine H. Zuckert. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2018.</li> <li><i>Leo Strauss on Hegel</i>. Edited by Paul Franco. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2019.</li></ul> <dl><dt>Writings about Maimonides and Jewish philosophy</dt></dl> <ul><li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/spinozascritique0000stra">Spinoza's Critique of Religion</a></i> (see above, 1930).</li> <li><i>Philosophy and Law</i> (see above, 1935).</li> <li>"Quelques remarques sur la science politique de Maïmonide et de Farabi". <i>Revue des études juives</i> 100 (1936): 1–37.</li> <li>"Der Ort der Vorsehungslehre nach der Ansicht Maimunis". <i>Monatschrift für Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judentums</i> 81 (1936): 448–56.</li> <li>"The Literary Character of The Guide for the Perplexed" [1941]. 38–94 in <i>Persecution and the Art of Writing</i>. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1952.</li> <li>[1944] "How to Study Medieval Philosophy" [. <i>Interpretation</i> 23, no. 3 (Spring 1996): 319–338. Previously published, less annotations and fifth paragraph, as "How to Begin to Study Medieval Philosophy" in Pangle (ed.), <i>The Rebirth of Classical Political Rationalism</i>, 1989 (see above).</li> <li>[1952]. <i>Modern Judaism</i> 1, no. 1 (May 1981): 17–45. Reprinted Chap. 1 (I–II) in <i>Jewish Philosophy and the Crisis of Modernity</i>, 1997 (see below).</li> <li>[1952]. <i>Independent Journal of Philosophy</i> 3 (1979), 111–18. Reprinted Chap. 1 (III) in <i>Jewish Philosophy and the Crisis of Modernity</i>, 1997 (see below).</li> <li>"Maimonides' Statement on Political Science". <i>Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research</i> 22 (1953): 115–30.</li> <li>[1957]. <i>L'Homme</i> 21, n° 1 (janvier–mars 1981): 5–20. Reprinted Chap. 8 in <i>Jewish Philosophy and the Crisis of Modernity</i>, 1997 (see below).</li> <li>"How to Begin to Study The Guide of the Perplexed". In <i>The Guide of the Perplexed, Volume One</i>. Trans. Shlomo Pines. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1963.</li> <li>[1965] "On the Plan of the Guide of the Perplexed" . <i>Harry Austryn Wolfson Jubilee</i>. Volume (Jerusalem: American Academy for Jewish Research), pp. 775–91.</li> <li>"Notes on Maimonides' Book of Knowledge". 269–83 in <i>Studies in Mysticism and Religion Presented to G. G. Scholem</i>. Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1967.</li> <li><i>Jewish Philosophy and the Crisis of Modernity: Essays and Lectures in Modern Jewish Thought</i>. Ed. Kenneth Hart Green. Albany: SUNY P, 1997.</li> <li><i>Leo Strauss on Maimonides: The Complete Writings</i>. Edited by Kenneth Hart Green. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Strauss&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_American_philosophers" title="List of American philosophers">List of American philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoconservatism" title="Neoconservatism">Neoconservatism</a>, often referred to as inspired by the work of Strauss</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Shestov" title="Lev Shestov">Lev Shestov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allan_Bloom" title="Allan Bloom">Allan Bloom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seth_Benardete" title="Seth Benardete">Seth Benardete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Klein_(philosopher)" title="Jacob Klein (philosopher)">Jacob Klein</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Strauss&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="'r' in 'rye'">r</span><span title="/aʊ/: 'ou' in 'mouth'">aʊ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span></span>/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling"><span style="font-size:90%">STROWSS</span></i></a>; <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">German:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="de-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German" title="Help:IPA/Standard German">[ˈleːoː<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈʃtʁaʊs]</a></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Strauss&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joachim Lüders and Ariane Wehner, <i>Mittelhessen – eine Heimat für Juden? Das Schicksal der Familie Strauss aus Kirchhain</i> (Central Hesse – a Homeland for Jews? The Fate of the Strauss Family from Kirchhain) 1989.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In "A Giving of Accounts", published in <i>The College</i> 22 (1) and later reprinted in <i>Jewish Philosophy and the Crisis of Modernity</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kenneth_Hart_Green_page_55-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kenneth_Hart_Green_page_55_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kenneth_Hart_Green_page_55_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i> Jewish philosophy and the crisis of modernity</i> (SUNY 1997), <i>Leo Strauss as a Modern Jewish thinker</i>, Kenneth Hart Green, Leo Strauss, page 55</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Scholem,_Gershom_1981._page_201-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Scholem,_Gershom_1981._page_201_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Scholem,_Gershom_1981._page_201_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Scholem, Gershom. 1981. Walter Benjamin: The Story of a Friendship. Trans. Harry Zohn, p. 201</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gershom_Scholem_1989,_page_155-58-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gershom_Scholem_1989,_page_155-58_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gershom_Scholem_1989,_page_155-58_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Correspondence of Walter Benjamin and Gershom Scholem, 1932–40</i>, New York 1989, pp. 155–58</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-books.google.com-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-books.google.com_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H3QyfGR9qM4C&pg=PA87">Leo Strauss And the Politics of Exile: The Making of a Political Philosopher</a> p. 87</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEugene_Sheppard2014" class="citation book cs1">Eugene Sheppard (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XNmPBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT102"><i>Leo Strauss and the Politics of Exile: The Making of a Political Philosopher</i></a>. Brandeis UP. pp. 102–03. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781611687699" title="Special:BookSources/9781611687699"><bdi>9781611687699</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Leo+Strauss+and+the+Politics+of+Exile%3A+The+Making+of+a+Political+Philosopher&rft.pages=102-03&rft.pub=Brandeis+UP&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781611687699&rft.au=Eugene+Sheppard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXNmPBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT102&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Strauss" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leo Strauss, <i>Natural Right and History</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965 [1953], p. 42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Jpl8aokR5ZUC&pg=PA6">Jewish Philosophy and the Crisis of Modernity: Essays and Lectures in Modernity</a> preface p. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cato1.tripod.com/strauss-bio.htm#_ednref82">"Leo Strauss"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210117180702/https://cato1.tripod.com/strauss-bio.htm#_ednref82">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-01-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-12-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Leo+Strauss&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcato1.tripod.com%2Fstrauss-bio.htm%23_ednref82&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Strauss" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Batnizky-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Batnizky_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Batnizky_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Batnizky_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Leora_Batnitzky" title="Leora Batnitzky">Leora Batnitzky</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/strauss-leo/%20Leo%20Strauss">Leo Strauss</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>, 9 April 2021.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Routledge-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Routledge_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Routledge_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Routledge_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Shadia_Drury" title="Shadia Drury">Shadia Drury</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/biographical/strauss-leo-1899-1973/v-1">Strauss, Leo (1899–1973)</a>. In The <a href="/wiki/Routledge_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>. Taylor and Francis. Retrieved 30 Dec. 2023. doi:10.4324/9780415249126-S092-1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Laurence Lampert, <i>The Enduring Importance of Leo Strauss</i>, University of Chicago Press, 2013, p. 126.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"From these things it is evident, that the city belongs among the things that exist by nature, and that man is by nature a political animal" (Aristotle, <i>The Politics</i>, 1253a1–3).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Steven B. Smith, <i>Reading Leo Strauss: Politics, Philosophy, Judaism</i>, University of Chicago Press, 2007, p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Pangle" title="Thomas Pangle">Pangle, Thomas L.</a>, <i>Leo Strauss: An Introduction to His Thought and Intellectual Legacy</i>. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 2006, p. 51: "Classical political philosophy is not concerned to rule, but it is concerned to understand, political society—and to share its understanding, in a constructive fashion, with the various political societies and their citizens and rulers." Cf. also his "Fundamental Tension" (ibid., p.54f) </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leo Strauss, "An Introduction to Heideggerian Existentialism," 27–46 in <i>The Rebirth of Classical Political Rationalism,</i> ed. Thomas L. Pangle (Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1989) 29–30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVelkley2015" class="citation book cs1">Velkley, Richard L. (2015). <i><a href="/wiki/Heidegger,_Strauss,_and_the_premises_of_philosophy_:_on_original_forgetting" class="mw-redirect" title="Heidegger, Strauss, and the premises of philosophy : on original forgetting">Heidegger, Strauss, and the premises of philosophy : on original forgetting</a></i> (Paperback 2015 ed.). Chicago: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226214948" title="Special:BookSources/9780226214948"><bdi>9780226214948</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Heidegger%2C+Strauss%2C+and+the+premises+of+philosophy+%3A+on+original+forgetting&rft.place=Chicago&rft.edition=Paperback+2015&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780226214948&rft.aulast=Velkley&rft.aufirst=Richard+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Strauss" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leo Strauss, "Relativism", 13–26 in <i>The Rebirth of Classical Political Rationalism</i>, ed. Thomas L. Pangle (Chicago: University of Chicago Press), 25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrury1987" class="citation journal cs1">Drury, S. B. (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/191204">"Leo Strauss's Classic Natural Right Teaching"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Political_Theory_(journal)" title="Political Theory (journal)">Political Theory</a></i>. <b>15</b> (3): 299–315. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0090591787015003001">10.1177/0090591787015003001</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/191204">191204</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143546488">143546488</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Political+Theory&rft.atitle=Leo+Strauss%27s+Classic+Natural+Right+Teaching&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=299-315&rft.date=1987&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143546488%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F191204%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0090591787015003001&rft.aulast=Drury&rft.aufirst=S.+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F191204&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Strauss" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Exoteric Teaching" (Critical Edition by Hannes Kerber). In <i>Reorientation: Leo Strauss in the 1930s</i>. Edited by Martin D. Yaffe and Richard S. Ruderman. New York: Palgrave, 2014, p. 275.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith,_Steven2007" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Steven (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/764028.html"><i>Reading Leo Strauss</i></a>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226763897" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226763897"><bdi>978-0226763897</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201109031348/http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/764028.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-11-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2006-09-20</span></span>. <q>excerpt entitled "Why Strauss, Why Now?"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reading+Leo+Strauss&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0226763897&rft.au=Smith%2C+Steven&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.press.uchicago.edu%2FMisc%2FChicago%2F764028.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Strauss" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMansfield,_Harvey1975" class="citation news cs1">Mansfield, Harvey (1975). "Strauss's Machiavelli". <i><a href="/wiki/Political_Theory_(journal)" title="Political Theory (journal)">Political Theory</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/190834">190834</a>. <q>... a book containing much that is appreciably esoteric to any reader stated in a manner either so elusive or so challenging as to cause him to give up trying to understand it.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Political+Theory&rft.atitle=Strauss%27s+Machiavelli&rft.date=1975&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F190834%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Mansfield%2C+Harvey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Strauss" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDamon_Linker2014" class="citation news cs1">Damon Linker (October 31, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://theweek.com/article/index/271006/what-if-leo-strauss-was-right">"What if Leo Strauss was Right?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Week" title="The Week">The Week</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141103102531/http://theweek.com/article/index/271006/what-if-leo-strauss-was-right">Archived</a> from the original on 2014-11-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-11-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Week&rft.atitle=What+if+Leo+Strauss+was+Right%3F&rft.date=2014-10-31&rft.au=Damon+Linker&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftheweek.com%2Farticle%2Findex%2F271006%2Fwhat-if-leo-strauss-was-right&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Strauss" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael Paley and Jacob J. Staub in <i>Jewish Philosophy: Medieval and Modern</i>, printed in <i>The Schocken Guide to Jewish Books</i> (1992) p. 215.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schröder-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Schröder_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Winfried Schröder (ed.), <i>Reading between the lines – Leo Strauss and the history of early modern philosophy</i>, Walter de Gruyter, 2015, p. 39, "According to Robert Hunt, '[t]he Straussian hermeneutic ... sees the course of intellectual history as an ongoing conversation about important philosophical questions'."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ubxOiy1-lpQC&pg=PA25">Jew and Philosopher: The Return to Maimonides in the Jewish Thought of Leo Strauss</a> p. 25</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Allan_Bloom" title="Allan Bloom">Allan Bloom</a>, "Leo Strauss", 235–55 in <i>Giants and Dwarfs: Essays 1960–1990</i> (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1990) 238–39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=In0tFsfFhnQC&pg=PA193"><i>Faith and Political Philosophy: The Correspondence Between Leo Strauss and Eric Voegelin, 1934–1964</i></a>, p. 193</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zG2tRJHEdLUC&pg=PA3"><i>Political Philosopher and Jewish Thinker</i></a>, p. 3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Carl Schmitt and Leo Strauss: the hidden dialogue</i>, <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Meier" title="Heinrich Meier">Heinrich Meier</a>, University of Chicago Press 1995, 123</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Carl Schmitt and Leo Strauss: the hidden dialogue</i>, Heinrich Meier, University of Chicago Press 1995, 125</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Carl Schmitt and Leo Strauss: the hidden dialogue</i>, Heinrich Meier, University of Chicago Press 1995</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLilla2001" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Mark_Lilla" title="Mark Lilla">Lilla, Mark</a> (2001), "Alexandre Kojève", <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780940322769/page/131"><i>The Reckless Mind. Intellectuals in Politics</i></a></span>, New York: New York Review Books, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780940322769/page/131">131</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-940322-76-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-940322-76-9"><bdi>978-0-940322-76-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Alexandre+Koj%C3%A8ve&rft.btitle=The+Reckless+Mind.+Intellectuals+in+Politics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=131&rft.pub=New+York+Review+Books&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-940322-76-9&rft.aulast=Lilla&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780940322769%2Fpage%2F131&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Strauss" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrauss" class="citation cs2">Strauss, Leo, Gourevitch, Victor; Roth, Michael S. (eds.), <i>On Tyranny</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+Tyranny&rft.aulast=Strauss&rft.aufirst=Leo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Strauss" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas L. Pangle, "Epilogue", 907–38 in <i>History of Political Philosophy</i>, ed. Leo Strauss and Joseph Cropsey, 3rd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987) 907–8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leo Strauss, <i>On Tyranny</i> (New York: Free Press, 1991) 22–23, 178.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leo Strauss, "The Crisis of Our Time", 41–54 in Howard Spaeth, ed., <i>The Predicament of Modern Politics</i> (Detroit: University of Detroit Press, 1964) 47–48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leo Strauss, "What Is Political Philosophy?" 9–55 in Leo Strauss, <i>What Is Political Philosophy? and Other Studies</i> (Glencoe, IL: The Free Press, 1959) 18–19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leo Strauss, <i>The City and Man</i> (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1964) 10–11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leo Strauss, "Plato", 33–89 in <i>History of Political Philosophy</i>, ed. Leo Strauss and Joseph Cropsey, 3rd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987) 68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leo Strauss, "Plato", 33–89 in <i>History of Political Philosophy</i>, ed. Leo Strauss and Joseph Cropsey, 3rd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987) 60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=puxRXDxS5TMC"><i>On Tyranny</i></a>, p. 143</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVoegelin,_EricStrauss,_Leo2004" class="citation book cs1">Voegelin, Eric; Strauss, Leo (20 August 2004). "Letter 30: April 18, 1950". In Emberley, Peter; Cooper, Barry (eds.). <i>Faith and Political Philosophy: The Correspondence between Leo Strauss and Eric Voegelin, 1934-1964</i>. University of Missouri. p. 68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0826215512" title="Special:BookSources/978-0826215512"><bdi>978-0826215512</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Letter+30%3A+April+18%2C+1950&rft.btitle=Faith+and+Political+Philosophy%3A+The+Correspondence+between+Leo+Strauss+and+Eric+Voegelin%2C+1934-1964&rft.pages=68&rft.pub=University+of+Missouri&rft.date=2004-08-20&rft.isbn=978-0826215512&rft.au=Voegelin%2C+Eric&rft.au=Strauss%2C+Leo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Strauss" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnonymous2011" class="citation web cs1">Anonymous (2011-07-15). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130728053558/http://thephilosophyofscience.wordpress.com/2011/07/15/strauss-and-voegelin-on-popper/">"Strauss and Voegelin on Popper"</a>. <i>Philosophy of Science</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thephilosophyofscience.wordpress.com/2011/07/15/strauss-and-voegelin-on-popper/">the original</a> on 2013-07-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 February</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+of+Science&rft.atitle=Strauss+and+Voegelin+on+Popper&rft.date=2011-07-15&rft.au=Anonymous&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fthephilosophyofscience.wordpress.com%2F2011%2F07%2F15%2Fstrauss-and-voegelin-on-popper%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Strauss" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0AUpAMhf8OAC&pg=PA104">Leo Strauss, the Straussians, and the American Regime</a></i> by Kenneth Deutch (1999), p. 104</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Strauss, Leo, <i>Natural Right and History</i> (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953) p. 164</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X9iWFmynOUEC&pg=PA204">Adam Smith in His Time and Ours: Designing the Decent Society</a> By Jerry Z. Müller</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kenneth_Hart_Green_p._55-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kenneth_Hart_Green_p._55_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kenneth_Hart_Green_p._55_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Jewish philosophy and the crisis of modernity</i> (SUNY 1997), <i>Leo Strauss as a Modern Jewish thinker</i>, Kenneth Hart Green, Leo Strauss, p. 55</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Green, K. H. (editor), Strauss, Leo, <i>Jewish Philosophy and the Crisis of Modernity : Essays and Lectures in Modern Jewish Thought</i>, 1997, State University of New York Press, p. 3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Green, K. H. (editor), Strauss, L., <i>Jewish Philosophy and the Crisis of Modernity : Essays and Lectures in Modern Jewish Thought</i>, 1997, State University of New York Press, pp. 413–14</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see his writings on Max Weber</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Strauss felt that one should either be "the philosopher open to the challenge of theology or the theologian open to the challenge of philosophy." see Deutsch, Kenneth L. and Walter Nicgorski <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zG2tRJHEdLUC">Leo Strauss: Political Philosopher and Jewish Thinker</a> pp. 11–12, 1994 Rowman & Littlefield</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">but where Aquinas saw an amicable interplay between reason and revelation, Strauss saw two impregnable fortresses. per Schall S.J., James V. <i>A Latitude for Statesmanship: Strauss on St. Thomas</i> in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zG2tRJHEdLUC">Leo Strauss: Political Philosopher and Jewish Thinker</a>, ed. Kenneth L. Deutsch and Walter Nicgorski, pp. 212–15, 1994 Rowman & Littlefield. For an early treatment of Aquinas' understanding of the relation between philosophy and sacred, revealed law, see Strauss's early <i>Philosophy and Law</i> (<i>Philosophie und Gesetz</i>), where Christian medieval theology testifies to a less than amicable opposition between pagan (though not necessarily Platonic or political) philosophy and Biblical morality.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Feser, Edward, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nrd.nationalreview.com/article/?q=NzE5MTRlZGY5YmY1MTUyOTZkYWY5NThmZGQ2NTNjOTU=">"Leo Strauss 101"</a> (a review of Steven B. Smith's <i>Reading Leo Strauss: Politics, Philosophy, Judaism</i>), <i>National Review Online,</i> May 22, 2006. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061115105641/http://nrd.nationalreview.com/article/?q=NzE5MTRlZGY5YmY1MTUyOTZkYWY5NThmZGQ2NTNjOTU=">Archived</a> November 15, 2006, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <i>Natural Right and History</i>, especially p. 119A and Chapter III: "The Origin of the Idea of Natural Right"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shadia B. Drury, <i>Leo Strauss and the American Right</i> (Palgrave Macmillan; 1999)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Minowitz, <i>Straussophobia: Defending Leo Strauss and Straussians against Shadia Drury and Other Accusers</i> (Lexington Books; 2009)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Political_Thought_2009_page_56-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Political_Thought_2009_page_56_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Political_Thought_2009_page_56_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Political_Thought_2009_page_56_60-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Political_Thought_2009_page_56_60-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Approaches to Political Thought</i>, edited by William L. Richter, (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 16 Mar 2009), p. 56</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pedagogic">"Definition of PEDAGOGIC"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201022033042/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pedagogic">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-10-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-12-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Definition+of+PEDAGOGIC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fpedagogic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Strauss" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-First-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-First_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-First_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-First_62-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-First_62-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-First_62-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-First_62-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-First_62-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-First_62-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMark_C._Henrie2011" class="citation web cs1">Mark C. Henrie (May 5, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181221125446/http://www.firstprinciplesjournal.com/articles.aspx?article=871">"Straussianism"</a>. First Principles – ISI Web Journal. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.firstprinciplesjournal.com/articles.aspx?article=871">the original</a> on December 21, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 24,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Straussianism&rft.pub=First+Principles+%E2%80%93+ISI+Web+Journal&rft.date=2011-05-05&rft.au=Mark+C.+Henrie&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.firstprinciplesjournal.com%2Farticles.aspx%3Farticle%3D871&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Strauss" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://conversationswithbillkristol.org/transcript/harvey-mansfield-iv-transcript/">"Transcript of Harvey Mansfield (IV)"</a>. <i>conversationswithbillkristol.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180315134211/http://conversationswithbillkristol.org/transcript/harvey-mansfield-iv-transcript/">Archived</a> from the original on 15 March 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=conversationswithbillkristol.org&rft.atitle=Transcript+of+Harvey+Mansfield+%28IV%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fconversationswithbillkristol.org%2Ftranscript%2Fharvey-mansfield-iv-transcript%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Strauss" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarchal2017" class="citation book cs1">Marchal, Kai (2017). <i>Carl Schmitt and Leo Strauss in the Chinese-speaking World: Reorienting the Political</i>. Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1498536264" title="Special:BookSources/978-1498536264"><bdi>978-1498536264</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Carl+Schmitt+and+Leo+Strauss+in+the+Chinese-speaking+World%3A+Reorienting+the+Political&rft.place=Lanham%2C+Maryland&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Lexington+Books&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1498536264&rft.aulast=Marchal&rft.aufirst=Kai&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Strauss" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBekesi2019" class="citation journal cs1">Bekesi, Aron B (2019-12-31). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.23756/sp.v7i2.481">"Esoteric philosophy: Leo Strauss and sociolinguistics"</a>. <i>Science & Philosophy</i>. <b>7</b> (2). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.23756%2Fsp.v7i2.481">10.23756/sp.v7i2.481</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+%26+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Esoteric+philosophy%3A+Leo+Strauss+and+sociolinguistics&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2019-12-31&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.23756%2Fsp.v7i2.481&rft.aulast=Bekesi&rft.aufirst=Aron+B&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.23756%2Fsp.v7i2.481&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Strauss" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hersh-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hersh_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Seymour_Hersh" title="Seymour Hersh">Seymour M. Hersh</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2003/05/12/030512fa_fact">"Selective Intelligence"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140717100914/http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2003/05/12/030512fa_fact">Archived</a> 2014-07-17 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Yorker" title="The New Yorker">The New Yorker</a></i>, May 12, 2003. Retrieved June 1, 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brian Doherty, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://reason.com/archives/1997/07/01/origin-of-the-specious">"Origin of the Specious: Why Do Neoconservatives Doubt Darwin?"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160731211707/http://reason.com/archives/1997/07/01/origin-of-the-specious">Archived</a> 2016-07-31 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Reason_Online" class="mw-redirect" title="Reason Online">Reason Online</a></i>, July 1997. Retrieved February 16, 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y-xnGhgrwUoC"><i>The City and Man</i></a>, p. 104</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Xenos_Logos-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Xenos_Logos_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nicholas Xenos, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.logosjournal.com/xenos.htm">"Leo Strauss and the Rhetoric of the War on Terror,"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210126074218/http://www.logosjournal.com/xenos.htm">Archived</a> 2021-01-26 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i>Logosjournal.com</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Claes G. Ryn, "Leo Strauss and History: The Philosopher as Conspirator", <i>Humanitas</i>, Vol. XVIII, Nos. 1 & 2 (2005).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gottfried-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gottfried_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul Gottfried, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.lewrockwell.com/gottfried/gottfried90.html">"Strauss and the Straussians"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150618055415/http://archive.lewrockwell.com/gottfried/gottfried90.html">Archived</a> 2015-06-18 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>LewRockwell.com</i>, April 17, 2006. Retrieved February 16, 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gottfriedarch-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gottfriedarch_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cf. Paul Gottfried, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.lewrockwell.com/gottfried/gottfried-arch.html">"Paul Gottfried: Archives"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150618045051/http://archive.lewrockwell.com/gottfried/gottfried-arch.html">Archived</a> 2015-06-18 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>Lewrockwell.com</i>. Retrieved February 16, 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Minowitz, <i>Straussophobia: Defending Leo Strauss and Straussians against Shadia Drury and Other Accusers</i> (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2009). Also see "<i>Straussophobia: Six Questions for Peter Minowitz</i>," <i>Harper's Magazine</i>, 9/29/09 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.harpers.org/archive/2009/09/hbc-90005789">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121019170404/http://harpers.org/archive/2009/09/hbc-90005789">Archived</a> 2012-10-19 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SSmith-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SSmith_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Steven_B._Smith_(professor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Steven B. Smith (professor)">Steven B. Smith</a>, excerpt from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/764028.html">"Why Strauss, Why Now?"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201109031348/http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/764028.html">Archived</a> 2020-11-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, 1–15 in <i>Reading Leo Strauss: Politics, Philosophy, Judaism</i> (Chicago: U of Chicago P, 2006), online posting, <i>press.uchicago.edu</i>. Retrieved June 1, 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Alter-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Alter_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Alter" title="Robert Alter">Robert Alter</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/25/books/review/25alter.html?ex=1308888000&en=56a0c2b38e767e6f&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss">"Neocon or Not?"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170826033915/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/25/books/review/25alter.html?ex=1308888000&en=56a0c2b38e767e6f&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss">Archived</a> 2017-08-26 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times_Book_Review" title="The New York Times Book Review">The New York Times Book Review</a></i>, June 25, 2006, accessed February 16, 2007, citing Yale scholar <a href="/wiki/Steven_B._Smith_(professor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Steven B. Smith (professor)">Steven B. Smith</a>, <i>Reading Leo Strauss: Politics, Philosophy, Judaism</i> (Chicago: U of Chicago P, 2006).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MyUser_The_New_York_Times_March_30_2015c-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MyUser_The_New_York_Times_March_30_2015c_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJenny_Strauss_Clay2003" class="citation news cs1">Jenny Strauss Clay (June 7, 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2003/06/07/opinion/07CLAY.html">"The Real Leo Strauss"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150402121914/http://www.nytimes.com/2003/06/07/opinion/07CLAY.html">Archived</a> from the original on April 2, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 30,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=The+Real+Leo+Strauss&rft.date=2003-06-07&rft.au=Jenny+Strauss+Clay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2003%2F06%2F07%2Fopinion%2F07CLAY.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Strauss" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mark Lilla, <i>The Reckless Mind</i> (New York: NY Review of Books, 2001) 133.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nathan Tarcov, "Will the Real Leo Strauss Please Stand Up" in <i>The American Interest</i> September–October 1986, at <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101130050901/http://the-american-interest.com/article.cfm?piece=166">"Will the Real Leo Strauss Please Stand Up? - Nathan Tarcov - the American Interest Magazine"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.the-american-interest.com/article.cfm?piece=166">the original</a> on 2010-11-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-06-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Will+the+Real+Leo+Strauss+Please+Stand+Up%3F+-+Nathan+Tarcov+-+the+American+Interest+Magazine&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.the-american-interest.com%2Farticle.cfm%3Fpiece%3D166&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Strauss" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Strauss&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Leo Strauss</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Leo+Strauss">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Leo+Strauss&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><b>By Leo Strauss</b> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=wp&au=Leo+Strauss">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=wp&au=Leo+Strauss&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li></ul> </div></div> </div> <ul><li>Altman, William H. F., <i>The German Stranger: Leo Strauss and National Socialism</i>. Lexington Books, 2011</li> <li>Andreacchio, Marco. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/41972103/Philosophy_and_Religion_in_Leo_Strauss_Critical_Review_of_Menons_Interpretation">Philosophy and Religion in Leo Strauss : Critical Review of Menon's Interpretation</a>". <i>Interpretation: A Journal of Political Philosophy</i> 46, no. 2 (Spring 2020): 383–98.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behnegar,_Nasser" class="mw-redirect" title="Behnegar, Nasser">Behnegar, Nasser</a>, <i>Leo Strauss, Max Weber, And The Scientific Study Of Politics</i>. University of Chicago Press, 2005.</li> <li>Benardete, Seth. <i>Encounters and Reflections: Conversations with Seth Benardete</i>. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 2002.</li> <li>Bloom, Allan. "Leo Strauss". 235–55 in <i>Giants and Dwarfs: Essays 1960–1990</i>. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1990.</li> <li>Bluhm, Harald. <i>Die Ordnung der Ordnung : das politische Philosophieren von Leo Strauss</i>. Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 2002.</li> <li>Brague, Rémi. "Leo Strauss and Maimonides". 93–114 in <i>Leo Strauss's Thought</i>. Ed. Alan Udoff. Boulder: Lynne Reiner, 1991.</li> <li>Brittain, Christopher Craig. "Leo Strauss and Resourceful Odysseus: Rhetorical Violence and the Holy Middle". <i>Canadian Review of American Studies</i> 38, no. 1 (2008): 147–63.</li> <li>Bruell, Christopher. "A Return to Classical Political Philosophy and the Understanding of the American Founding". <i>Review of Politics</i> 53, no. 1 (Winter 1991): 173–86.</li> <li>Chivilò, Giampiero and Menon, Marco (eds). Tirannide e filosofia: Con un saggio di Leo Strauss ed un inedito di Gaston Fessard sj. Venezia: Edizioni Ca' Foscari, 2015. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-6969-032-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-6969-032-7">978-88-6969-032-7</a>.</li> <li>Colen, Jose. Facts and values. London: Plusprint, 2012.</li> <li>Deutsch, Kenneth L. and John A. Murley, eds. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/leostraussstraus00deut">Leo Strauss, the Straussians, and the American Regime</a></i>. New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 1999. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8476-8692-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8476-8692-6">978-0-8476-8692-6</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadia_Drury" title="Shadia Drury">Drury, Shadia B.</a> <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/leostraussameric0000drur">Leo Strauss and the American Right.</a></i> London: Palgrave Macmillan, 1999.</li> <li>Drury, Shadia B. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/politicalideasof0000drur">The Political Ideas of Leo Strauss</a></i>. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1988.</li> <li>Gottfried, Paul. <i>Leo Strauss and the Conservative Movement in America: A Critical Appraisal</i> (Cambridge University Press; 2011)</li> <li>Gourevitch, Victor. "Philosophy and Politics I–II". <i>Review of Metaphysics</i> 22, nos. 1–2 (September–December 1968): 58–84, 281–328.</li> <li>Green, Kenneth. <i>Jew and Philosopher: The Return to Maimonides in the Jewish Thought of Leo Strauss</i>. Albany: SUNY Press, 1993.</li> <li>"A Giving of Accounts: Jacob Kelin and Leo Strauss". In <i>Jewish Philosophy and the Crisis of Modernity: Essays and Lectures in Modern Jewish Thought</i>. Ed. Kenneth H. Green. Albany: SUNY Press, 1997.</li> <li>Havers, Grant N. <i>Leo Strauss and Anglo-American Democracy: A Conservative Critique</i>. DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press, 2013.</li> <li>Holmes, Stephen. <i>The Anatomy of Antiliberalism</i>. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1996. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03185-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03185-2">978-0-674-03185-2</a>.</li> <li>Howse, Robert. <i>Leo Strauss, Man of Peace</i>, Cambridge University Press, 2014]</li> <li>Ivry, Alfred L. "Leo Strauss on Maimonides". 75–91 in <i>Leo Strauss's Thought</i>. Ed. Alan Udoff. Boulder: Lynne Reiner, 1991.</li> <li>Janssens, David. <i>Between Athens and Jerusalem. Philosophy, Prophecy, and Politics in Leo Strauss's Early Thought</i>. Albany: SUNY Press, 2008.</li> <li>Kartheininger, Markus. "Heterogenität. Politische Philosophie im Frühwerk von Leo Strauss". München: Fink, 2006. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7705-4378-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-7705-4378-6">978-3-7705-4378-6</a>.</li> <li>Kartheininger, Markus. "Aristokratisierung des Geistes". In: Kartheininger, Markus/ Hutter, Axel (ed.). "Bildung als Mittel und Selbstzweck". Freiburg: Alber, 2009, pp. 157–208. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-495-48393-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-495-48393-0">978-3-495-48393-0</a>.</li> <li>Kerber, Hannes. "Strauss and Schleiermacher. An Introduction to 'Exoteric Teaching". In <i>Reorientation: Leo Strauss in the 1930s</i>. Ed. Yaffe/Ruderman. New York: Palgrave, 2014, pp. 203–14.</li> <li>Kerber, Hannes. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/40487221/_Leo_Strauss_on_Exoteric_Writing_in_Interpretation_46_1_2019_pp._3-25">"Leo Strauss on Exoteric Writing"</a>. <i>Interpretation</i>. 46, no. 1 (2019): 3–25.</li> <li>Kinzel, Till. <i>Platonische Kulturkritik in Amerika. Studien zu Allan Blooms The Closing of the American Mind</i>. Berlin: Duncker und Humblot, 2002.</li> <li>Kochin, Michael S. "Morality, Nature, and Esotericism in Leo Strauss's <i>Persecution and the Art of Writing</i>". <i>Review of Politics</i> 64, no. 2 (Spring 2002): 261–83.</li> <li>Lampert, Laurence. <i>Leo Strauss and Nietzsche</i>. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1996.</li> <li>Lutz, Mark J. “Living the Theologico-Political Problem: Leo Strauss on the Common Ground of Philosophy and Theology.” <i>The European Legacy.</i> 2018. Vol. 23. No. 8. pp. 1–25.</li> <li>Macpherson, C. B. "Hobbes's Bourgeois Man". In <i>Democratic Theory: Essays in Retrieval</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1972.</li> <li>Major, Rafael (ed.). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/leostrausssdefen0000unse">Leo Strauss's Defense of the Philosophic Life: Reading "What is Political Philosophy?"</a></i>. University of Chicago Press, 2013. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-92420-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-92420-5">978-0-226-92420-5</a> (cloth)</li> <li>Marchal, Kai, Shaw, Carl K.Y. <i>Carl Schmitt and Leo Strauss in the Chinese-speaking World: Reorienting the Political</i>. Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books, 2017.</li> <li>McAllister, Ted V. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/revoltagainstmod0000mcal">Revolt Against Modernity: Leo Strauss, Eric Voegelin & the Search for Postliberal Order</a></i>. Lawrence, KS: UP of Kansas. 1996.</li> <li>McWilliams, Wilson Carey. "Leo Strauss and the Dignity of American Political Thought". <i>Review of Politics</i> 60, no. 2 (Spring 1998): 231–46.</li> <li>Meier, Heinrich. <i>Carl Schmitt and Leo Strauss: The Hidden Dialogue</i>, Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1995.</li> <li>Meier, Heinrich. "Editor's Introduction[s]". <i>Gesammelte Schriften</i>. Stuttgart: J. B. Metzler, 1996. 3 vols.</li> <li>Meier, Heinrich. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/leostrausstheolo0000meie">Leo Strauss and the Theologico-Political Problem</a></i>. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2006.</li> <li>Meier, Heinrich. How Strauss Became Strauss". 363–82 in <i>Enlightening Revolutions: Essays in Honor of <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Lerner_(philosopher)" title="Ralph Lerner (philosopher)">Ralph Lerner</a></i>. Ed. Svetozar Minkov. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2006.</li> <li>Melzer, Arthur. "Esotericism and the Critique of Historicism". <i><a href="/wiki/American_Political_Science_Review" title="American Political Science Review">American Political Science Review</a></i> 100 (2006): 279–95.</li> <li>Minowitz, Peter. "Machiavellianism Come of Age? Leo Strauss on Modernity and Economics". <i>The Political Science Reviewer</i> 22 (1993): 157–97.</li> <li>Minowitz, Peter. <i>Straussophobia: Defending Leo Strauss and Straussians against Shadia Drury and Other Accusers</i>. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2009.</li> <li>Momigliano, Arnaldo. "Hermeneutics and Classical Political Thought in Leo Strauss", 178–89 in <i>Essays on Ancient and Modern Judaism</i>. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1994.</li> <li>Moyn, Samuel. "From experience to law: Leo Strauss and the Weimar crisis of the philosophy of religion." <i>History of European Ideas</i> 33, (2007): 174–94.</li> <li>Neumann, Harry. <i>Liberalism</i>. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic P, 1991.</li> <li>Norton, Anne. <i>Leo Strauss and the Politics of American Empire</i>. New Haven & London: Yale UP, 2004.</li> <li>Pangle, Thomas L. "The Epistolary Dialogue Between Leo Strauss and Eric Voegelin". <i>Review of Politics</i> 53, no. 1 (Winter 1991): 100–25.</li> <li>Minowitz, Peter. "Leo Strauss's Perspective on Modern Politics". <i>Perspectives on Political Science</i> 33, no. 4 (Fall 2004): 197–203.</li> <li>Minowitz, Peter. <i>Leo Strauss: An Introduction to His Thought and Intellectual Legacy</i>. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 2006.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corine_Pelluchon" title="Corine Pelluchon">Pelluchon, Corine</a>. Leo Strauss and the Crisis of Rationalism: Another Reason, Another Enlightenment, Robert Howse (tr.), SUNY Press, 2014.</li> <li>Piccinini, Irene Abigail. <i>Una guida fedele. L'influenza di Hermann Cohen sul pensiero di Leo Strauss</i>. Torino: Trauben, 2007. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-89909-31-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-89909-31-7">978-88-89909-31-7</a>.</li> <li>Rosen, Stanley. "Hermeneutics as Politics". 87–140 in <i>Hermeneutics as Politics,</i> New York: Oxford UP, 1987.</li> <li>Sheppard, Eugene R. <i>Leo Strauss and the Politics of Exile: The Making of a Political Philosopher</i>. Waltham, MA: Brandeis UP, 2006. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58465-600-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58465-600-5">978-1-58465-600-5</a>.</li> <li>Shorris, Earl. "Ignoble Liars: Leo Strauss, George Bush, and the Philosophy of Mass Deception". <i>Harper's Magazine</i> 308, issue 1849 (June 2004): 65–71.</li> <li>Smith, Steven B. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/readingleostraus0000smit">Reading Leo Strauss: Politics, Philosophy, Judaism</a></i>. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 2006. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-76402-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-76402-3">978-0-226-76402-3</a>. (Introd: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/764028.html">"Why Strauss, Why Now?"</a>, online posting, <i>press.uchicago.edu</i>.)</li> <li>Smith, Steven B. (editor). <i>The Cambridge Companion to Leo Strauss</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2009. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-70399-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-70399-4">978-0-521-70399-4</a>.</li> <li>Steiner, Stephan: <i>Weimar in Amerika. Leo Strauss' Politische Philosophie,</i> Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck 2013.</li> <li>Strong, Tracy B. "Leo Strauss and the Demos," The European Legacy (October, 2012)</li> <li>Tanguay, Daniel. <i>Leo Strauss: une biographie intellectuelle</i>. Paris, 2005. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-253-13067-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-253-13067-3">978-2-253-13067-3</a>.</li> <li>Tarcov, Nathan. "On a Certain Critique of 'Straussianism' ". <i>Review of Politics</i> 53, no. 1 (Winter 1991): 3–18.</li> <li>Tarcov, Nathan. "Philosophy and History: Tradition and Interpretation in the Work of Leo Strauss". <i>Polity</i> 16, no. 1 (Autumn 1983): 5–29.</li> <li>Tarcov, Nathan and Thomas L. Pangle, "Epilogue: Leo Strauss and the History of Political Philosophy". 907–38 in <i>History of Political Philosophy</i>. Ed. Leo Strauss and Joseph Cropsey. 3rd ed. 1963; Chicago and London, U of Chicago P, 1987.</li> <li>Tepper, Aryeh. "Progressive Minds, Conservative Politics: Leo Strauss' Later Writings on Maimonides." SUNY: 2013.</li> <li>Thompson, Bradley C. (with Yaron Brook). <i>Neoconservatism. An Obituary for an Idea</i>. Boulder/London: Paradigm Publishers, 2010. pp. 55–131. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59451-831-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59451-831-7">978-1-59451-831-7</a>.</li> <li>Velkley, Richard. <i><a href="/wiki/Heidegger,_Strauss,_and_the_Premises_of_Philosophy:_On_Original_Forgetting" class="mw-redirect" title="Heidegger, Strauss, and the Premises of Philosophy: On Original Forgetting">Heidegger, Strauss, and the Premises of Philosophy: On Original Forgetting</a></i>. University of Chicago Press, 2011.</li> <li>West, Thomas G. "Jaffa Versus Mansfield: Does America Have a Constitutional or a "Declaration of Independence" Soul?" <i>Perspectives on Political Science</i> 31, no. 4 (Fall 2002): 35–46.</li> <li>Xenos, Nicholas. <i>Cloaked in virtue: Unveiling Leo Strauss and the Rhetoric of American Foreign Policy</i>. New York, Routledge Press, 2008.</li> <li>Zuckert, Catherine H. <i>Postmodern Platos</i>. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1996.</li> <li>Zuckert, Catherine H., and Michael Zuckert. <i>The Truth about Leo Strauss</i>. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 2006.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Strauss_family">Strauss family</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Strauss&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Strauss family"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Lüders, Joachim and Ariane Wehner. <i>Mittelhessen – eine Heimat für Juden? Das Schicksal der Familie Strauss aus Kirchhain</i>. Marburg: Gymnasium Philippinum, 1989. (In German; English translation: <i>Central Hesse – a Homeland for Jews? The Fate of the Strauss Family from Kirchhain</i>.)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Strauss&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <b>Leo Strauss</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects">sister projects</span></a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Leo_Strauss" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Leo Strauss">Media</a> from Commons</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" 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href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Strauss%2C%20Leo%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Leo%20Strauss%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Strauss%2C%20Leo%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Leo%20Strauss%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Strauss%2C%20L%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Leo%20Strauss%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Strauss%2C%20Leo%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Leo%20Strauss%22%29%20OR%20%28%221899-1973%22%20AND%20Strauss%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Leo Strauss</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeora_Batnitzky" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Leora Batnitzky. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/strauss-leo/">"Leo Strauss"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Leo+Strauss&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.au=Leora+Batnitzky&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fstrauss-leo%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Strauss" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Leo_Strauss" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Leo_Strauss" title="Template:Leo Strauss"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Leo_Strauss&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Leo Strauss (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Leo_Strauss" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Leo Strauss"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Leo_Strauss" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Leo Strauss</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Books</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Persecution_and_the_Art_of_Writing" title="Persecution and the Art of Writing">Persecution and the Art of Writing</a></i> (1952)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Thoughts_on_Machiavelli" title="Thoughts on Machiavelli">Thoughts on Machiavelli</a></i> (1958)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Political_Philosophy" title="History of Political Philosophy">History of Political Philosophy</a></i> (1963)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Heidegger,_Strauss,_and_the_Premises_of_Philosophy" title="Heidegger, Strauss, and the Premises of Philosophy">Heidegger, Strauss, and the Premises of Philosophy</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Reductio_ad_Hitlerum" title="Reductio ad Hitlerum">Reductio ad Hitlerum</a></i></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Links_to_related_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Links_to_related_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Links to related articles</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Continental_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Continental_philosophy" title="Template:Continental philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Continental_philosophy" title="Template talk:Continental philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Continental_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Continental philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Continental_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Althusser" title="Louis Althusser">Althusser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaston_Bachelard" title="Gaston Bachelard">Bachelard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roland_Barthes" title="Roland Barthes">Barthes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Bataille" title="Georges Bataille">Bataille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Benjamin" title="Walter Benjamin">Benjamin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">de Beauvoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Blanchot" title="Maurice Blanchot">Blanchot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bourdieu" title="Pierre Bourdieu">Bourdieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Buber" title="Martin Buber">Buber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Camus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Cassirer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Castoriadis" title="Cornelius Castoriadis">Castoriadis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Cioran" title="Emil Cioran">Cioran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%A9l%C3%A8ne_Cixous" title="Hélène Cixous">Cixous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benedetto_Croce" title="Benedetto Croce">Croce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_de_Man" title="Paul de Man">de Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Debord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Derrida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Dilthey" title="Wilhelm Dilthey">Dilthey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Eco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terry_Eagleton" title="Terry Eagleton">Eagleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frantz_Fanon" title="Frantz Fanon">Fanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Fisher" title="Mark Fisher">Fisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Gadamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Guattari" title="Félix Guattari">Guattari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Husserl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Ingarden" title="Roman Ingarden">Ingarden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luce_Irigaray" title="Luce Irigaray">Irigaray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fredric_Jameson" title="Fredric Jameson">Jameson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Jaspers" title="Karl Jaspers">Jaspers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Koj%C3%A8ve" title="Alexandre Kojève">Kojève</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Koyr%C3%A9" title="Alexandre Koyré">Koyré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leszek_Ko%C5%82akowski" title="Leszek Kołakowski">Kołakowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julia_Kristeva" title="Julia Kristeva">Kristeva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Lacan" title="Jacques Lacan">Lacan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Latour" title="Bruno Latour">Latour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Lefebvre" title="Henri Lefebvre">Lefebvre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Lévi-Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Levinas" title="Emmanuel Levinas">Levinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Luhmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">Lukács</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Lyotard" title="Jean-François Lyotard">Lyotard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Marcel" title="Gabriel Marcel">Marcel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Merleau-Ponty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Nancy" title="Jean-Luc Nancy">Nancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega y Gasset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Ranci%C3%A8re" title="Jacques Rancière">Rancière</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ric%C5%93ur" title="Paul Ricœur">Ricœur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Said" title="Edward Said">Said</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_Schelling" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling">Schelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Serres" title="Michel Serres">Serres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Sloterdijk" title="Peter Sloterdijk">Sloterdijk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edith_Stein" title="Edith Stein">Stein</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_Weil" title="Simone Weil">Weil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Williams" title="Raymond Williams">Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Žižek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absurdism" title="Absurdism">Absurdism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freudo-Marxism" title="Freudo-Marxism">Freudo-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo-Kantianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-philosophy" title="Non-philosophy">Non-philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-representational_theory" title="Non-representational theory">Non-representational theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychoanalysis" title="Psychoanalysis">Psychoanalysis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Psychoanalytic_theory" title="Psychoanalytic theory">Psychoanalytic theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speculative_realism" title="Speculative realism">Speculative realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alterity" title="Alterity">Alterity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Always_already" title="Always already">Always already</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angst" title="Angst">Angst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollonian_and_Dionysian" title="Apollonian and Dionysian">Apollonian and Dionysian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authenticity_(philosophy)" title="Authenticity (philosophy)">Authenticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Being_in_itself" title="Being in itself">Being in itself</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binary_oppositions" class="mw-redirect" title="Binary oppositions">Binary oppositions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boredom" title="Boredom">Boredom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_struggle" class="mw-redirect" title="Class struggle">Class struggle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique" title="Critique">Critique</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immanent_critique" title="Immanent critique">Immanent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideological_criticism" title="Ideological criticism">Ideological</a></li> <li><a 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title="Ontopoetics">Ontopoetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Other_(philosophy)" title="Other (philosophy)">Other</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ressentiment" title="Ressentiment">Ressentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-deception" title="Self-deception">Self-deception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trace_(deconstruction)" title="Trace (deconstruction)">Trace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transvaluation_of_values" title="Transvaluation of values">Transvaluation of values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence#Philosophical_perspectives" title="Violence">Violence § Philosophical perspectives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wertkritik" class="mw-redirect" title="Wertkritik">Wertkritik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_to_power" title="Will to power">Will to power</a></li> <li><a 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<li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">Citizenship‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">Elite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">Hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">Hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(political)" title="Legitimacy (political)">Legitimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">Monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obedience_(human_behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Obedience (human behavior)">Obedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People" title="People">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progress" title="Progress">Progress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime" title="Regime">Regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">Ruling class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">Utopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutocracy" title="Plutocracy">Plutocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Localism_(politics)" title="Localism (politics)">Localism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(international_relations)" title="Balance of power (international relations)">Balance of power</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Bellum_omnium_contra_omnes" title="Bellum omnium contra omnes">Bellum omnium contra omnes</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_politic" title="Body politic">Body politic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clash_of_Civilizations" title="Clash of Civilizations">Clash of civilizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right of kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_as_a_model_for_the_state" title="Family as a model for the state">Family as a model for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly_on_violence" title="Monopoly on violence">Monopoly on violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_and_positive_rights" title="Negative and positive rights">Negative and positive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night-watchman_state" title="Night-watchman state">Night-watchman state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_lie" title="Noble lie">Noble lie</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Noblesse_oblige" title="Noblesse oblige">Noblesse oblige</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_society" title="Open society">Open society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordered_liberty" title="Ordered liberty">Ordered liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_position" title="Original position">Original position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overton_window" title="Overton window">Overton window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">State of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statolatry" title="Statolatry">Statolatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">Tyranny of the majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_philosophers" title="List of political philosophers">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antiquity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_political_philosophy" title="Plato's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Padua" title="Marsilius of Padua">Marsilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nizam_al-Mulk" title="Nizam al-Mulk">Nizam al-Mulk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Ockham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Anshi" title="Wang Anshi">Wang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern<br />period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_de_La_Bo%C3%A9tie" title="Étienne de La Boétie">Boétie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-B%C3%A9nigne_Bossuet" title="Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet">Bossuet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Campanella" title="Tommaso Campanella">Campanella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Filmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hobbes%27s_moral_and_political_philosophy" title="Hobbes's moral and political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_St_John,_1st_Viscount_Bolingbroke" title="Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke">Bolingbroke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Donoso_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Juan Donoso Cortés">Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal" title="Muhammad Iqbal">Iqbal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal%27s_political_philosophy" title="Muhammad Iqbal's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy_of_Immanuel_Kant" title="Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Saint-Simon" title="Henri de Saint-Simon">Saint-Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Tucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein" title="Eduard Bernstein">Bernstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnham" title="James Burnham">Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Dmowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Dugin" title="Aleksandr Dugin">Dugin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama" title="Francis Fukuyama">Fukuyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_P._Huntington" title="Samuel P. Huntington">Huntington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Kautsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau">Laclau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Mansfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Maurras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Michels" title="Robert Michels">Michels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Mosca" title="Gaetano Mosca">Mosca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chantal_Mouffe" title="Chantal Mouffe">Mouffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb" title="Sayyid Qutb">Qutb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Sorel" title="Georges Sorel">Sorel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Othmar_Spann" title="Othmar Spann">Spann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 375 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(51 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 1274)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monarchia" title="Monarchia">Monarchia</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1313)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince">The Prince</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1532)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1651)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1689)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1748)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1762)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" title="Reflections on the Revolution in France">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1790)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1791)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1820)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Communist_Manifesto" title="The Communist Manifesto">The Communist Manifesto</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1848)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Liberty" title="On Liberty">On Liberty</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1859)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Revolt_of_the_Masses" title="The Revolt of the Masses">The Revolt of the Masses</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1929)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Road_to_Serfdom" title="The Road to Serfdom">The Road to Serfdom</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1944)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Open_Society_and_Its_Enemies" title="The Open Society and Its Enemies">The Open Society and Its Enemies</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1945)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Origins_of_Totalitarianism" title="The Origins of Totalitarianism">The Origins of Totalitarianism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1951)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1971)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man" title="The End of History and the Last Man">The End of History and the Last Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1992)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism and individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contractualism" title="Contractualism">Contractualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite_theory" title="Elite theory">Elite theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_political_thought" title="History of political thought">History of political thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_for_the_state" title="Justification for the state">Justification for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machiavellianism_(politics)" title="Machiavellianism (politics)">Machiavellianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ethics" title="Political ethics">Political ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_spectrum" title="Political spectrum">Political spectrum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">Left-wing politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">Right-wing politics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_theology" title="Political theology">Political theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_violence" title="Political violence">Political violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separatism" title="Separatism">Separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism" title="Statism">Statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_social_and_political_philosophy_articles" title="Index of social and political philosophy articles">Index</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_philosophy" title="Category:Political philosophy">Category:Political philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Neoconservatism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Neoconservatism" title="Template:Neoconservatism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Neoconservatism" title="Template talk:Neoconservatism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Neoconservatism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Neoconservatism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Neoconservatism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Neoconservatism" title="Neoconservatism">Neoconservatism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_exceptionalism" title="American exceptionalism">American exceptionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratization" title="Democratization">Democratization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanitarian_intervention" title="Humanitarian intervention">Humanitarian intervention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interventionism_(politics)" title="Interventionism (politics)">Interventionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_internationalism" title="Liberal internationalism">Liberal internationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bush_Doctrine" title="Bush Doctrine">Bush Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axis_of_evil" title="Axis of evil">Axis of evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Americana" title="Pax Americana">Pax Americana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalism_in_the_United_States" title="Federalism in the United States">Constitutional Federalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Figures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Kristol" title="Bill Kristol">William Kristol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Kagan" title="Robert Kagan">Robert Kagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Kagan" title="Frederick Kagan">Frederick Kagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irving_Kristol" title="Irving Kristol">Irving Kristol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Wolfowitz" title="Paul Wolfowitz">Paul Wolfowitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Perle" title="Richard Perle">Richard Perle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Krauthammer" title="Charles Krauthammer">Charles Krauthammer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Frum" title="David Frum">David Frum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elliott_Abrams" title="Elliott Abrams">Elliott Abrams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Podhoretz" title="Norman Podhoretz">Norman Podhoretz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Wurmser" title="David Wurmser">David Wurmser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_Feith" title="Douglas Feith">Douglas Feith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Bremer" title="Paul Bremer">Paul Bremer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Berkowitz" title="Peter Berkowitz">Peter Berkowitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_Murray_(author)" title="Douglas Murray (author)">Douglas Murray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Aaronovitch" title="David Aaronovitch">David Aaronovitch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Applebaum" title="Anne Applebaum">Anne Applebaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Kamm" title="Oliver Kamm">Oliver Kamm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Boot" title="Max Boot">Max Boot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliot_A._Cohen" title="Eliot A. Cohen">Eliot A. Cohen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeane_Kirkpatrick" title="Jeane Kirkpatrick">Jeane Kirkpatrick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Novak" title="Michael Novak">Michael Novak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonah_Goldberg" title="Jonah Goldberg">Jonah Goldberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joshua_Muravchik" title="Joshua Muravchik">Joshua Muravchik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jennifer_Rubin_(columnist)" title="Jennifer Rubin (columnist)">Jennifer Rubin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irwin_Stelzer" title="Irwin Stelzer">Irwin Stelzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bret_Stephens" title="Bret Stephens">Bret Stephens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zalmay_Khalilzad" title="Zalmay Khalilzad">Zalmay Khalilzad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scooter_Libby" title="Scooter Libby">Scooter Libby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuval_Levin" title="Yuval Levin">Yuval Levin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Ledeen" title="Michael Ledeen">Michael Ledeen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Kirchick" title="James Kirchick">James Kirchick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Gerson" title="Michael Gerson">Michael Gerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dan_Senor" title="Dan Senor">Dan Senor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eli_Lake" title="Eli Lake">Eli Lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reuel_Marc_Gerecht" title="Reuel Marc Gerecht">Reuel Marc Gerecht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Woolsey" title="James Woolsey">James Woolsey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clifford_May" title="Clifford May">Clifford May</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Diamond" title="Larry Diamond">Larry Diamond</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major influences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Leo Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Bernard Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_M._Jackson" title="Henry M. Jackson">Henry M. Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnham" title="James Burnham">James Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Courtney_Murray" title="John Courtney Murray">John Courtney Murray</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Project_for_the_New_American_Century" title="Project for the New American Century">Project for the New American Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Endowment_for_Democracy" title="National Endowment for Democracy">National Endowment for Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundation_for_Defense_of_Democracies" title="Foundation for Defense of Democracies">Foundation for Defense of Democracies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Institute_for_National_Security_of_America" title="Jewish Institute for National Security of America">Jewish Institute for National Security Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Jackson_Society" title="Henry Jackson Society">Henry Jackson Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_Committee_for_Israel" title="Emergency Committee for Israel">Emergency Committee for Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Enterprise_Institute" title="American Enterprise Institute">American Enterprise Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_Policy_Initiative" title="Foreign Policy Initiative">Foreign Policy Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NGO_Monitor" title="NGO Monitor">NGO Monitor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Publications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Commentary_(magazine)" title="Commentary (magazine)">Commentary</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Weekly_Standard" title="The Weekly Standard">The Weekly Standard</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Public_Interest" title="The Public Interest">The Public Interest</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/National_Affairs" title="National Affairs">National Affairs</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Encounter_(magazine)" title="Encounter (magazine)">Encounter</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harry%27s_Place" title="Harry's Place">Harry's Place</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/First_Things" title="First Things">First Things</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sophia_Institute_Press" title="Sophia Institute Press">Crisis</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_modern_American_conservatism" title="Timeline of modern American conservatism">Timeline of modern American conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoconservatism_and_paleoconservatism" title="Neoconservatism and paleoconservatism">Neoconservatism and paleoconservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_neoconservatism" title="British neoconservatism">British neoconservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clash_of_Civilizations" title="Clash of Civilizations">Clash of Civilizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism_in_international_relations" title="Idealism in international relations">Idealism in international relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_hawk" title="Liberal hawk">Liberal hawk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pro-war_Left" title="Pro-war Left">Pro-war Left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Stalinist_left" title="Anti-Stalinist left">Anti-Stalinist left</a> (<a href="/wiki/New_York_Intellectuals" title="New York Intellectuals">New York Intellectuals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trotskyism" title="Trotskyism">Trotskyism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_in_Name_Only" class="mw-redirect" title="Republican in Name Only">Republican in Name Only</a> (pejorative)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuckservative" title="Cuckservative">Cuckservative</a> (pejorative)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Never_Trump_movement" title="Never Trump movement">Never Trump movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euston_Manifesto" title="Euston Manifesto">Euston Manifesto</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Platonists" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Platonists" title="Template:Platonists"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Platonists" title="Template talk:Platonists"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Platonists" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Platonists"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Platonists" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonists</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Academics" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Old</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudoxus_of_Cnidus" title="Eudoxus of Cnidus">Eudoxus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_of_Opus" title="Philip of Opus">Philip of Opus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristonymus_of_Athens" title="Aristonymus of Athens">Aristonymus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriscus_of_Scepsis" title="Coriscus of Scepsis">Coriscus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Erastus_of_Scepsis" title="Erastus of Scepsis">Erastus of Scepsis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demetrius_of_Amphipolis" title="Demetrius of Amphipolis">Demetrius of Amphipolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euaeon_of_Lampsacus" title="Euaeon of Lampsacus">Euaeon of Lampsacus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclides_of_Aenus" title="Heraclides of Aenus">Heraclides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Python_of_Aenus" title="Python of Aenus">Python of Aenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hestiaeus_of_Perinthus" title="Hestiaeus of Perinthus">Hestiaeus of Perinthus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lastheneia_of_Mantinea" title="Lastheneia of Mantinea">Lastheneia of Mantinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timolaus_of_Cyzicus" title="Timolaus of Cyzicus">Timolaus of Cyzicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speusippus" title="Speusippus">Speusippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiothea_of_Phlius" title="Axiothea of Phlius">Axiothea of Phlius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclides_Ponticus" title="Heraclides Ponticus">Heraclides Ponticus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menedemus_of_Pyrrha" title="Menedemus of Pyrrha">Menedemus of Pyrrha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenocrates" title="Xenocrates">Xenocrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crantor" title="Crantor">Crantor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polemon_(scholarch)" title="Polemon (scholarch)">Polemon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crates_of_Athens" title="Crates of Athens">Crates of Athens</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Academic_skepticism" title="Academic skepticism">Skeptics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arcesilaus" title="Arcesilaus">Arcesilaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diocles_of_Cnidus" title="Diocles of Cnidus">Diocles of Cnidus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lacydes_of_Cyrene" title="Lacydes of Cyrene">Lacydes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecles" title="Telecles">Telecles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Evander_(philosopher)" title="Evander (philosopher)">Evander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegesinus_of_Pergamon" title="Hegesinus of Pergamon">Hegesinus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carneades" title="Carneades">Carneades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hagnon_of_Tarsus" title="Hagnon of Tarsus">Hagnon of Tarsus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrodorus_of_Stratonicea" title="Metrodorus of Stratonicea">Metrodorus of Stratonicea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clitomachus_(philosopher)" title="Clitomachus (philosopher)">Clitomachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charmadas" title="Charmadas">Charmadas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aeschines_of_Neapolis" title="Aeschines of Neapolis">Aeschines of Neapolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo_of_Larissa" title="Philo of Larissa">Philo of Larissa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dio_of_Alexandria" title="Dio of Alexandria">Dio of Alexandria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_of_Ascalon" title="Antiochus of Ascalon">Antiochus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudorus_of_Alexandria" title="Eudorus of Alexandria">Eudorus of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_Martyr" title="Justin Martyr">Justin Martyr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_the_Platonist" title="Gaius the Platonist">Gaius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albinus_(philosopher)" title="Albinus (philosopher)">Albinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcinous_(philosopher)" title="Alcinous (philosopher)">Alcinous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Peloplaton" title="Alexander Peloplaton">Alexander Peloplaton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Apuleius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atticus_(philosopher)" title="Atticus (philosopher)">Atticus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximus_of_Tyre" title="Maximus of Tyre">Maximus of Tyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numenius_of_Apamea" title="Numenius of Apamea">Numenius of Apamea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammonius_Saccas" title="Ammonius Saccas">Ammonius Saccas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassius_Longinus_(philosopher)" title="Cassius Longinus (philosopher)">Longinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria" title="Clement of Alexandria">Clement of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen_the_Pagan" title="Origen the Pagan">Origen the Pagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcidius" title="Calcidius">Calcidius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_students_of_Plotinus" title="List of students of Plotinus">Students</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelius" title="Amelius">Amelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iamblichus" title="Iamblichus">Iamblichus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sopater_of_Apamea" title="Sopater of Apamea">Sopater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eustathius_of_Cappadocia" title="Eustathius of Cappadocia">Eustathius of Cappadocia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sosipatra" title="Sosipatra">Sosipatra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedesius" title="Aedesius">Aedesius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dexippus_(philosopher)" title="Dexippus (philosopher)">Dexippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysanthius" title="Chrysanthius">Chrysanthius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodorus_of_Asine" title="Theodorus of Asine">Theodorus of Asine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salutius" title="Salutius">Salutius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximus_of_Ephesus" title="Maximus of Ephesus">Maximus of Ephesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eusebius_of_Myndus" title="Eusebius of Myndus">Eusebius of Myndus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscus_of_Epirus" title="Priscus of Epirus">Priscus of Epirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoninus_(philosopher)" title="Antoninus (philosopher)">Antoninus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypatia" title="Hypatia">Hypatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Marius_Victorinus" title="Gaius Marius Victorinus">Gaius Marius Victorinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Academy" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch_of_Athens" title="Plutarch of Athens">Plutarch of Athens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asclepigenia" title="Asclepigenia">Asclepigenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierocles_of_Alexandria" title="Hierocles of Alexandria">Hierocles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrianus" title="Syrianus">Syrianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermias_(philosopher)" title="Hermias (philosopher)">Hermias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedesia" title="Aedesia">Aedesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclus" title="Proclus">Proclus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marinus_of_Neapolis" title="Marinus of Neapolis">Marinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Alexandria" title="Isidore of Alexandria">Isidore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammonius_Hermiae" title="Ammonius Hermiae">Ammonius Hermiae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asclepiodotus_of_Alexandria" title="Asclepiodotus of Alexandria">Asclepiodotus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegias" title="Hegias">Hegias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zenodotus_(philosopher)" title="Zenodotus (philosopher)">Zenodotus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agapius_of_Athens" title="Agapius of Athens">Agapius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damascius" title="Damascius">Damascius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscian_of_Lydia" title="Priscian of Lydia">Priscian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Philoponus" title="John Philoponus">John Philoponus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympiodorus_the_Younger" title="Olympiodorus the Younger">Olympiodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_the_Invincible" title="David the Invincible">David the Invincible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Dionysius_the_Areopagite" title="Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite">Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Scotus_Eriugena" title="John Scotus Eriugena">John Scotus Eriugena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Abelard" title="Peter Abelard">Peter Abelard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_of_Chartres" title="Bernard of Chartres">Bernard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_de_la_Porr%C3%A9e" title="Gilbert de la Porrée">Gilbert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thierry_of_Chartres" title="Thierry of Chartres">Thierry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_of_Ghent" title="Henry of Ghent">Henry of Ghent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonaventure" title="Bonaventure">Bonaventure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodoric_of_Freiberg" title="Theodoric of Freiberg">Theodoric of Freiberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meister_Eckhart" title="Meister Eckhart">Meister Eckhart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berthold_of_Moosburg" title="Berthold of Moosburg">Berthold of Moosburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_of_Venice" title="Paul of Venice">Paul of Venice</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Platonism_in_the_Renaissance" title="Platonism in the Renaissance">Renaissance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Florentine_Academy" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy_(Florence)" title="Platonic Academy (Florence)">Florentine Academy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilio_Ficino" title="Marsilio Ficino">Marsilio Ficino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cristoforo_Landino" title="Cristoforo Landino">Cristoforo Landino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola" title="Giovanni Pico della Mirandola">Giovanni Pico della Mirandola</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giordano_Bruno" title="Giordano Bruno">Giordano Bruno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Platonists" title="Cambridge Platonists">Cambridge</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Cudworth" title="Ralph Cudworth">Ralph Cudworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_More" title="Henry More">Henry More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Conway_(philosopher)" title="Anne Conway (philosopher)">Anne Conway</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Taylor_(neoplatonist)" title="Thomas Taylor (neoplatonist)">Thomas Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emanuel_Swedenborg" title="Emanuel Swedenborg">Emanuel Swedenborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Ralph Waldo Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Royce" title="Josiah Royce">Josiah Royce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Bolzano" title="Bernard Bolzano">Bernard Bolzano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksei_Losev" title="Aleksei Losev">Aleksei Losev</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del" title="Kurt Gödel">Kurt Gödel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alonzo_Church" title="Alonzo Church">Alonzo Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roderick_Chisholm" title="Roderick Chisholm">Roderick Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Michael Dummett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Kaplan_(philosopher)" title="David Kaplan (philosopher)">David Kaplan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_%C5%81ukasiewicz" title="Jan Łukasiewicz">Jan Łukasiewicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crispin_Wright" title="Crispin Wright">Crispin Wright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Edward N. Zalta</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Henri Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Ingarden" title="Roman Ingarden">Roman Ingarden</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Leo Strauss</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output 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href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000121214313">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/14777054">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/39644/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJgX83Wqtm4hC9dWQvbcfq">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118833901">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Strauss, Leo"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n79081867">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119256484">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119256484">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00475713">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Strauss, Leo"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/CFIV086969">Italy</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35848544">Australia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=jn20010525427&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX1148170">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/183862">Portugal</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p070855048">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90205475">Norway</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000030453&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://katalog.nsk.hr/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000051980&local_base=nsk10">Croatia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=71393">Greece</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KAC199626689">Korea</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/mkz12ss552730w6">Sweden</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810696540105606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007268538005171">Israel</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058515012906706">Catalonia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14026302">Belgium</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA00221790?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.getty.edu/vow/ULANFullDisplay?find=&role=&nation=&subjectid=500237431">ULAN</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/1114624">Trove</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118833901.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118833901">DDB</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/027150291">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6c08wg9">SNAC</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    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